CHAPTER-I

Indian Theories of
Meaning
 Before dealing with the theories of meaning as expoundedl

by various Indian philosophical systems, we shall write

briefly about the Indian literary theories as they also

directly deal with the meaning of literary discourse. We

shall now discuss the theories propounded by Bharata's rasat

theory, Bhamaha and Dandi of alamkara school, Vamana of

riti-guna school, Dhvanyaloka of Anandavardhana,

Vakroktijivita of Kuntaka, Kavyamimamsa of Rajasekhara and.

Mammata's Kavyaprakasa. Though Bharata' rasa theory has not

been developed strictly as a literary theory, it is in the

background of various literary theories developed in India.

Therefore, first of all we will write about the rasa theory

of Bharata.

~ theo&Y of Bharata

Rasa is defined by Bharata in his Natyasastra as follows:

- vibhavanubhava - vyabhicari -samyogat - rasa - nispattih

(Pandit Kedarnath, 1983:93) which means that the!

"combination of vibhavas (determinants) and anubhavas

(consequents) together with vyabhicari bhavas (transitory

states) produce rasa" (Natyasastra, A Board of Scholars,

Sri Satguru Publication, Delhi, p73). Rasa is chat which is:

relishable - rasa iti kah padarthah atrucyate asvadyatvat

(Pandit Kedarnath, 1983:93).

Now we will first define bhava, vibhava, anubhava as

18
these terms have been used in the definition of rasa. Bhavat

is a particular mental state in specific situations towards

something or somebody and that object or that persont

towards which bhava is expressed is called vibhava.

Defining bhava, Bharata says

vag~1gasattvopetankavyarthanbhavayantiti bhava iti (Pandit

Kedarnath, 1983: 104). That is to say, bhava are those!

, "which bhavayanti (instill meaning) of the theme of the

literary composition into the audience by means of vacika,

angika and sattvika means of presentation." (Natyasastra, A

Board of Scholars, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi). Thus:

bhava is actually an instrument of causation which makes

the meaning of the literary composition bhavayanti (infuse!

or pervade the mind of the audience) . Bharata explains this

instrument of causation in three ways:-

1. as an instrument to bring the theme conveyed into-

realization.

2. as an instrument to reveal the idea of the poet.

3. as an instrument to make rasas pervade.

Bharata in the seventh chapter writes three slokas related

to this:

Vibhavairahrto yortho hyanubhavaistu gamyate.

Vagangasattvabhinayaih sa bhava iti sangyitah.

(sloka 1, chapter?)

i.e. "when the theme conveyed by the vibhava is brought

into realization through anubhava by means of the gestures
whether vacika, angika or sattvika, it is termed as bhava."

19
(Natyasastra, A Board of Scholars, Sri Satguru.

Publications, Delhi) . So bhava is the instrumental cause to

make the meanings present by vibhava and anubhava pervade!

the mind and heart of the audience.

The second sloka on bhava is:

Vagangamukharagena sattvenabhinayena ca.

Kaverantargatam bhavam bhavayanubhava ucyate.
(sloka 2, chapter 7)
i.e. "That which makes the idea of the poet revealed throughL

words, gesticulation, colours of the face and temperamental

representation is called bhava." (Natyasastra, A Board of

Scholars, Sri Sat~ru Publications, Delhi). Here also bhava.

is understood as an instrumental cause to reveal sattva,

i.e., the essence of the ideas of the poet through.

different kinds of abhinaya.

The third sloka on bhava is:

Nanabhinayasambadhanbhavayanti rasaniman.
Yasmattasamadamibhava vigyeya natyayoktrbhih.
(sloka 3, chapter?)
i.e."Since they make these rasas related to different
gestures pervade (the comprehension of the audience) they

should be known by the sponsors of the dramatic performance

as bhavas." (Natyasastra, A Board of Scholars, Sri Satguru.
Publications, Delhi). Here, bhava is the instrumental cause
to establish the required relationship between rasas andl

20
 abhinaya into the mind of the audience. Hence, bhava, as:

understood by Bharata in all these three slokas, is a cause

to bring about the meaning manifested by abhinaya.

Next we are going to define vibhava which is translated.

by Manmohan Ghosh as determinant. According to The~

Practical Sansk:ci t English Dictionary of V. S. Apte, the

prefix 'vi' means distinct. Hence, vibhava is that distinct.

instrumental cause which makes the existence of bhavas

possible. Vibhava is the cause of bhava. As Bharata says, "

vibhavah karanam nirni ttam heturi t i paryayah" (Pandit

Kedarnath, 1983:105) i.e. vibhava is the synonym of karana,

nimitta and hetu. Karana and hetu are almost perfect

synonyms but there is a difference in the meaning of karanat

and nimitta. Karana is the cause and nimitta is the

\
\'"- instrument through which the cause operates to proceedl

l_
~ . __ towards the consequence . Hence, there are two kinds of

vibhavas - alambana and uddipana. Pt. Jagannatha writes inL

Rasagangadhara: "evamesam sthayibhavanam loke

tattanayakagatanam yanyalambanatayoddipinataya vat

karanatvena prasiddhanika, tanyesu:

kavyanatyayorvyajyamanesu vibhavasabdenat

vyapadisyante", (Pandit Jagannatha, 1987: 146) i.e. when the

causes of sthayibhava which we know as alambanat

(supporting causes) and uddipana (stimulating or

circumstantial causes), are described in the literature or

the play they are called vibhava. For example, for the
sthayi bhava of rati or Love, the alambana vibhava will be~

iUES~
0.>1s:t 21
po
the hero and the heroin and the uddipana vibhava will be a.
cloudy weather, solitude and such other circumstances.
Further, there are two kinds of alambana - visayalambanat

and asrayalambana. Visayalambana is the object of the rise

of an emotion, that is, a person or object or event for whomt
or which the emotion has arisen. Asrayalambana is the
person in whom the emotion has awakened.

Anubhava is defined as, 11 anubhavyatenena.

vagangasattvakrtobhinaya iti 11 (Pandit Kedarnath, 1983:105),

i.e. 11
Since the dramatic presentation by means of words,
gestures and the temperament are made to be felt by this,
it is called anubhava (consequent)." (Natyasastra, A Board.
of Scholars, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi) . Anubhavat

literally means that which follows bhava. Anubhava are the

visible effects after the rise of a bhava, i.e., an~

emotional state. Anubhava is directly related to abhinaya.

in a literary work as it is the linguistic representatioru
of anubhava that shows the emotional state of a character.
On anubhava, Bharata says:
Vagangabhinayeneh yatastvarthonubhavyate.

Sakhangopangasamyuktas tvanubhavas-ta tah smrtah.

(Sloka 5, Chapter 7)

i.e. "Since the meaning is sought to be felt by the

spectators by means of words, gestures and dramatic
presentation it is called anubhava and it is remembered as;
relating to words, gestures and ancillary angas. 11

(Natyasastra, A Board of Scholars, Sri Satguru.

Publications, Delhi).

22
 Bharata further classifies bhavas in three broadl

categories sthayi (permanent) , vyabhicari or sancari

(transitory) and sattvika (which are non-voluntary physical:

reactions or responses to the rise of a durable emotion) .

The distinction between sthayi bhava and the sancari bhavat

is that sthayi bhava is the principal and dominant state of

emotion whereas sancari bhava is the subsidiary andl

auxiliary state of emotion. Sattvika bhava is the non-

voluntary response to sthayi bhava.

Bharata expounds eight sthayi bhavas, thirty three sancari

bhavas and eight sattvikas. Hence there exist forty nine!

bhavas. The eight sthayi bhavas are as follows:

1. Rati: The essence of rati is pleasure the joy int

getting the desired object. This is an all pervading

permanent state of emotion. The vibhavas awakening this:

sthayi bhava are favourable seasons, garlands, unguents,

ornaments, persons near and dear, lofty abodes, absence of

antagonism (from others) etc .. These vibhavas may be

numerous depending upon the context of the drama and the!

civilization but the bhava will be the same. The anubhava.

for representing rati will be face beaming with smiles,

words or exquisite sweetness, knitting of the eyebrows,
glances etc.

2. Hasa: It is laughter.. Incongruity causes laughter. It is

produced and also represented by reproducing someone's:
activities and behaviour by imitation and parody. Also
inconsistent utterances, foolish activities and anythingr
contrary to propriety produce laughter.

23
3. Soka: It is sorrow caused by separation from belovedl
ones, destruction of assets, murder, imprisonment and such.
other situations. The general anubhavas for representingr
soka are shedding tears, lamentations, bewailing, pallor in.

the face, change of voice, sensation of looseness of limbs,

falling on the ground, weeping loudly, writhing and.
squirming, deep sighs, sluggishness, madness, loss of
sense, death etc.
4. Krodha: It is anger caused by insulting affront, abusive
words, quarrel, dispute, adverse remarks, altercations andl
such other situations. Bharata classifies anger into five
categories and suggests different ways to represent eachL
category of anger. The anger can be against the open.
resistance by the enemies, the venerable person, the!
beloved, the attendant and the pretended anger. Bharata.
enumerates different anubhavas for each kind of anger
which are different in each case even though the principal
emotion is the same.
5. Utsaha: It is energetic enthusiasm resulting from power,
courage, heroism, readiness to sacrifice, absence of
distress and such other situations. It is a particular
psychological state which normally does not have any
immediate vibhava and Bharata indicates it to be
represented by general attitudes such as fortitude, astute!
readiness to undertake much, alertness and acts of
vigilance.
6. Bhaya: It is fear mainly in the mean type of persons.
The vibhavas for this are some crimes committed against.

24
preceptors and kings, wandering through forests and vacant.

houses, seeing mountains, being rebuked, cloudy days,

nocturnal darkness, movement of owls, hearing the shouts of

raksasas etc. The anubhavas for bhaya are loosening of

limbs, twinkling of eyes, frights, trembling of hands andl

feet, opening of eyes widely and such similar actions and.

qualities.

7. Jugupsa: It is disgust arising from hearing and.

listening to unpleasant things. Its anubhavas are!

contracting all the limbs, spitting out, twisting of the

mouth, heartache etc.

8. Vismaya: It is wonderment produced by vibhavas like

jugglery, magical illusion, superhuman activity, wonderful.

and mysterious body, artistic craft, excellence and the

like. Its anubhavas are tears of joy, dilating of eyes,

distortion of eyebrows horripilation, perspiration and.

sometimes shouting ~bravo, bravo' .

The above mentioned eight sthayi bhavas constitute the

principal emotional states of man. These sthayi bhavas are~

supported by forty one vyabhicari or sancari bhavas. The

word vyabhicari literally means those that take the!

movement of different objects towards rasas. There are

forty one vyabhicari bhavas:

1. Nirveda: It is despondency produced by vibhavas such as

impoverished state, insult, being called by bad names,
angry thrashing, separation from dear ones and such others
similar.

2. Glani: It is feebleness caused by general illness,

25
religious penances, old age, excess of drinking, exercise,

traveling, hunger or thirst and such other physical

conditions.

3 . Sanka: It is a fearful suspicion.

4.Asuya: It is jealousy arising from others fortune,

power, wealth and such other things of which one feels a

lack in oneself.

5. Mada: It is inebriety caused by intoxication. It is of

three kinds taruna (which in this context means:

excessive), madhya (medium) and avakrsta (light or low).

6. Srama: It is exhaustion or fatigue because of journey,

exercise or any such tiring enterprises.

7. Alasya: It is lethargy which may be caused by natural.

inclination, sorrow, walking, satiety, pregnancy, sickness

etc.

8. Dainya: It is wretchedness and dejection as a

consequence of extreme poverty, mental distress etc.

9. Cinta: It is anxiety caused by poverty, loss of wealth

or theft of some dear object. expectant eager heart etc.

10. Moha: It is delusion. Its general vibhavas are

adversity, accidents, fear and recollection of previous:
enmity.

11. Smrti: It is recollection produced by means of vibhavas

which remind one of things and events producing happiness

or misery.

12. Dhrti: It is contentment and fortitude. The vibhavas

that produce dhrti are spiritual knowledge, affluence,
devotion to preceptors, good habits and such others which

26
can counter bhaya (fear), soka (grief) and visada (agony).

13. Vrida: It is shame caused by disrespect to elders, not

keeping promises, regret over some wrong that is committed

and other similar things.

14. Capalata: It is inconstancy resulting from vibhavas
like the absence of restraint in case of passion, hatred,

rivalry, excessive anger, jealousy etc.

15. Harsa: It is delight caused by the satisfaction due to,
the achievement of what is desired like good food,
appreciation or someone's love.

16. Avega: It is excitement caused by adverse circumstances

and excessively good or bad news.

17. Jadata: It is stupor or sluggishness leading to

cessation or reluctance to resume all types of activities.

It is caused by sickness and hearing or seeing something

extremely desired or completely undesired.
18. Garva: It is arrogance from vibhavas such as excessive
affluence, nobility of birth, handsomeness and beauty of
form, youth academic distinction, influence and such.
other situations.

19. Visada: It is dejection arising out of nonfulfillment

of the work undertaken, natural calamities, adverse fate!
and the like.

20. Autsukya: It is impatience. It may be caused by se.eking

parks or reflection after the separation from belovedl
persons.
21. Nidra: It is sleep. It is caused by vibhavas like
weakness, fatigue, exhaustion, intoxication, indolence,

27
excessive thinking, excessive eating, natural soporific~

tendencies and the like.

22. Apasmara: It is epilepsy produced by means of vibhavas

such as malignant possession of an evil deity, serpent,

yaksa, raksasa, pisaca and others, recollection of such.

beings, partaking of the left over foods by others,

frequenting empty chambers, going through unclear forests,

derangement of bodily hormones etc.

23. Supta: It is dream-sleeping. No vibhavas are mentioned

for this.

24. Vibodha: It means waking up. This state arises because

of the break of sleep, digestion of food, evil dreams, loudl

sounds etc.

25. Amarsa: It means anger of indignation which arises in.

an enthusiastic person when he or she is publicly insultedl

by someone superior.

26. Avahittha: It is dissimulation caused by shame, fear,

defeat, deceit, undue aggressiveness etc.

27. Ugrata: It is ferocity arising as an emotion out of

incarceration of the thieves, offense to the kings,

speaking offensive words and such other vibhavas.

28. Mati: It is intellectual self-assurance resulting from
thinking about the purport of the scriptural texts,

considerations and conjecturing and inferences.

29. Vyadhi: It is ailment. Bharata explains the causes of

vyadhi in terms of the ayurvedic tradition as vata (wind) ,

pitta (bile) and kapha (phlegm). The attack of these three

humours and their cumulative effect leads to vyadhi.

28
30. Unmada: It is insanity produced by vibhavas such as:
death of a beloved person, loss of wealth, accidental
injury, upsetting of the bodily humour etc.

31. Marana: It means death. It may be the result of ailment

of violent attack.

32. Trasa: It is fright produced as a consequence of

lightning, comet fall, striking by thunderbolt, earthquake,
ominous gathering of clouds, crying of the wild animals and.
the like.
33. Vitarka: It is deliberations caused by vibhavas such as
doubt, cogitation, perplexity and the like.
After this Bharata mentions sattvika bhavas as a.
category of those bhavas which are manahprabhavam

originating in mind. Bharata makes this distinct

classification for those bhavas whose enactment is possible!
only by a concentrated effort of mind. The eight categories
of sattvika bhavas are as follows:
1. Stambha: It is paralysis as a result of joy, fear,
ailment, wonderment, sadness, inebriety and anger.
2. Sveda: It means perspiration which results from anger,
fright, delight, bashfulness, sadness, fatigue, sickness,
heat, hitting, exercise, weariness, summer heat and.
affliction.
3. Romanca: It is horripilation. Its vibhavas are touch,
fear, chillness, delight, anger and ailments.
4. Svarabheda: It is affliction in the voice caused by
fear, delight, anger, fever, ailments and inebriation.
5. Vepathu: It is tremor caused by chillness, fear,

29
delight, touch and senility.

6. Vaivarnyam: It means the changing of the colour (mainly

of the face) as a result of chillness, anger, fear,

fatigue, sickness, toil and distress.

7. Asru: It means shedding tears because of vibhavas like~

joy, indignation, smoke, collyrium, yawning, fear, sadness,

staring, cold and sickness.

8. Pralaya: It means sinking or fainting as a resul-t of

t:oil, swoon, intoxication, sleep, injurious -attack,

delusion etc.

After having defined the bhavas, vibhavas and anubhavas,

now we shall enumerate the rasas as expounded by Bharata:

1. Srngara: It is the state of being evoked by the

beautiful, the good and the perfect. Its sthayi bhava is:

rati. There are two kinds of this - sambhoga srngara (love

in union) and vipralambha srngara (love in separation).

2. Hasya: It is humour with hasa as its sthayi bhava.

3. Karuna: It is pathos with soka (sorrow) being its sthayi.

bhava.

4 . Raud.ra: It is translated as impetuous anger or wrath.

Its sthayi bhava is krodha (anger) .

5. Vira: It is the heroic sentiment evoked by the sthayi

bhava utsaha present in the persons of superior type.

6. Bhayanaka: It is the terrible sentiment with bhaya as

its sthayi bhava.
7. Bibhatsa: This is the odious sentiment with jugupsa.

(disgust) as its sthayi bhava.

30
8. Adbhuta: It is the sentiment related to wonderment andl

surprise. Vismaya (surprise) is its sthayi bhava.

Apart from these eight rasas of Bharatal later scholars:

of the same tradition write about santa, bhakti and.

vatsalya rasas. Often bhakti is considered to be anL

admixture of santa and srngara and vatsalya as part of the

sthayi bhava of rati.

Kavyalamk"ara 21 Bhamaha

Bhamaha (circa 600A.D.) is the first theorist in India.

who directly dealt with the verbal poetic discourse. Though.

he mentions the names of poeticians (like Acyutottara inL

2. 19 1 Ramasharma in 2 .19 and 2. 58 and many others) their

works seems to have lost forever. Normally 1 Bhamaha is:

accepted to be the propounder of the alamkara school. There

are six chapters in Kavyalamkara which do not appear to,

have been written in a very systematic manner. There are

fiftynine karikas in the first chapter on the purpose,

cause 1 characteristics and types of poetry. The ninetysix.

karikas of the second chapter are on the qualities andl

embellishments of poetry. Fiftyeight karikas of the third.
chapter also deal with the poetic embellishments. Fiftyone~

karikas of the fourth chapter are on dosas defects of

poetry. Fifth and sixth chapters discuss philosophy andl

grammar for the benefit of the poets so that they may avoid.
the defects according to the logicians and grammarians.
The first available definition of kavya in Indian.
poetics is by Bhamaha - sabdarthau sahitau kavyam (1.16)

31
i.e. the coexistence of sabda and artha constitute poetry.
If we read this definition in the context as it appears in.
the text, sabda stands for sabdalamkara and artha for
arthalamkara. Both are equally important and together
constitute poetry. Bhamaha indicates that there are~

contemporary poeticians or prior to him who attach more

importance to one of the above mentioned alamkaras and thenL
opines that both of them are equally important in poetry.
Though Bhamaha is supposed to be the propounder of the~

alamkara school, he gives full credence to vakrokti as the

most important aspect of poetry. He writes in Kavyalamkara:

Vakrabhidheyasabdoktirista vacamalankrtih (1.36)

(The oblique use of sabda and artha are the~

embellishment of speech.)
Saisa sarvaiva vakroktiranayartho vibhavyate (2.85)

(This,i.e. atisayokti is the essence of all oblique

statement. )
In this karika, vakrokti is compared to poetry and.
essence of the embellishments of poetic language. Further
in the fifth chapter, Bhamaha states:
Vacan vakrarthasabdoktiralamkaraya kalpate (5.66)

(The beauty of speech is attained through oblique word.

and statement.)
Thus one remarks that since the dawn of Indian poetics,
vakrokti or obliqueness is an important parameter to)
differentiate between the poetic and non-poetic language.
However, there has been a consistent effort to formally
analyse the poetic language and so the Indian poeticians

32
have rigorously evolved formal categories of linguistic~

analysis of the poetic language. Despite devoting major

sections of his treatise on the alamkaras Bhamaha accepts:

vakrokti as the essence of poetry and ananda as the purpose

of poetry. Bhamaha is the first one to introduce ananda :

Bharata has nowhere mentioned it in his discussion on the

purpose of Natya in 1.109-222 of his Natyasastra.

Bhamaha mentions four causes of poetry:

(1) Pratibha: Bhamaha writes

Gurupadesadadhyetum sastram jadadhiyopyalam.

Kavyam tu jayate jatu kasyacitpratibhavatah. (1.5)

i.e. Even unintelligent people can study sastras with help

of teacher's guidance, but poetry flashes only sometimes int

some people endowed with pratibha. It is sakti or ability

and intuition to create poetic language.

(2) Knowledge of sabda, chanda, abhidhanartha, itihasa-

katha, loka, tarkasastra, kala (words and its:

embellishments, meters, meanings understood, history-tales,

worldly knowledge, knowledge of treatises on logic andl

philosophy, knowledge of arts). Bhamaha mentions all these

in karika 1. 9. Poeticians sometimes denote all these by

vyutpatti.

(3) Abhyasa or practice: Bhamaha writes

Sabdabhidheye vijnaya krtva tadvidupasanam.

Vilokyanyanibandhansca karyah kavyakriyadarah. (1.10)

i.e. After attaining knowledge of sabda and artha, after
rendering due regards to those who know poetry and after

33
looking at the works of other poets one should begin the!

act of writing poetry. This act needs continuous reading

and writing or else even the best of poets may loose the!
poetic fervour of language.

(4) In 1.5 quoted above under section on pratibha, it is:

important to note that poetry flashes only sometimes in some

people. 'Sometimes' may connote the presence of those!

factors which stimulate the poetic creativity. Despite

pratibha~ vyutapatti and abhyasa, poetic creativity is:

stimulated only when there is some vibhava, i.e. prerana or

irmnediate cause of poetic flc>sh. The first three are the!

nimi ttakarana of poetry which may remain dormant in the

absence of an upadanakarana which is prerana.

Bhamaha gives the following classification of poetry:

(1) Gadya and padya on the basis of presence and absence of
chanda.

(2} On the basis of language, there are three kinds of

poetry: (i) samskrta (ii) prakrta (iii) apabhramsa
( 3) On the basis of content, there are four kinds of

poetry: (i) khyatavrtta (based on some metanarrative) (ii)

kalpita (based on the imagination of the poet) (iii)
kalasrita (based on arts) (iv) sastrasrita (based onL
sastras) .

The last two . categories are not accepted by later

theoreticians because arts and sastras cannot be the mainL
content of a poem. While knowledge of arts and sastra are
essential for poetic creativity, they themselves cannot be!
the overall subject of a poem.

34
(3) On the basis of form there are five kind:: of .poetry:

(i) mahakavya (ii) rupaka (iii) akhyayika (iv) katha (v)

muktaka. Bhamaha discusses the characteristics of each one~

of them in detail but we will not go into them as it may

not be much relevant for our thesis.

Dosas or defects of poetry according to Bhamaha

Before counting the defects of poetry as enumerated im

Kavyalamkara, one should draw attention to this concept of

Bhamaha:

Sannivesavisesattu duruktamapi sobhate.

Nilam palasamababdhamantarale srajamiva. (1.54)
and

Kincidasrayasaundaryaddhatte sobhamasadhvapi.
Kantavilocananyastam malimasamivanjanam. (1.55)
i.e. Even the green leaves in a garland of flowers and.

similar defective expressions sometimes become beautiful.

because of specificity of context. (1. 54) and the defect

sometimes becomes beautiful because of its base or

dependence on certain factors like even the black mascara.

looks beautiful when applied on the eyes of a lovely woman.

Thus, though Bhamaha devotes about 170 karikas on.

formal categorization of defects of poetry, he does not.

restrict the domain of interpretation of a poetic work.

Bhamaha writes about dosas of poetry mainly im

following three places:

(1) In the first chapter he mentions without context the

following dosas :

35
 Neyartham klistamanyarthamavacakamayuktimat.

Gurhasabdabhidhanam ca kavayo na prayujjate. (1.37)

i.e. neyartha, klista, anyartha, avacaka, ayuktimat andl

gurhasabdabhidhana are not used by poets. In 1.38-46,

Bhamaha defines these defects:

Neyartham niyate yukto yasyarthah krtibhirbalat.

Sabdanyayanuparurhah kathancitsvabhisandhina. (1.38)

i.e. when the language is not used according to its rules

and when the relevant meaning has to be culled forcibly

it is the neyartha defect.

Karika 1.40 defines klista and anyartha as:

Klistan vyavahitan vidyadanyarthan vigame yatha

i.e. hindrance in meaning is klista and non-availability of

meaning is anyartha.

In 1. 41, avacaka defect is defined as use of a word in.

its unpopular meaning. For example, himapaha (enemy of ice)

to mean fire. Karika 1.42 explains ayuktimata as that which.

is illogical according to our experience. For example, use!

of cloud, wind, moon and such others as messenger. Bhamaha.

implies that they are not endowed with speech and so they

cannot be the messengers. However, a celebrated counter

example to this explanation is Kalidasa' s Meghadootam. OnL

the basis of karika 1. 45 and 1. 46 gurhasabdabhidhana is

periphrasis on the basis of . relatively much lesser knowm

attributes of someone.

In karika 1.47 four more defects are enumerated:

Srutidustarthaduste ca kalpanadustamityapi.

Srutikastan tathaivahurvacan dosan caturvidham.

36
i.e. srutidusta, arthadusta, kalpanadusta and srutikasta -
these are said to be four language based defects.
In 1..48 and 1. 49, Bhamaha has enumerated words fronu
Samskrta repertoire which are examples of srutidusta.
(unpleasant to hearing sense). According to 1.50 arthadustat
is such use of words in a sentence which may indicate an
uncivilized connotation. If phonetic assimilation of two'
words lead to the imagination of an undesired meaning it is
known as kalpanadusta (1. 52). Bhamaha does not define!
srutikasta. According to his example in 1. 53, it may be
understood as those words whose sound sequences are~

unpleasant to ears.
(2) In second chapter, after explaining upamalamkara,
Bhamaha quotes Medhavi (his name is mentioned in 2. 40 andl
he may be a precursor of Bhamaha) to enumerate following
seven upamadosas (defects of simile) :
Hinatasambhavo lingavacobhedo viparayayah.
Upamanadhikatvan ca tenasadrsatapi ca. (2.39)
i.e. Inferiority, impossibility, unmatched gender,
comparison of plural with singular, contradiction,
exaggeration of object of comparison and dissimilarity
between the object compared and object of comparison
these seven are the defects of simile.
'Inferiority' is explained by the comparison of Krishna.
with cloud. Krishna is with three attributes yellow
attire, conchshell and bow whereas cloud only has rainbowr
which is comparable to Krishna's bow. The other two
attributes of Krishna remain uncompared. (2.41-42).

37
 'Impossibility' is like comparing radiance of fire withL

brilliance of moon. (2.49)

Example of 'unmatched gender' is like comparing a king

with a river which is a feminine gender word in Samskrta.

Similarly, comparison of plural with singular' is like

comparing the king (who wants to cross the anny of opposite!

side) with 'women' (who want to cross the heart of the

king) . The comparison of king (in singular) with women (inL

plural) is a defect called vacanabheda. (based on 2.53). In.

2. 56, Bhamaha says that though feminine and masculine!

gender terms should riot be compared, the comparison of a

neuter gender term with masculine or feminine words is:

acceptable. However, he indicates that even this is not

acceptable for many.

Contradiction or viparyaya are of two kinds: one in.

which the object compared ( upameya) is inferior and the!

other in which the object of comparison (upamana) is

inferior. The example of first, called hina-viparyaya is inL

2 . 54 : Moving ahead and at tacking by turning to back you.

scattered the enemy army in the same way as the dogr

scatters the herd of dears. Here, the brave warrior or the

king has been compared with a dog and hence it is a defect.

The example of adhika-viparyaya is given in 2. 55: The

cakravaka bird sitting on a lotus appAars as Brahma who inL

the beginning of the era wants to create this universe.

Here a bird has been compared with Brahma and so it is:

viparyayadosa.
Karika 2.58 gives an example of upamanadhikatva: Attired.

38
in yellow and holding the bow Krishna's body lookedl

beautiful as well as frightening just like the cloud.

embellished by moon, lightening and rainbow looks beautiful.

and frightening at night. Here Krishna is upameya and cloud.

is upamana. There are only two at tributes of upameya

yellow attire and bow. There are three attributes of

upamana lightening, rainbow and moon. Lightening is:

compared with the yellow attire, rainbow with bow but there

is nothing in comparison with the moon. This is an example

of upamanadhikatva.

Asadrsata is illustrated in 2. 63-64 by a comparison of

planets with elephants and peacocks. Planets are neither as:

buoyant as the elephants nor as beautiful as the peacocks.

(3) Chapter four is completely dedicated to the defects of

poetry. In 4.1-2, Bhamaha enumerates following dosas: (i)

apartha (ii) vyartha (iii) ekartha (iv) sasamsaya (v) apak-

rama (vi) sabdahina (vii) yatibhrasta (viii) bhinnavrtta.

(ix) visandhi (x) desavirodhi (xi) kalavirodhi (xii)

kalavirodhi (xiii) lokavirodhi (xiv) nyayavirodhi (xv)

agamavirodhi (xvi) pratijnahina (xvii) h~tuhina (xviii)

drstantahina.

These are illustrated as follows:

(i) Apartha is that which is devoid of meaning. (4. 3) This:

karika when read with 4.8 explains apartha as an instance

where the separate terms and sentences contain meaning but

altogether there is no discursive meaning when we read.
these sentences in combination.
(ii) An instance of Vyartha is when the later statement

39
contradicts the former one.

(iii) When the same word or its synonym is reiterated with-

out any specific purpose, it is ekartha or punarukta (basedl

on 4.12).

( i v) Any use of language which leaves its meaning doubtful.

is sasamsaya.

(v) According to 5.20, apakrama is an instance when there

is fault in correct ordering (it may be a case of

anachronism) .

(vi) Sabdahina is that use of language which against the:

norms prescribed by the grammarians - Panini, Katyayana andl

Patanjali. (5.22)

(vii) Yatibhrasta is that which does not follow the

punctuation rules of chanda. Yati means pun~tuational rests:

while reading in a meter and any fault in these punctuation.

rests is an example of yatibhrasta. (4.24)

(viii) Bhinnavrtta is wrong usage of short and long vowels

in a meter. The position of short and long vowels are fixedl

in a meter and any change in that is termed as

bhinnavrtta. (4 .26)

(ix) Visandhi is not defined. According to its example in.

4.28, this is a defect that occurs when phonetic assimila-

tion (sandhi) is not sanctioned by grammarians but this

diminishes the beauty of the verse.

(x) When poet's description does not match the realities of

a particular locality, it is desavirodhi 1 (4.29).
(xi) When there is wrong ordering or incorrect

juxtaposition of the six seasons, it is kalavirodhi.

40
(xii) Karika 4.33 explains ~alavirodhi:

Kala samkalana prajna silpanyasyasca gocarah.

