Radio Systems (Subject 15)

The electric field (E) will be parallel to the wire from which the wave was transmitted (tx).

The magnetic field (H) will be at right angles, perpendicular.

Very Low Frequency v.l.f 3-30 KHz

Low Frequency l.f 30-300 KHz

Medium Frequency m.f 300-3000 KHz

High Frequency h.f 3-30 MHz

Very High Frequency v.h.f 30-300 MHz

Ultra High Frequency u.h.f 300-3000 MHz

Super High Frequency s.h.f 3-30 GHz

Extremely High Frequency e.h.f 30-300 GHz

Ground waves follow the surface of the earth, partly due to diffraction, it bends around obstacles. The H field
cuts the earth surface causing a current to flow. V.l.f and l.f systems. At v.l.f the ionosphere reflects rather than
refracts with little loss so good for extremely long range nav.

Sky waves strike the ionosphere are refracted and return to earth on favourable conditions. Distance between
tx and point of return is known as a skip (hop). Useful for h.f comms but problems with l.f and m.f nav as sky
wave and ground wave can combine at receiver causing fading or false direction of arrival or time
measurements. Mainly h.f systems.

Space waves above 30MHz travel in straight lines at speed of light also know as line of sight waves. Between
approx 100MHz and 3GHz tx path highly predictable and reliable little atmospheric attenuation occurs.

Above 3000MHz coaxial cable is replaced by waveguide.

Recommended that audio wires 22gauge twisted pair and shielded.

Shields should be grounded at one point to prevent loop currents usually common ground in audio function
box or terminal strip. Not in same place as ac power ground as could get interference.

C=f

C= Speed of light 3

= Wavelength in meters

f= frequency in Hertz

A radiating wire is most efficient when its length is equal to half the wavelength.

Dipole antenna is equal to wavelength.

V.h.f range=1.23( nm

Hr= Height above sea level of receiver

Ht= Height above sea level of transmitter

AM Demodulated on receive (demodulator)

Modulation factor=

Vm= Modulated signal amplitude

Vc= Carrier amplitude

This fraction can be expressed in % and known as percent of modulation or depth of modulation.

FM Discriminated on receive (discriminator)

Deviation ratio=

Fd= frequency deviation

Fm= Max modulation frequency

The ratio is the modulation index and will only be constant and equal to deviation ratio if the modulating signal
is fixed in freq and amplitude

COMMS

The heart of every tx is the oscillator circuit. Frequency determined by rate of a capacitor
connected across an inductor forming an LC Tank circuit.

Fr=

Fr= Resonant frequency in KHz

L= Inductance in micro Henrys

C= Capacitance in micro Farads

Heterodyning: The process of combining 2 different frequencies to obtain a totally different freq.

Superhetrodyne receiver operates on the principal of changing the freq of a received signal to a lower, fixed,
intermediate freq prior to detection. This results in high selectivity, or the ability of the receiver to separate
signals on closely adjacent freq.
Intermediate freq is 20MHz below receiver freq in a single crystal controlled oscillator.

Superhetrodyne receiver with a 9.0MHz in first I.F and a 861.25KHz second I.F

Squelch circuit automatically disables the audio output from the receiver, except during that time a signal is
being received. Adjust squelch to slightly above background noise level. An incoming signal above this
threshold level will open the audio circuit.

Amp Circuits

Class A- Biased near centre of characteristic curve so that emitter-collector current flows all times to provide
minimum distortion.

Class B- Biased near the cut off point so only of input is amplified. Higher than that attanable by class A

Class C- Base-emitter is biased well beyond cut off so only small portion of positive peaks are amplified. Class C
highly efficient due to short duration of collector current pulse. Not suitable for audio. In R.F the output from
Class C pulses a resonant LC Tank in the coupling circuit into a flywheel type oscillation, which produces the
original sine-wave input signal.

500 ohm low level audio output used by headphones. 8 ohm high level audio output for speakers.

HF

On a long wire antenna RF feed is usually at fwd attachment. Rear tethering is by means of a tensioning unit.
The weak link is at the rear so any breaks wont wrap the antenna around the vertical fin.

High resistance static drain for precipitation static, about 6M.

The ATU (antenna tuning unit) is usually pressurised for high flying jets, some units have a pressure switch to
make sure the pressure is adequate, may be connected in line with the key line thus preventing TX in the event
of a leak.

ADF

Centre line of a/c away from fin, elevators etc... Loop and sense antennas not matched. No more than 0.25
alignment error.

Controls

ANT: sense antenna only pointer parked at 90

ADF: Both antennas normal operation.

If sense antenna is disconnected will continue to show direction but could be 180 ambiguity.

The loop antenna and sense antenna form a cartoid radiation pattern.

VOR

108-118MHz 50Khz spacing.

Reference phase signal is omnidirectional. 9960Hz a.m this is a subcarrier freq modulated at 30Hz with a
deviation of 480Hz. The 30Hz signal is the reference phase.

Variable phase signal is a rotating beam 30Hz signal generated by rotating at 30 rps or 1800rpm.

Produces a cardiod pattern.

1020Hz a.m id signal keyed to provide Morse code at least 3 times each 30 sec.

10 is full scale deflection. Deviation bar used to indicate the direction the pilot must turn the aircraft to
intercept the desired radial.