Viparyastan tathaivahustadvirodhakaran yatha.
i.e. The intellect that collects is called kala. Crafts

(silpa) and such others are its subject. Any wrongr

description in the rules or their incorrect ordering is

kalavirodhi.
(xiii) That which is against the established norms of the

world (loka) is lokavirodhi (4.36).

(xiv) Whenever the norms of sastras on dharma, artha, kama.

(trivarga) '3.nd the policy of governance (dandaniti) are!

contradicted it is nyayavirodhi (4.39).

(xv) Whenever the dharmasastras and the worldly norms are!

contradicted, it is agamavirodhi.

(xvi) Pratijnahina is explained in 5.12-20. Pratijna means:

the basic premise in formulation of a logical argument.

There are six following defects which are collectively

termed as pratijnahina:

(a) Tadarthavirodhini: That basic premise which

contradicts itself as for example - I am biological son of

a father who remained ascetic (brahrnacari) since his

childhood. (5.14).

(b) Hetuvirodhini: That basic premise whose universal

proposition is not established beyond doubt. For example,

soul exists in all beings. (5 .15)

(c) Svasiddhantavirodhini: The premise which contradicts

one's own philosophical ideas. For example, Vaisesika~

school accepts word as unconventional (ani tya) and its:

41
propounder puts up a basic premise that words are!

conventional (nitya). (5.17).

(d) Sarvagamavirodhini: That basic premise which are con-

tradictory to all schools of philosophy (5.18). For

example, there are three pramanas. This is contrary to all.

schools of Indian philosophy. The list of pramanas are as

follows:

Carvaka: Pratyaksa

Baudha and Vaisesika: Pratyaksa and anumana

Naiyayika: Pratyaksa, anumana, upamana and sabda

Prabhakara school of Mimamsa: Pratyaksa, anumana, upamana,

sabda and arthapatti

Bhatta school of Mimamsa and Vedanta: Pratyaksa, anumana,

upamana, sabda, arthapatti and anupalabdhi.

Thus the basic premise that there are three pramanas is

against all agamas.

{e) Prasiddhadharma: That premise which intends to estab-

lish what is already well established. For example, we hear

sound through our ears. (5.19).

(f) Pratyaksabadhini: That premise which is contradicted by

perception (pratyaksa) itself. For example, fire is cool or

there is no form. (5.20).

(xvii) Hetuhina: Hetu means sadhana i.e. 'means'. When we

see 'smoke' and conclude that there is 'fire', smoke is:

sadhana and fire is sadhya. When hetu is not sufficient to'

arrive at sadhya it is hetuhina or hetvabhasa. There is a.

brief and vague explanation of this category in 5 .11 and

5.21-25. This explanation is not so relevant in poetics andl

42
so this has been omitted by latter poeticians.

(xviii) Drstantahina: When both sadhya and sadhana are

present in a proof, it is calle1. drstanta. Absence of any-

or both of them is drstantahina. (5.26-27).

The last three categories have been left out by the!

later poeticians as they are hardly of any purpose in.

analyzing the poetic creativity and poetic meaning. InL

5.29, Bhamaha indicates that often even in absence of

dosas, it appears as if there is a dosa and calls this:

situation as dosabhasa. Apart from the above defects,

Bhamaha mentions the following dosas in contexts dealingr

with other topics than dosas:

(1) Apustarthata, vakroktihinata, gramyata and akulatat

while explaining the ritis, Bhamaha writes following

karika:

Apustarthamavakrokti prasannamrju komalam.

Bhinnan geyamivedan tu kevalan srutipesalam. (1.34)

i.e. That whose meaning is nor clear and which lacks

obliqueness and is pleasing, simple and soft is different.

from (the true poetry) . It is only pleasing to ears like

the lyrical music. Here vagueness of meaning and lack of

obliqueness are indicated as defects of poetry.

The next karika is:

Alamkaravadagramyamarthyan nyayyamanakulam.

Gaudiyamapi sadhiyo vaidarbhimiti nanyatha. (1.35)

i.e. Full of embellishments, lacking rusticness,

meaningful, adhering to philosophical norms and non-

43
difficulty (poetry of) of gaudiya style is also good;
otherwise even vaidarbha lacking in these qualities is not
good. Here gramyata and akulata are mentioned as defects of
poetry.
Similarly, in the following karika, Bhamaha mentions

asahrdayata, asunirbhedata and apesalata as defects:

Ahrdyamasunirbhedam rasavattvepyapesalam.

Kavyam kapitthamamam yatkesancitsadrsa.n yatha. (5.62)

i.e. Some people's poetical works are not pleasing

despite containing rasa because of its inability to pervade!
to our emotion and because it does not contain penetrable
meaning like the unripe fruit of the kapittha tree. Thus,
non-pleasantness, inability to pervade to our emotions and.
difficulty in comprehension are the defects of poetry.
Further in the following karika four more defects are
enumerated:

Viruddhapadamasvartham bahupuranamakulam.

Kurvanti kavyamapare vyayatabhipsaya yatha. (5.67)

i.e. If one wants to unnecessarily elongate one's poetical

work, then one's poems contain defects like contradictionL
in terms, non-beautiful meaning, redundant words and.
difficulty of comprehension. Thus four defects are
mentioned here viruddhapadam (contradiction in terms),
asvartham (non-beautiful meaning), bahupuranam (redundancy.

in expression) and vyayatata (unnecessary extension of

poetical work) .

Gunas of poetry

44
 Bhamaha mentions three qualities oja, madhurya andl
prasada in the following three karikas:
Madhuryamabhivanchantah prasadanca sumedhasah.
Samasavanti bhuyansi na padani prayujjate. (2.1)
i.e. Those who want sweetness and pleasantness in poetry do,

not use too many compounded terms.

Kecitojobhidhisantah samasyanti bahunyapi.

Yatha mandarakusumarenupinjiritalaka. ( 2. 2)

i.e. Those who favour oja do samasa of many padas. As for

example ... the heroin whose eyelids are yellow like the

flowers of mandara'.

Sravyan natisamastartham kavyam madhuramisyate.

Avidvadanganabalapratitartham prasadavat. {2.3)
i.e. That poetry which does not have too much of

compounding of words and is sweet to listen to is calledl

madhura. That poetry whose meaning is understood by all-

scholars, women and children - contains prasada.

Thus Bhamaha enumerates three qualities of poetry:

{1) Oja: That which is abundance in compounded terms.

(2) Madhurya: That which is pleasing to ears and does not

contain too many compounded terms.
{3) Prasada: Easy to understand and not containing too many

compounded terms.
Now we shall expound the alamkaras enumerated by Bhamaha.

Bhamaha, the first poetician of Indian tradition accordingr

to available treatises on poetics, is the major exponent of
alamkara school in Indian poetics. Eventhough he accepts.

vakrabhidheyasabdoktirista vacamalankrtih (1.36) he is not

45
considered in the tradition of vakrokti school . Bhamaha.

does not say that alamkara is the soul of poetry like,

Vamana and Anandavardhana who accept respectively riti andl

dhvani as the soul of poetry. Some conjectural arguments

for Bhamaha having attained the status of an alamkarika may

be as follows:

(1) In karika 1.13 Bhamaha accepts alamkara as the basis of

the ornateness of poetry:

Rupakadiralankarastathanyairbahudhoditah.

Na kantamapi nirbhusan vibhati vanitananam. (1.13)

i.e. Various alamkarikas have mentioned rupaka and other

alamkaras in different ways. Even the face of a beautiful.

woman is not radiant without embellishments.

(2) 151 out of about 400 karikas are on alamkara.

(3) The meaning of the word alamkara was much wider in his

time. Even according to Bhamaha the basic element of

alamkara (2. 81) is atisayokti which means

lokatikrantagocara vacana (2. 81) i.e. the statement whichL

implies something beyond its popular meaning. Even.

according to 1.13, all that is the embellishment of poetry

is alamkara. It is only in this sense that Bhamaha is an.
alamkarika. Otherwise, he can be considered the propounder

of vakrokti school as he attaches a lot of importance to

obliqueness:

Hetusca suksmo lesotha nalankarataya matah.

Samudayabhidhanasya vakroktyanabhidhanatah. (2.86)

i.e. Hetu, suksma and lesa are not considered as alamkara.

because they lack obliqueness.

46
 Further in karika 5.66 Bhamaha says vacant

vakrarthasabdoktiralankaraya kalpate i.e. beauty of speech.

is attained through oblique word and meaning.

Thus obliqueness is an essential element of poetic use

of language and alamkara is all that (i) acts as anL

embellishment to the poetic language (ii) which contains an.

implication beyond its liceral sense. The thirty eight.

alamkaras mentioned by Bhamaha and more alamkaras mentioned.

by later poeticians are only certain observed frequent

instances of such uses of language.

Bhamaha mentions following th-i_rty eight alamkaras int

Kavyalamkara:

Two sabdalamkaras: anuprasa and yamaka

Thirtysix arthalamkaras: (1) rupaka (2) dipaka (3) upamat

(4) aksepa (5) arthantaranyasa (6) vyatireka (7) vibhavana~

(8)samasokti (9)atisayokti (10)yathasamkhya (11)utpreksat

(12) svabhavokti (13) preya (14) rasavat (15) urjasvi.

(16)paryayokti (17) samahita (18) udatta (19) slistat

(20) apahnuti (21) visesokti (22) virodha (23) tulyayogi ta.

(24) aprastutaprasamsa (25) vyajastuti (26) nidarsanat

(27)upamarupaka (28)upameyopama (29)sahokti (30)parivrtti

(31) sasandeha (32) ananvaya (33) utpreksavayava (34) samsrsti.

(35)bhavikatva (36)asih

Now we shall discuss them one by one in the light of

Kavyalamkara. First we take up the two sabdalamkaras:

(1) Anuprasa: Successive use of formally same alphabets is

called anuprasa (2.5). In 2.6 and 2.8 Bhamaha gives:

examples of gramyanuprasa and latanuprasa but does not

47
explain their characteristics. Anuprasa should be such that

their meanings are different but their alphabets are not

different (2.7).

(2) Yamaka: Repetition of those alphabets which produce

same sound sequence but contain different meanings is:

yamaka (2.17). There are five kinds of yamaka - adiyamaka,

mad.hyantayamaka, padabhyasa, avali and samastapadayamaka~

(2. 9) . When repetition of the same alphabets with.

different meanings is in the beginning of every foot of the;

verse, it is adiyamaka (2 .11). When similar repetition is

in the middle or the end of each verse, it is:

mad.hyantayamaka (2.12). When two feet are completely

repeated, it is padabhyasa (2 .13). When there is a series:

of different repetitions without adhering to any specific

positioning, it is avali (2.14). When in the end of each

verse, the same sequence of alphabets are repeated, it is

samastapadayamaka (2.15). In 2.18, Bhamaha defines the;

qualities of yamaka - that yamaka is beautiful in which the

words (for se~Jence of alphabets) are well-known, euphonic:

combinations are clear and simple, which contain oja,

prasada and are easy to pronounce. Otherwise, according to,

2.19, if one has to work hard on understanding the repeated.

sequence of alphabets, it is inferior yamaka and is calledl
prahelika.

Following are the artbalamkaras discussed by Bhamaha:

(1) Rupaka: When an identity is established between the;
object of comparison and the object compared on the basis
of similarity of qualities, it is called rupaka (2. 21) .

48
There are two kinds of rupaka samastavastuvisaya andl

ekadesavivarti (2.22). 2.23 and 2.24 respectively exemplify

them - their characteristics are not explained separately.

When all the elements of comparison evoked

correspondingly mentioned one by one by the words used, it.

is samastavastuvisaya. In ekadesavivarti, at least one,

point of comparison is left for the reader to understand.

(2) Dipaka: Bhamaha does not define dipaka. He mentions

three kinds of dipaka - adi, madhya and anta on the basis;

of its position of the same characteristics (2.25). Karikas;

2.27-29 exemplify these three kinds 0f dipaka.

(3) Upama: By virtue of location in space, time and action,

even the slightest similarity between the objection of:

comparison and the object compared, is known as upama.

There are four karikas (2. 31-34) on different kinds of:

upama. In 2 .31, Bhamaha exemplifies the upama based on a

term of comparison such as 'iva' or 'like' or 'similar to'.

In 2. 32, he mentions another variety of upama which is

expressed through compounded words. For example,

candramukhi (the woman whose face like moon). Karika 3.33

mentions that comparison between two actions which is;

shown by certain affixated inflections of the words used.

The last variety of upama is that in which the similarity

is established between the qualities of two objects:
mentioned in t~o separate sentences without using any term1

of comparison - it is known as prativastupama (2.34).

(4) Aksepa: !xpressing some special meaning by refusing to>
state it is aksepa (2.68). There are two kinds of &k~~pa-

49
vaksyamanavisayaksepa and uktavisayaksepa which
respectively exemplified in 2.69 and 2.70. However, these~

examples are not sufficient to understand their

characteristics.
(5) Arthantaranyasa: To state something else for clarifying
or justifying the preceding statement is arthantaranyasa

(2. 71) . Use of conjunctions like 'because' or saying a

sentence with explaining the previous sentence are examples:
of this alamkara.
(6) Vyatireka: To explain the characteristics of the object
compared ( upamana) instead of the object of comparison is:
called vyatireka which literally means to state the~

specificity of something (2.75). For example, your thickly

eyeprowed reddish eyes are white as well as black, but
white lotus and blue lotus are either white or black
(2.76). Here, characteristics of eyes (upameya) are~

illustrated instead of those of lotus (upamana).

(7) Vibhavana: When the consequence is mentally constructed
without its necessary cause, it is called vibhavana (2.77).
For example, peacocks are intoxicated without having drunk
wine (2.78).
(8) Samasokti: When statement about something connotes some~

idea about something else characterized by similar

qualities, it is called samasokti because of its brevity
(2. 79) . For example, that firm and great tree grew to>
mat~rity but was fell by wind (2.80). This statement
implies the downfall of a great man and hence it is:
samasokti.

50
(9) Atisayokti: Any connotation beyond the literal meanin~

stated is atisayokti (2.81).

(10) Yathasamkhya: To juxtapose objects with different.

qualities and then compare them respectively in order is

yathasamkhya (2. 89). For example, you have conquered lotus,

moon, bees, elephant, cuckoo and peacock by your face,

radiance, eyes, gait, speech and hair (2.90).

(11) Utpreksa: Where there is no similarity indicated but.

there is an element crf comparison, such qualities or

actions be indicated which is not there in the object

compared and which is marked by at::.sayokti, the~

embellishment is utpreksa (2.91). For example, feigning as

the flowers of kimsuka, fire is looking around in the~

forest how much of it has burnt and how much is left

(2.92).

( 12) Svabhavokti: Literal statement of the exact state of:

an object is called svabhavokti. . While defining it iru

karika 2.93, Bhamaha says some people say so: therefore, it.

may be conjectured that Bhamaha does not accept it as am

alamkara.

(13) Preyas: Bhamaha does not mention its characteristics:

but only gives an example: What Vidur said when Krishnat

went to his home is preyas - 0 Govinda! The pleasure that I

got by your visit today will CJme to me again at the time~

when you will visit me next (3.5).

( 14) Rasava t: Where srngara and such other rasas are~

clearly exhibited, there is rasavadalamkara (3.6).

(15) Urjasvi: There is no of this alamkara of this alamkar~

51
and even its example in 3. 7 does not explain this. The~

example is When Karna' s arrow returned without killingr

Arjuna, he removed then he removed the arrow saying that-

Karna does not aim twice with the same arrow.

(16) Paryayokta: If the intended meaning is expressed by

stating something else, it is paryayokta (3.8). For

example, in Ratnaharana, Sisupala says to Krishna - whether.

at home or on the way, we do not eat those grains whicru

have not been eaten by the Veda-knowing Brahmanas and he~

said this for avoiding the poison (3.8-9).

(17) Samahita: It is not defined but only exemplified: iru

'Rajamitra', Narada appeared before the ksatriya-women

going to please Parasurama.

(18) Udatta: Bhamaha does not define this but gives three!

examples of this in three karikas from 3.11-13. Accordingr

to 3.11, an example of udatta is: obeying the words of his.

father Rama left the achieved kingdom and went for the~

forest.

(19) Slista: If identity between the object compared andl

the object of comparison is established by their qualities,

actions and name, it is slista (3 .14). The difference!
between rupaka and slista is that in the first the identity

of name is not required whereas it is a necessary criteriaL

for the later (3 .15) . Thus slista implies more than one~

meaning of the same word (3.17). There are three varieties:

of this:
(i) Sahokti: When the same word(s) give(s) two meanings -
one qualifying upamana and the other upameya, it is sahokti:

52
slista (3 .18) .

(ii) Upamayukta: When the same word(s) give(s) two meanings:

which qualify both upamana and upameya but there is at

separate term of comparison used between them, it is

upamayukta slista (3.19).

(iii) Hetuyukta: When the same word(s) give(s) two meanings:

each qualifying upamana and upameya respectively and iru
each meaning there is a cause indicated for their
comparison, it is hetuyukta slista (3.20).
(20) Apahnuti: When some quality of comparison is hidden,
it is apahnuti for this word means to hide (3. 21) . ror
example, it is not sound of the line of intoxicated
bhramaras, but the sound of Kamadeva's bow in preparatioru
( 3. 22) . Here sound of the intoxicated ,bhramaras is hiddem

and so there is apahnuti.

(21) Visesokti: When one is quality oe an object is reduced
or lacking and its another quality is explained for
enhancing its speciality, it is called visesokti (3.24).
(22) Virodha: For emphasizing on certain speciality, aru
action is mentioned in contrast with some quality of:
action, it is virodhalamkara (3.25). For example, this land
cooled by the trees planted on the border causes afflictin~

heat to the enemies who live in far off countries (3.26).

Here, the cooled land causing affli c:ting heat is
virodhalamkara.

(23) Tulyayogita: For emphasizing on the similarity betweenL

the qualities, more important upamanas are compared withi

less important upameyas, it is tulyayogita (3.27).

53
(24) Aprastutaprasamsa: When something not present or

distinct from the context is praised, it is

aprastutaprasamsa (3.29).
(25) Vyajastuti: Praising someone endowed with great

qualities and then criticizing someone else by comparing the!

later to the former is vyajastuti (3 .31). For example, Rama.

made a hole through seven trees and Parasurama through the!

Kronca mountain: Have you ev~r done even one hu~dredth of

what they have done (3.32).

(26) Nidarsana: To connote some special meaning through

some action and without any term of comparison is nidarsanat

(3.33). For example, rise is the cause of fall, indicating

this to rich people the sun is going to set down (3.34).

(27) Upamarupaka: When an identity is established between.

upamana and upameya, it is upamarupaka (3.35). It is:

difficult to distinguish this from rupaka and perhaps this

is the reason why the later alamkarikas do not accept it as:

a separate category of embellishment.

(28) Upameyopama: If two successive comparisons are made by

reversing the position and function of upamana and upameya,

it is upameyopamalamkara (3.37). For example, fragrant,

pleasing to eyes and reddened by intoxication, such face of

your is like lotus and lotus is like your face (3.38).

(29) Sahokti: When two actions related to two distinct

~

objects are indicated by one word, it is sahokti (3.39).

(30) Parivrtti: If something inferior is renounced to,

achieve something superior and there is arthantaranyasa (a.

statement explaining the cause of the action in the former

54
statement), it is parivrtti (3.41). For example, they got

fame (something superior) by giving wealth (inferior) to

the beggars: this is the firm behaviour of those nice

people who do good to all (3.42). The second statement is

arthantaranyasa.

(31) Sasandeha: If, for the purpose of praise, a doubtful

statement establishing identity as well as distinction.

between upamana and upameya is uttered, it is sasandeha.

(3. 43) . For example : Is it moon? But that does not shine

during the day; then is it Kamadeva? But its bow is not of

flowers. In this manner, after looking at you, my mind.

thinking in perplexity is not able to decide what is the

fact ( 3 . 44) .

(32) Ananvaya: When an upameya is compared to itself with a

purpose to signify that nothing is comparable to it, there

is ananvayalamkara (3.45). For example, reddened with betel

leaves and with shining teeth your blue-lotus like face is

like your face only (3.46).

(33) Utpreksavayava: Slesa in meaning, some elements of

utpreksa and of rupaka these three are commingled.
together, there is utpreksavayava (3.47). For example, due,

to similarity between rising and setting, after the sunset,

the tired day appears to enter the dark-house for rest

(3.48). Here, the slesa is between rising and Retting

because it is for both the sun and the day; utpreksa is in.
'the tired day appears to enter' and rupaka is in 'dark-

house'.
(34) Samsrsti: When many alamkaras exist together like the

55
garland made with several gems, it is samsrsti (3.49).

(35) Bhavikatva: It is that quality in a prabandhakavya

(epic) by virtue of which past and future are perceived.

clearly ( 3. 53) . Variety, sublimity and wonderfulness of

meaning, histrionic representability and propriety in use of

words are the qualifying elements of bhavika (3;54).

(36) Asih: Bhamaha says that some people accept it as an.

embellishment but does not give his opinion. He has not

explained its characteristics perhaps because it means

wishing welfare and praise to someone. There are two kinds

of asih - one with view to establishing friendship and the

other by showing absence of anything contrary to one' s

interests. Example of the first would be: shed away your

anger for this friend and hug him respectfully. He should.

drench you with joyful tears in the same as the timely rain.

drenches the Vindhya mountain (3.56). Example of the second

is: let the ruling clan see those cities whose ornateness

is completely burnt by your radiance, whose gates have been

broken by glorious/intoxicated elephants, where the brave

warriors have been killed and the citizens have fled away

for fear (3.57).

Kavyadarsa .Qf Dan.di

After this brief exposition on Kavyalamkara, now we

shall study the Kavyadarsa of Dandin (circa 650 A.D.) .
Kavyadarsa seems to be very popular as it is available in.

Kannara and Sinhali respectively with the name Kaviraja.

56
Marga and Siyavasa-lakara. Its Tibetan translation is also
available. (Acharya Baladeva Upadhyaya, 1994:603).

There are 660 karikas divided in four chapters in.

Dandi's treatise on poetics. First chapter deals with the

characteristics, typology, ritis and ten qualities of

poetry. In the second chapter thirty five alamkaras are

explained. Third chapter is on sabdalamkara. Fourth chapter

is on the defects of poetry. Though Dandi was a follower of

alamkara school/ he is the first one to have clearly shown.

the difference between vaidarbhi and gauri ri tis (Acharya.

Baladeva Upadhyaya, 1994:603). Thus he may be considered to

be a precursor for the ri ti school. Since Dandin is an

alamkarika and is the first one to discuss the afore

mentioned two ritis, we will deal mainly with these aspects

of his Kavyadarsa.

It has been a general tendency of the Indian poeticians

to continuously increase the number of categories while,

dealing with alamkaras. Dandi has also done the same - he

has lots of sub-varieties of some of the alamkaras. To show

this kind of sub-categorization, all the sub-categories of

upama have been enumerated while defining upamalamkara.
Such other subclassifications exist for many other

alamkaras but they have not been enumerated because finally

we have given the list of all the alamkaras listed by
Marnmata in his Kavyaprakasa which by and large includes all

the alamkaras of earlier poeticians.

57
Ritis in Kavyadarsa

In karika 1. 40 Dandi says, "Manifold is the style of

composition with minute mutual differences. Of these
[styles] the Vaidarbha and the Gaudiya, as being clearly
different [from each other] , will now be described". And.
immediately after this in 1.41 the ten characteristics of
the vaidarbha style are enumerated," Cohesion (i.43),
Lucidity (i.45), Evenness (i.47), Sweetness (i.51),
Tenderness (i.69), Explicitness-of-meaning (i.73),
Pregnancy [-of-expression] (i.76), Floridity (i.80), Grace
(i. 85), and Transference (i. 93) ". The translator has
indicated in parenthesis number of the karikas in which
these characteristics have been explained. According to
karika 1.42, the opposite of these are the characteristics

of Gauda style. Following are the explanations of the ten

characteristics:
(1) Cohesion: "Cohesive is what does not involve Looseness.
Loose is what consists mainly of faintly-aspirated.
syllables; as for instance - 'Malati-mala lolali-kalila (a
garland of Malati [-flowers] laden with longing bees) 1
"

(1.43).
(2) Lucidity: "Having Lucidity is that which conveys a
sense that is well-known: 'Indor indivara-dyuti lakshma.

lakshmim tanoti (the spot on the Moon shining like a blue-

lotus augments her charm) 1

is [for instance] an expression.
conveying the sense without any effort" (1.45).
(3) Evenness: "Even is what is not uneven as regards
syllable-structures. These structures are soft, harsh, and

58
temperate 1 springing from the grouping together of soft I
harsh and mixed syllables" {1.47) .
{4) Sweetness: "Sweet is what has Sentiment; [for] in words
no less than in things Sentiment exists: [Sentiment]
whereby the learned are delighted like unto the honey-
loving [bees] by honey" (1. 51) .
(5) Tenderness: "Now Tender is thought to be that which for
the most part has no harsh letters; while the fault of a
looseness in structure has been [already, i. 43] exhibited.
in a composition with all soft [vocables]" (1.69).
(6) Explicitness-of-meaning: "Explicitness-of-meaning
consists in the meaning requiring nothing [extraneous] to
be brought over [for completion] ; for example 'Hari
[incarnated as Boar] uplifted the earth from the ocean
reddened by the blood of serpents" (1.73).
(7) Pregnancy [-of-expression] : "When upon the recitation
of a [composition] a certain eminent charm is experienced,
that [composition] is styled 'Pregnant-in-expression.' This
[charm] lends excellence to poetic style" (1.76).
(8) Floridity: "Floridity consists in a superabundance of
compounds. This is the soul of Prose. Even in poetry, for
the non-Southerners, this is their sole resort" (1.80).
(9) Grace: "Graceful is what is agreeable to the whole
world because [being striking, withal] it does not
transcend ordinary possibilities. It is met with in.
friendly inquiries and also in descriptions" (1.85).
(10) Transference: "When keeping within the limits of
mundane possibilities, the nature of a thing is neatly

59
transferred to another thing distinct from it, that is
known as Transference" (1.93).
Dandi mentions following thirty five
alamkaras: (1)svabhavokti (2)upama (3)rupaka (4)dipaka
(5)arthavrtti (6)aksepa (7)arthantaranyasa (8)vyatireka
(9)vibhavana (10)samasokti (1l)atisayokti (12)utpreksa
(13)Hetu (14)suksma (15)lesa (16)krama (17)preyas
(18) rasavat (19) tejasvi (20) paryayokta (2l)samahita
(22)udatta (23) apahnuti (24) slista (25) visesokti
(26)tulyayogita (27)virodha (28)aprastutaprasamsa
(29)vyajastuti (30)nidarsana (31)sahokti (32)parivrtti
(33)asih (34)samsrsti (35)bhavikatva.
In kar ikas 1-7 7 of the third chapter, Dandi explains
yamaka which is a sabdalamkara.

Now we shall explain the afore mentioned alamkaras

according to Dandi:
(1) Svabhavokti: It is nature-description - "Making bodily
manifest the [real] nature of things in varying,
situations, the first of these Embellishments is called
'Nature-Description' or 'Class-Portrayal' (2.8).
( 2) Upama: It is simile - "When in some sort or other a
likeness is experienced as springing up [between two
things] that is called Simile" (2 .14) . Dandi adds many
other kinds of upama which are not found in Bhamaha' s
treatment of this alamkara:
( i) Dharmopama: It simile in quality - "'The palm of your
hands, 0 pretty maiden, is red like a water-lily'- This is
Simile with [specified) Quality in as much as the common

60
quality is directly exhibited here" (2.15).

(ii) Vastupama: It is simile between things - "'Thy face is

like a red-lotus; thy eyes like two blue lotuses'- This is

Simile [direct] between Things seeing that the [common]

quality is merely to be inferred" (2.16).

(iii) Viparyaya upama: It is reversed simile - "'Like your

face this lotus has become blooming'- This is understood as

Reversed Simile because the established order [of things] is

here controverted" (2.17).

(iv) Anyonyopama: It is mutual simile - "'The lotus is like

thy face, thy face is like the lotus'- This one is Mutual

Simile as it shows forth mutual excellence" (2.18).

(v) Niyopama: It is restrictive simile - "'Thy face is to

be likened to the lotus alone: to nothing else whatsoever'-

This, in as much as it negatives semblance with another

thing, is Restrictive Simile" (2.19).

(vi) Aniyopama: It is unrestrictive simile - "Lotus for its

part imitates thy face; if another there be of the same

sort let it do likewise'- This is Unrestrictive Simile"

(2.20).

(vii) Samuccaya upama: It is cumulative simile "A

Cumulative Simile also there is of the following type-

'not in splendour alone but in the action of delighting

also thy face imitates the Moon'"(2.21).

(viii) Atisayopama: It is transcendent simile - "'In thee

alone is thy face to be seen, while the Moon is seen in the

sky: this much is the only difference, no other'- This is

Transcendent Simile" (2.22).

61
( ix) Utpreksi topama: It is fancied simile - ""Let not the

Moon boast, thinking- in me alone is the splendour of her

face, since it does exist even in the lotus'- This is

Fancied Simile" (2.23).

(x) Adbhutopama: It is hypothetical simile ""If there

were to be a kind of a lotus with upraised eye-brows and

with eyes rolling in it, that might be admitted to wear the

beauty of thy face'- This is called Hypothetical Simile"

(2.24).

(xi) Mohopama: It is simile of illusion - ""Fancying thy

face, 0 slender-bodied one, to be the Moon, in my yearning

for thy face I am running even after the Moon! '- This is

considered Simile Qf Illusion" (2.25).

(xii) Samsayopama: It is simile with a doubt - " . . Is it a

lotus with bees rolling inside?-. Is it thy face with

tremulous eyes?- thus does my heart waver'- This one is

Simile with a Doubt". (2 .26).

(xii) Nirnayopama: It is determinative simile ""In a

lotus that the Moon can overpower, there cannot be a

splendour that puts the Moon to shame; hence this is only

thy face'- This is Determinative Simile" (2.27).

(xiii) Slesopama: It is paronomastic simile ""Out-

rivaling, the cold-rayed [Moon], full of splendour and

possessing a fragrant breath, thy face is like a lotus

<that hates the Moon, that smells fragrantly, and wherein

the Goddess-of-Wealth resides>'- This is declared to be

Paronomastic Simile" (2.28).

(xiv) Samanopama: It is simile of agreement - "Because it

62
can be expressed in words having identical forms a Simile

is called a Simile of Agreement; for example-'This row of

gardens looking beautiful by reason of forests of Sala

trees is like a girl <beaming with her face and flowing

hair>' " ( 2. 2 9) .

(xv) Nindopama: It is condemnatory simile - "A lotus is

full of pollen [or dust] ; the Moon is subject to waning [or

consumption] . Thy face, though similar to them, towers

proudly above them' - This is declared to be Condemnatory

Simile" (2.30).

(xvi) Prasamsopama: It is laudatory simile - "Lotus is the

place-of-origin of even God Brahmadeva; the Moon is held by

God Sambhu upon his head; and these [two] are like thy

face' - This is called Laudatory Simile" (2.31).

(xvii) Acikhyasopama: It is simile with suppressed judgment

- "My mind desires to declare that thy face is like the

Moon; that may be a merit or a blemish' - This is known as

Simile with Suppressed Judgment" (2.32).

(xviii) Virodhapama: It is simile of opposition - "'The

hundred-petaled [lotus] , the autumnal Moon and thy face:

this triad is mutually opposed'- This is considered Simile
of Opposition" (2.33).

(xix) Pratisedhopama: It is inhibitive simile "'There

does not at all exist any6 power in the cold <dull> and
spotted Moon to roar against (or rival) the face'- This is
no other than Inhibitive Simile" (2. 34) .
(xx) Catupama: It is cajoling simile - "'Thy face is marked
with the eyes of deer: the Moon is marked by the deer

63
itself; and yet the Moon is merely thy equal and does not

surpass thee'- This is Cajoling Simile (2.35).

(xxi) Tattvakhyanopama: It is simile based on the statement
of fact - "'This is not a lotus but the face itself; these

are not two bees but the eyes'- this, because the point of
similarity is quite evident, is no other than a Simile

based upon a Statement of Fact" (2.36).

(xxii) Asadharanopama: It is absolute simile "'Having

transcended the equality with the Moon and with the lotus,

thy face has become like unto itself alone'- This is

(called] an Absolute Simile" (2.37).
(xxiii) Abhutopama: It is abnormal simile "'Thy face

shines like the essence of the ~plendour of all lotuses as

if gathered together in a place'- This is known as Abnormal
Simile" (2.38).

(xxiv) Asambhavitopama: It is simile of impossibility

"'That harsh speech should issue. from this mouth is as

though poison should issue from the Moon or fire from

sandal'- This is Simile of Impossibility" (2.39).
(xxv) Bahupama: It is multiplex simile - "'Thy touch is
cool like sandal-water, like Moon-beam, like Moon-stone,
and such other things'- This, as bringing out the excess
(of the quality], is called Multiplex Simile" (2.40).
(xxvi) Vikriyopama: It is modificatory simile - "'As if
chiseled out of the lunar orb, as if extracted from lotus-
interior,is, 0 slender-bodied one, thy face'- This is
Modificatory Simile" (2.41).
(xxvii) Malopama: It is stringed simile - "'Valour has lent

64
thee charm as light does unto the Sun, as the Sun does unto
the day, as day does unto the sky'-This is the sequence of
a Stringed Simile" (2.42).
(xxviii) Vakyarthopama: It is sentence-simile "If the
sense of a whole sentence is compared with just the sense
of another sentence, that is Sentence-Simile, which is
twofold according as the word [of comparison] iva (like) is
one or not-one" (2.43). This is exemplified in 2.44 and
2.45.

(xxix) Prativastupama: It is simile based upon a

correspondence of types - "Having made an assertion about a
thing, the putting forth of another thing alike [to it] in
qualities- as leading to a recognition of similarity
between them- is Simile based upon a Correspondence of
Types" (2. 46) .
{xxx) Tulyayogopama: It is simile of analogous pairing -
"Having equalized a lower [thing] with a higher in the
matter of [performing] identical function, when an
assertion is made, that is declared as Simile of Analogous
Pairing" (~.49).
(xxxi) Hetupama: It is simile with -a reason "'By thy
splendour the Moon, by effulgence the Sun, by courage the
Ocean, thou, 0 king, dost imitate'- This is considered
Simile with a Reason" (2.50).
( 3) Rupaka: It is metaphor "Simile itself with the
difference [between the standard and object of comparison]
concealed is called Metaphor. For example, arm-
creeper','hand-lotus','foot-foliage'" (2.66).

65
 Similarly as in the case of upama, even a metaphor can

be divided into following varieties - sakalarupakam (total

metaphor) , avayavarupakam (metaphor of constituent-parts

alone), avayavirupakam (metaphor of constituted-whole

alone), savisesanarupakam (adjective-metaphor) and others.

(4) Dipaka: It is illuminator "It [an expression]

standing in one place and denoting either genus or activity

or quality or individual can [syntactically] serve a number

of sentences, that is called Illuminator" (2.97).

(5) Arthavrtti: It is repetition - "The repetition of the

sense alone, the word alone, or of both in the very place

of an Illuminator is considered as [giving rise to] three

figures" (2.116).

(6) Aksepa: It is Interdiction "Interdiction is an

expression of opposition, and is three-fold according to

the three [divisions of] time; but, in view of the

distinctions in the things interdicted, its varieties are

infinite" (2.120).

(7) Arthantaranyasa: It is corroboration - "That is to be

understood as Corroboration where, having introduced a

certain thing, ther~ is the -putting forth of another thing

capable of corroborating it" (2.169).

(8) Vyatireka: It is out-matching - "When, in the case of

two things, their similarity has been expressed by words or

suggested, if, between the same, a difference is stated [to
exist], that is called Out-matching" (2.180).

(9) Vibhavana: It is presumption or cause-searching

"Through negation of the well-known causes when some sort

66
of a new cause, or naturalness, has to be presumed, that

is Presumption" (2.199).
(10) Samasokti: It is inclusion or inclusive-assertion -

"Having a certain object in mind when an assertion is made

about another object analogous to it, that, as being a

shortened mode [of expression], is considered Inclusive

Assertion" (2.205).

(11) Atisayokti: It is transcending of hyperbole "The

desire to describe a characteristic in a manner

transcending worldly limits is [gives rise to] Hyperbole;

it is the best of figures" (2.214).

( 12) Utpreksa: It is poetic-conception "When the
condition of some sentient or insentient being is

poetically-conceived as being otherwise than what it is in

reality, that is known as Poetic-Conception" (2.221).
(13) Hetu: It is cause - "The Cause, the Subtle, and the

Little are the best embellishments of speech. The Cause is

either Efficient or Probatory and both of them have
numerous varieties" (2.235).

(14) Suksma: It is subtle - "A thing gathered from gesture

or posture is, by reason of its subtleness, known as the
Subtle" (2. 260) .
( 15) Lesa: It is slender - "The slender is the concealing
by some slender [pretext] of the nature of a thing about to
be disclosed. It is in the illustration alone that the
nature of this [figure] will become evident" (2.265).
(16) Krama: It is relative-order - "Unto a series of things
enumerated a subsequent-reference in [the same] order is

67
called Relative-Order, as also Enumeration or [simply]

Order" (2.273).
(17) Preyas: It is the joyous "The Joyous is the
statement of something very pleasing" (2.275).

(18) Rasavat: It is the impassioned - "the Impassioned is

tender through passionateness" (2.275).
(19) Tejasvi: It is vigorous "the Vigorous is what
displays egoism" (2.275).

(20) Paryayokta: It is periphrasis " Without actually

making an intended statement, the expressing of the same inL

another manner [but] calculated to serve the same end, is

considered as Periphrasis" (2.295).
(21) Samahi ta: It is facilitation - "When unto one about to
commence a certain action there results, through the!
influence of good luck, a further accession of means for

the same [end], that they call Facilitation" (2.298).

(22) Udatta: It is exalted -. "That pre-eminent greatness.
either of the emotion or of the affluence [of some one] is:

what the experts call the figure Exalted" (2.300).

(23) Apahnuti: It is concealment "Concealment is the!
concealment of one thing and the exhibition of another.
[For example -)'Cupid is not five-arrowed: he has a.
thousand arrows'" (2.304).
(24) Slista: It is paronomasia - "Paronomasia is defined as:
a composition having one [and the same] form but more than.
one sense. It is of two kinds: having-identical-words, andl
having-for-the-most-part-distinct-words" (2.310).
(25) Visesokti: It is effectuation-through-hindrance

68
"When in the quality, genus, function, and so forth [of a.

thing) there is shown a deficiency [of some sort] just with.

a view to bring out its special characteristic, that is

regarded as Effectuation-through-Hindrance" (2.323).

(26) Tulyayogita: It is equal-pairing - "When with a view

to praise it or to blame it, there is the description of

some one [person or thing] by putting it on a par with.

others possessing the quality in question in eminence, that

is regarded as Equal-Paring" (2.330).

(27) Virodha: It is contradiction "Where there is

exhibited the bringing-together of contrary things just

with a view to bring out their special characteristic, that

is considered as Contradiction" (2.333).

(28) Aprastutaprasamsa: It is vicarious-praise - "That is

Vicarious-Praise which is a praise of objects not-forming-

the-theme:.on-hand11 (2.340).

(29) Vyajastuti: It is disguised eulogy - 11 When one praises

while apparently censuring that is considered Disguised-

Eulogy, wherein it is the good qualities themselves that,

under the guise of defects, come into evidence" (2.343).

(30) Nidarsana: It is illustration - 11 When while about to

achieve one end there is deduced another somewhat allied.

fruit from it, either existing or non-existing, that is

Illustration" (2.348).

(31) Sahokti: It is conjoint-description "Conjoint-

Description is a statement of qualities, and of action, as
being simultaneous" (2.351).
(32) Parivrtti: It is barter " .. what is [known] as the

69
exchange of things is Barter" (2.351).

(33) Asih: It is benediction - "Benediction is known as the

expressing of good wish unto what is an object of regard;
for example - 'May the great Light - beyond the reach of

word and mind- protect you! 1

(2.357).
(34) Samsrsti: It is commixture "What is [known as]
Accessory to Poetic-Conception is merely a variety of
Poetic-Conception itself; while a mixing- together of
different embellishments is what .is called Commixture"
(2.359).

(35) Bhavikatva: It is sustained-intuition - "Sustained-

Intuition is declared to be a quality pervading [the whole]

poetic-composition; Intuition is the idea of the poet which.
abides in the composition [from beginning] to the end"
(2.364).

Dandi 1 s definitions of yamaka as a sabdalamkara is as.

follows: "The repetition of syllabic-groups, with or
without [other] intervening [syllables], is Yamaka (Chime)"
(3.1).

After having discussed the two alamkarikas now we shall

discuss Vamana 1 S Kavyalamkarasutra which is the first.
treatise of the ri ti -guna school. Vamana, a poetic ian of
about later half of eighth century, has himself written a.
commentary or vrtti on his Kavyalamkara. Altogether there
are 319 sutras in his treatise which are divided in five
chapters. The first chapter deals with the purpose and.
styles of poetry. He discusses the specificity of
vaidarbhi,gauri and pancali ritis in this chapter. Chapter

70
two deals with the defects and concepts of pada,vakya andl
meaning of vakya (sentence) . Third chapter is about ten.
qualities which become twenty by virtue of being manifested.
through words or meanings. Fourth chapter is on the
embellishments of words and meanings. The last chapter is
about correction of certain words and their uses. Since
Vamana is primarily the principal proponent of the ri ti
school we shall deal mainly with this aspect of his
treatise.

Kayya~amkarasutravrtti Qt Vamana

In sutra 1.2.6 Vamana declares,"ritiratma kavyasya" i.e.

'diction is the soul of poetry'. Riti is defined.
as, "visista padaracana ritih" (1. 2. 7) which means that
creation of verses with specialities is riti. Pt. Ganganath
Jha translates this sutra as "It is the particular
arrangement of words that constitutes 'Diction'".
(Ganganath Jha,1990). In 1.2.8, the specialities in terms
of particular arrangement is defined, "Viseso gunatma"
(1.2.8) i.e. "The 'particularity' of arrangement consists
in the 'qualities of style'". In the vrtti of 3 .1. 4 Vamana.
defines style as "By 'style' is meant the composition of
words" (Ganganath Jha,1990) Immediately after 1.2.8,
Vamana mentions the kinds of ri tis, "Sa tridha - vaidarbhi
gaudiya pancali ca" (1.2.9) i.e."Diction has been classed.
under three heads: 'Vaidarbhi 1
, 'Gaudiya 1 and 'Pancali '"
(Ganganath Jha,1990). Definitions of the three ritis are as

71
follows:
(1) Vaidarbhi: Sutra 1.2.11 says - samagraguna vaidarbhi
i.e. "The ~Vaidarbhi 1
is replete with all the ~Qualities of

Style'" (Ganganath Jha,1990). The vrtti on this sutra adds

"that Diction which abounds in all the ~Qualities of Style

- Floridity, Lucidity and the like,- is called ~Vaidarbhi'"

(Ganganath Jha,1990) . Thus that poetry which is full of

qualities like oja and prasada, do not contain any defect

and is sweet like a lute is in the vaidarbhi riti.

According to sutra 1.2.14 "From among these three it is the

first (the Vaidarbhi that deserves to be adopted;as it has
all the qualities" (Ganganath Jha, 1990) . There is a
subdivision of this style called suddhavaidarbhi or pure
vaidarbhi - a vaidarbhi diction devoid of compound words is

suddhavaidarbhi (1.2.19).

(2)Gaudiya: Sutra 1.2.12 defines ojah kantimati gaudiya

i.e. "The ~Gaudiya 1
abounds in the Qualities of Floridity

and Brilliancy" (Ganganath Jha, 1990) . According to the

vrtti on this sutra "The ~Gaudiya 1
diction is that which.
abounds in long compounds and harsh sounding-words, which
are suggestive of the qualities of ~Floridity' and.
~Brilliancy' ... it is totally devoid of the qualities of
~Sweetness' and ~Softness'" (Ganganath Jha,1990).
(3)Pancali: Sutra i.2.13 defines madhuryasaukumaryopapanna
pancali i.e. "The ~Pancali' is endowed with the qualities
of Sweetness and Softness" (Ganganath Jha,1990). According
to its vrtti, this style is devoid of floridity and.
brilliancy, does not use harsh words and sounds, rather is

72
tame resembling the style of Puranas.
Though ritis appears to have been dealt with briefly, it

forms the basis of studying all the aspects of poetry.

Guna, dosa, alamkara and others are all can be classed

according to the diction of a particular style. That is why

Vamana has defined the concepts on riti and its

classification in the beginning of his treatise. By and.

large, the same alamkaras as defined earlier by Bhamaha and

Dandi continue even in Kavyalamkara. Only the axis of study

of Vamana is different. We shall now see Vamana's concept

of guna because it goes along with ri t i while naming the

different schools of Indian poetics.

According to 3 .1 .1 kavyasobhayah kartaro dharma gunah:

i.e. 'Qualities are those characteristics that create or

constitute the charm of poetry" (Ganganath Jha, 1990) . In.

this context, Vamana's definition of alamkara can also b~

referred to saundaryamalamkarah ( 1.1. 2) i.e.

embellishment is the beauty of poetry. Even the name of

Vamana' s treatise is Kavyalamkarasutra which implies that

though his axis of study is riti-guna, he is also primarily

concerned with-the beauty of poetry like his predecessors.
There is a specific relationship between guna and alamkara
- tadatisayahetavastvalamkarah (3.1.2) i.e. "The Ornaments

on the other hand are such characters as serve to enhance

the charm (already produced by the Qualities)". (Ganganath.
Jha,1990). It is evident that qualities are prior and more
primordial to alamkara. In 3.1.3, Vamana.says purve nityah:
i.e. "The former (i.e. the Qualities) are permanent" and

73
continues in its vrtti "The Qualities form permanent

features in Poetry; as without them there is no charm (and

without charm there is no poetry) . [The figures of Speech

on the other hand are evanescent, being more accidental

embellishment]" (Ganganath Jha,1990).

In sutra 3.1.4, Vamana enumerRtes the following ten

qualities of style: (1) Floridity (ojas) (2) Plainness or

Simplicity (prasada) (3)Coalescence [of words] (slesa)

(4) Uniformity [of diction} (samata (5) Symmetry (samadhi)

(6)Sweetness (madhurya) (?)Softness (saukumarya)

(B) Raciness (udarata) (9)Explicitness or Lucidity

( arthavyakti) (10)Brilliance (kanti).

As mentioned earlier, . these ten qualities become twenty

as they are applied to words as well as meaning. Vamana

explains each of them in the following manner:

(1)0jas: Gudhabandhatvamojah (3.1.5) i.e. "'Floridity'

consists in ornateness (high-sounding words and sentences)"

(Ganganath Jha,1990).

For the meaning, the definition of oja is arthasya

praudhirojah (3.2.2) i.e. "Floridity (Ideal) consists in.

the boldness or sententiousness of conception" (Ganganath.

Jha, 1990). According to the vrtti on this sutra there are

five kinds of oja for meaning - "(i) where a whole sentence

is used to express what is expressible by a single word.

(ii)where a single word is used to express what is

expressed by a sentence (iii) where there is brevity (one

sentence serving the purpose of many sentences ( i v) where

there is diffuseness (many sentences being used to express

74
what could be expressed by a single sentence) (v) where

qualifications are added with a purpose." (Ganganath

Jha,1990). Further in the vrtti, Vamana clarifies his

concept of sentence,"What is meant by a 'sentence' here is

only a collection of a number of words (and not necessarily

one that expresses a complete idea, containing a finite verb

and such other syntactical accessories) . (Ganganath

Jha,1990).

(2)Prasada: Saithilyam prasadah (3.1.6) i.e. "'Simplicity'

consists in lucidity or plainness'. Here simplicity appears

to be in opposition to floridity and yet is considered to

be a quality. This contradiction is explained in the next

sutra - gunah samplavat (3.1.7) i.e. "'Simplicity' is a

Quality, when appearing along with 'Floridity'" (Ganganath

Jha.1990). According to 3.1.9, simplicity becomes a defect

if it appears alone.

At the level of meaning arthavaimalyam prasadah (3.2.3)

i.e. "'Simplicity' consists in the clearness of meaning"

(Ganganath Jha,1990). The vrtti say that by 'clearness' is

meant the mention of that alone which is absolutely
necessary." (Ganganath Jha,1990).
(3)Slesa: Masrnatvam slesah (3.1.11) i.e. "'Coalescence'
consists of smoothness" and its vrtti adds "By 'smoothness'
is meant that quality whereby a number of words coalescing
sound as one word" (Ganganath Jha,1990).
For ideal selsa the sutra says ghatana slesah (3 .2 .4)
i.e. "'Coalescence' consists in the commingling (of many

75
ideas)." (Ganganath Jha,1990). The vrtti defines "By

'Commingling' is meant the mention of more than one action

partaking of cunning not perceived (by the person

concerned), and indicative of reasons (for the commingling

of the acts and the non-perception of the cunning)"

(Ganganath Jha,1990).

(4) Samata: Margabhedah samata (3 .1.12) i.e. "'Uniformity'

consists in the non-difference or homogeneity of diction"

and its vrtti adds "That is to say, when the style of

diction employed in the beginning of a verse or of a

complete poetical work, is continued to the end, we have

what is called 'Uniformity" (Ganganath Jha,1990).

For idea, sutra 3.2.5 says avaisamyam samata

i.e." 'Uniformity' consists in the non-relinquishment of

proper sequence or contiguity" (Gangana.th Jha, 1990) .

( 5) Samadhi: Arohavarohakramah . samadhih ( 3 .1.13) i.e.

"'Symmetry' consists in the orderly sequence of 'ascent'

and 'descent'" (Ganganath Jha,1990).

On the level of meaning it is arthadrsti samadhih

(3.2.7) i.e. "Samadhi (Orderly Sequence) consists in the

character by which the meaning is easily grasped"

(Ganganath Jha,1990).

( 6) Madhurya: Prthakapada tvam madhuryam (3.1.21) i.e.

"'Sweetness' lies in the distinctness of words" (Ganganath

Jha, 1990) . By extension it shall mean, according to the

vrtti, that the absence of long compounds results in

sweetness.

76
 On the level of idea, it is defined as aparusyam

saukumaryam (3.2.12) i.e. "'Sweetness' consists in the

impressiveness of the conception" (Ganganath Jha,1990).

(7)Saukumaryam: Ajarathatvam saukumaryam (3.1.22) i.e.

" ... Softness' consists in the non-harshness of composition"

(Ganganath Jha,1990).

(S)Udarata: Vikatatvamudarata (3.1.23) i.e."'Raciness' lies

in piquancy of style" (Ganganath Jha,1990). According to the

vrtti on it," It is that quality by virtue of which, in

regard to a piece of composition, people speak of the words

as if 'dancing'; that is to say, where the whole piece is

enlivened by the peculiar swing of the words taken

together". (Ganganath Jha,1990).

At the level of meaning, agramya tvamudara ta ( 3 . 2 . 13)

i.e." 'Delicacy' (Udarata) is absence of vulgarity"

(Ganganath Jha,1990).

(9)Arthavyaktih: Arthavyaktihetutvamarthavyaktih (3.1.24)

i.e. "'Explicitness' is that quality by which the meaning

is easily comprehended" (Ganganath Jha,1990).

At the level of idea, its definition is

vastusvabhavasphutatvamarthavyaktih (3.2.14) i.e. "When the

characteristic features of things are made manifest, it is

'Explicitness'" (Ganganath Jha,1990).

(10)Kanti: Aujjvalyam kantih (3.1.25) i.e. "'Brilliancy' is

that richness or ornateness of style [in the absence of

which a piece of composition is called an 'imitation of the

Puranas]" (Ganganath Jha,1990).

The definition of kanti as an ideal quality is

77
diptarasatvam kantih i.e. "'Brilliancy' is that by which
the Emotions [of the Erotic & c] are made conspicuously
prominent" (Ganganath Jha,1990).
Regarding the qualities of the use of words, Vamana
gives ten slokas in his vrtti in the end of the section one
of chapter three. There are no such slokas about the
qualities of meaning in the end of the section two of the
same chapter. These slokas are translated as follows:
" ( 1) The poets give the name of Floridity to the ornate
style; words abounding in this quality are very pleasant to
the ear.
(2) When Floridity is accompanied by plainness, it is
called .simplicity; without this quality there is no
delectation in a poetical work.
(3) Coalescence is that excellent quality by which more
words than one coalescing, appear as but one word, the
letter-conjunctions being (so smooth and natural) as not to
be noticed.
(4) Uniformity is the quality consisting in the using of
the same style of diction in each foot or verse; this is
difficult of composition and can be distinguished with
difficulty.
(5) That wherein the hiatuses ascend in a uniform manner is
called the quality of Symmetry; by this quality Speech is
rendered pure.
(6) When in a piece of composition each word appears clear
and distinct, we have the quality of Sweetness; endowed
with this the composition becomes a veritable stream of

78
honey.

(7) Just as lines are variously cut and arranged by expert

painters, in the same manner is speech (words} arranged by

intelligent writers, in accordance with various qualities.

(8) Softness consists in the absence of harsh letters;

speech devoid of this quality becomes harsh and unpleasant

to the ear.
(9) Piquancy of words they call Raciness; in the absence of
this, _ composition remains devoid of variegation (andl

beauty) .
(10) When the idea of the thing expressed comes before the

apprehension of the words themselves,- the meaning beingr

readily comprehended we have the quality of

Explicitness."
(Ganganath Jha,1990).
After Vamana there came some poeticians like UdbhataL
(contemporary to Vamana i.e. end of eighth century),
Rudrata (certainly prior to 900 A.D.) and others who>

followed and continued with the school of alamkara. They

went on adding and further classifying the categories of:
the earlier poeticians. With Anandavardhana' s Dhvanyaloka:
the inertia of alamkara school received a torque.
Anandavardhana had changed the locus of studying poetics.
Next we shall deal with the dhvani siddhanta of:

Anandavardhana (a poetician of later half of ninth.

century) .

79
 Dhvaqyaloka Qf Anandavardhana

Dhvanyaloka is the first treatise (of about 129 karikas

divided in four chapters) on the dhvani theory. In the ve~

first karika of the first chapter, Anandavardhana declares

kavyasyatma dhvaniriti i.e. s~ggestion is the soul of

poetry. In the second karika, the concept of soul of poetry

is defined as "That meaning which wins the admiration of

refined critics is decided to be the soul of poetry The

'explicit' and 'implicit' are regarded as its two aspects"

(1.2). Defining 'explicit' or vacya, Anandavardhana.

says, " .. the explicit is commonly krlown and it has beenL

already set forth in many ways through figures of speech.

such as the simile by other writers; hence it need n:ot be!

discussed here at length" ( 1. 3) . This is a striking

departure from the works of earlier poeticians.

Anandavardhana considers the implicit or pratiyamana.

meaning as the supreme: "But the implicit aspect is quite!

different from this. In the words of first-rate poets it

shines supreme and towers above the beauty of the strikingr

external constituents even as charm in ladies" (1.4). This

meaning cannot be understood merely through the literal.

meaning of words and scrutiny of pther embellishments of

poetry. "It is not understood by a mere learning in grammar

and in dictionary. It is understood only by those who have

an insight into the true significance of poetry" (1. 7) .

Anandavardhana almost defines the contours of his

study: "That meaning, and that rare word which possesses the!

80
power of conveying it, only these two deserve the careful.

scrutiny of a first-rate poet" (1.8). Anandavardhana admits

in 1.10 that the means to arrive at this conveyed implicit

meaning is the scrutiny of explicit sense and defines

dhvani in contrast with the explicit meaning:"That kind of

poetry, wherein the (conventional) meaning renders itself

secondary or the (conventional) word renders its meaningr

secondary and suggests the (intended or) implied meaning,

is designated by the learned as dhvani or 'Suggestive~

Poetry'" (1.13).

The second and third chapter of Dhvanyaloka deals with the

taxonomy of dhvani. Dhvani is first of all divided int

vyangya (suggested or of suggestion) and in vyanjaka (the~

suggester) . First we shall deal with the categories of

vyangya as it is discussed prior to vyanjaka. by

Anandavardhana. Before discussing the categories of

Dhvanyaloka it should be noted that "both the varieties of

suggestion with unintended literal import and resonance-

like suggestion are suggested by individual words and by

whole sentences" (3.1) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1982). This:

implies that the categories of dhvani theory apply to words:

as well as to sentences. The taxonomic classificationL

(refer to chart no.1) of vyanjaka is as follows:

(1)Avivaksitavacya dhvani: This is also called laksanamulat

dhvani. It is 'suggestion with unintended literal import'.

There are two subcategories of this:

Arthantare sankramitamatyantam va tiraskrtam.

Avivaksitavacyasya dhvanervacyam dvidha matam. (2.1)

81
 Dhvani

LaksanamuiJ or Avivaksitavacya Laksanamula or vivaksitavacya

. I I .
Arthantarasamkramita A tyantatzraskrta

Samlaksyakrama Asamlaksya rama

I
I
Arthamula
1
Ubhayasaktimula Its five kinds are based on
Sabdamula 1. Letter
2. Word
3.. Sentence
4. Composition or Texture
5. Work as a whole

Other two kinds are:

Chart I 1. Suddha
2. Samkirna
Which are of three types each depending
upon type of composition:
. I. Asamasa
2. Madhyamasamasa
3. Dirghasamasa
i.e. "~Merged in the other meaning and ~Completely lost'
-these are the two kinds of the expressed in ~Suggestion

with intended literal import" (K.Krishnamoorthy,1982).

According to this sloka the subcategories are named as:
(i)arthantarasamkramita and (ii)atyanta tiraskrta.

(2)Vivaksitabhidheya dhvani: This is also called

abhidhamula dhvani or vivaksitavacya dhvani. It is ~meaning

with intended literal import. This is also two-fold:

Asamlaksyakramodyotah kramena dyotitah parah

Vivaksitabhidheyasya dhvaneratma dvidha matah (2.2)

i.e. "The nature of suggesti,on ~with intended literal

import is also two-fold: (i)~of discernible sequentiality
and (ii) ~of undiscernible sequentiality". samlaksyakrama:

vyangya is the term for 'discernible sequentiality and.

asamlaksyakrama vyangya is for 'undiscernible~

sequentiality. Asamlaksyakrama vyangya dhvani is also

termed as rasa dhvani as it is the very soul of the~

experience of poetry. When the sense is grasped.

simultaneously, it is suggestion of undiscernible;
sequentiality; otherwise it is suggestion of discernible~

sequentiality. Anandavardhana gives examples of:

asamlaksyakrama suggestion in 2.3: 11
Sentiment, emotion, the:
semblance of sentiment or mood and their (rise and)
cessation etc., are all of ~undiscerned sequentiality. It
is decided that when we have the prominent presence of this;
variety, we are having the very soul of suggestion 11

(K.Krishnamoorthy,1982).
The samlaksyakrama variety is again of three kinds:

82
(i) sabdamula (based on the power of word) (ii) arthamulca

(based on the power meaning) and (iii)ubhayasaktimul~

(based on power of both the word and meaning) .

Karika 2. 20 mentions the first two: "The other element of:

this suggestion manifests itself in the same way as;

resonance and the temporal sequentiality of the two

meanings will be discernible. It is also two-fold:- 'that

which is based on the power of word' and 'that which is;

based on the power of sense'" (K.Krishnamoorthy,1982).

Ubhayasaktimula is mentioned in 2. 23: "A context whereiru

even a idea suggested by the power of the word and sense is

again expressed directly in so many words by the poet, will.

instance only a figure far removed from suggestion".

(K.Krishnamoorthy,1982).

Sabdamula is defined in 2.2l:"Only that instance whereiru

is present a figure that is not expressed directly by any

word but conveyed solely by the suggestive power of the!

word itself, should be regarded as suggestion based on the
power of the word." (K.Krishnamoorthy,1982).
Arthamula is defined in 2. 22: "The other variety of:

suggestion is based upon the power of sense and it is;

instanced in places where the second meaning is conveyed!

only by way of implication by the first meaning and not by
the expressed words at all." (K.Krishnamoorthy,1982).
There are two kinds of arthasaktimula. On this there is;
a sloka:
Praudhoktimatranispannasarirah sambhavi svatah.

Arthopi dvividho jneyo vastunonyasya dipakah. (2.24)

83
i.e. "The sense which suggests another sense is also two--

fold: l.Existing only in ornate expression and 2.Naturally

existing" (Krishnamoorthy,l982).

There are five varieties of asamlaksyakrama related to>

(i}letter (ii}word (iii)sentence (iv}composition or texture

and (v) work as a whole. There is a karika on it:

"Suggestion with undiscerned sequentiality will flash fortbJ.

in letter, word etc., sentence, composition and finally the

work as a whole" (3 .2) (K.Krishnamoorthy, 1982). For the

objection that letter cannot be suggestive, Anandavardhana

comments in the vrtti of 3.3, "The (Sanskrit) letter 's 1

and 's 1 , letters conjunct with 'r' and 'dh 1 - all these

become deterrents of the erotic sentiment. Hence those

letters are not conducive to a particular sentiment" andl

continues in 3.4," When these very letters are employed im

I

relation to the sentiment of disgust and so forth, they

will only intensify them. Hence also letters suggest

sentiments." (K.Krishnamoorthy,1982). According to the

commentary on 3 .4 the asamlaksyakrama suggestion of:
sentences can also be of two types: (i) suddha or pure -
when the sentence as a whole exquisitely conveys fullness;
of sentiment (ii) samkirna or mingled - when the sentiment;
is beautifully , suggested by the suggestive figure,
metaphor.
According to 3.5, compositions are of three types: (i)
without compounds (ii) with medium-sized compounds and
(iii) with long compounds. This categorisation is about the
nature of lexis used in the composition. Including this;

84
there are six types of asamlaksyakrama samghatana or
'meaning of undiscernible sequentiality in composition':
(i) On the basis of the nature of lexis as mentioned above

on the basis of 3.5.