ILS

Measures difference in depth of modulation (D.D.M). Along the centre line the airborne localizer receiver will
receive the carrier modulated to a depth of 20% BY BOTH 90 AND 150 Hz tones. Deviation from centre line is
given in d.d.m (difference in depth of modulation), i.e. the % modulation of the larger signal minus the %
modulation of the smaller signal divided by 100.

90Hz on left for ILS on top for glideslope

150Hz on right for ILS bottom for glideslope.

Localizer 108.10 111.95MHz 50Khz spacing. Were the tenths of a cycle are odd are for localizer.

i.e. 108.10 & 108.15 Are

108.20 & 108.25 Are NOT

Glide slope 328.6 335.4MHz 150Khz spacing. Automatically matched to localizer freq.s.

MARKER BEACONS

Transmission of 75MHz

Outer marker: 400Hz tone dashes approx 1.5sec long. Blue Light

Middle marker: 1300Hz tone alternate between dots and dashes. Amber Light

Inner marker: 3000Hz tone dots approx 0.5sec long. White Light. Also known as Airways markers.

Outer and middle markers are associated with ILS. Inner is very seldom used (Cat II operation 100ft decision
height). Airways is usually associated with specific aids to enroute navigation or holding points.

DME

Displays slant range.

D= Slant range in nautical miles

T= Time in microseconds from tx to reply

50s= Delay in DME ground station

12.359= Time in microseconds required for RF energy to travel one nautical mile and return.

DME interrogator reply 63MHz above or below a/c freq within limitations.

A/C- 978-1213MHz or 962-1213MHz including TACAN (military)

Ground station receive- 1041-1150MHz

Squitter is from the ground. Is unused time in transmissions of replies to maintain a constant duty cycle.

Jitter is from a/c. The randomly spaced pulse pairs.

Id ground station by 1350Hz audio tone every 30sec.

Search mode 2700 p.r.f

Track mode 30 p.r.f max average.

Memory mode for approx 10sec.

ATC

Airborne transponder reply signal 1090Mhz

SSR interrogation signal 1030MHz

Mode A- A/c ident code

Mode C- Altitude reporting with ident.

Interrogation mode is characterized by spacing between P1 and P3 pulses. In all modes P1, P2 & P3 are all
0.8s wide. The purpose of the P2 pulse is to determine if the interrogation is from the main beam or a side
lobe.

Emergency 7700

Hijack 7500

No comms/failure 7600

If the IDENT button is used it will transmit with each mode A reply for 15-20sec after release of switch.

WX RADAR
Avg power is a function of pulse width and pulse repletion freq. (p.r.f)

A narrow pulse width allows radar to define target in greater detail, and to detect at a greater range, but has
less penetration of target.

P.R.F is adjusted to the desired range to allow enough time for the tx beam to return before tx another pulse.

Beam width is dependent on antenna size. The larger the flat plate (or diameter of reflector on a parabolic)
antenna the narrower the beam width.

At altitude the wave guide should be pressurized. The high energy transmissions can result in arcing when
atmospheric pressure is reduced (flash over).

Interference which takes the form of broken, curved or straight lines on the display is caused by other radar
systems. The exact effect varies with type of video processing & scan conversion and the p.r.f of interfering
radar.

With scanner tilted down a circular band should be present. If it is not circular but severely distorted most
probably the vertical reference gyro (VRG) has toppled.

Spoking almost certainly caused by fault with wx radar system.

A) Video signal & noise spokes due to abnormal video output amplitude.
B) Sweep spoke due to faulty display circuitry. Such as damaged slip rings in time base resolver.

To determine the cause, turn gain down and tilt antenna max up, if fault persists it is in the display circuitry.

Spoking could also be caused by unshielded electromagnetic devices producing strong changing magnetic
fields.

RADAR ALTIMETER

C band 4.3GHz frequency modulated continuous wave (CW) varied from 4250-4350MHz and back to 4250MHz
100 times per second.

H=300ft( )

H= Indicated altitude plus AID (Aircraft Installation Delay) in ft

Fb= Beat frequency

Fcal= Calibration frequency (approx 12 KHz)

SELCAL

Selective calling on VHF and/or HF. Relieves the crew from constantly monitoring the receivers for incoming
calls.

4 tone code transmitted on freq a/c is monitoring.

(SATCOM, SATNAV)

24 satellites in geosynchronous orbit provide 2 way relay between aircraft earth station (AES) and ground
earth station (GES), between latitude 75 north and south.

The aircraft earth stations (aircraft) transmit to and receive from satellites at L band frequencies (1530MHz
1660.5MHz).

The ground earth stations transmit to and receive from satellites at C band frequencies (4GHz 6GHz)

Min of 4 satellites required for accurate position fix. 3 will give latitude and longitude the 4 th altitude. If only 3
satellites are being received IRS can be used as 3rd for position fix and the sat can give altitude.

Antenna cable impedance of 50 and length limited to 15ft due to signal loss.

RAIM: Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

Detect fault with redundant GPS pseudo range measurements. That is when more satellites are available than
needed for a position fix, the extra pseudo range should be consistent with the computed position. A min of 5
visible satellites with satisfactory geometry are required to carry out RAIM.