(ii) Based on the decorum of the speaker or vaktr "The
propriety or decorum of the speaker and the spoken is the
consideration which governs it" (3. 6)
(K.Krishnamoorthy,l982).
(iii) Based on the decorum of the spoken or vacya : this
category has been mentioned in the above mentioned 3. 6 _
Further in 3.16, Anandavardhana adds that "Case-
terminations, conjugational terminations, number, relation,,
accidence, primary affixes, secondary affixes, and also
compounds - all these become conveyers of suggestion with
undiscerned sequentiality 11 (K.Krishnamoorthy,l982).
(iv) Visayasraya based on the decorum of the medium:
11
Another consideration which governs the usage of a texture
is its decorum with regard to the literary medium adopted-
Texture thus becomes different in different forms o~

literature 11 (3.7) (K.Krishnamoorthy,l982).

(v) Rasabandhoktam based on the decorum of the
sentiment: 11 Texture with decorum in the delineation off
sentiments will shine out wherever it might be found. It

will, however, assume a shade of variation coupled with the

decorum of literary medium 11 (3.9) (K.Krishnamoorthy,l982).
(vi) Kathasrita or based on the theme or plot: 11 Construction
of only such a plot, either traditional or invented, as is
charming with its decorum of (the accessories o~

85
sentiment,viz.) stimuli of setting, abiding emotions,.
emotional responses, and passing moods" (3 .10)l
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1982).
After this brief exposition on the dhvani theory as
expounded by Anandavardhana, we shall now study the
Kuntaka's theory on obliqueness in poetic meaning o~

language.

Vakroktijivita .Qf K1mtak;a

Kuntaka (about 950 A.D.) takes up the concept of
vakrokti from his predecessors such as Bhamaha and others_
In the section on Bhamaha we have earlier shown that
vakrokti is an important feature of poetry. No

embellishments can add charm to poetry in absence of

vakrokti. After Bhamaha this aspect of poetic theory was
ignored by poeticians until Kuntaka. Kuntaka considers
vakrokti as the single most aspect of poetry: "Both these
are the 'adorned. Their adornment consists in the poetic
process known as 'artistic turn of speech'" (1.10)l
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977). According to the vrtti on this
sutra "'Both these refer to words and meanings which
deserve to be looked -qpon as the subjects of ornamentatiom
for the enhancement of their appeal 111
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977:307). Regarding the ornamentatiom
vrtti says further "What exactly is this common ornaments?
'Artistic turn of speech' is the
reply."(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977:307). So, ornamentation is
vakrata. This ornamer~tation gives a twist to meaning ..

86
Kuntaka defines meaning and word in the following karikas:
(1)"That 'meaning' is what is signified and 'word' is thatt
which signifies is so well known that it needs nc
elaboration. Yet, in . the province of poetry, their true
nature is as follows:-" (1.8) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977)

(2)"That unique expression which alone can fu~ly convey the

poets' intended meaning out of a hundred alternatives
before him is to be regarded as 'word' . Similarly thatt
alone which possesses such refreshing natural beauty as tc
draw the appreciation of dBlighted readers is to be
reckoned as 'meaning'". (1.9) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
The vrtti on 1.9 adds "In poetry, the entire resource att
the disposal of the poet ~omes to be termed 'word'; and its
success is measured by its sole activity to communicate the
shade of meaning intended by the poet. What is meant is
that it will be so unique as not to permit any
substitution. There may be alternate expressions in any
number, outwardly meaning the same. But the unique shade of
the particu1ar meaning as intended by the poet cannot be
fully conveyed by any or all of them.'"
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977:301).
Kuntaka seems to have formulated two categories
(i)word and meaning (ii)word and poetic meaning. Every word
has a meaning but certain word have specific poetic meaning
intended by the poet and the . reader under certaim
circumstances. This understanding appears to be am
evolution of Bhamaha's concept that poetry flashes to some
gifted ones sometimes under particular circumstances im

87
presence of necessary stimulation. Further in the vrtti om

1.9, Kuntaka clearly denotes poetic meaning as the actuali

meaning of a word:" .. the proper definition o:ff

~signification' is that capacity to convey the particula~

shade of thought intended by the poet" and this intended

meaning comes from the imaginative faculty of poet, "In fact,,

in the world of the poet's creative imagination, things

come to life with a touch of original invention; or thei~

real nature gets veiled by a rich affiliates calculated to

present the subject in a most attractive light; as such,,

the process of conununication is a slave to the poetic

intention. Only when the right verbal correlative for the

particular has been found, the delight of the reader is

assured." (K. Krishnamoorthy, 1977: 302) . Regarding the

dependence of meaning on the reader and its relationship to

appreciation, vrtti further adds, "Coming. to meaning, . what

is its speciality in poetry? That is precisely what is

meant by saying that that alone which possesses such

refreshing beauty as to draw the appreciation of delighted

readers is to be reckoned ~meaning' "'

(K. Krishnamoorthy, 1977:303) . Even in context of defining

sahitya, in the vrtti of 1.17, Kuntaka makes craftiness a

necessity for the poetic use of ~ord, "What we mean by

Sahitya is not merely the mutual coherence invariably found

between word and meaning but their extra-ordinary

efficiency in the artistic usage of the poet to bring

delight to the readers." (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977:311). The
poet has to establish specific relationships between word

88
and meaning for a delightful poetic use of word: "The~

qualification that 'the poetic usage involving neither more!

nor less than the exact form of word and meaning requiredl

to make the whole beautiful' is inserted in order to

indicate that the two are competing with each other, as it.

were, to produce delight. Between the two, there should be!

no excess nor deficiency in respect of the contribut_ion of:

either." (K. Krishnamoorthy, 1977: 311) . Thus vakrata depends

on obliqueness of both the word and meaning and poetic:

efficiency in the use of their relationship. This meaning-

and the delightful use of word is understood in the context.

of a sentence:" .. the definition of poetry entails the!

sentence as a whole since the meaning is completed only at.

the end of the sentence". (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977 :311). In.

Vakroktijivita, Kuntaka deals with meaning, word and artful.

expression and still says that the "quality delighting men.

of taste is something over and above the three elements so>

far considered, namely, 'meaning', 'word' and 'artful

expression' . It has a unique beauty of unfailing appeal"

(1.23) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).

R.S. Pathak summarizes the salient features of Kuntaka's;

--
theory of vakrokti as follows:

"(i) Obliquity is an essential factor in poetry;

(ii) It is a striking mode of speech and depends upon the!

individual power of the poet;

(iii) It helps poetry to impart an unspeakable delight to

the connoisseur;
(iv) It distinguishes poetry from matter-of-fact speech;

89
(v) Poetry becomes lively in association with vakrokti;
(vi) Vakrokti is called 'obliquity arising out of poetic
function' (kavi-vyapara-vakratva). It is also recognized as

the embellishment (alankrti) of the word and its meaning,

the physical constituents of poetry;
(vii) Vakrokti and poetry are invariably associated with
each other; an unembellished poetry can hardly be
conceived;
(viii) Poetic delectableness causes an elevation or
consummation;
(ix) Whatever renders poetry charming must be recognized as
vakrokti". (R.S. Pathak,1988:109-110).
From karika 18-21 of the first chapter, Kuntaka mentions:
six categories of vakrokti:
(1) "Art in the poetic process is divisible into six
categories . Each one of them may have numerous
subdivisions, every subdivision striking one bye new shade
of beauty." (1.18) (K. Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(2) "Art in the arrangement of syllables, art in the base
form of substantives, and also art in their inflection
forms." (1.19) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
( 3) "And art in a whole sentence admits of a thousand
varieties. In it is included the whole lot of Figures of
speech." (1.20) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(4) "The 'beauty of section' and the 'beauty of work' wilJl
be treated now under the two heads, 'natural' and
.. artificial' , both yielding artistic delight." ( 1. 21)1
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).

90
(5) "When the subject-matter is described in a wayr
conducive to beauty by virtue of its own infinite natura~

charm and by means of exclusively artistic expressions, we

may take it as an instance of creative beauty relating to
content" (3.1) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
Thus there are following six categories of vakrokti:
(1) Varnavakrata: Obliquity in the arrangement of
syllables. All figures of speech related to uses of
syllables comes under this heading.
(2) Purvardhapadadavakrata: Obliquity in the base forms of
substantives. Obliquity related to such figures of speech
which are based in crafty use of words are in this
category. For example, use of hyperbole, synonyms, metaphor
and such others.
(3) Pratyayasrayavakrata: Obliquity in the inflectionalL
forms of substantives. On this there is a karika,"The affix
in the middle of a word often adds to the beauty of decorum
in the subject described, by virtue of its own excellence ..
This may be regarded as another type of poetic beauty"'
(2.17) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977). Thus those obliqueness
which are achieved by various kinds of usages of affixes
are classed under this category.
(4) Vakyavakrata: Obliquity in a whole sentence. Karikas

3. 3 and 3. 4 illustrate this: "The artistic beauty of a

sentence is something quite distinct from the wealth of
beauty due to qualities and figures of speech in so far as
they relate to artistic word and content belonging to one
or the other of the (three) styles. In fact expressiveness

91
of the sentence-form should be regarded as the essence off
this beauty. It is an index of the unique skill of the poet
even as the unique total appeal of a painting which is
something quite distinct from the beauty of the individua~

elements that go to fashion it such as lovely canvas,,

lines, and colour-shades" (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977). The
vrtti adds on it, "Here the sentence meant is a group o:!E
words in syntactical relation with each other. Its beauty
should be deemed as distinct from the beauty of its
constituent elements ....... Only some of the words and some
of the meanings therein show a turn different from common
usage and get beautified by qualities and figures o:!E
speech, so that one kind of poetic beauty is attained that
way. This beauty of sentence should be deemed as distinct
from that former beauty. Its essence lies in the sentence-
form itself, that is to say, that the very process o:!E
expressiveness strikes one as uniquely beautiful ana

therefore it comes to be felt as its life-breath. The

nature of that expressiveness is further explained as a
unique artistic skill on the part of the poet. 111

(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(5) Arthavakrata: Obliquity of meaning. Many subcategories
of arthavakrata is illustrated in chapter three: the
essence of all these categories is to enumerate the
possibilities of creating rasa for the connoisseurs through
meaning. As earlier observed in karika 3.1, it is "creative
beauty relating to content 11 In karika 3 .15, rasavat is
considered to be "the life essence of all adornments or

92
figures of speech" and "quintessence of poetry itself".
(6) Prabandhavakrata: Obliquity of whole composition. Even
prakaranavakrata or obliquity of parts of incidents is
dealt with under this heading.
There are following ten kinds of prakaranavakrata:
(i) "When we find the speakers giving vent to such
expression as is replete with the beauty of unlimited
enthusiasm and also capable of expressing their ideas
powerfully." (4.1) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(ii) "W:b_en the intended object at the end will remain
inscrutable from the beginning (i.e., suspense remains
constant till the denouement) , the unique and boundless
poetic skill underlying it all should be regarded as the
poetic beauty of an episode." ( 4. 2 )1
(K.Kri'shnamoorthy,1977).
(iii)"When a poet is constructing a plot of his own, based
though it might be on a well-known source, if he succeeds
in infusing even a small streak of originality, the beauty
gained thereby will be singular." ( 4. 3 )l
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(iv) On this both 4.5 and 4.6 have to be read together:
"An organic unity which strikingly underlies the various
incidents described in different parts of the work leading
to the ultimate end intended, each bound to the other by a
relation of mutual assistance" (4.5)
"reveals the essence of creative originality which is most
aesthetic only in the case of a very rare poetic genius who
is endowed by nature with the gift of an extraordinary

93
inventive imagination." (4.6) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(v) For this 4.7 and 4.8 have to be read together:

"When even one and the same theme is again and agaim

described in different places with a new touch of creative

originality", (4. 7)
"and is made to radiate the glow of sentiments and figures;

of speech, it manifests a strikingly new mode of artistic

beauty." (4.8) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).

(vi)"When integrated with the beauty of the plot, even the
conventional themes, that come to be described in court--
epics and so forth conforming to set patterns, attain a
novel aq:istic beauty." (4.9) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977)
(vii) "Another type of beauty in respect of Acts etc. is;

instanced when the beauty is so exclusive to.an Act that i t

cannot be attained by any other Act, either preceding or
following, in the play and the Act thus serves as a
touchstone in its own way of the ruling sentiment in the
play." (4.10) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(viii) "When the inventiveness of the poet in devising some
other incident also ultimately contributes to add
significance to the total plot, it should be regarded as;
another type of beauty of episode." (4 .11)
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(ix) We will have to read 4.12 and 4.13 together:
"When actors, expert in the art of pleasing the audience,
are seen to play the role of an audience themselves on the
stage with other actors performing." (4.12)
"such a play-episode within a play-episode may be regardedl

94
as illustrating a literary art which beautifies the entire!

drama exquisitely." (4.13) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).

(x) "The art of the dramatic plot should be pleasing by the!

construction of delightful 'junctures' ('Sandhi's); each of

the parts should be organically related to each other, the!

succeeding one following logically from the preceding one."

(4.14) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977f.

Kuntaka carefully adds in the end, 'iit should not be

vitiated by any excessive craze for observing rules everu

when they are inopportune. Only in such cases, the episodes:

will reveal a unique charm of originality." (4 .15)

(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).

There are following seven kinds of prabandhavakrata:

(i) We read 4.16 and 4.17 together:

"When there is a departure from the enriched "'rasas' of the

source-book and a new delightful 'rasa' is delineated byr

the poet at the conclusion of his work," (4.16)

"so that the delight of the readers is ensured, we shouldl

regard it as beauty of a whole work. " ( 4 . 17)

(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(ii) We read 4.18 and 4.19 together:

"When a good poet concludes his work with only such a

select incident in his original source as promotes the
singular prosperity of the hero depicted as an idea~

character in all the three worlds," (4.18)

"with the idea of avoiding the distasteful culmination of
the story in the original, it should be regarded as another
appealing form of beauty relating to a whole work." (4.19)

95
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(iii) We read 4.20 and 4.21 together:
"Supposing the even flow of the main story has been brokern

and its sentiment impaired by the intrusion of some

incident whose connection with the main story is almost~

indiscernible;" (4.20)
"the poet might give the incident such a turn that it will_

become inevitable for the conclusion of the main story and

thus maintain the unbroken course of 'rasa' and invest his;

whole work with a very unique novelty thereby." (4. 21)

(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(iv) We read 4.22 and 4.23 together:
"Again, though the hero is concerned in achieving primarily
a single goal, when he is seen to attain incidentally many
other equally great fruits," (4.22)

"which add up to make his glory shine very brilliantly,

such an assemblage of his great achievements will_

contribute in another way to the beauty of a work as at

whole." (4.23) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).

{v) "Even if we let alone the artistic skill of the poet im
devising original incidents or episodes, we find that he!
can display his unique art even in . designating his maim
plot with a very significant title." (4. 24)
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(vi) "Even when great poets compose different literary
works based on an identical theme, they are each seen to
possess infinite individual beauty, each possessingr
distinctness from the others." (4.25)

96
(K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
(vii) "Whatever works there might be composed by great
poets who are able to instruct in new forms of political.
strategy, they may be taken as embodying literary beauty."
(4.26) (K.Krishnamoorthy,1977).
Thus Kuntaka has virtually dealt with many ideas and.
almost all the categories of his important predecessors but.
under different kinds of vakrokti. He is almost th~ first
and the last poeticians of vakrokti as no body else before~

or after him dealt with vakrokti as the single most

important encompassing aspect of poetic aesthetics.
After Kuntaka the trend to establish one aspect as the
most important one in poetry declined and poeticians;
started considering various aspects of poetry without
emphasizing on any of the schools. After Dhvanyaloka andl
Vakroktijivita Indian poetics seems to have come to a stage!

where the poetic meaning could be discussed without any'

particular reference or emphasis on any schools of Indian.
poetics. Anthologies with original insights could be!
written and some new categories not related to alamkara,
guna or riti were evolved. Anandavardhana and Kuntakal
established poetic meaning in the centre of poetics and.
evolved a systemic method of its analysis. Many of the~

later poeticians furthered their task of evolving a.

comprehensive methodology in poetics. Rajasekhara (later
half of tenth or beginning of eleventh century) is first
such poetic ian who wrote an anthological ( sangraha) text
Kavyamimamsa in which he tried to develop comprehensive,

97
methodological categories and tools for analysis of poetry.

In the next section we shall study the concepts of

Ka vyamimamsa.

Kayyamimamsa of Rajasekhara

This text has eighteen chapters: there contents can be!

listed as follows:

Chapter one: Origin of systematic study of poetics.

Chapter two: Kavya vis-a-vis Vedas and Kavya as the seventht

vedanga as it interprets Vedas.

Chapter three: Mythical origin of Kavyapurusa, his relationt

to the poet, his marriage with Sahi tyavidya, and their-

wanderings all over India in the process of creatingr

vrttis, pravrttis and ritis at different places.

Chapter four: Beginning of kavirahasya.

Chapter five: Here Rajasekhara explains kinds of poets and.

necessary poetic tools for poets.

Chapter six: Here concepts of pada, guna, alamkara and such.

others are explained.

Chapter seven: In this chapter concepts on . .i and kakw

are explained.

Chapter eight: In this chapter sixteen sources of meaning

are explained.
Chapter nine: In this chapter kinds of meaning,
unlimitedness of subjects and concepts on kinds of poetry'
are explained.
Chapter ten: Daily routine of a poet is explained in this

98
chapter.
Chapter eleven: In this chapter considerations on
borrowings of word, meanings and intertextuality begins.

Chapter twelve: In this chapter concepts related to

incorporation of ideas and expression of other texts and.
poets into one's own works are related.

Chapter thirteen: In this chapter types of meanings are-

explained.
Chapter fourteen: In this chapter Rajasekhara explains the
concept of kavisamaya, jatirupa and dravyarupa.
Chapter fifteen: In this chapter the relationship between.
the colours and the ideas and rasas are explained.
Chapter sixteen: In this chapter poetical conventions.
related to heaven and hell are discussed.

Chapter seventeen: In this chapter, geography of the!

subcontinent and parts of the known world and their ancient~

names are given. It deals with the ancient methods of:

describing incidents, places and men.
Chapter eighteen: In this chapter the astronomical details:
and divisions of time and change of seasons are given.
Now we shall deal with the important concepts of:
Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa.
There are two kinds of literature - sas.tra and kavya.
Sastras are scriptures and books on the accumulated
knowledge of a civilization. Kavya is all kinds of literary
composition. Before creating kavya it is important to know
the sastras. In chapter three, while c~nceptualizing

Kavyapurusa, Rajasekhara declares rasa as the soul of:

99
poetry samah prasanno madhura udara ojasvi casi ..
Ukticanan te vaco, rasa atma, romani chandansi,
prasnottarapravahilakadikan ca vakkelih, anuprasopamadyasca
tvamalankurvanti (Ganga Sagar Rai,1982:13) i.e. 'you are

symmetrical, happy, sweet, generous and full of ojas. Your

speech is endowed with statements, rasa is your soul,

chandas are the pores of your body, question-answer andl

riddles are your verbal pleasures, and embellishments like

anuprasa or upama decorate you'. Thus unlike Bhamaha, Dandli

and Vamana, Raj asekhara reasserts the importance of rasa

(as propounded by Bharata) poetry.

In the fourth chapter Rajasekhara propounds an important
concept of pratibha. He says that there are two kinds of
kavya-sakti pratibha (innate faculty) and vyutpatt~

(study and analysis of already composed works) .

Pratibha is that mental faculty by which things, ideas
or mental states not directly perceptible to the poet om
account of distance in time, space, gender difference or
such others, are easily conceived in mind and consequentlw
expressed through language. There are thus two aspects of
pratibha - darsana (imaginative insight) and varnana (power
of poetic representation) .
There are two kinds of pratibha: karayitri (creative)
and bhavayitri (emotive/contemplative). Karayitri pratibha
is the necessary prerequisite of poetic creativity andl
bhavayitri pratibha is an essential precondition for~

appreciation of poetry.
Karayitri pratibha is of three types (i) Sahaja

100
(innate) (ii) Aharya (acquired by abhyasa of sastra) (iii)
aupadesiki (instilled by mantras or gifted by the goddess;
of poetry). These three kinds of karayitri pratibha give~

rise to three kinds of poets - (i) sarasvata (a buddhimana

or wise neophyte as a poet) (ii) abhyasika (from am
aharyabuddhi neophyte i.e. that neophyte as a poet who1
acquired poetic skills by abhyasa) (iii) aupadesika (from1
a durbuddhi neophyte i.e. that neophyte who creates poetry
on the basis of the precepts he receives from his;
teachers) .
Raj asekhara contends that abhyasa is important for all
types of poets. Excellence in poetic composition is:
achieved through a combination of many of the above;
mentioned qualities. It is rare to find a poet in whom the~

qualities of buddhimata, abhyasa and daivisakti are;

combined.
Bhavayitri pratibha is the faculty essential for critics. A.

reader is the bhavaka (appreciator). Bhavayitri pratibha is:

that intellectual capacity which enables the reader to'
appreciate poetry. It complements the sine qua non of:
poetic creativity. A bhavaka receives the compositions thus
gratifying the efforts of a poet endowed with karayi tri:
pratibha. A bhavaka is sahrdaya (literally this term means:

'of similar heart') an empathizer who recreates the poetry

in his imagination and thus achieves an emotional identity
with the poet or he may even go beyond the emotional states;
originally intended by the poet. Thus a bhavaka is rasik~

i.e. one who is capable of aesthetic appreciation of rasa,

101
dhvani and alamkara. Rasikata or rasajnata i.e. the!
capacity to relish the poetic creation is the prerequisite~

quality of a critic. A bhavaka has to constantly refine!

his literary sensibility and aesthetic taste by learningr

good literature and enhancing his capacity for pure andl

profound response to poetry.

Rajasekhara writes that according to acaryas, there is:

no difference between the two faculties of karayi tri and.
bhavayitri pratibha as a poet can be a good critic as well.

Though these two faculties are distinct the same person may
be endowed with both of them. However, Rajasekhara quotes:
Kalidasa holding another view that the poetical and.
critical faculties are seldom combined in one and the same!

person. Kalidasa states that the subject of the poet is:

kavyanirmana (composition of poetry) while that of the!
critic is rasasvadana (enjoyment of rasa) .
According to Rajasekhara there are four kinds of
critics:

(i) Arocaki: One who is disinterested in appreciating

poetry.

(ii) Satrnabhyavahari: One who appreciates all poetry

irrespective of its quality.
(iii) Matsari: One who refuses to appreciate poetry because!
of envy.
(iv) Tattvabhinivesi: One who is an impartial critic.
There are three more categories of bhavaka:
( i) Vagbhavakas: Those who express their appreciation of
poetry and give importance to the words (diction, rhyme,

102
melody etc.) of poetry.
(ii) Hrdayabhavakas: Those who confine their appreciation.

within their hearts and lay stress on the essence of

poetry.
~iii) Those who lay stress on critical appreciation of the

sattvika bhavas, angika and _anubhavas.

One more four-fold classification of critics is:

(i) Those interested in finding praiseworthy qualities.

(ii) Those who are prone to discover defects in poetry.

(iii) Those who are interested mainly in the rasas.

(iv) Those who are attracted more by the alamkaras in the

poetry.

In the fifth chapter Raj asekhara talks about vyutpa-tti

and kavyapaka. Vyutpatti is defined in two ways:

(i) Bahujnata vyutpattih i.e. 'knowledge of lots of

subjects is vyutpatti.
(ii) Ucitanucitaviveko vyutpattih i.e. 'ability to

distinguish proper from improper is vyutpatti.

In context of defining vyutpatti Rajasekhara quotes

Anandavardhana as holding the opinion that pratibha is:
preferable to vyutpatti and Mangala as preferring vyutpatti
to pra tibha. However, he himself contends that those poets:

are better in whom both pratibha and vyutpatti are combined.

together. The poets endowed with pratibha and vyutpatti are!
of three types:
(i) Sastrakavi: One who lays more stress in his poetry on.

the knowledge of sastras. Such poets do not often create!

poetry which contains rasa.

103
( ii) Kavyakavi: One who is more skilled in poetic use of

language. Though such poets avoid the logical harshness of

sastras they create poetry which mainly contains beautiful

use of language.
(iii) Ubhayakavi: One who is a combination of (i) and (ii).

Rajasekhara considers this kind poet superior to the above!

two types of poets.

Further sastrakavis are of three kinds and kavyakavis

are of eight types. The three kinds of sastrakavis are:

(i) One who creates sastras.

(ii) One who introduces poetry in sastras.

(iii) One who introduces sastras in poetry.

Following are the eight kinds of kavyakavis:

(i) Racanakavi: One who creates poetry only on the basis of

beautiful uses of words and does not stress on the meaning.

(ii) Sabdakavi: There are three kinds of sabdakavis:

(a) Namakavi: Those who use more nouns in their poetry.

(b) Akhyatakavi: Those who use more verbs in their poetry.

(c) Namakhyatakavi: Those who equally use both nouns andl

verbs in their poetry.

(iii) Arthakavi: Those who lay more stress on the meaningr

contained in the poetry than the crafty use of words.

(iv) Alamkarakavi: Those who emphasize on the!
embellishments in their poetic creativity. These~

alamkarakavis are of two types as there are two types of

embellishments in poetry - sabdalamkara and arthalamkara.

Some alamkarakavis can attach more importance to>

sabdalamkara while other to arthalamkaras.

104
(v) Uktikavi: By ukti is meant 'presenting. an idea in a.

beautiful style'. Uktikavi is one who exhibits one's poetic

craft in beautiful descriptions and presentations of ideas.

(vi) Rasakavi: One who gives more importance to attainment

of rasa through his poetry.

(vii) Margakavi: Marga is riti or styles of poet~

according to local conventions. Three such margas have~

already been discussed namely pancali, gaudi and vadarbhi.

Margakavi is one who lays emphasis on the use of styles iru

his poetry.

(viii) Sastrarthakavi: One who incorporates references toJ

sastr.as while creating meaning in his poetry.

Raj asekhara indicates that those who possess two or

three of the above qualities are kanistha or below average

poets, five of these qualities make mad.hyama or

average/medium poets and mahakavis or great poets possess;

all of these qualities.

Rajasekhara again gives a ten-fold classification of stages

of creativity of poets:
(i) Ka~avidyasnataka: One who studies various branches oE

poetics under preceptors with a desire to create poetry.

(ii) Hrdayakavi: One who creates poetry and keeps it

confined to himself.
(iii) Anyapadesi: One who presents one's own poems oru
other's names for fear of the defects in the poems.

(iv) Sevita: One who follows the shades, meanings or styles;

of an earlier poet.
(v) Ghatamana: Those who create good poetry but do not keep>

105
them systematically.

(vi) Mahakavi: One who is an expert in writing great

poetical work.

(vii) Kaviraja: One who can write poems in different

languages and is capable of creating different.
prabandhakavyas and different rasas. Few poets possess
these qualities.

(viii) Avesika: Those who create poetry after attaining

poetic insight by receiving stimulation from mantras etc.

(ix) Avicchedi: One who creates poetry only when the desire!

to write poetry arises in oneself.

(x) Sankramayi ta: That poet who after attaining specific:

abilities through ritualistic enchantments and is capable!

of instilling knowledge and education in young men and.

women.

After the above taxonomic classification of poets,

Raj asekhara defines kavyapaka as the maturity gained by at

poet through constant practice in versification of poetic:

composition. It is that quality absence of which makes event

those poems unworthy of relishment which contain all the~

qualities defined in the study of poetic aesthetics.

Rajasekhara quotes some of his predecessors' opinions and.

finally favours the Avantisundari' s view that it is am

undefined quality, a maturity attained through experience~

in creation of poetry. He further distinguishes betweent

sabdapaka and vakyapaka. Sabdapaka is maturity in using apt

and appropriate words and expression. Vakayapaka is:

beautiful patterning and commixture of guna, alamkara,

106
riti, yukti (logical evolution of poetry) and sabdartha

(proper usages of words for conveying the desired meaning) .

Rajasekhara contends that only the discerning critics can

determine the level of maturity attained in a poetic

composition.

In the sixth chapter Rajasekhara provides categories ~or

analysing pada and vakya. Rajasekhara defines sabda as that

which is approved by the science of grammar and the artha

is that which is approved by nirukta, nighantu and such.

other texts. Pada is that sabda which possesses artha. In

other words, pada is like a word which is a sequence of

sounds possessing 'meaning. A meaningful inflected word is

called pada. There are five following types of padas:

(i) Subanta: These are words with case endings. Those

nouns, pronouns and adjectives which are inflected by 'sup'

suffix for indicating their relation with the finite verbs

in the sentence.

(ii) Samasanta: These are compounded words. When two or

more words are joined in a syntactical or semantic

connection by merging their suffixes with one of the
either, the resulting unitary pada is samasanta. There are

following six types gf samasanta padas:

(a) Dvandva: Copulative compounds.
(b) Dvigu: Numeral Appositional compounds.
(c) Karmadharaya: Appositional compound.
(d) Bahuvrihi: Attributive compound.
(e) Avyayibhava: Adverbial compound.
(f) Tatpurusa: Determinative compound.

107
(iii) Taddhitanta: Suffixes added to krdanta and non-verbs.
(iv) Krdanta: Verbal derivatives obtained by adding

suffixes to verb roots.

(v) Tinganta: 'Ting' suffixes added to verb roots for

making the conjugational forms.

The above mentioned five kinds of padas together take

infinite forms for expressing infinite meanings.

Rajasekhara gives a description of the regional preferences

in using different kinds of padas. As for example, the,

people of vidarbha prefer the subantas.

In chapter six Rajasekhara also describes five pravrttis or

potency of padas:

(i) Jativacaka: Denoting class such as horses, women, men.

etc.

(ii) .Gunavacaka: Denoting quality/attributes such as white,

black, bright etc.

(iii) Kriyavacaka: Denoting action such as breathe, walk,

run etc.

(iv) Dravyavacaka: Denoting substance such as milk, salt.

etc. and proper names.

(v) Avyayavacaka: Indeclinables and grammatical terms such.

as in, on etc.
Rajasekhara defines vakya as
padanamadhi tsi tarthagran thanakarah sandarbho vakyam. (GangaL
Sagar Rai,1982:49). That is, 'that organised group of padas:
is called sentence which expresses the desired meaning' .
There are two parameters for classification of sentences -
first on the basis of a.bhidha vyapara i.e. overt marking cf:

108
grammatical relations between different parts.of a sentence!

and second on the basis of the number of verbs in a.

sentence.

On the basis of abhidha vyapara there are three kinds of

sentences:

( i) Vaibhakta: A sentence in which grammatical relations

like case terminations, case endings are explicitly markedl

in each pada.

(ii) Sakta: A sentence in which all grammatical relations

are implicit and not overtly marked.

(iii) Ubhayatmaka: A sentence containing such padas which.

are 'both explicitly marked and possess implicit zero>

morpheme markers for grammatical relations.

On the basis of the number of verbs, Raj asekhara gives:

the following ten-fold typology of sentences:

(i) Ekakhyata: One verb sentence.

(ii) Anekakhyata: Many verb sentence. There are two'

subcategories of this:

(a) Santara: Interrupted by case-endings.

(b) Nirantara: Not interrupted by case-endings.

(iii) Avrttakhyata: Same verb repeated for several nouns

or clauses in a sentence.
(iv) Ekabhidheyakhyata: One noun-subject with many verbs of
the same meaning.
(v) Parinatakhyata: Same verb repeated in different

clauses, for two different subjects.

(vi) Anuvrttakhyata: Same verb understood in different
clauses, or different sentences.

109
(vii) Samucitakhyata: A verb proper to something applied to>

some other thing on the basis of analogy.

(viii) Adhyahrtakhyata: Elided verb.

(ix) Krdabhihitakhyata: Derived nominals used as verbs.

(x) Anapeksitakhyata: Verbless sentence.

After defining the types of sentences, Rajasekhara.

defines poetry as gunavadalamkrtanca vakyameva kavy~

(Ganga Sagar Rai,l982:55) i.e. the sentence containing

gunas and alamkaras is poetry. Rajasekhara presumes a prior:

knowledge of gunas and alamkaras. He neither explains nor

writes about their typology as given by his predecessors.

Rajasekhara mentions the three ritis - vaidarbhi, gaudi and.

pancali - but does not explain them.

In the seventh chapter, Rajasekhara explains two kinds

of kaku or intonation in a sentence:

(i) sakanksa: That tone or intonation of a sentence whicru

raises linguistic or psychological expectancy is calledl

sakanksa kaku. There are three subcategories of this:

(a) Aksepagarbha: Suggestive of an objection, disapproval.

or censure.
(b) Prasnagarbha: Suggestive of a question.
(c) Vitarkagarbha: Suggestive of doubt or uncertainty.
Rajasekhara carefully mentions that these three.
intonations are bound by rules and there are infinite
number of other intonations which are not bound by rules.
Many times different kinds of kakus are intermixed in cu.
sentence. Some of them are explained even by angika

abhinaya i.e. through gestures along with the intonation of:

110
a sentence.

(ii) Nirakanksa: It is absence of any such expectancy in.

the tone or intonation of a sentence as the answer may have~

been provided. There are three varieties of this:

(a) Vidhirupa: Denoting a st~tement or fact.

(b) Uttararupa: Giving an answer.

(c) Nirnayarupa: Asserting a decision.

In the eighth chapter Rajasekhara enumerates following

sixteen sources of meaning:

{i) Sruti: In the Indian context, the four Vedas are sruti.

If we extend the concept, it shall imply the cultural.

patrimony of any civilisation.

(ii} Smrti: These are sastras - the social philosophies an&

cultural texts.

{iii) Itihasa: As the events have been in the past - the!

history of one's own civilisation or of the world.

(iv) Puranas: All the knowledge of mythology.

(v) Pramanavidya: Epistemology and logic.

(vi) Rajasiddhantatrayi: Science of erotics (Kamasutra),

polity (Arthasastra) and dramaturgy (Natyasastra) are~

together called rajasiddhantatrayi.

(vii) Loka: Knowledge and experience of the world.

{viii) Viracana: Intertextuality based on the knowledge of

other well-known poets and writers. In chapters eleven anm
twelve this .
is dealt with in details respectively under
headings of sabdaharana (appropriation of words from the:
works of other poets/writers) and arthaharanar
(appropriation of meanings and ideas from the works of:

111
other .poets/writers) . Various categories and subcategories;

based on different kinds of appropriation of words andl

ideas are enumerated in these chapters.

(ix) Prakirnaka: Knowledge of sixty-four arts.

(x) 5 minor vedas (itihasa, dhanur, ayur, gana, gandharva).

(xi) 7 auxiliary sciences (siksa, kalpa, vyakarana,

nirukta, chhanda, jyotisa, kavya) .

(xii) 6 vidyas ( varta, kamasutra, silpa-sastra,

arthasastra, sahitya-vidya, anviksaki).

Raj asekhara says that the above twelve categories are

mentioned by his predecessors and the following four are

added by him:
(xiii) Uci tasamyoga: An apt and appropriate juxtapositiorn

facilitating direct comparison.

(xiv) Yoktrsamyoga: Incidental conjunction or a seria~

analogy on the basis of cause-effect relationship. It mayr

be called an extended simile.

(xv) Utpadasamyoga: Parallel conjunction or a juxtapositiom
of upamana (the object of comparison) and upameya (the
object compared) which are both compounded thus generatins
two comparisons.
(xvi) Samyogavikara: Inappropriate conjunction with the
theme or subject of discourse.
In the ninth chapter Rajasekhara has identified two
kinds of poetry - muktaka (isolated verses or dispersed,.
free and simple poetry) and prabandha (long and continuous
literary composition) . Each of them can be furtheE
classified according to following five kinds of poetry:

112
(i) Suddha: Pure description.
(ii) Citra: Extended and arched picturisation.
(iii) Kathottha: Based in history, myth and legend.
(iv) Samvidhanakabhu: Based in contempor&ry records.

(v) Akhyanakavana: Based in imaginary accounts.

We have dealt with the principal ideas and forma~

categories of Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa. Various other

aspects of poetry and life of a poet according to the

contemporary conventions and repertoire of the speech

communities are explained by Rajasekhara. They may not be

relevant to our study of poetics and hence we have left

them in our discussion. Though Raj asekhara mentions manyr

alamkaras there is almost nothing new in his classificatiom

and categorisation.
Now we shall discuss Kavyaprakasa of Mammata.

Kavyaprakasa of Mamma.ta

Mammata, a poetician of second half of eleventh century,

is supposed to have written one of the best treatises om
poetics in India. He is a follower of dhvani school and it
remained a matter of prestige amo~g his successors to write
commentary on his Kavyaprakasa. There are ten chapters im
his book. After parikara alamkara of the tenth chapter, the
book is supposed to have been completed by some scholar
named Allata. (Acharya Baladeva Upadhyaya, 1994:610) ..
Chapter one deals with kavya-svaru]pa; chapter two with the
definition of word and abhidha, laksana, vyanjana types oif

113
meaning; chapter three with the definition of dhvani and
situations in which suggestions arise; chapter four withl.

rasa and types of dhvani; chapter five with guni-bhuta.

vyangya; chapter six with citra-kavya; chapter seven withl.
dosa; chapter eight with guna; chapter nine with

sabdalamkara and chapter ten with arthalamkara.

Chapter one: Aim, source and kinds of poetry

Chapter one deals with the aim, source and kinds of

poetry. According to karika 1. 2 the aim of poetry is to

bring "fame and riches, knowledge of the ways of the world!.

and relief from evils, instant and perfect happiness, and

counsel sweet as from the lips of a beloved consort" ..

(Ganganath Jha,1985)

Having defined the purpose of poetry in the secondi

karika, the author defines the source of poetry in 1.3 as

"Poetic genius, knowledge born of a study of the world, of

sciences and of poems, and the practice of the teachings off

those versed in writing poetry these three together

constitute the source of poetry". (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . It

is similar to the earlier poeticians' contention that

pratibha, vyutpatti and abhyasa are the sources of poetry.

Karika 1.4 defines the nature of poetry as "It consists in
word and sense without faults and with merits and

excellences of style which may at times be without

Figures of Speech". (Ganganath Jha, 1985)

Mammata classifies poetry in three primary categories-

suggestive poetry, poetry of subordinate suggestion and

114
non-suggestive poetry. He considers the suggestive poetry

to be the best, poetry of subordinate suggestion to be of

middle excellence and non-suggestive to be of the inferiorr

kind of poetry.

Chapter two: Nature of words and their meaning

In the 2.6 Mammata contend that there are three kinds of

words - the expressive, the indicative and the suggestive ..

Even the meaning and the import are expressed, indicated orr

suggested.

In the vrtti of 2.6 Mammata refers to abhihitanvayavadin

mimamsakas (the followers of Kumarila) and to

anvitabhidhanavadin mimamsakas (the followers of

Prabhakara) .

The abhihitanvayavadins contend that when the

denotations of a number of words become related togetherr
through akanksa (mutual requirement), yogyata.

(compatibility) and sannidhi (proximity), there appears a

resultant in the shape of the 'meaning of the sentence ' ..

This meaning is not expressed by any single word

constituting that sentence, and which, being, on that

account, of a peculiar character, comes to be called by the

name tatparyartha or import.

The anvitabhidhanavadins contend that the meaning of the

sentence is the expressed meaning of the words themselves.
Mammata further contends in 2.6 that all the three types
of meaning namely abhidha or vacya (expressed) , laksana
(indicated) and ~anjana (suggested) are held to be

115
suggestive and exemplifies them in his vrtti.

Mammata defines meaning of vacya in 2. 7 as 11

That which.

denotes the direct conventional meaning is the ~Expressive''

word 11 (Ganganath Jha, 1985} .

Defining laksana in 2. 9 I Mammata says I

11
Wheii the primaryr

meaning is precluded (by incompatibility}, another meaning,

in affinity therewith, comes to be implied,- either on the

basis of usage or for a special purpose,- this process of:

imposed implication is called ~Indication' ,

Laksana. 11
(Ganganath Jha,1985}.

There are two main varieties of laksana:

(1} Buddha laksana: In 2.10 Mammata defines two kinds of:

suddha 1aksana: 11 'Pure' Indication is of two kinds - {a} the

'Inclusive', in which there is implication of the other

{the secondary} meaning for the purpose of completing {the

logical connection of} the primary meaning itself, and (b)

the ... Indicative' in which the primary meaning surrenders;

itself for the sake of the other (the secondary meaning} 11

When one says that kuntah pravisanti 'lances are

entering' and means that 'men holding the lances are

entering', there is logical connection between ~lances' and

~entering' which indicates that lances cannot enter by

themselves. Hence the meaning inferred from 'lances' is;

~men holding lances' . This is an example of inclusive

indication.

Gangayam ghosah or ~the ranch in the Ganges' means that:

the ranch is on the bank of the Ganges river. Here the worm

ganga surrenders its primary meaning and indicates the

116
'bank of the river'. This is an example of indicative:

indication.
(2) Gun a or saropa laksana or super-imponent or
introsusceptive indication is when the 'imposed' and 'that

imposed upon' are both distinctly expressed. For example,

the ploughman is an ox. Here the ox-qualities of dullness

and stupidity is completely super-imposed upon the

ploughman.

There can be following four types of saropa laksana:

(i) When the relation between the two objects is based upom

some kind of similarity between them.

(ii) When the relation between the two objects is basedl

upon cause-effect relation.

(iii) When the indication is on the basis oE
... subserviency' . As for example, the pillar that subserves;

the purpose of the worship of Indra is called indra.

( i v) Indication based upon the relationship of whole andl.

part.

Thus there are six kinds of laksana (refer to chart 2) -

laksana tena sadvidha (2.12). On the pragmatics of laksana

Mammata says in 2 .13 that indication "when based upom

usage, is without any 'suggested' meaning; but when it is
based upon some purpose, it is accompanied by a .'suggested'
meaning" and this suggested meaning 'may be either abstruse:
or explicit'". (Ganganath Jha, 1985). In this way indicatiom
can be of three kinds - (a) when there is no suggestedl
meaning (b) when the suggested meaning is abstruse (c) whem
the suggested meaning is explicit.

117
 Laksana

Suddha Gauni

aropa Sadhyavasana

Saropa Sadhyavasana
Sopadana Sopadana

Salak na Saropa Salaksana

Sadhyavasana

Chartll
 After having defined abhidha and laksana on the wordi

level, now Mammata defines vyanjana for words. First he!

defines the suggestion based on indication. In 2.14 Mammata

defines vyanjana as tatra vyaparo vyanjanatmakah i.e. "Of:

the Indicative Word, that function (which brings about the

cognition of the 'purpose' of the indication) is of the

nature of 'Suggestion'". (Ganganath Jha,1985). In the thirdi

sutra of 2.14 and first sutra of 2.15 Mammata says," Iru

regard to that intended_ idea for bringing about the
cognition whereof one has recourse to Indication, (14) and
which is cognisable through the word only, - - the functiorn

(of the word) can be none other tharu

'Suggestion'". (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . Vyanjana is that:

function of word by which some meaning not established by

usage is expressed or indicated. According to 2.16,"What is;
'indicated' is not the primary meaning; nor is that meanin~

incompatible; nor has it any connection with the intendedi

idea; nor again is there any purpose served by it (i.e., by
making the intended idea an object of further indicat.ion) ;
nor lastly is the word itself wanting in the requisite
force". (Ganganath Jha,1985). For example, gangayam ghosam
can mean 'ranches on the bank of the Ganges' throughl
indication because ganga is incapable of denoting 'bank' ..
However the same word ganga itself can bring forth the idea
of 'sanctity' without any help of indication eventhoughl
'sanctity' is not the primary meaning of the word. Wheru
ganga means 'sanctity', it is the case of suggestion.
The indication can have a referential object which may

118
not include the comprehensible qualities of that object ..
When the word directly gives the idea of some of the
qualities of the referential object, it is different fro~

indication and is held as suggestion. Thus indication helps:

in comprehension of the object through perceptional.
cognition while recognition of certain qualities can be
brought about by other function of vyanjana (suggestion),
dhvanana (echo) and dyotana (illumination) .

2 .19 defines suggestion based on denotation as "When at

word having several primary meanings has the range of its;

denotation restricted by 'connection' and such other
conditions,- if there appears the cognition of a meaningr
other than the denoted (or directly expressed) one, that:
function which brings about this cognition is;

'Suggestion'". (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . Marmnata quotes fro~

Bhartrharis Vakyapadiya that there are fifteen conditions;

that serve to bring about the idea of a particular meaningr
of a word. These conditions are:
(1) Connection: In the expression 'Hari with conch andl
discus', the word 'Hari' means Vishnu. This word ,.has many
meanings but this particular meaning is understood im
connection with the conch and discus.
(2) Disjunction: When the meaning is understood on the
basis of disjoint connection. For example, in the
expression 'Hari without the conch and discus', the meaningr
of Hari is understood as Vishnu because of his disjunctioru
with conch and discus.
(3) Association: In the expression Ramalaksamanau i.e.

119
~Rama and Laksamana' , Rama is none other than the son oE

Dasaratha because of association with Laksamana.

(4} Enmity: In the expression ~the behaviour of these two

combatants is like that of Rama and Arjuna', the meaning oE

~Rama' is restricted to ~Parasurama' and that of ~Arjuna ''
to . . Krtavirya' .

(5) Purpose: In the expression "'worship sthanu for the

purpose of removing the shackles of the world', the meanin~

of the word sthanu is restricted to Siva.

(6) Context: In the expression ~Deva knows everything', the
meaning of the word ~deva' is restricted to "'you'. This is

done through the context.

(7} Peculiarity: In ~Makaradhvaja is angry', the meaning oE
the word ~Makaradhvaj a' is restricted to the Love-God as;

the quality of being angry is applicable only to God andl

not to ocean.
(8} Proximity of another word: In the expression "'devasya

purarateh', the meaning of the word ~deva is restricted to

Siva because of the proximity of the word "'purarati.

(9) Capacity: In "'the kokila bird is intoxicated by Madhu',
the meaning of the word "'Madhu' is restricted to the
"'spring' because only the ~spring' and not "'honey' or:

~wine' has the capacity to intoxicate the bird.

(10} Compatibility: In patu vo dayitamukham i.e ..
~confrontation with the beloved's face', the meaning of the
word patu (which can mean ~drink' and ~protect' also) is;
restricted to ~confrontation' as only this meaning is
compatible with the ~beloved's face'.

120
( 11) Place: In 'paramesvara shines here' , the meaning of

the word paramesvara is restricted to the 'king' throughl.

the place referred to being the king's capital.

(12) Time: In 'citrabhanu is shining', the meaning of the

word 'citrabhanu is .... sun' if the statement is utteredl

during the day and 'fire' if uttered during night.

(13) Gender: In 'mitra shines', the word mitra is used im

the neuter gender and hence means 'friend' but if the word

is used in masculine gender, it means 'sun'.

(14) Accent: In the expression Indrasatru the meaning

depends on the accent. It can mean 'whose killer is Indra ''

when the accent is on the first word 'Indra' and 'the

killer of Jndra' when the accent is on the second wordl

'satru'.

( 15) Gesture: It serves to restrict the meaning in suchl.

passages as - 'During all these days her breasts have beem

reduced to this (marked by gestures) size, her eyes have

shrunk to this (marked by gestures), and her condition has

become like this (marked by gestures) .

In case if the meaning of the word is restricted to some

particular sense and yet the word can have one or more

other significations which cannot be accounted for byr

abhidha or laksana, the word are considered to be in their.

suggestive function and the meanings are also considered to

be suggestive.

Chapter three: Suggestiveness of meaning

According to 3.21-22, suggestion is that function of the

121
meaning which brings about the cognition of another
meaning, by persons endowed with imaginative intuition,--
through peculiarities of the following:
(a) Speaker: One who utters the statement.
(b) The .person spoken to: One for whose sake the words are
used.

(c) Intonation: Variation of tone.

(d) The sentence
(e) The expressed meaning
(f) The presence of another
(g) Context: The occasion on which the statement is
uttered.
(h) Place
(i) Time

There can be several other peculiarities also as

suggested by ... so forth' in the end of the above list im
3.21-22. This so forth' can be considered to includ~

gestures and such other details.

Chapter four: Suggestive Poetry

This chapter deals with the best kind of poetry i.e ..

dhvani kavya or suggestive poetry. After having Q.efinecll.
'word' and 'meaning' Mammata says in 4.24, "In that
'suggestive' poetry where the 'expressed' meaning is not~

meant to be applicable,- the 'expressed meaning' is eitherr

(a) transformed into another meaning or (b) entirely'
rejected". (Ganganath Jha, 1985). (a) is called arthantara
and (b) is known as arthasamkramita atyanta or

122
arthasamkramita tiraskrta. He further adds in the

commentary on karika 24, "The 'expressed meaning' is 'not

meant to be applicable' only in cases where predominance

attaches to that abstruse 'suggested meaning' which is

based upon Indication;- and it is such instances thatt.

should be understood as 'Dhvani', 'suggestive poetry'" ..

(Ganganath Jha,1985:49).

The first part of 2. 25 says, "That (suggestive poetry) ,

however, where the 'expressed meaning' is meant to be

applicable, and is yet subservient to another meaning,- is

the other kind" (Ganganath Jha, 1985) and in the second parlt

of 2. 25 two kinds of this 'other kind' of poetry are

enumerated:

(1) Alaksyakramavyangya: One in which the order of sequence

of the suggested meaning is not perceptible. (a) Passion,

(b) emotion, (c) mixture of these, and the (d) allayment o~

emotion and such others like (e) the manifestation o:f

emotions (f) the conjuncture of emotions and (g) the

admixture of emotions etc. constitute this kind of poetry.

On this basis there are eight kinds of poetry:

(i) Rasa kavya: Where passion is dominant.

(ii) Bhava kavya: Where emotion is dominant.

(iii) Rasabhasa kavy<?.: Where there is combined dominance o:f

both rasa and bhava.

( i v) Bhavabhasa kavya: Where there is an appearance o:f

emotions.

(v) Bhavasanti kavya: Where there is an allayment o:f

emotions.

123
(vi) Bhavodaya kavya: Where there is a manifestation of

emotions.

(vii) Bhavasandhi kavya: Where there is an admixture o:f

emotions.

(viii) Bhavasabalata kavya: Where one emotion is dominan:t

in case of an admixture of emotions.

Manunata writes in his conunentary on 4. 26 ,'"In cases wher1e

the passion and the rest appear as the predominant factor,

they are to be embellished; as is going to be illustrate'd

later on. In other cases, where the literal meaning of true

sentence forms the predominant factor, and the passiom

comes in only as a secondary element, the suggested meanirug

is subordinated, these same (passion and the rest), become

embellishments, known as (a) ... rasa vat' (passionate) , [where

the Passion forms the subordinate factor] , (b) ... Preyat 1

(agreeable) [where emotion forms the subordinate factor] ,

(c) 'urjasvi 1
(forceful) [where the aberration of passiom

forms the subordinate factor], (d) 'samahita 1 (quiescent)

[where the allayment of emotion forms the subordinat~e

factor] (Ganganath Jha,l985:51-52).

After this Manunata explains rasa theory. His definition ~f

rasa in 4. 28 is vyaktah sa taivibhavadyaih sthayi bhawo

rasah smrtah i.e. the latent emotion manifested by

vibhavas, anubhavas and sancari bhavas are rasa. In thlis

definition there is no distinction between sthayi bhava and

rasa. Manunata briefly reports the views of Bhatta-Lolata,

Sri Sankuka, Bhatta-Nayaka and Acarya Abhinavagupta. He

mentions the eight rasas as enumerated by Bharata and then

124
o.uuo uu~ more 1n tne lJ.st - the santa rasa (the quietistic)

with nirveda or self-disparagement as its sthayi bhava.

(2) Laksyavyangyakramah: One in which the order of sequence!

of suggested meaning is perceptible. According to 4. 37,

this is supposed to be of three kinds:

(i) Sabdasakti: That arising from the force of the word.

There are further two subcategories of this based on what

is principally represented by the word- (a) alamkaradhvani.

or a figure of speech (b) vastudhvani or a simple matter of:

fact.
(ii) Arthasakti: That arising from the force of the,

meaning. In this case even the word (s) is changed by its:

synonym the suggestion may remain the same. According to
4.39-40 and first statement of 4.41 there are twelve kinds:

of arthasakti laksyavyangyakrama, "Inasmuch as the!

suggestive object 'based upon the force of the meaning' is:
either (a) self-existent (b) or owing its existence to the!

bold assertion of the poet or (c) owing its existence to>

the bold assertion of some character portrayed by the,
poet;' each these three being either a figure of speech or~

a bare fact, it comes to be of six kinds (39-40); and.

since each of these suggests a figure or a fact, it comes:
to be of twelve kinds". (Ganganath Jha, 1985). Mammata.
explains them as follows: 11
(a) self-existent: Not onlY'
created by the words of the poet but having a real
existence in the world. (b) This is created by the poet's:
imagination, and having no real existence in the external
world. (c) This is created by the imagination of a speaker~

125
portrayed by the poet;" {Ganganath Jha,1985:81). Accordimg

to the last sutra of 4.42, the suggestion based on meani:ng

can occur in a context also. Altogether the twelve
varieties can be enumerated as follows:
(a) The self-existent fact suggesting the self-existemt
fact.

(b) The self-existent fact suggesting a figure.

{c) The self-existent figure suggesting a fact.
(d) The self-existent figure suggesting a figure.
(e) A fact, the creation of the poet's fancy, suggests a
fact.
(f) Figure suggested by a fact created by the poet's
imagination.
{g) Fact suggested by figure created by the poet's fancy.,
(h) Figure suggested by an imaginary fact.
(i) Fact suggested by fact, based upon the bold asserti<on
of an imaginary person.
( j) Figure suggested by fact asserted by an imagina:ry
person.
(k) Fact suggested by figure set forth by an imagina:ry
character.
(1) Figure suggested by figure in the assertion of <an
imaginary character.
(iii) Ubhayasakti: That arising from the force of bo'th
sabda and artha. This arises only in a sentence.

In his commentaries after 2. 41 and before the end of

2. 42, Mammata enumerates seventeen kinds of suggestio>ns
based upon word:

126
( 1) Transference of the expressed meaning to another by a

word.
(2) The expressed meaning entirely ignored in a word.

(3) The suggestion of imperceptible sequence in a single

word.

( 4) Suggestion of perceptible process by a word - foundEec

on the power of words - of figure by fact.

( 5) Suggestion of perceptible process founded on tlhe

power of a word - of fact by fact.

( 6) Suggestion of perceptible process - by word - found.ed

on the force of meaning - of fact by self-existent fact.

(7) Suggestion of perceptible process - by word - found~d

on the force of meaning - of figure by a self-existemt

fact.

(8) Suggestion of perceptible process - by word - based On

force of meaning of fact by self-existent figure.

(9) Suggestion of perceptible process,- based on the force

of meaning - of figure by self-existent figure.

(10) Suggestion of perceptible process - based on the force

of meaning - of fact by imaginary fact.

(11) Suggestion of perceptible process - of figure by an

imaginary fact.

( 12) Suggestion of perceptible process - of a fact by an

imaginary figure.

(13) Suggestion of perceptible process - of a figure by an

imaginary figure.

(14) Suggestion of fact by fact, founded upon the assertlion

of an imaginary person.

127
(15) Suggestion of perceptible process - of figure by fact

asserted by the fanciful assertion of an imaginary persom.

( 16) Suggestion of perceptible process - of a fact by- a

figure resting upon the fanciful assertion of an imaginary
person.

(17) Suggestion of perceptible process of figure by

figure based upon the fanciful assertion of.. ' an imaginary

person.
The first sutra of 4. 43 states, "Passion (Emotion,

Aberrations of Passion, Aberrations of Emotion, Allayment

of Emotion, Conjunction of Emotions and Admixture of

Emotions) are (suggested imperceptibly) also {a) by parrts
of words, (b) by style (c) by individual letters".
(Ganganath Jha, 1985) . Thus there will be six varieties of
suggestions in each sentiment based respectively on 1(i)
sentence (ii) word (iii) part of word (iv) style (v) lettter

and (vi) context.

Altogether there are fifty-one varieties of suggesti~n.

Ganganath Jha corrunents on it, "(A) That where the expres:sed

meaning is not intended has two varieties - (a) That in
which the expressed meaning is transferred into another (b)
in which it is entirely ignored, and each of th~se

belonging to word and meaning, make up Four varieties;- (B)

that where the expressed meaning is intended to be
subservient to another, and the suggestive process is
imperceptible, belongs to word, sentence, part of wo:rd,
style, letters and context, makes up six varieties;-(C) 'The
same where the suggestive process is perceptible has forlty-

128
one varieties as follows:- 2 varieties of that, based on

word and each belonging to word and sentence, make fou.r, -

12 varieties of that based on meaning and each belonging to

word, sentence and context, make thirty-six; and one

variety of that based on both word and meaning; and 4+6+41

make 51". (Ganganath Jha, 1985: 115) . And towards the end. of

chapter four Mammata suggests that these fifty-one

varieties can produce many more by their differ-ent

combinations.

These fifty-one categories of dhvanis can be enumera:ted

as follows:

(l)Avivaksita vacyadhvani: There are four varieties of it-

(i) Pada prakasya arthantara samkramita vacya dhvani

(ii) Vakya prakasya arthantara samkramita vacya dhvani

(iii) Pada prakasya atyantatiraskrta vacya dhvani

(iv) Vakya prakasya atyantatiraskrta vacya dhvani

( 2) Vi vaksi tanyapara vacyadhvani or asamlaksyakramavyanzgya

dhvani: There are six varieties of it-

(i) pada prakasya asamlaksyakramavyangyadhvani

(ii) vakya prakasya asamlaksyakramavyangyadhvani

(iii) padaikadesa prakasya asamlaksyakramavyangyadhvani

(iv) racana prakasya asamlaksyakramavyangyadhvani

(v) varna prakasya asamlaksyakramavyangyadhvani

(vi) prabandha prakasya asamlaksyakramavyangyadhvani

( 3) Vi vaksi tanyaparavacya dhvani or samlaksyakramavyanzgya

dhvani: There are four varieties of it-
(i) Sabdasaktimula padaprakasya vasturupa vyangya dhvani.
(ii) Sabdasaktimula padaprakasya alamkararupa vyan;gya

129
dhvani
(iii) Sabdasaktimula vakyaprakasya vasturupa vyangya dhv.ani

( i v) Sabdasaktimula vakyaprakasya alamkararupa vyantgya

dhvani
There two varieties of vyangyadhvani- (i) vasturupa .and
(ii) alamkararupa. Further there are six followring

varieties of artha sakti udbhava dhvani:

- --
(i) svatah sambhavi vasturupa vyanjaka artha

(ii) svatah sambhavi alamkararupa vyanjaka artha

(iii) kavipraudhoktisiddha vasturupa vyanjaka artha

(iv) kavipraudhoktisiddha alamkararupa vyanjaka artha

(v) kavinibaddhavaktrpraudhoktisiddha vasturupa vyanjiaka

artha
(vi) kavinibaddhavaktrpraudhoktisiddha alamkararupa
vyanj aka artha
Thus there are twelve varieties of artha sakti udbhlava

dhvani as these six varieties are multiplied by the two

varieties of vyangyadhvani . Again each of these twe!l ve

varieties are of following three kinds:

(i) pada-prakasya (ii) vakya-prakasya and (iii) prabandllia-

prakasya
Thus there are altogether thirty-six varieties of

arthasaktimula dhvani.
There is one more sabdarthobhayasaktimula dhvani.

Thus there are altogether 4+6+4+36+1=51 varieties of

dhvani.

Chapter five: Poetry of subordinate suggestion

130
 Gunibhutavyangya kavya or poetry of subordiruate

suggestion is poetry of intermediate order. There are eight

varieties of poetry of subordinate suggestion:

(1) Agudhavyangya: Where suggested meaning is obvious.

(2) Aparangavyangya: Where suggested meaning is subservlient

to something else.

(3) Vacyfisiddhavyangya: Where suggested meaning is

subservient to the accomplishment of the 'expressed'

meaning.

(4) Asphutavyangya: Where suggested meaning is so abstruse

that even a sahrdaya may find it difficult to understand.

(5) Sandigdhapradhanyavyangya: Where suggested meaning is

such that its prominence over the expressed meaning remains

doubtful.

(6) Tulyapradhanyavyangya: Where there is equal importance

of the suggested and the expressed meanings.

(7) Kakvaksiptavyangya: Where suggested meaning is rendered

manifest by intonation.
(8) Asundaravyangya: Where suggested meaning is not

beautiful.
According to 5.46 the "varieties of these (eight k:ii..nds

of poetry of subordinate suggestion should be understoo~ to

be, as far as possible, like those of which has gone be~ore

(i.e. suggestive poetry) ". (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . This rwill

make 51x8 varieties of gunibhutavyangyakavya. But in the
commentary on 5.46, Mammata through a quotation :from
Dhvanyaloka indicates that this "has been added with a view
to the fact that there is no 'subordination of suggest:ion'

131
in a case where a Figure is manifested by a mere Facet" .

(Ganganath Jha, 1985: 132) . The verse quoted by Mammatca is

2.29 of Dhvanyaloka which is translated as

follows,"Whenever Figures of Speech are suggested by a rmere

Fact, they only serve the purpose of making it regarded as

'Suggestive Poetry'; because the existence of poetry rrests

upon those Figures (which, therefore, cannot be regarde<d as

'subordinate' to the expressed meaning)". (Ganga:nath

Jha,1985: 132-133). Thus the following nine varieties: of

vastuvyangya alamkara vyangya have to be deducted from. the

fifty-one varieties of dhvani kavya:

(1) Padagata-svatah sambhavi-vastuvyangyalamkararupa

(2) Vakyagata~svatah sambhavi-vastuvyangyalamkararupa

( 3) Prabandhaga ta- sva tab sambhavi -vastuvyangyalamkararu}pa

(4) Padagata-kavipraudhoktisiddha-vastuvyangyalamkararupa

(5) Vakyagata-kavipraudhoktisiddha-vastuvyangyalamkararupa

(6) Prabandhagata-kavipraudhoktisiddha-v;astu

vyangyalamkara-rupa

(7) Padagata- kavinibaddha- vaktrpraudhoktisidldha-

vastuvyangya- alamkararupa

(8) Vakyagata kavinibaddha-vaktrpraudhoktisidldha-

vastuvyangya-alamkararupa

(9) Prabandhagat?L. - kavinibaddha- vaktrpraudhoktisiddlha -

vastuvyangya- alamkararupa

Thus instead of 51x8 there are (51-9)x8=42x8 =336

varieties of poetry of subordinate suggestion. Now eac~h of

these varieties will have many other subcategories base\d on

the kind of alamkara and various kinds of their own

1::,2
admixtures. Thus there may be a large number of varieties

of poetry of subordinate suggestion.

Chapter six: Poetry of fanciful word and fanciful meani:ng

Citra-kavya or sabdarthacitra-kavya or poetry of

fanciful word and fanciful meaning is the lowest kind of

poetry. When the verbal figure of speech is dominant the

poetry is regarded to be of 'fanciful word' variety and

when the ideal figure of speech is dominant the poetry is

regarded to be of 'fanciful meaning' variety. There cam be

as many varieties of this kind poetry as the number of

figures of speech.

Chapter seven: pefects of Poetry

In karika 1. 4 while defining poetry Marrnnata has :said

that poetry by nature is without faults. In chapter SEeven

he describes the defects of poetry. According to

7.49,"Defect is the repressor of the principal meaning; the

... principal meaning' being the Passion, as also the

Expressed Meaning, which is essential for the manifesta1tion

of the Passiorf;- both of these requiring the aid of !Word

and the rest, Defects pertain to these latter al:so".

(Ganganath Jha,1985). However before actually defining the

defects it is important to note that Mammata, like Bhamaha

in 1.54-55 of Kavyalamkara, accepts that, depending upon

the context, the defects can become excellences. Mamata

declares in 7. 59, 11
By virtue of the special characte:Jr of

the speaker and the rest, sometimes a defect becomes an

133
excellence, and sometimes it is neither the one nor the

other" (Ganganath Jha,1985). He further adds in his

vrtti, "By virtue of the importance attaching to the

character of - (a) the speaker, (b) the person spoken to,

(c) the meaning suggested, (d) the thing described, (e) the

context and so fort:1,- a defect sometimes becomes an

excellence; and in certain cases it is neither a defect nor

an excellence". (Ganganath Jha,1985:264).

First of all Manunata enumerates the defects of words::

(1) Srutikatu: Unpleasant to ear.

(2) Cyutasamskrti: Lacking correctness.

(3) Apryukta: Unconventional.

( 4) Asamarti1a: Incapable of giving the intended meanin~ in

its entirety.

(5) Nihitartha: Having its meaning suppressed.

(6) Anucitartha: Having an improper signification.

(7) Nirarthaka: Useless.

(8) Avacaka: Not expressive at all of the intended meaning.

(9) Trividha aslila: Indecorous in three ways. These tlliree

ways are vrida (indecency), jugupsa (disgust) and amangala

(inauspiciousness) .

(10) Sandigdha: Ambiguous.

(11) Apratita: Unintelligible.

(12) Gramya: Vulgar.

(13) Neyartha: Where meaning has to be guessed.

(14) Klista: Obscure. It may arise due to confused orde~ of

the words of one single sentence.

(15) Avimrstavidheyamsa: Having the predicative factor not

134
discriminated.
(16). Viruddhamakrta: Of repugnant implication.
Regarding the defects of sentence karika 7. 52 stcates

that excepting cyutasamskrti (lack of correctness) ,

asamartha (incapability of giving sense in its entirety)

and nirarthaka (uselessness) all the above mentioned

thirteen dosas are defects for sentences. These thirtteen

are defects of the parts of words as well. The reason for

the above mentioned three defects not being found in

sentence may be as follows - 'all the words have expectancy

in a sentence and if they satisfy the mutual expectcancy

they cannot lack correctness and thus they will give ffull

sense and they cannot be useless'. In the same way part1s of

words also have to satisfy mutual expectancy or else they

cannot form a word.

There are twenty-one more defects of sentences:

(1) Pratikulavarnatva: Contains discordant letters. Certtain

letters are supposed to be against the nature of certain

rasas: use of such letters in the sentence is discordcance

of letters.
...
(2) Upahatavisargatva: When the visarga is blunted.
(3) Luptavisargatva: When the visarga is deleted.

(4) Visandhitva: When the sentence involves an unharmon~ous

euphony. This cacophonous discordance manifests itsel:ff in

three ways vislesa (disjunction) , aslilca.tva
(indecorousness) and kastatva (harshness) .

(5) Hatavrttata: When the sentence involves a marred metre.

(6) Nyunapadata: When the sentence is deficient in wordls.

135
(7) Adhikapadata: When there is a, redundance in words.

(8) Kathitapadata: When the sentence contains repeated

words.

(9) Etat prakarsata: When the sentence has its excellence

receding.

(10) Samaptapunarattata: When the sentence resumes that

,which is concluded.

(11) Ardhantaraikavacakatva: When the sentence has a 'Wlord

isolated in a distinct half. Ideally this isolated v,.,ord

should be in the other half than the one ::.n which it

exists.

(12) Abhavanmatayogatva: When the sentence is devoid. of

intended connection.

(13) Anabhihitavacyatva: When a necessary statement is

omitted in the sentence.

( 14) Apadas thapada ta or as than as thapada ta : When a wordl is

misplaced in the sentence.

(15) Apadasthasamasata: When a compound is misplaced in the

sentence.
(16) Samkirnata: When there is a confusion in the sentence

because the words of a sentence are found scatteredl in

several verses or sentences.

(17) Garbhitatva: When the senten~e is parenthetical.

(18) Prasiddhihatatva: When the sentence is such that i~ is

against the usage.

(19) Bhagnaprakramata: When the sentence has its uniformity

or continuity of sentence broken.

(20) Akramata: When the sentence lacks uniformity.
(21) Amatapararthata: When the sentence has an undesir<able

second meaning.

The twenty-three defects of meanings are as follows:

(1) Apustatva: Irrelevant.

(2) Kastatva: Obscure.

(3) Vyahatatva: Inconsistent.

(4) Punaruktatva: Tautophonous.

(5) Duskramatva: Irregular.

(6) Gramyatva: Vulgar.

(7) Sandhigdhatva: Dubious.

(8) Nirhetutva: Inconsequential.

(9) Prasiddhiviruddhatva: Opposed to prevailing notions .

(10) Vidyaviruddhatva: Opposed to scholarly notions.

(11) Anavikrtatva: Monotonous.

(-12) Saniyamaparivrttatva: Too unspecific.

(13) Aniyamaparivrttatva: Too specific.

(14) Visesaparivrttatva: Too restricted.

(15) Avisesaparivrttatva: Too unrestricted.

(16) Sakanksatva: Incomplete.

(17) Apadayuktatva: Misplaced.

(18) Sahacarabhinnatva: Mismatched.

(19) Prakasitaviruddhatva: Of repugnant implication.

(20) Vidhyayuktatva: With improper predicate.

(21) Anuvadayuktatva: With improper adjunct.

(22) Tyaktapunahsvikrtatva: Resuming the concluded.

(23) Aslilatva: Indecorous.

Following are the ten defects in delineation of rasas:

(1) The mention by name of (a) vyabhicari bhava (b) Tasa

137
(c)sthayibhava.
(2) Far fetched indication of vibhava and anubhava.

(3) Description of such vibhava, anubhava and vyabhi.cari

bhava which are not concordant to the rasa.

(4) Repeated emphasis on the rasa of the text.

(5) Untimely introduction of the rasa.

(6) Untimely interruption of the rasa.

(7) Excessive dilatation of the subordinate factors (like

long description of the villain or such others) in ris~ of

the rasa.

(8) Neglect of the principal factor(s) in rise of rasa.

( 9) Such perversion of characters which go against the

rasa.

(10) Description of those which go against the rasa.

Chapter eight: Excellences of poetry

In 8. 66 Mammata defines guna or excellences as tlhose

"properties that belong to the Passion, the princ~ipal

factor,- conducive to its maturity and having an uncea;sing

existence,- are called 'Gunas', 'Excellences', in the same

manner as Bravery and such qualities belong to the So1ul".

(Ganganath Jha,1985).

For distinguishing guna from alamkara, Mammata defines

ornaments in 8. 67, "Those qualities which sometimes acdorn
the existing Passion, through its components,- just as the
necklace and the like (do for the Soul, through the badly),-
are the ornaments (figures of speech), Alliteration, Si1mile
and the rest)". (Ganganath Jha,1985).

138
 Thus existence of alamkaras is not essential for rasa

whereas presence of guna is a necessary prerequisite for

rise of rasa. According to Mammata there are only three

gunas:

( 1) Madhurya: It is sweetness. It is "a source of

delectability; it is what leads to mollification in the
case of the Erotic Passion". (8. 68) (Ganganath Jha, 19185) .
According to 8.69,"In the case of the Pathetic, the
Privative-Erotic and the Quietistic, it (Sweetness) is
present in an excess~ve degree".
(2) Oja: It is floridity. "Floridity, the source of the
lustrous expanding of the heart, resides in the Heroic
Passion". (8. 69) (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . It is present i.n an
excessive degree in the disgustful and furious passions.
(3) Prasada: It is. lucidity. "That which quickly pervrades
the other like fire among dry fuel, or like a clean stream
of . water, is Lucidity, whose presence is proper
everywhere". (8.70-71) (Ganganath Jha,1985).
Mammata explains why he does not consider the ten
qualities as guna which are enumerated by his predecessors.
In 8.72, he gives three reasons for considering only three
gunas," (a) Some (of the ten) are included under these
(three); (b) others are resolved into the mere negation of
certain defects; (c) the rest, in certain cases, have the
character of Defects;- for this reason they are not ten".
(Ganganath Jha,1985).
Mammata indicates in 8.73 that the excellences as
pertaining to rasa are suggested by letters, compounds and

139
diction. He gives a list of those letters, sucb compounds

and diction which suggest the excellences:

(1) Madhurya: In 8.74, he writes,"(a) The 'sparsha' [nnute]
consonants, with the exception of those of the 'ta'-grroup,
combined with the last consonant of their group,- (b)l the
consonants 'r' and 'n' when short,- (c) expressions free
compounds,- (d) compounds of medium length,- and (e)
harmonious diction are (suggestive) of Sweetness".
(Ganganath Jha,1985).
It is added in the vrtti, " (a) All the consonants frrom k
to m - except t, th, d and dh - combined with the last
letter of their respective groups, (b) r and n comlbined
with short vowels; - these are the 'letters' (suggestive of
Sweetness) .
"As for 'compounds' (e) expressions free from
compounds' or (d) 'compounds of medium length' (are

suggestive of Sweetness) .
"(e) 'Harmonious diction'- i.e., such diction in whiclh the
words are so combined as to make it soft is also
suggestive of Sweetness". (Ganganath Jha,1985:311-12).
(2) Oja: Karika 8. 75 says," (A) The combination - (a) Olf the
first and of the third consonants of a group with the
consonant following them, {b) of any consonant wit:h r,-
and (c) of any two similar consonants; - (B) the conso,nants
beginning with t, (C) the consonants s and s -(D) long
compounds, and (E) the bombastic diction,- these are
suggestive of Floridity". (Ganganath Jha,1985).
It is added in the vrtti, " (a) The combination off the

140
first and third letters of a group with those following

them - i.e. , with the second and the fourth respecti vcely; -

(b) any consonant having r either above or below it;- (c)

the combination of 'similar consonant 1 i.e., that of a

consonant with itself - (d) the entire t - group witfu the

exception of n (e) the consor_ants s and s -(f) long

compounds and (g) bombastic dictive;- all these are

suggestive of Floridity". (Ganganath Jha,1985:312-13).

(3) Prasada: According to 8.76,"Lucidity has been he:ld to

be that excellence, common to all, by virtue of whiclli the

comprehension of meaning of words follows on the mere

hearing of it". (Ganganath Jha, 1985). The vrtti define:s the

word 'all 1 as "all Pa~::.sions and all styles of dict~ion".

(Ganganath Jha, 1985) .

Towards the end, in the last karika 8. 77 Mammata once

more exhibits flexibility in formalisation of above

mentioned categories. He 'says, "The diction, the compounds

and the letters are sometimes altered, in accordance with

the nature of (a) the speaker, (b) the subject and (cJ the

form (of the composition)". (8. 77) (Ganganath Jha,1985;).

Chapter nine: The verbal figures of speech

According to Mammata there are following six kinds of

sabdalamkaras:

(1) Vakrokti alamkara: "When what is said by one perscon in

one sense is construed by another person in a diff:erent

sense - either through punning or through intonation.,- it

is Equivoque (Vakrokti) : and thus it is of two ki.nds".

141
(9.78) (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . Thus there are t\YO kincds of

vakrokti alamkaras: ( i) slesa vakrokti alamkara and (ii)

kaku vakrokti alamkara.

(2) Anuprasa: In 8. 79, the first sutra says "alliter;ation
consists in the similarity of letters". By 'similari1ty of

letters' is meant 'similarity of consonants' eventhoug:h the

vqwels may be different.

The word anuprasa -consists of two parts - (a) anu 'Which

indicates 'favourable to the delineation of rasa and such

other things'. (b) prasa which means here 'excellent

allocation of letters'.

There are two kinds of anuprasa:

(i) Chekanuprasa: When there is single repetitiom of

several consonants, it is chekanuprasa or 'iso:lated

alliteration' .

( ii) Vrttyanuprasa: The one consonant is repeated se:veral

times, it is vrttyanuprasa or 'complex alliteration'. Since

there are three kinds of vrttis, there are three kin<ds of

'complex alliteration'. The three vrttis are:

(a) Upanagarika It is 'polished' and similar to the

vaidarbhi of Vamana. This diction is characterised by

consonants suggestive of sweetness or madhurya. The co1mplex

alliteration of this kind is called latanuprasa~. On

latanuprasa vrtti says, "When there is Alliteration

(repetition) of words (not mainly of single consonan.ts as

in the other two kinds of Alliteration) , - and thouglh the

form and the meaning of the words thus repeated ane the

same, yet there is difference in the syntactical relation

142
of the words,- it is latanuprasa, so called because Of its

being p9pular among the inhabitants of the Lata coun~~-

!!

(Ganganath Jha, 1985:322). There can be various other

subvarieties of this depending upon whether it occurs in a

word, in the same substantive base of a word, in the~ same

compound, in different compounds or once in a compoun(d and

then one in a non-compound.

(b) Parusa - It is 'harsh' and similar to gaudi. :rrt is

chracterised by consonants suggestive of floridity.

(c) Kamala - It is 'soft' and similar to pancali. Some

people call it gramya or 'vulgar' also. The alliteratLon in

this komala is called gramyanuprasa.

(3) Yamaka: According to firflt sutra of 9. 831, "The

repetition of letters in the same order, with a diff:erent

meaning,- when there is meaning,- const:itute

'Yamaka', 'Chime'". (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . By adding 'when

there is meaning' in this definition, it is implied. that

there may not be any meaning in that part where the le!tters

have been repeated. Depending upon the positiom of

occurrence in a word or in a verse, there can be se!veral

subvarieties of yamaka.

( 4) Slesa: According to 9. 84, "When words that are diff:erent

by reason of the difference in their denotations coffilesce

(become identified) through the sameness of their

pronunciation, it is a case of Coalescence or Puni; and

through Letter and other factors, it is of eight ki.nds".

(Ganganath Jha, 1985) . There can be eight kinds of slesa

based on its origination in eight different factors:: (i)

143
varna or letters (ii) pada or words (iii) linga. or grender

(iv) bhasa or dialect (v) prakrti or when forms o:ff two

crude form verbs become similar because of their tense

markers or such other factors (vi) pratyaya or affixes

(vii) vibhakti or terminations (declensional and

conjugational) (viii) vacana or number.

There is one more ninth kind of slesa where there is no

difference in crude forms or any of the above mentioned

eight factors.

(5) Citra: According to 9.85,"Where the letters assum1e the

forms of such objects as the sword and the like, it i_s the

Figure Pictorial". (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . The vrtti add.s, "In

cases where the letters arranged in particular ways appear

in the form of (a) the sword, (b) or the drum, (c) o:r the

lotus and so forth, we have Pictorial Poetry (i.e. Poetry

with the Pictorial Figures)". (Ganganath Jha, 1985: 344) .

(6) Punaruktavadabhasa: According to first sutr:a of

9. 86, "When it appears as if one and the same meanimg is

expressed by words in diverse forms,- it is Semblan!Ce of

Repetition". (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . Thus this alamka:rra is

based
I
both in wo-rd as well as meaning as the vrtti
adds, "When, on the face of it, (t~ere is by chance) an

appearance of one and the same meaning, in words of dliverse

forms,- with or without meaning,- it is 'Semblance of

Repetition'". (Ganganath Jha,1985:346).

Chapter ten: The ideal figures of speech

Mammata mentions following alamkaras as arthalamkaras::

144
( 1) upama ( 2) ananvaya ( 3) upameyopama ( 4) utprek:sa ( 5)
sasandeha (6) rupaka (7) apahnuti (8) slesa (9) sam$sokti

(10) nidarsana (11) aprastutaprasamsa (12) atisayokti~ ~13)

prativastupama ~14) drstanta (15) dipaka (16) tulyayrogita

(17) vyatireka (18) aksepa (19) vibhavana (20) visesokti

(21) yathasankhya (22) arthantaranyasa (23) virodha (24)

svabhavokti (25) vyajastuti (26) sahokti (27) vinokti~ (28)

parivrtti (29) bhavika (30) kavyalinga (31) paryayokt$ (32)

udatta (33) samuccaya (34) paryaya (35) anumana (36)

parikara (37) vyajokti (38) parisamkhya (39) kararnamala

(40) anyonya (41) uttara (42) suksma (43) sara (44)

asamgati (45) samadhi (46) sama (47) visama (48) $dhika

(49) pratyanika (SO) milita (51) ekavalj (52) smaranm (53)

bhrantiman (54) pratipa (55) samanya (56) visesa (57)

tadguna (58) atadguna (59) vyaghata (60) samsrsti ( 61)

sankara.

Now we shall define the above mentioned al.amkaras:

(1) Upama: It is '"simile'. "When there is similari1ty of

properties, while there is difference (between the objects

themselves), it is Simile". (first sutra of JLO. 87)

(Ganganath Jha,1985).

(2) Ananvaya: It is '"absolute comparison'. "When onEe and

the same thing appears in a single sentence as both the

'object compared', and the 'object compared to' lit is

'"Comparison Absolute'". (first sutra of 10. 91) (GangJanath

Jha,1985).

(3) Upameyopama: It is '"reciprocal comparison'. "When there

is alternation of these two, it is Reciprocal Comparlison".

145
(10.91) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

( 4) Utpreksa: It is 'poetic fancy' . "Poetic Fancy corusists

in the imagining of the thing described as (identical)! with

a similar thing". (first sutra of 10 .92) (Gangranath

Jha,1985).

(5) Sasandeha: It is 'doubtful'. "The statement of a doubt

constitutes the Doubtful,- the distinction being assert:ed or

not asserted". (10.92) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(6) Rupaka: It is 'metaphor'. "Where there is non-

difference between the 'object compared to' and the '~bject

compared', it is Metaphor". (first sutra of JL0.93)

(Ganganath Jha,1985).

There are four kinds of metaphor:

( i) samasta vastu visaya rupaka: "In cases where wheat is

imposed is directly expressed, it is Metaphor Universal".

(10. 93) (Ganganath Jha, 1985) .

(ii) Ekadesavivarti rupaka: "In a case where what is innposed

is directly expressed as well as indirectly implied, it is

the Partial Metaphor". (first sutra of 10. 94) (Gan9Janath

Jha,1985).

(iii) Suddha rupaka: "That which is devoid of constit:uents

is the Pure Metaphor". (third sutra of 10. 94) . (Gangranath

Jha, 1985) .

( i v) Para rupaka: "Where as a means of the de~sired

imposition, there is imposition of something else, :it is

the Consequential Metaphor;- where the expressive wo:rd is

either 'coalescent' (in Pun) or 'distinct'". (JLO. 95)

(Ganganath Jha,1985).

146
( 7} Apahnuti: It is concealment. "When the object to be~

described is negatived and another is affirmed, it is-

Concealment". (first sutra of 10.96} (Ganganath Jha,1985).
(8} Slesa: It is paronomasia. "When in a single sentence,
there are several meanings, it is Paronomasia". (10. 96)
(Ganganath Jha,1985}.
( 9} Samasokti: It is 'modal metaphor' . "Where the other
object is implied by means of paronomatic differentiatingr

adjusts, it is Modal Metaphor". (first sutra of 10. 97}

(Ganganath Jha,1985).
( 10) Nidarsana: It is illustration. "Where an impossible~

relation of things constitutes the similitude, it is;

Illustration". (10.97) (Ganganath Jha,1985).
"There is another kind of Illustration, where the actiom
itself indicates the (causal) relatiov. between itself andl
its cause". (first sutra of10.98) (Ganganath Jha,1985}.
(11) Aprastutaprasamsa: It is 'indirect description'.
"Where the description of an irrelevant thing points to the~

object meant to be described, it is Indirect Description".

(10.98) (Ganganath Jha, 1985).
"It is of five kinds:- ... here what is meant to be!
described is (a) the effect, or (b) a cause, or (c)
Universal, or (d) Particular,- what is actually spoken of
is their converse (correlative) ; and (e) when what is meant.
to be described is one thing, and what is spoken of is-
something else of the same class". (10.99) (Ganganatht
Jha,1985).
According to the vrtti (e) is again of three kinds, "Of

147
that case, where while what is meant to be described lis one

thing, what is actually described is something else ~f the

same class,- there are three varieties, according a.s the

indication of one thing by another of the same class 1) by

a Pun, or ( 2) by Modal Metaphor, or ( 3) by mere

similarity". (Ganganath Jha, 1985 :386).

(12) Atisayokti: It is 'hyperbole'. According to 10.100 and

first two sutras of 10 .101, "It is to be known as the

Hyperbole (a) when the object to be described is

indicated as swallowed by the other;- (b) when the object

to be described is represented as another;- (c) where there

is an assumption introduced by some term meaning 'if';;- and

(d) when there is reversal of the normal order of sequence

between a cause and its effect". (Ganganath Jha, 1985) ..

(13) Prativastupama: It is 'typical comparison'. "T)fpical

Comparison is that where a single conunon property stands

twice, in two sentences" (first sutra of 10.102) (Ganganath

Jha,1985).

(14) Drstanta: It is 'exemplification'. "Exemplificatlion is

the reflectional representation of all these". (1<D .102)

(Ganganath Jha,1985). For explaining 'all these', the vrtti

says, "The drstanta is so called because thereLn is

perceived (drsta) the 'definite recognition' {anta) of 'all

these' - i.e. of the Common Property (the object co~pared

and the object compared to)". (Ganganath Jha, 1985: 393)1 .

(15) Dipaka: It is 'illuminator'. It is defined in karika

10.103 along with the 'stringed illuminator' in the first
sutra of 10 .104. According to 10.103, " (a) When the (common)

148
property belonging to several objects- tba.t to be

described, as well as those not to be described,- occurs

once,- and (b) when a single substantive occurrs in

connection with several verbs,- it is the Illuminator".

(Ganganath Jha,1985).

The vrtti adds," It is Illuminator also when a single

substantive occurs in connection with several werb".

(Ganganath Jha,1985:395).

"It is the Stringed Illuminator where what precedes

imparts excellence to what follows". (first sutra of 1(:) .104)

(Ganganath Jha,1985).

(16) Tulyayogita: It is 'equal pairing'. "The single

mention of a property as belonging to a number of thirngs of

the same kind constitutes Equal Pairing". (10 .104)

(Ganganath Jha,1985).

(17) Vyatireka: It is 'dissimilitude'. "The dissimiJlitude

of the other to the 'object compared to' constitutes the

figure of the same name" (first sutra of 10 .105) (Ganganath

Jha, 1985). The yrtti defines 'of the other' as 'o,f the

object compared' and 'dissimilitude' ~,s 'superiority' ..

"It is of twenty-four kinds:- (1) When the groun,d (of

dissimilitude} is mentioned; (2-4) the three cases where

the said ground is not mentioned;- each of these (fourr) has

the similitude either expressed by word or expressed by

meaning, or implied;- and each of these (twelve) again

occurs in a paronomatic word also". (10. 105 and first sutra

of10.106).

The vrtti explains it further,"The groundi of

149
jissimilitude - i.e., the ground of the superiot'ity o:f the

'object compared' and the ground of the inferiority of th~

(object compared to'- when both these are mentioned [[it is

one kind of Dissimilitude] ; - where one or the othEer of

these, or both, are not mentioned [we have the three other

kinds of Dissimilitude] ; - we have those four kinds, whe::n

the comparison is expressed by words; another four ~<inds,

when each of the said four has the comparison expressed by

meaning;- and yet another four kinds when each of thE~m has

the comparison only implied;- thus there are twelve

varieties (of this figure) . - Each of these occurs aLso in
paronomatic expressions (expressions with double
meanings) , - and thus we get the twenty- four varieti.es of
Dissimilitude". (Ganganath Jha,1985:397-98).
(18) Aksepa: It is 'hint'. "When something desired to be

said is, as if, suppressed, for the purpose of conve~ing a
special idea, it is Hint; and it is of two kinds, as fuaving
its subject, either (a) about to be mentioned, o:te (b)
already mentioned". (10 .106 and first sutra of 10 .107)
(Ganganath Jha,1985).
(19) Vibhavana: It is 'peculiar causation'. "Peculiar
Causation consists in the mention of the effect, even
though there is denial of the cause". (10 .107) (G~nganath

Jha, 1985).

(20) Visesokti: It is 'peculiar allegation' . "Peculiar

Allegation consists in the omission to affirm the efffects,
even when its causes are present in full force". ((first
sutra of 10.108).

150
 The vrtti adds, "When, even in the combined p:r:esen<ce '=>f

all its causes, the effect is not affirmed, it is Peculiar

Allegation. It is of three kinds -(a) having the reason (of

the non-appearance of the effect) not mentioned, (b) having

the reason mentioned and (c) having the reason such as is

inconceivable". (Ganganath Jha,1985:404).

(21) Yatbasankbya: It is 'symmetrical'. "The Symmetrical

consists in the orderly connection among things mentioned

in a definite order". (10.108) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(22) Artbantaranyasa: It is 'transition'. "Where eit:her a

Universal or a Particular is supported by its converse,-

either through similitude or otherwise,- it is Transition".

(10.109) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(23) Virodba: It is 'contradiction'. "When somethimg is

spoken of as contradictory, even when there Ls no

contradiction,- it is the Figure Contradiction". ((first

sutra of 10.110).
This is of ten kinds:" (1-4) The Universal contradicted

by the four, (1) Universal [ (2) Quality (3) Action and (4)

Substance], -(5-7) the Quality contradicted by three [i.e.

Quality, Action and Substance],- (8-9) Action contradicted

by two [i.e . Act ion and Substance] - and ( 10) Substance

contradicted by Substance;- thus this Figure is o:f , ten

kinds". (10 .110 and first sutra of 10 .111) (Ganganath

Jha,1985).

(24) Svabbavokti: It is 'natural description'. "Whe:n, of

the child and other things, their own action and for~ are

described,- it is Natural Description". (10 .111) . The vrtti

151
explains 'their own' as 'action and form as subsisting int

themselves' and 'form' as 'colour and shape'.

(25) Vyajastuti: It is 'dissembling eulogy'. "When, what,

on the fact of it, is praise or disparagement, turns out to1

be otherwise, it is Dissembling Eulogy". (first sutra of:

.10.112) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(26) Sahokti: It ~:=; 'connected description'. "Where one!

word is expressive of two things, through the force of some!

synonym of the word 'saha' (along with),- it is Connectedl

Description". (10.112) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(27) Vinokti: It is 'privative description'. "That is;

Privative Description in which one thing, without the!

other, is either (a) not beautiful (b) the contrary" .

{first sutra of 10.113) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

{28) Parivrtti: It is 'exchange' . "When there is am

interchange between equal or unequal things ~ it is:

Exchange". {10.113) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(29) Bhavika: It is 'visualisation'. "When past and future!

things are delineated as if they were before the eyes,- it~

is Visualisation". (first sutra of 10.114).

(30) Kavyalinga: It is 'poetical reason'. "When a reason is;

expressed either (a) by a sentence, or (b) by a word,- it

is Poetical Reason". (10.114) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(31) Paryayokta: It is 'periphrasis'. "Periphrasis consists:

in such description as is independent of the ordinary'

denotative relation between the expressive word and the:

expressed meaning". (first sutra of 10 .115) (Ganganatht
Jha, 1985) .

152
(32) Udatta: It is 'exalted'. "The Exalted consists (a) int

the Exaltation of the thing (b) it consists also in the~

representation of great beings as adjuncts (to the thingr

exalted)". (10 .115) (Ganganath Jha, 1985) .

(33) Sa.muccaya~ It is 'concatenation'. " (a) It is;

Concatenation, when, while one cause conducive to the~

effect in question being already present, another also>

turns out to be conducive to it.

(b) It is another kind of the same figure (Concatenation)

when qualities and actions are (described as)

simultaneous". (10 .116) (Ganganath Jha, 1985) .

( 34) Paryaya: It is 'sequence' . "When one things occurs.

successively in more than one, it is Sequence". (first~

sutra of 10 .117) (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . "When the process is:

inverted, it is another kind (of Sequence)". (second sutral

of 10.117) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(35) Ant.zmana: It is 'inference'. "It is description of the!

Probans and the Probandum that constitutes Inference".

(10.117) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(36) Parikara: It is 'insinuation'. "Insinuation is.

description with significant epithets 11 (first sutra of:

10.118) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(37) Vyajokti: It is 'artful assertion' . "Artful Assertiom

consists in concealing, by some artifice, the unhidden.

character of a thing". (10.118) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(38) Parisa.mkhya: It is 'exclusion' ."Where something,

either (a) asked or (b) unasked, on being mentioned, serves;

to exclude other things similar thereto,- it is said to be~

153
Exclusion". {10.119) {Ganganath Jha,1985).

{39) Karanamala: It is 'string of causes'. "Where {among a.

number of things mentioned) , each preceding one appears as:

the cause of each succeeding one,- it is the String of

Causes". {first two sutras of 10.120) {Ganganath Jha,1985).

{40) Anyonya: It is 'reciprocal'. "When two things are!

productive of each other, through an action,- it is the~

Reciprocal". (10.120) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(41) Uttara: It is 'answer' . "(a) When from the hearing of:

only the answer, the presumption of the question is made,-

(b) or when the question being there, an inconceivable!

answer is given, and this more than once,- it is Answer".

(10.121 and first sutra of 10.122) {Ganganath Jha,1985).

{42) Suksma: It is 'subtle'. "Where a subtle fact somehoW'

noticed, is expressed to another person, by means of some!

property,- it is the Subtle 11 {10.122 and first sutra of

10.123) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

{43) Sara: It is 'climax'. "Climax is the successive risingr

in the excellence of things to the highest pitch". {10.123)

{Ganganath Jha,1985).

(44) Asamgati: It is 'disconnection' . "When there is:

representation of two properties, which bear to each other~

the relation of cause and effect, as subsisting, at the!

same time, in totally different places,- it is:

Disconnection". (10.124) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(45) Samadhi: It is 'convenience' . "When, through the help>

of other causes, the fulfillment of an effect is described.

as :becoming easier,- it is Convenience". (first sutra of:

154
10.125) (Ganganath Jha,1985).
(46) Sarna: It is 'compatible'. "When the connection.
(between two things) is considered to be right and proper,-
it is the Compatible". (10.125) (Ganganath Jha,1985).
(47) Visama: It is 'incongruous'. "Where - (a) between two>
things no compatibility can come about, by reason of
extreme dissimilitude,-(b) where the agent does not obtainL
the fruit of his action, but comes by an adverse effect,-
(c) (d) where the quality and action of the cause are~

incompatible respectively, with the quality and action of

the effect,- it is held to be the Incongruous". (10.126-7)
(Ganganath Jha,1985).
(48) Adhika: It is 'exceeding'. "When of the Container andl
the Contained, both of which are large, the respective!
Contained and Container, though really smaller, are!
described as larger,- it is the Exceeding" (10.128)
(Ganganath Jha,1985).
(49) Pratyanika: It is 'hostile' ."It is the Hostile, when a.
person, unable to injure his enemy, is described as;
offering an insult to a relative of that enemy,- such,
description tending to eulogise this latter". (10.129)
(Ganganath Jha,1985).
(50) Milita: It is 'obscured'. "When one thing is obscured~

by another, through a common characteristic, innate or~

adventitious,- it is the Obscured". (10 .130) (Ganganath.

Jha,1985).
(51) Ekavali: It is 'necklace' . "Where [among a number of
things] the succeeding thing is either (a) affirmed or (b)

155
denied, as qualifying the preceding things,- it is the!
' (Ganganath~
Necklace, which is of two kinds". (10.131)

Jha,1985).
(52) Smarana: It is 'reminiscence'. "When on the perception~

of a thing similar to it, there is remembrance of an object;

as previously perceived,- it is Reminiscence". (first sutra:

of 10 .~132) (Ganganath Jha, 1985).

(53) Bhrantiman: It is 'illusion'. "When there is cognition~

of another thing, at the sight of a thing similar to it,-

it is Illusion". (10.132) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(54) Pratipa: It is 'converse'. "(a) Where there is;
discarding of the object compared to, or (b) where that.

object itself is treated, with a view to its beingr

condemned, as the object compared,- it is the Converse".

{10 .133) {Ganganath Jha, 1985) .

(55) Samanya: It is 'identification. "Where, with a view

to delineate the presence of common properties, the object;

described is represented as identical with another, through,

its connection with this latter,- it is held to be!
Identification". (10.134) (Ganganath Jha,1985).
(56) Visesa: It is 'extraordinary . " {a) When the containedl
is represented as existing without its recognised~

container,- {b) when one things is represented as;

subsisting, in the same form, and at the same time, in.
several things;- and {c) where, while a person is engagedl
in the doing of one thing, he is described as
accomplishing, in the same manner, a different thing, whicht
(in reality) is not capable of being accomplished (by that

156
same effort) ; - it constitutes what has been described as:
the figure Extraordinary with its three varieties".

(10.135-36) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

(57) Tadguna: It is 'borrowing of qualities'."When a thing,
through contact with another possessed of extremely"

brilliant qualities, renounces its own quality and takes up'

the qualities of that other thing,- it is Quality-
borrowing". (10.137) (Ganganath Jha,1985)
(58) Atadguna: It is 'non-borrowing of qualities' . "If,
however, there is no absorbing by the one from the other,
it is the Non-borrowing of qualities". (first sutra of:
10 .138) (Ganganath Jha,1985). The vrtti explains, "In a.
case, where the thing with inferior qualities does not~

absorb the form of the other thing,- even when such.

absorption is possible,- then it is the figure named 'Non-
borrowing of Qualities'". (Ganganath Jha,1985:459).
(59) Vyaghata: It is 'frustration'. "When one thing, whichL

has been accomplished, in one way, by one person, is turned~

otherwise in that same way, by another,- that is calledl

'Frustration'" (10.138 and first sutra of 10.139).
( 60) Samsrti: It is 'collocation of figures' . "When these!
(figures) are present, distinctly from one another, it is
Collocation". (10 .139) (Ganganath Jha, 1985) . The vrttL
adds, "When the figures of speech described above are:
present,- as far as possible independently of one another,-
in one substratum,- either (a) in the word or (b) in the:
meaning or (c) in both,- it is called 'Collocation',
because it consists in the co-existence of several in one:

157
thing". (Ganganath Jha,1985:461-2).

(61) Sankara: It is 'commixture'. "(a) When, however, there,

is a relation of subserviency among the said figures of:

speech, which are incapable of independent existence :Oy

themselves,- then it is Commixture. (b) When there is no>

reason in support of, nor any objection against, the

recognition of any one (to the exclusion of the likely'

figures), there is Uncertainty (which forms the second.

variety of Commixture)". (10.140) (Ganganath Jha,1985).

After the brief expositions of some of the important

1 i terary theories, now we shall study the ideas of four:

philosophical schools and of Bhartrhari on theory of

meaning.

158
 Nyaya theory of meaning

According to the metaphysics of the Nyaya system, the!

world of our experience is real and not projection of mind.
It is real as it is knowable (jneya) and nameable:
(abhidheya) . Perception (pratyaksa) is the means of validl

knowledge by which we come to know the real world.

According to sutra i.1.3 of Nyayasutra there are four~

pramanas perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana),

comparison (upamana) and verbal testimony (sabda). There is:
a three-fold procedure for knowing anything - naming (the!
topic) (uddesa), defining (laksana) and critically
examining (pariksa). According to Vatsyayana 1 S
commentary, 11 uddesa means the act of referring to an object~

by name; laksana means the distinguishing characteristic~

(a-tattva-vyavacchedaka-dhar.ma, lit. the characteristic:

which differentiates an object from all other objects) of
the object named; pariksa means ascertainment, with the!
help of the pramanas, the appropriateness of the:
distinguishing characteristic of the object defined".
(Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982:11). So, the first step,
towards knowledge is "naming an object 1 Every name has at
referent which can be compared with other referents and.
then ascertained through pramanas. Thus the knowledge of:
world is obtained through the "meaning of those terms which.
name certain referents 1 On the basis of the discussion int
ii .1. 49 to ii .1. 56 of the Nyayasutra, one concludes that
the Naiyayikas believe that the referent 11
0bject is knowm
from the word because of convention and not because of any

159
natural relation, for words are used to denote specific!

objects according to the (arbitrary) wishes of the seers

(rsi-s), the nobles (arya-s) and the barbarians (mleccha--

s) . If the capacity of words to denote objects were due to

natural relation, then (the use of words) could not have!

been in accordance with their (arbitrary) wishes, just as

the capacity of light to reveal colour has no exception int

the case of any group of people". (Mrinalkanti

Gangopadhyaya,1982:119). Thus the Naiyayikas believe in the!

conventionality of relationship between the word and its

meaning. The verbal understanding arises through followingr

sequence:

"1. The hearer or reader receives the sentence

2. He splits the sentence into morphemes

3. He remembers referents from each morpheme

4. He infers the intention of the speaker and decides the!

intended meaning of.a morpheme

5. He relates meanings thus remembered and understands the!

sentence-meaning. This is what is called sabdabodha or a.

verbal understanding.
The minimum meaning-bearing unit is a pada (morpheme)
according to this system. The hearer or reader remembers:

the meaning only if he knows the relationship (vrtti)

between a pada and its meaning (padartha) . " (V .N. Jha,

memeod :4) .
Sutras ii. 2. 58 to ii. 2. 69 of Nyayasutra deals with the:
determination of the meaning of a term. Sutra ii. 2. sa:
defines that "they (i.e. group of letters) become terms

160
(pada) when suffixes are added to them". The discussion om

this continues as a doubt is raised in respect of the exact

meaning of a term. According to i i . 2 . 59, "there is doubt,
because it (term) is found to be in use as 'invariably

related' (sannidhi) to (i.e. as conveying) the individual.

(vyakti), the shape (akrti) and the class-essence (jati)".

In sutra ii.2.60 an objection is raised that "the term1

means the individual (vyakti) because in the following

cases, viz.- by the pronoun 'that', by group, by gift, by'

acceptance of gift, by numbers, by growing fat, by becoming

emaciated, by colour, by the use of compound, and by'

reproduction colour, by use of compound, and by

reproduction- the term is used to mean the individual". Im

his commentary Vatsyayana gives examples for each of these~

cases.

In the next sutra ii. 2. 61, Gautama refutes this view, "No1
(i.e. the term does not mean the bare individual), because!
of the absence of any fixed determination of the~

individual". Gautama continues in ii.2 .61, "'In spite of the!

absence of the capacity to mean' (a-tadbhave api) (the~

objects other than those signified by them), words are!

used to mean (tat-upacarah) a Brahmin, the platform,
straw-mat, the king, the enemy, the sandal-wood, the!
Ganges, a gown, food, and a person on the following
conditions: association (sahacarana), place of residence!
(sthana), need (tadarthya), behaviour (vrtta), measurement
(mana), container (dharana), nearness (samipya), relationt
(yoga) , cause ( sadhana) and prominence ( adhipa tya) " . Thus

161
there are ten possible conditions which can give rise to>

laksanartha or 'implied meaning' to a term according to the:

context.

It is further argued that if the term, as for example,

'cow', does not mean the individual, then let it mean "the!

shape (akrti), because the knowledge of the existence of

the animal is de:peudent on it (i.e. on the shape).

(ii.2.63) (Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982). It is explained.

in Vatsyayana' s . commentary, "Shape means the structure!

constituted by the limbs of the animal as well as the parts:

of these limbs. When this shape is known, there is the!

definite knowledge of the existence of the animal as "this~

is a cow" or "this is a horse"; but when (this shape) is;

not known \there is no such definite knowledge) . The termt

should mean only that the knowledge of which leads to the!

definite knowledge of the existence of the animal.

Therefore, this shape is meant by it (i.e. by the term)".

(Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982:166).

However, the commentary further adds, " . . this view is not~

established. By the term cow is meant the object.

characterised by the class-essence, i.e. which has relationt

with the class-essence (viz. cowness) . There is no1

connection of the class-essence with the structure of the!

limbs etc. (i.e. the shape). With which then is it (i.e.

the class-essence) connected? It is connected with the!

animal as a whole, constituted by the structure of the:
limbs. Therefore, the term does not mean the shape".
(Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982:166).
About this view that the term should mean the class-

162
essence, an objection is raised,"The term means the class-

essence (jati) because in spite of the presence of

individuality and shape in an earthen cow, it is not made~

the object of the ceremony of sprinkling water etc.

(observed in connection with the gift of a cow)". (ii.2.64)

(Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982).

In the next sutra, Gautama answers this objection, "No>

(i.e. the term does not mean the class-essence alone),

because the knowledge of the class-essence is not.

irrespective of (the knowledge of the shape and the~

individual)". (ii.2.65) (Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982).

As a conclusion to this debate, Gautama concludes," .. the:

term means the individual-cum-shape-cum-class-essence".

(ii. 2. 66) (Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya, 1982) . In the next three sutras

defines each of the three:

1. Vyakti:"Individual means the 'specific image' (murti),

which is the substratum of some qualities (like colour:

etc.). (ii.2.67) (Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982).

2. Akrti: "Shape is that by which is known the class-essence~

of its mark". (ii.2.68) (Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982).

3. Jati: "Class-essence is that which produces the knowledge~

of commonness". (ii.2.69) (Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya,1982).

On the basis of the above brief exposition of the Nyayat

theory of meaning, one can conclude that there is a primary

relation or abhidha and relation based on the intendedl

meaning or laksana between the word and meaning. There may

not be any space for vyanjana in this system as all.

implications tend to be included in laksana. As v. N. Jha.

163
writes," .. there is a primary relation and an extendedl

relation. There is no necessity in this syst.em of any third.

variety of relation called vyanjana or suggestion. Thus,

there are primary meanings and secondary meanings, and.

these meanings are nothing more than the referent except~

the fact that they are designated . on the basis of the~

knowledge of a relationship between ~hat morpheme and what.

it stands for". (V.N.Jha,memeod:6).

,~ .....
The tradition of Nyaya philosophers developed the!

concept of tatparyavada in debate with the Mimamsa theories.

of anvitabhidhanavada and abhihitanvayavada. After definingr

words and their relationship with meaning, the naiyayikas:

expounded the concept of tatparya as the power whicht

indicates the mutual relationship among the words in a.

sentence. "The additional element conveyed by a sentence,

over and above the separate concepts conveyed by separate~

words, is the intended relation of the concepts;

(padarthasamsarga) and this additional element, which is:

the distinctive feature of a verbal judgment (vakyartha) is;

conveyed through the particular juxtaposition of words'

( samsargamaryada) , and not through a primary or secondary

significative power of words (abhidha or laksana) ". (quotedl

by K.Kunjunni Raja,1963:221 from S. Kuppuswami Sastri, A~

Primer of Indian Logic,p.258).

According to C. D. Bij al wan, the theory of ta tparyavadal
is first introduced by Jayanta in his Nyayamanjari.
Bijalwan writes on Jayanta' s theory, "Ta tparya, accordingr

to him, is the power, on account of which the words convey

164
a related meaning of the words contained in at

sentence".(C.D. Bijalwan,1977:248). Bijalwan quotes the,

following verse from Nyayamanjari:

Abhidhatri mata saktih padanam svarthanisthata.

Tesam tatparyasaktistu samsargavagamavadhih.

(Nyaya Manjari I-372 as quoted by C.D.

Bijalwan,1977:248)

and illustrates this verse as "The words by their primary

power known as abhidha denote their primary meanings. But

on being used in a sentence, they have an additional power

which continues to work until the meanings of the words are,

presented to our consciousness as being in relation witht

one another in a sentence". (C.D. Bijalwan,1977:248).

The introduction of tatparya as a separate vrtti witht

abhidha is a unique contribution of Jayantabhatta in the'

Indian theories of meaning. Theoreticians

I '
Anandavardhanaand others have used this concept in their
literary theories. (K. Kunjunni Raj a, 1963:213) . The concept:

of tatparyavada is so important that often the Nyaya theory

of meaning is called the 'theory of tatparya or:

intentionality .

Next we shall discuss the Mimamsa theory of meaning.

Mimamsa theory of meaning

The primary purpose of Mimamsa philosophy is to interpret

Vedas. The Mimamsasutra of Jaimini has evolved many

165
categories and concepts which help in in~erpreting andl

developing a theory of meaning and interpretation. Though.

Jaimini is primarily concerned with the study of Veda, many'

of his concepts can be used in interpretation of other-

texts.

The major categories of interpretation of a vedic text

are enumerated in the following sutra of Jaimini: sruti -

linga- vakya- prakarana- sthana- samakhyanam samavaye~

paradaurbalyamarthaviprakarsat (3. 3 .14) i.e. "In the commom

applicability of sruti, linga, vakya, prakarana, sthana and.

samakhya, the weakness of the latter is by reason of tj_e~

distance of the sense."(M.L.Sandal,1980).

These categories can be explained as follows:

( 1) Sruti: "Sruti is a word or collection of words not

depending on any other for its meaning. A word has aL

conventional sense attached to it; it is said to be its.

primary sense. Primary sense conveyed by a word without the!

help of any other is sruti. It is directly heard and as:

soon as it is heard, a hearer understands its sense."

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xviii).

(2) Linga: "It is the suggestive or the secondary sense of

a word which can be inferred from another word or:

collection of words." (M.L.Sandal,1980:xviii). Further-

M.L.Sandal quotes Kishori Lal Sarkar to explain linga,"Whem

the meaning of a word or expression is not clear on the!

face of it and its latent force or suggestive power has to>

be brought out by the suggestive power of some other word.

or expression, this is called linga". (quoted bY'

166
M.L.Sandal,1980:xviii-xix). For example, in the sentence, 'I:

cut thee, 0 grass, for the seat of god', the word 'grass'

specifically means only the 'kusa grass'.

(3) Vakya: "When the meaning of a word or collection of

words is gathered from the whole sentence, it is called the~

principle of vakya by the Mimamsakas" .

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xix).

For example, 'One whose ladle is made of parna wood does

not hear evil things'. In this sentence, it is clear that

ladle can be made of any wood but the spiritual quality of

not hearing evil thing is achieved only by 'parna wood' .

This special quality of parna wood is indicated only by the~

principle of vakya.

( 4) Prakarana: "When a sentence or a clause of a sentence

is not clear and its meaning cannot be gathered without the~

context in which it occurs, the construction is governed by

the principle of prakarana". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xix).

For example, in the sentence, 'he sacrifices the~

sacrificial wood' , one can know only through the context-

who sacrifices wood and with what purpose.

If the context related to the principal sense expressedl
in the sentence, it is called mahaprakarana. If the context

relates to the subordinate parts of the sentence, it is:

called avantara prakarana.
( 5) Sthana: When the location or order of words help im
interpretation, it is called sthana or position.
For example, 'give mangoes, guavas and oranges to Rama,
Shyama and Radha' can imply by principle of sthana that

167
'give mangoes to Rama, guavas to Shy am~ and oranges to>

Radha'.

( 6) Samakhya: "It is a name or denomination. It is a.

compound word which should be broken up into its component.

parts and its meaning should be thus ascertained; as for

instance, wine-cup (a cup from which one drinks wine) is:

distinguishable from the milk-cup .. " (M.L.Sandal,1980:xx).

Apart from the above categories.{__ the order as found im

the text is important f<;r- understanding of the text. There

can be various kinds of krama or order as shown in the~

following chart:

krama

~~--~~----~~----~~---'~~----~1--
sruti artha patha sthana mukhya pravrtti
krama krama krama krama krama krama
-:----1----"""7"1
mantra Brahman a

I I
kevalakramapara tadvisistapadarthapara

Now we shall explain these categories:

( 1) Sru tikrama: "Sru tikrama is the order determined by a.

direct text. It is of two kinds - 1st kevalakramapara i.e.

a text indicating an order or sequence only, as for

instance 'Vedam krttva vedimkaroti 'He prepares an altar:

after making the Veda'. The second class is

tadvisistapadarthapara indicating the order or sequence int

168
the course of laying down certain other thing; as for
instance ~vasatkartuh prathamabhavah' ~The first drinks is
of one who pronounces vasat' . The passage enjoins drinkingr
and by the way indicates the order or sequence. The~

srutikrama predominates over other kinds of krama".

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxii).
(2) Arthakrama: "Arthakrama is the order determined by the~

object; as for instance agnihotram juhoti yavangupacati ~He~

performs an agnihotra and cooks yavangu'; though yavangw

happens to be last in the above quotation, yet as its;
cooking is indispensable for the performance of the~

agnihotra, it will be cooked first. The arthakramat

therefore predominates over the pathakrama".

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxii).
(3) Pathakrama: "When the order of the execution of things

is governed by their order in the text, it is calledl

pathakrama. It is of two kinds, it is either governed by-
the text of the mantra or by the text of the Brahmana."
(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxii).
Mantra is a text which helps one to remember the~

procedures of sacrifice or alternatively the commandatory

portion(s) of Veda. Brahmana is that portion of Veda which_
contain "reason, explanation, censure, praise, doubt,
command, action of a single individual or of many, taking-
the words in a different sense and comparison".
(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxxvii). These ten characteristics of
Brahmana can be illustrated as follows:

(i) Hetu: It is reason. For example, surpena juhoti

169
tenahyannam kriyate i.e. 'he makes an offering with at
winnowing basket, because by it corn is sifted'.
(ii) Nirvacanam: It is explanation. For example,
taddghnodadhitvam i.e. 'Therefore curd is so called'.
(iii) Ninda: It is censure. For example, moghamannam1

bindate apraceta i.e. 'An unmindful person gets useless

food'
( i v) Prasamsa: It is praise. For example, vayuvaiksepista~

i.e. 'wind is swiftest of all'.

(v) Samsaya: It is doubt. For example, hotavsram garhapatye~

na hotavyam i.e. 'whether it should be offered in the~

domestic fire or not'.

(vi) Vidhi: It is a command. For example, 'kindle fire'.
(vii) Parakriya: It is the action of one individual.
(viii) Purakalpa: "It is the action of many individuals or
a nation. These are the historical description of one~

individual or many individuals and are indicated by the~

particles ' i t i ' , 'aha' or 'ha"'. (M.L.Sandal,1980:xxxvii)

(ix) Vyavadharanakalpana: "When a word or a sentence means.
one thing but taking the surrounding circumstances into>
consideration, it means another, it is said to be its:
imagined sense; as for instance yavatosvan pratigrhiyat;

'Let him take as many horses' meaning thereby 'let him be~

given .... "' (M. L. Sandal, 1980 :xxxvii)

(x) Upamana: It is comparison.
( 4) Sthanakrama: "Sthanakrama means presentation. When at
thing is transposed from its proper place by reasons of its
being preceded by another thing which is followed by

170
another, this transposition of the order is calledl

sthanakrama. An illustration will explain it better. In a.

jyotistoma, there are the agnisomiya, savaniya andl

anubandhya animal sacrifices in their order; but in a.

madyaskra which is the modified sacrifice of the jyotistomat

the savaniya, agnisomiya and anubandhya animal sacrifices

are performed, because after the drinking of the asvina cupl

the savaniya animal sacrifice presents itself first."

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxiii).

(5) Mukhyakrama: "Mykhyakrama is the sequence of the~

subsidiaries or the subordinate parts according to the~

order in the principal. In it, the sequence or the order of

the details in the subordinate parts is governed by that of:

the principal of which the subsidiaries are the subordinate~

parts. As for instance, when ghee is left after the pravajat

offering, it will be first offered to Agni and then to1

Indra because the . agneya is prior to aindra oblations.

Mukhyakrama predominates over the pravrttikrama and is.

inferior to the pathakrama". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xxiii).

( 6) Pravrttikrama: "Pravrttikrama is the order of a.

procedure which once begun will apply to others as well. As;

for instance in a prajapatya sacrifice several animals are~

sacrificed; you choose one animal at random and performl

certain ceremonies on it. The order in which the ceremonies

are performed on the first animal will govern the order of:
the ceremonies on the rest of the animals."
(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxiii).
Jaimini accepts only sabda or verbal testimony as the~

171
valid pramana or means of knowledge. In 1.1. 5, Jaimini.

writes on sutra: autpattikastw

sabdasyarthenasambandhastasya
jnamupadesovyatirekascarthenupalabdhe tatpramanam1

badarayanasyanapeksatvat (1.1. 5) i.e. "Certainly there is;

eternal connection between the word and its meaning; its.

knowledge is upadesa: it is never erroneous in matters;

invisible; it is authoritative in the opinion of Badarayana.

by reason of its not depending on others".

(M.L.Sandal,1980:2).

M.L.Sandal comments on this sutra, "The author says that

the word and its meaning are eternally connected, this is;

one proposition; the knowledge thereof is called upadesa in.

the language of Mimamsa, it is the second proposition. InL

matters connected with invisible things it is never

erroneous; this is the third proposition. In the opinion of:

Badarayana the word is authoritative; this is the 4th~

proposition; and lastly it does not depend upon any other~

proof and is sufficient in itself." (M.L.Sandal,1980:2).

For analysing sabda, Jaimini divides it into noun or

namadheya, adjective or arthavada and verb. By verb

Mimamsakas understand only 'doing' or 'action' and not;

'being' or 'existence' . Verbs instigate one to performt

certain acts. M. L. Sandal comments on the importance of:

verbs, "The verb in a sentence plays an important part in.

determining the apurva. When there are different verbs,

they denote different actions and thereby so many apurvas,

as for instance vajati, dadati and juhoti sacrifice, gift:

172
and homa which are meant by the verbs are virtuous acts inL

themselves and produce different apurvas".

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xli).

M.L.Sandal further writes on verbs, "The actions are of

two kinds either principal (pradhana) or subordinate!

(guna). When the object of an action is to produce!

invisible effect called the Apurva in the Mimamsa as for

instance the attainment of heaven, it is called principal;

but when the object is to produce visible effect as some!

operation on the material, it is called subordinate. The!

kindling of fire, preparing of cakes and pounding andl

threshing of rice come under the latter category, as the!

result of the various action is visible. The materials to>

be operated upon are the accusative case."

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxxvi). As examples of the principal.

action, M. L. Sandal enumerates the following action, "The!

performance of the sandhya, the reading of the prayajat

mantras and repeating of prose and poetry (sastra and~

stuta) at the time of performance of the sacrifice, come!

under the principal action, their object being to produce!

some invisible effect (apurva) ." (M.L.Sandal,1980:xxxvi).

There are a few more important concepts related to verb'

and actions in a sentence. They can be enumerated as:

follows:

(1) "When there is one verb but there are different acts,

they will have different apurvas and they, therefore,

constitute independent acts", as for example," 'He offers.

sacrificial fuel; he offers to the Tanunapat fire; he~

173
offers Ida; he offers sacrificial grass; he offers svaha'.

The repetition of the same verb in the above quotation.

shows that there are different apurvas involved in the!

different acts". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xlii).

(2) Sambhityopa karaka: Those acts which are not~

independent and have no apurva of their own but lead to the!

apurva of the principal are referred to under this:

category. These are like different subordinate acts under

one principal.

(3) Different nouns denoting one act: "When different nouns

are used in connection with any sacrifice, they meanL

different independent acts". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xliii).

(4) "When there is a compound sentence and the acts are for
different deities, the acts are independent".

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xliii)

(5) "When on the other hand the compound sentence denotes.

one act, it is one independent act though there be two or:

more coordinate sentences, " as for instance, "'He performs:

Agnihotra, he offers curd'. The two sentences describe one!

act; the first sentence is utpattivid.hi while the second~

sentence is gunavid.hi". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xliii) .

.
( 6) "When the sentence is a complex sentence in which the!
subordinate depends upon the principal, the action is one!

and independent, " as for instance, "'Let one desirous of

heaven perform Agnihotra. Let one who is desirous of the!
strength of the sense organs perform a sacrifice . Both.
sentences taken together constitute one complex sentence~

and denote one independent act in which curd is offered".

174
(M.L.Sandal,1980:xliii).
(7) "When in two or more coordinate sentences, the fruits.
and actions are described, they denote two or more!
independent acts" (M.L.Sandal,1980:xliii). It is coordinate~

sentences denoting several acts.

( 8) Two coordinate sentences denoting one act : " ... when one~

act accomplishes different objects though described in two>

or more co-ordinate sentences, it is said to be only one'
independent act". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xliv).
(9) On a conditional sentence: " ... if there is a.
conditional sentence which lays down the apurv~, the!
conditional sentence or sentences denote subordinate action.
or actions". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xliv).
In pada four of chapter one, there is a discussion on.
nouns and adjective. "Namadheya is a proper noun. It may be!
either rudhi or yogarudhi. When it is a name of an action.
in which certain material is used after which it is called,
it is a case of vaiyadhikarana. As for instance let us
'play at bat and ball'. It is the name of a play in whicht
bat and ball are used as a means of play. When an action is.
arbitrarily called by a certain name and the name is:
identical with the action, it is a case of samanadhikarana,
as for instance let us 'play blind man's buff'".
(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxxiv).
There are four categories of namadheya:

(l)matvarthalaksanabhayat ( 2 ) vakyabhedabha ya t:

(3)tatprakhyah (4)tadvyapadesah.

They can be explained as follows:

175
(1) Matvarthalaksanabhayat: It is a "proper noun arisingr

from the fear of using the matvartha laksana. It is a.

figure of speech in which you resort to the matup affix. As;

for instance 'udbhida yajeta pasukamah' 'let one performt

the udbhida sacrifice if he is desirous of cattle'. Here int

the above quotation, the udbhida is the name of a.

particular sacrifice and is, therefore, a proper noun. If:

you resort to the matvartha laksana, read udbhidvat in.

place of udbhida and interpret it as a sacrifice in whicht

the udbhida is used; it will be an attempt to convert a.

simple sentence into two compound sentences or one complex:

sentence and you will thereby corrunit a mistake which is

called the vakyabheda or splitting up of a sentence whicht

is a serious mistake in the eye of a Mimamsaka".

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxv).

(2) Vakyabhedabhayat: "The second class also consists of a.

proper noun but it arises from the fear of the vakyabheda!

or splitting of a sentence. As in the instance~

'citravayajeta pasukamah' 'let one desirous of cattle~

perform citra sacrifice'; it can not indicate the material

used in the sacrifice as there is a passage 'dadhi".

madhupayoghrtam dhana udakam tandulastatsamsrastha:

prajapatyam' 'curd, honey, milk, ghee, parched grain,

water, rice are the mixed offering consecrated to

Praj apati' . If you take ci trava to mean some subordinate~

action, you will commit the mistake of vakyabheda which.

should always be avoided. The citra is, therefore, the name~

of the sacrifice and can not be considered to be the

176
subordinate materials used, for fear of the split of at

sentence." (M.L.Sandal,1980:xxv-xxvi).
{3) Tatprakhya: "Tatprakhya is a conventional name given to>
a particular sacrifice, the description of which is given.
elsewhere in a separate treatise, as for instance~

~agnihotram juhoti' ~he performs Agnihotra'. Agnihotra is a.

name given to a sacrifice conventionally, the descriptiom

of which is given elsewhere. As in ordinary language a.
children's play is called ~blindman's buff'
conventionally". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xxvi).
(4) Tadvyapadesah: It is the "name given to a sacrifice by

reason of its resemblance to another, from which it derives

its name. As for instance, syenanaga which is performed to>
destroy one's enemy is called after a hawk, because a.
sacrificer kills his enemy like a hawk which pounces upont
the birds and kills them. In the ordinary language a.
children's play is called ~duck and drake' by reason of its:
resemblance of those birds". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xxvi).
Before defining arthavada, we need to define two>
technical terms vidhi and nisedha."Vidhi or injunction is a.
command, precept or order...... Nisedha is a negative~

precept just as vidhi is a positive or affirmative precept.

It is preventing a man from doing a thing which is:
injurious or disadvantageous to him".
(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxvi).
M. L. Sandal writes, "Passages in praise or blame are!
called in the terminology of the Mimamsa, arthavada. They
are either complements of a vidhi or nisedha; as for

177
instance, 'vayavyam svetamalabheta bhutikamah because!

vayurvaiksepistadevata. 'Let one who is desirous of

prosperity'- 'sacrifice a white animal to Vayu because VayuL

is the swiftest of the gods'. The first sentence is a vidhi.

and the second sentence being praise of Vayu is ant

arthavada. (M.L.Sandal,1980:xvii).
There are three kinds of arthavada:

Arthavada

~I---------~~~----------~~
gunavada anuvada bhutarthavada~
These three can be explained as follows:

(1) Gunavada: "When a text makes a statement which is

contradictory to the existing state of the affair and means:
of proof, it is said to be gunavada".

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxvii). A hyperbole can come under this:

category.
(2) Anuvada: "When a text makes a statement which is in.
keeping with the existing state of facts, it is said to be!

anuvada". (M.L.Sandal,1980:xxvii).
(3) Bhutarthavada: "When a text makes a statement which is:
neither against the existing state of facts nor is it in.
conformity with it, it is said to be bhutarthavada".
(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxviii).
For example, 'Indra uplifted his thunderbolt against
Vrittra' . In this example, we find a statement which is:
neither against the existing facts nor is it provable by
perception. Hence it is an instance of bhutarthavada.
There is one more type of arthavada discussed through.
the example of srsti by Jaimini. M.L. Sandal explains this:

178
as follows,"The srsti is the name of a particular brick andl

is a proper noun but as the srstis abound in the agnicayana!

so all bricks came to be called the srstis. Take the!

example of Pandit, Seth and Thakur. Thakur originally

applies to a warrior class but is also applicable to every

landlord irrespective of caste". It should be added here:

that as such srsti should be an example of namadheya but.

since it becomes an adjective as it is used for-
quantitatively and qualitatively specifying all those!
bricks which are used for the purpose of agnicayana~

(delineation of the area of sacrificial fire in yajna) .

Now we shall discuss the Mimamsaka's concept of a.

sentence. But before discussing their concept of sentence,

we shall define two terms which are important in Mimamsa:

(1) Bhavana: It is a technical term in Mimamsa. M.L. Sandal.

explains it as "The activity to perform a yajna accompanied~

by all the psychological factors of the mind is calledl

bhavana in the language of Mimamsa. It is of two kinds~

sabdi and arthi. The former arises from the word of mouthL

i.e. corrnnand. When a man is told to do or not to do a.

thing, he does it or refrains from doing it, because he!

feels that he is so ordered. I order my servant to bring my
horse, he is bound to bring it. In the worldly affairs, the!

order comes from a superior, but in religious affairs the:

command comes from the Veda.

"In the arthi bhavana, the energy to act arises from a.

particular motive or desire to act or refrain from acting.
The command has generally the linga form of a verb" .

179
(M.L.Sandal,1980:xiv).

(2) Apurva: "When a text lays down a new injunction for the~

attainment of our object which you cannot know by any other:

means, it is said to be apurvavidhi as for instance

'yajetasvargakamah' 'Let one who is desirous of heavem

perform a sacrifice' . Here in the text we find that a new

thing is laid down, viz, the attainment of heaven; it is:

further known that you can have it by performing a.

sacrifice. We also further know that we are entirely'

ignorant whether heaven can really be obtained by the~

performance of a sacrifice; it is only from the text that~

we know it and there is no other means to verify the:

statement contained in it." (M.L.Sandal,1980:xxiv).

According to the above definition apurva has two parts:

(i) a command and (ii) a desire to act. (i) is like sabdi:

bhavana and (ii) is the source of the arthi bhavana.

Jaimini. defines sentence in 2 .1. 46 as arthaikatvadekarm

vakyam sakanksam cedvibhage syat i.e. "By reason of the~

unity of sense there is one sentence; on division it is:

independent" (M.L.Sandal,1980:54).
M.L. Sandal comments on this sutra,"The author defines at
sentence. If it gives one idea, it is simple sentence; but

if there are several sentences mutually depending on eacht

other for their meaning, they constitute a complex:

sentence". (M.L.Sandal,1980:54).
Sutra 2.1.47 deals with 'splitting of sentence': samesu va-

kyabhedah syat i.e. "In equal, there is a split of:

sentences". (M.L.Sandal,1980:54). M.L. Sandal comments on.

180
this sutra, "The author says that when the sentences are!
independent and do not depend on each other for their

meaning, they are compound or co-ordinate sentences. There!

is a split of sentence. For example, ~Rama came and Krisna.

went'" (M.L.Sandal,1980:54).

Sutra 2 .1. 48 explains anusanga: anusango vakyasamaptiht

sarvesu tulyayogitvat i.e. "Anusanga is a completion of aL
sentence by reason of the equal fitness in all" .

(M.L.Sandal,1980:54). M.L. Sandal comments on this;

sutra, "The author explains what anusanga is. In order to'

understand it, it should be borne in mind that there are~

three essential things of a sentence akanksa, yogyata,

sannidhi. The first is the desirability; if you utter the~

words cow, horse etc. they require the aid of some other

words to complete the sense as ~Bring a cow or send the!

horse'. Yogyata is fitness; if you say ~sprinkle with fire'

it is not suited; it ought to be ~sprinkle with water' .

Sannidhi is proximity. If you say ~Bring' in the morning:

and ~water' in the evening, these two words have no meaningr

if uttered so differently. Now anusanga is the insertion of

a word or a phrase in order to complete the sentence, so>

that every part of it may fit in and may not violate the!

rules enumerated above. It is an ellipsis to be filled in,

in order to fit in there." (M.L.Sandal,1980:54-55).

M.L. Sandal quotes Kisori Lal Sirkar for explainingr

anusanga, "Where there is a number of incomplete clauses:

followed by one which is completed by a finite verbal.

clause, this last should be read at the end of each of the!

181
other clauses to make them complete" .

(M.L.Sandal,1980:xxxviii).
Sutra 2.1.49 gives an example where there is no'
anusanga: vyavayannanusajyeta i.e. "There is no anusanga by
reason of intervention~'. (M.L.Sandal,1980:55). M.L. Sandal
conunents, "The author gives an example where there is no>
case of anusanga. If there is vyavadhana i.e. intervention.
by means of a word or phrase which breaks in the!
continuity, then it is not a case of anusanga" .

(M.L.Sandal,1980:55).
In sutra 1.4.29, it is indicated that in case of
doubtful meanings one has to understand with help of:
ellipsis. According to 1.4.30,"An ellipsis is to be:
determined by the power of the meaning because
adjustment of sense is the part of the Veda"

(M.L.Sandal,1980:41). M.L. Sandal explains this in his:

conunentary , 11 'He makes an offering with a ladle, he makes an.
offering with a knife, he makes an offering with the hand'.
The sense requires that in the first passage ghee is meant,
in the second flesh is meant and in the third grain etc.
are meant. Take the examples. 'He ate on mat. He ate on a.
bellmetal vessel'. The meaning is that he sat on a mat andl
took his food and in the other passage it means, that he:
took his fovd which was served in a bell-metal vessel."
(M.L.Sandal,1980:41).
S.entential Meaning
Regarding the constitution of meaning from a sentence,
two schools flourished among the Mimamsakas

182
anvitabhidhanavada and abhihitanvayavada. "On hearing the!

words of a sentence, we get a unitary sense which is the!

meaning of the sentence. The problem is whether this;

unitary sense arises directly from the collection of the!

meanings of the individual words that comprise it. The!

anvi tabhidhana theory takes the former view, while the:

abhihitanvaya theory takes the latter." (K.Kunjunni.

Raja,1963:194).

Abhihitanvaya, the theory of Kumarilabhatta's school, is

"the theory that views the judgment arising from at

proposition as the relation (anvaya) of concepts that are

denoted (abhihita) in isolation by the constituent words".

(Bishnupada Bhattacharya,1962 :136). K.Kunjunni Raja.

explains the position of abhihi tanvayavadins in followingr

words, " ... the meaning of a sentence is a concatenation of

the individual items expressed by the words. The individual.

words have in themselves meanings which can be comprehended.

separately. On hearing a sentence, we have first ant

understanding of the separate meanings of the words one!

after the other; then we put together these meanings;

according to --the three factors akanksa, yogyata, and.

samnidhi, and we arrive at the meaning of the sentence".

(K.Kunjunni Raja,1963:203-204). Further K.Kunjunni Raja.

quotes S.C. Chatterjee for explaining the justification of:

the abhihi tanvaya theory, "If the words of a sentence have

no separate meanings of their own, then the classificationt

of words into nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. becomes

meaningless. Further, in every case in which we are to'

183
understand the meaning of a sentence, we must first.
understand the meaning of its component words. Without a.
previous understanding of the words no one can understandl
the meaning of a sentence. Moreover, if the meaning of a.
sentence were quite independent of the meaning of its;
constituent words, then any sentence could convey any
meaning. Lastly, when we understand the meaning of a newr
verse, we do so obviously on the basis of our knowledge of
the words and their separate meanings. This cannot be!
explained by any understanding of the sentences, since they
are new and unintelligible to us. So it is concluded that.
the meaning of a sentence is just the synthesis of the,
separate meanings of its words". (quoted from S.C.
Chatterjee by K.Kunjunni Raja,1963:211).
Anvitabhidhanavada is the school of the followers;
Prabhakara "in whose opinion the judgment that is evidently
relational in character is nothing but a juxtaposition of:
the concepts themselves that are in essence expressed along
with the relation that they ultimately bear to one!
another". (Bishnupada Bhattacharya, 1962: 136-137) . By
'judgment', Bishnupada Bhattacharya implies 'meaning of the~

sentence' . K. Kunjunni Raj a summarizes the position of

anvi tabhidhanavadins as, " .... there is only one potency for:

words to express the meaning as related to the rest of the:

words. It is through recollection that we remember the!
meanings of words, and this is by rousing the mental
impressions of previous experiences that we never come!
across words except as related in a sentence; isolated.

184
words have no existence in everyday speech-activity (a one-

word sentence is a sentence, not an isolated word) . The:

word-meaning and the relation to the other words are knownt

by abhidha itself". (K.Kunjunni Raja, 1963 :202). K.Kunjunni.

Raj a further writes, "The anvi tabhidhana theory seems to be~

an advance on the abhihi tanvaya theory" . (quoted from S.C.

Chatterjee by K.Kunjunni Raja~1963:212). K. Kunjunni Rajal

illustrates it as, "The meaning of a sentence dominates the

meanings of its words; both the speaker and the listener

are concerned only with the sentence-meaning. (K. Kunjunni

Raja,1963:212).

After this brief exposition of the Mimamsa theory of

meaning, now w~ shall study the Jaina theory of meaning.

185
 Jaina theory of meaning
According to the Jainas, sabda is all kinds of sound.
symbolism. Jaina theorists have classified 'word' in the:

following categories:

Sabda

I I
prayogika va.israsika
~-----1----------~ I
I non-linguistic
linguistic non-linguistic (no linguistic transformation)
(linguistic transformation possible) I
friction

I
alphabetical non-
alphabetical

I I I I
tata vitata ghana sus ira sangharsa

These categories can be defined as follows:

(1) Prayogika: Those words which are produced by the effort
of animate beings. It is of two types - linguistic or non-
linguistic. The linguistic signs can be constituted of
alphabets or can be devoid of alphabets. Examples of:
linguistic signs devoid of alphabets are like sighs, cries
etc. These linguistic signs can be transformed into>
alphabetical patterns as they are used in language. Such.
linguistic signs can be divided into following five:

186
categories:
(i) Tata: Those sounds which are produced by the!
instruments wrapped with leather.
(ii) Vitata: Those sounds which are produced by the!
stringed instruments.
(iii) Ghana: The sounds produced by striking of bells and.

such other instruments.

(iv) Susira: The sounds produced by winged instruments or
conchshells.
(v) Sangharsa: The sounds produced by friction of some!
objects.

(2) Vaisrasika: Those words which are produced by friction.

of inanimate objects. For example, sounds produced by'

thundering clouds.
Words can be either written or spoken. Written word is.
revealed to us through, eyes whereas spoken words throught
ears. According to Prajnapana Sutra, the sound-waves;
revealed as words go till the end of the world. (Sagarmal.
Jain,1986:31). Jainas consider word a stage of pudgala or
matter. According to them, the relation between a word andl
its meaning is non-eternal. According to
Pramananayatattvalokalamkara, one understands meaning of at

word on the basis of following three factors: (i) natural

potency of words (ii) symbolism (iii) convention. (Sagarmal.
Jain,1986:38). Context also helps in determining the~

meaning(s) of a word.
Jainas define a sentence as 'that independent set of

187
words which require each other for revealing the saidl
meaning'. (Sagarmal Jain,1986:59). In this definition, the~

meaning of a sentence can be considered to be independent.

of the discourse. Sentence is an integral unit of meaning
constituted of various segmented units of meaning calledl
word.

Anekantavada, the most essential part of Jaina.

philosophy, can also provide an understanding of the!
plurality of textual meaning. For textual interpretation,
two important tenets of anekantavada can be used:
(1) Anekantavada as the theory of manifoldness of
realities, can account for the complexity and the!
multiplicity of interpretation of a textual meaning. On.
anekantavada, Dr. Y. J. Padmaraj iah writes, 11
'anekantavada' ,

after which the entire Jaina metaphysics is often known, is:

the postulation of manifoldness, or inherent _complexity,
within each of the reals in the universe. In other words,
reality, according to Jainism, is not merely multiple but~

each real, in its turn, is manifold or complex to its core.

Reality is thus a complex web of manyness (aneka) andl
manifoldness (anekanta) 11
(Dr. Y .J. Padmaraj iah, 1963: 275) .
This recognition of diversity of reality along witht
diversity of each reality can be true of textual meaning or
meanings.
(2) Anekantavada recognises the objectivity of the material
universe. Padmaraj iah writes, " .... the theory of:
identity-in-difference, the metaphysical presupposition of
anekantavada, animating all the spheres of Jainat

188
philosophical thinking, recognises the objectivity of the~

material universe. The objectivity of the universe!

signifies the fact that the universe is independent of the~

mind of consciousness." (Dr. Y .J. Padmaraj iah, 1963: 274) .

This kind of objectivity can be used for explaining the~

objectivity of meaning of a literary text. The text can.

have a meaning-in-itself which may not depend on the~

subjectivity of the interpreter.

Further if we extend the concept of reality as beingr

manifested through a 'complex web of manyness and.

manifoldness' to the textual interpretation, we may-

visualise multiplicity of textual meanings. The same text

can have multiple layers of meaning interwoven in the~

complex web of overall discourse meaning which in turn is

again manifold. Thus, in the Jaina theory, there is aL

possibility of accepting the different understandings of a.

text. This approach can be helpful in analysing a text om

the patterns similar to the 'reader-response theory' .

Multiplicity of meanings can be explained by multiple~

readings of the text and each interpretation can further

have layers of meaning.

Now we shall study the Bauddha theory of meaning.

Bauddha theo:r:y Qt. meaning

The Buddhist theory of meaning is known as apohavada.

Ratnakirti defines the term apoha in the followingr

manner:"What is meant by the term apoha 'Differentiation'?

189
(There are three possible interpretations) . If
etymological sense is taken: (1) A is differentiated fromt
non-A (Bj; or non-A (B) from A; or (2) B is differentiatedl
out in the midst of A then what is intended by a term is
simply A; either the external object or the mental concept.
separated from (the class of) non-A or else (3)

'Differentiation' is denial (and thus) is mere exclusion of:

non-A." (Dhirendra Sharma, 1969 :49). After having explained.
these three meanings of apoha, Ratnakirti rejects all of:
them because they do not imply the affirmation which is
intended by the term apoha. Ratnakirti writes," .. neither
the first nor the second (view obtains) for it is, indeed,
an affirmation which is intended by the term apoha. And the!
last (third) view is also unsatisfactory, since it is.
contradicted by perception and ordinary understanding. Thus;
the understanding of the proposition 'There is fire on the~

mountain' develops on the delineation of something in the!

affirmative form and not on a purely negative~

statement: 'there is not non-fire'". (Dhirendrat

Sharma,1969:49). Ratnakirti also adds that "what is.
contrary to perception cannot be justified by some other:
means (such as an inferential argument." (Dhirendra.
Sharma, 1969 :49) Therefore, according to Ratnakirti, the!
meaning is posited by an affirmative sense-experience along
with the inferential process of differentiation andl
negation.
According to Buddhists there are "two valid means of
acquiring knowledge, i.e. sensation or perceptiom

190
(pratyaksa) and inference (anumana) . Anumana "refers [not~

only to the cognitive process but also] to the resulting-

cognition".(Richard P. Hayes,1984:231-232). The object of:

sensation or perception is the 'thing-in-itself' which is.

efficient to perform any significant act and which is;

momentary". (Rajnish Kumar Mishra, 1996: 148) . Inference~

gives us the samanya laksana (universal properties) whereas;

pratyaksa gives us the svalaksana or unique particular of

an object as a positive existent. "A unique particular is;

positive existent in the external world, not dependent on.

space and time, non-explicable in terms of quality or:
substance, knowable through indeterminate perception, free'

from the postulates of class, name, configuration etc. The~

object of inference is universal or the general properties

of an object. In Buddhist system of thought, universal has;

been defined as that which is differential in nature!

(atadvyavrtti form of the real object), knowable throughL

verbal or inferential sign, conceptual form of the object,

non-existent in the external world, dependent on space andl

time; associated with quality, generic configuration/ form,

name and class". (Rajnish Kumar Mishra,1996 :149). RajnishL
further writes on the words, "It is also important to note~

that word as a linguistic sign is not different from the~

inferential sign in Buddhist epistemology. Both linguistic:

as well as inferential signs (linga =hetu = 'smoke for the~

cognition of fire') capture only the general properties of

the object. This is the reason why Buddhist logicians;
include verbal testimony and analogy both in inference."

191
(Rajnish Kumar Mishra,1996:149). Dinnaga writes im

Pramanasamuccaya,"Verbal communication is no different fromt

inference as a means of acquiring knowledge. For it names;
its object in a way similar to the property of having been.

produced, by precluding what is incompatible". (Richard P.

Hayes,1984:252).

Regarding the process through which the word refers to

an object Dinnaga writes in the karika 12 of the chapter

five of Pramanasamuccaya, "Although that which is expressed.

by a word has many properties, it is not cognized in its;

entirety through a word. The word performs the task of

isolating its referents according to its intrinsic:
relations to what it expresses". (Richard P.
Hayes,1984:277). In the next karika, Dinnaga further~

specifies his statement, "A word too has many properties.

But it makes its object known only through those properties:

by which it does not deviate from the object; it does not.

make its object known through the fact that significant~

sound is a quality and other such properties". (Richard P.

Hayes,1984:277).
In kar.ika 18 of the fifth chapter, Dinnaga writes about.
the synonymous expression, 11
That which is made knowm
through synonyms is made known through only one of the set
of synonymous expressions. If the whole is different froml
its parts, both grammatical agreement and the qualification.
relation are contravened". (Richard P.Hayes,1984:283).
Commenting on this, Hayes writes, 11
if 'blue and 'lotus
are construed as simply naming the same particular, then,

192
since 'blue' and 'lotus' are co-extensional, they would be~

synonyms . In that case, 'lotus' might be regarded as a.

gloss for 'blue' in about the same way that in the~

expression 'He is a gentleman, a man of noble birth', the'

phrase 'a man of noble birth' names nothing in addition to>

what 'gentleman' names but serves only to clarify in which.

of its various allowable sense 'gentleman' is being used.

But if 'blue' and 'lotus' are synonymous, then neither word.

is qualifying or modifying the scope of the other". (Richardl

P.Hayes,1984:287).

Words are normally used in certain context and the:

meaning expressed is complex in nature. On the complexity'

of meaning Dinnaga opines, "Since the thing expressed is a.

complex entity, neither blue in isolation nor a lotus im

isolation is expressed. [The individual. words] have no,

meaning, just as the individual phonetic components of at

word have no meaning". (Richard P. Hayes,1984:279).

Commenting on the possibility of comprehending the compoundl

sentences in the apoha theory, Richard P. Hayes:

writes, <"How is it that the expression "blue lotus"'

expresses a single object?" This question possibly
anticipates an objection to Dinnaga' s apoha theory that;

might be raised by someone who subscribes to the theory

that individual words names individuals and that strings of:

words taken together as compound expressions name something
like the class of things in which all the universals namedl

by the individual words inhere. Under this theory the word.

"blue" in the expression "blue lotus" has as its warrant of:

193
application (pravrttinimitta) the universal blueness or the!

quality of blue colour, the word "lotus" has as its warrant

of application the universal lotushood, and the warrant for:

the juxtaposition of the two words is the collocation of

these universals in a single locus or set of individual.

loci, which is expressible by the compound expression. The:

challenge is now put to Dinnaga to account for the meanings;

of compound expressions under his theory that denies that

words name positive entities such as universals>. (Richardl
P. Hayes,1984:280).

For answering this objection, Dinnaga puts forward the:

argument that the complex universals do not exist outside!
thought. He says, "A unified complex entity does not exist,

since it would then follow that the components are!

identical with one another [and] because it would then~

follow that the complex entity would be many. They do not;

give up their individual meanings". (Richard P.

Hayes,1984:282). This argument can be alternativelY'

presented as an emphasis on the view "that the word 'blue'

is applicable to the sesame and the lotus not because the!

sesame and the lotus have in common a property that 'blue'
names, but rather because nothing prevents our applying the!
word 'blue' to the sesame and to the locus. Thus, it is not
so much a matter of sesame and lotus being members of the!
class of blue things as of there being no contradiction.
involved in our saying 'This is both blue and a sesame'".
(Richard P.Hayes,1984:285).
In the context of apoha, it becomes essential to define!

194
what does a term exclude. Dinnaga explains this in karikat
twenty five of the fifth chapter of Pramanasamuccaya, "A.
term does not exclude terms of wider extension, terms of:
narrower extension or co-extensive terms, even though they
differ from it".{Richard P.Hayes,1984:287). Dinnaga further
explains this in karikas twenty six, twenty seven, twenty
eight and thirty one which are as follows:

"26.0.0 A wider term does not exclude its

narrower terms, because it creates
anticipation for them alone. Neither does it
entail them, because uncertainty arises
concerning which of its narrower terms is
applicable. In either case the two terms can
apply to the same set of objects.
27.0.0 A narrower term, being restricted to
more than one wider term, can entail several
wider terms. There is not a symmetrical
qualification relation between the two terms.
28.0.0 A narrower term precludes the objects
denoted by other narrower terms because of
hostility. Because particulars of another
wider term are contradicted by the word
sismsapa's own wider term."
{Richard P. Hayes,1984:290-291)
31.0. 0 "An alternative explanation is that
preclusion is due to non-observation. A wider
term would exclude what is narrower than
itself. That is not the case, because one
does observe that. which is connected with
other things".
{Richard P. Hayes,1984:295)
Dinnaga continues with his argument and establishes his:
hypothesis expressed in the above mentioned 25th karika by
the end of the fifth chapter of his Pramanasamuccaya.
In the history of development of Buddhist theory of
meaning, Dinnaga's views have been interpreted several.
times in context of the debates with the competing schools.
on the theory of meaning. However, from the apoha of:

195
Dinnaga (approximately 4th century A.D.) to the visistapohat

of Ratnakirti (approximately 11th century A.D.), the line~

'
of argument has been the same that a word posits the!

positive meaning by means of excluding all its counter-

correlates. By direct perception (pratyaksa) we know the!

positive existent of an object and then we infer the~

universal properties of that particular object. Since al

word names an object on the basis of the mental image of

its universal properties, so the inference can be includedl

in the process of verbal communication. In verbal

communication, the word performs the task of isolating the!

referents by identifying the object through contextual

exclusion. Even the synonymous expressions can have the!

same referent only in a particular context of contextual

exclusion. This contextual exclusion depends on a lot of:

factors like the relationship between the enveloping terms

with the words denoting the enveloped concepts.

Next we shall discuss Bhartrhari s Vakyapadiya to'

examine the views of the Grammarians theory of meaning.

VakYaPadiya of Bhartrhari

Vakyapadiya of Bhartrhari (about 5th Century A.D.) is at

text on philosophy of language. In this study, we shall

mainly study Bhartrharis concept of sabda, sphota, dhvani.

and some aspects of the relationship between lexical and.

196
sentential meaning.

The first karika of Vakyapadiya illustrates sabda as.

Brahman:

"The Brahman who is without beginning or

end, whose very essence is the Word, who
is the cause of the manifested phonemes,
who appears as the objects, from whom
the creation of the world proceeds" .
(K.A. Subramania Iyer, 1995:1).

There are two aspects of sabda when it acts as a vehicle~

of expression: "one is the cause of the real word which, the~

other, is used to convey the meaning". (1.44) (K.A.

Subramania Iyer, 1995:52) . The first element that is the~

cause of the real sabda is nada. The second element which.

conveys the meaning is sphota. Thus the word ~an convey its;

form as the sound-sequence and content as the meaning. The!

discussion on this issue is organised as follows:

means of arriving at meaning

~,---------------1----~,
sign-form sound-form
~--'------~, ~,--------'--------~,
gestures script-form speech-form non-speech form
I
~,- - - - I-----:-, sounds produced
by river, cloud
human speech non-human speech and such other
(expressive word) sound.
~--'------------------~
cause of cause of expressing meaning
spoken sound-
sequence form
(based on Vamdeva Acharya,1987:67).

According to 1. 23, the relationship between word and

197
meaning is nitya, i.e. invariably given. According to 2.235;

sabda conveys meaning on the basis of its long grammatical

usage. If the word is used wrongly for long, its 'wrongr

usage' becomes natural. Hearers respond differently to the~

meaning of the utterance due to their pratibha or:

'intellect'. For example, a sentence like 'there is a lion'

can cause fear in some and enthusiasm in others. Karikas;

2.134 and 2.135 elucidate this point:

"Just as our senses . perceive the same
object in different ways, in the same
way, an object is understood from words
in different ways".
(2.134)
"The meaning of words, intended by the
speaker to be one thing, is understood
by different listeners differently,
according to their own background".
(2.135)
(K.A. Subramania Iyer,1977:58).
Thus the meaning of a linguistic utterance depends upont
the context, condition and individual predispositions of

the interlocutors.
There are three dimensions of a sabda - vaikhari (the~

elaborated), madhyama (the middle one) and pasyanti (the!

seeing one) . The vrtti on 1.142 defines them as.

follows:

"The Elaborated (Vaikhari) assumes the

form of phonemes when the air strikes
against the places of articulation and
is based on the functioning of the
breath of the speakers".
"The Middle One proceeds by going beyond
the functioning of breath, has sequence
and has the mind alone as its
substratum" .
"The Seeing One is indivisible and is
entirely without sequence. It is the
Inner Light, the subtle word,
imperishable".

198
 (K.A. Subramania Iyer,1995:126}.

It is further added in the vrtti:

"This three-fold word, has, like the

appearances of the knots of
Consciousness, indefinable dimensions,
and a fourth of it exists in man. Even
of this, only a little comes within the
range of usage, the rest is beyond the
usage of ordinary man It has been
said-
"There are four states in regard to
the word. The wise among the Brahmanas
know them. Three of them are kept in a
cave and do not move . Men speak the
fourth part of the word".
(K.A. Subramania Iyer,1995:127).

The concepts of sabda (word or meaningful linguistic~

utterance) and sphota are closely related to the concept of:

dhvani {suggestion) . Bhartrhari mentions two kinds of
dhvani prakrta and vaikrta. Iyer translates them as;
primary and secondary sounds respectively. In the vrtti onL
1. 76 the two kinds of dhvani are defined as follows: "The!
primary one is that without which the form of the sphota,
being unmanifested, would remain unperceived. And the~

secondary one is that by means of which the form of the~

sphota is perceived again and again without~

interruption". {K.A. Subramania Iyer,1995:79).

Karikas 1. 77 to 1. 92 establish that though the meaningr

is understood only after the utterance of the last sound,

each sound of the sound-sequence contributes to the!
cognition of the word. The successive sounds of the!
sequence render the perception process clearer but the!
final meaning is revealed by sphota after the last sound is

199
uttered. Thus the sabda or linguistic utterance stands;
indivisible though it can be shown to .be constituted of
different phonemic.units.
Bhartrhari is a supporter of the gestalt view of the:
meaning of a sentence. According to the vrtti of 2. 7 the!
"sentence is the sphota, either external or internal. It is
external when it is clearly uttered. Till then, it is:
internal. In any case, it is indivisible. It has two
aspects: the sound aspect and the meaning aspect which are:
identified with one another ...... The indivisible sentence:
is the sphota and the indivisible sentence-meaning is:
pratibha. But both appear to have divisions". (K.A.
Subramania Iyer,1977:4-5). This view is further illustratedl
in the following karikas:
"Just as the One picture is explained
through its different colours like blue
which belong to its parts,
in the same way, the One sentence,
entirely self-sufficient and complete,
is explained through individual words
which require one another".
(2.8 and 2.9)
"Just as a word is analysed into stem,
suffix etc. in the same way, the
analysis of a sentence into individual
words is also described". _.
(2.10)

"Just as one sees in phonemes parts

resembling other phonemes, in the same
way, one sees (in a sentence) parts
which resemble other words".
(2.11)
(K.A. Subramania Iyer,1977:5).
Though the language can be split into structured units,
its meaning is indivisible. As our consciousness cannot be
separately structured in different unitary segments, the:

200
complex cognition of the sentence is also not divisible.
karika 2.13 states that the "word has no division, how can~

the meaning have any? But the ignorant person sees divisionL
through artificial splitting" and its vrtti.
adds," .. division is only a means to an end and that~

indivisibility is the truth. In any case, doubts sometimes.

arise as to how the division should be effected". {K.A.
Subramania Iyer,1977:6}. Further, the vrtti of 2. 26
emphasises that " .. it is futile to try to explain sequence!
in cognition through the impressions of the sequence of
objects which figure in the cognition". (K.A. SubramaniaL
Iyer,1977:13}. Though the divisions cannot be created in.
the cognition, sometimes different cognitions occur due to>
different divisions of the divisible units of a sentence.
An obvious question arises regarding the understandingr
of the elliptical sentences. If a sentence is indivisible,
how can the elliptica~ sentences be comprehended?'
Bhartrhari answers this in 2.40:

"Sometimes, when the relation of

identity in the form 'it is this' is
understood, then even a single phoneme
can be expressive of the meaning of the
whole sentence" . {K. A. Subramania
Iyer,1977:21}.

Bhartrhari puts forth . the idea that all the units,

whether as individual words or phonemes, together express:
the meaning of a sentence. This idea can be further
extended to understanding the discourse. Just as different~

words bound together by expectancy produce a sentential

201
meaning, different sentences bound together by expectancy'
can produce a discourse meaning. If the sentential meaning
is manifested through sphota and pratibha, the discourse~

meaning can also be manifested through the same process.

Different aspects of sabda and dhvani as discussed above~

can help constitute and reconstitute the meaning (s) of a.

texl.. The different division or rather grouping of:

sentences may produce different textual cognitions
resulting in different interpretations.

202