Discourse Grammar

MARICEL A. DICHOSO Reporter

Discourse and Grammar
Discourse and grammar often seem to be two very different
facets of human communication (Ariel, 2009).
Grammar specifies a set of language-specific codes,
typically restricted to sentence-level units. It guides
speakers on how to properly construct sentences, which
are then joined together by a completely different set of
(discourse) principles into a coherent piece of
discourse.
Discourse is the product of the use of grammar in
particular natural contexts. It typically comprises a
stretch of utterances (mostly sentences) which are
organized in a non-random fashion.
Discourse and Grammar
Usage feeds into the creation of grammar just as
much as grammar determines the shape of usage
(Bybee, 2006: 730).
The thrust of this overview of the grammar/discourse
relationship is that discourse and grammar are very
much part of one system of linguistic behavior, and
just like horse and carriage, they definitely go
together.
Theres constant feedback between grammar and
discourse, each of them simultaneously taking the
active role of the horse, as well as the passive role of
the carriage.
Grammar from a discourse
perspective

Discourse analysis and grammar study

familiar terms like clause, pronouns,
adverbial and conjunction and
attempt to relate them to a less
familiar set of terms: theme, rheme,
reference and anaphoric, in order to
make link between grammar and
discourse (Mustafa, 2014).
Grammar and discourse from
contextual perspective
Hilles (2005) describes the process of examining grammar
and discourse from a contextual perspective.

1. Make a decision as to what aspect of language to

investigate.
2. Look at as many sources as possible, from reference
grammars, style manuals to ESL textbooks, to see what
is already known at the language item.
3. Look at real-life native speaker examples of the
particular item in spoken or written discourse.
4. Analyze the data paying special attention to the various
contexts in which the forms in question appear, and to
develop hypotheses regarding when and why a
particular form is used.
5. Test the hypotheses that have been formed by asking
native speakers if they would make the same choices
that the research suggests they would make.
Comparing Discourse and
Sentence-Based Grammar
Hughes and McCarthy (1998) compare discourse and
sentence-based grammar:
A discourse grammar makes a strong
connection pattern between form, function and
context and aims to place appropriateness and use
at the center of its description.
Larsen-Freeman (2003) makes a similar argument in
her view that form, meaning and use need to be at
the basis of all grammatical description.
A discourse grammar acknowledges language choice,
promotes awareness of interpersonal factors in
grammatical choice and can provide insights into
areas of grammar that lacked a satisfactory
explanation.
Texture of a Text
Unity of structure (combination of patterns to create
information structure, focus and flow in text, schematic
structure in text)
Unity of texture (patterns of cohesion)
Cohesion: Relationship between items in text (words, phrases,
clauses) and items such as pronouns, nouns, conjunctions.
Relationship between:
words and pronouns that refer to that word (reference
items)
words that commonly co-occur in texts (collocation)
words with similar, related and different meanings
(lexical cohesion)
clauses and ways a semantic relationship is expressed
(conjunctions)
substitution and ellipsis of words and phrases
(substitution, ellipsis)
Texture of a Text

Example 1 Example 2

Once upon a time there was a He got up on the buffalo

little girl I have booked a seat
And she went out for a walk I have put it away in the
And she saw a lovely little cupboard
teddybear I have not eaten it.
And so she took it home
And when she got home she
washed it.

Texture is a matter of meaning relations.

Cohesion and Discourse
The concept of cohesion in text is related to
semantic ties or relations of meanings that
exist within the text, and that define it as a text
Without semantic ties, sentences or utterances
would seem to lack any type of relationship to
each other and might not be considered text.

Ex:
I had a little nut tree
Nothing would it bear
But a silver nutmeg
And a golden bear
Cohesion and Discourse
The concept of cohesion in text is
related to semantic ties or relations
of meanings that exist within the
text, and that define it as a text
Without semantic ties, sentences
or utterances would seem to lack
any type of relationship to each
other and might not be considered
text.
Cohesion

Cohesion can be defined as the property that

distinguishes a sequence of sentences that
form a discourse from a random sequence of
sentences. It is a series of lexical,
grammatical and other relations which
provide links between the various parts of a
text. In studying cohesion we should make a
distinction between linguistic cohesion and
pragmatic cohesion or coherence.
Cohesion is concerned with the way in
which the components of the SURFACE
TEXT, i.e. the actual words we hear or see,
are mutually connected within a sequence.
The surface components depend upon
each other according to grammatical
forms and conventions, such that cohesion
rests upon GRAMMATICAL
DEPENDENCIES. ... Thus, cohesion is the
grammatical relationship between parts of
a sentence essential for its interpretation
 Coherence and concerns the
ways in which the components of the
textual world, i.e. the configuration
of concepts and relations which
underlie the surface text are mutually
accessible and relevant. ...
It's the order of statements relates
one another by sense. The quality of
being meaningful and unified.
 Seven criteria which have to be fulfilled
to qualify either a written or a spoken
text as a discourse
Cohesion - grammatical relationship between parts of a
sentence essential for its interpretation.
Coherence - the order of statements relates one another
by sense.
Intentionality - the message has to be conveyed
deliberately and consciously.
Acceptability - indicates that the communicative product
needs to be satisfactory in that the audience approves it;.
Informativeness - some new information has to be
included in the discourse.
Situationality - circumstances in which the remark is
made are important.
Intertextuality - reference to the world outside the text
or the interpreters' schemata.
Reference

Reference is an act by which a

speaker (or writer) uses language to
enable a listener (or reader) to
identify something.
 Exophoric Reference

References to the shared world outside a text are

called exophoric references. Outward, or
exophoric reference often directs us to the
immediate context, as when someone says 'leave it
on the table please' about a parcel you have for
them. Sometimes, the referent is not in the
immediate context but is assumed by the
speaker/writer to be part of a shared world, either
in terms of knowledge or experience.

Ex:
Costumer: What kind of book would you say this
is? Where would you put it on your bookshelves?
 Endophoric references

References to elements in the

text are called endophoric
references. Endophoric
referencing can be divided
into two areas:
anaphoric, cataphoric,
Cataphoric (forward reference)refers to any
reference that points forward to
information that will be presented later in the
text.
Ex:
1. When I met her, Mary looked ill.
2. My reasons are as follows: One, I
dont . . .
3. Here is the news. The Prime
Minister . . .
Anaphoric (backward reference)
references refers to any reference
that points backwards to
previously mentioned information
in text. Usually items such : as
he/she or them ,it, this , can be
decoded without major difficulty.
Ex:
Tom likes ice cream but Bill
cant eat it
 Homophoric Reference

Homophoric Reference is where the identity of the

item can be retrieved by reference to cultural
knowledge, in general, rather than the specific
context of the text.

Ex:
First in the US, then all over the world, women
became converts to the books tough-love message.

From: Hes Just Not That Into You (Cooper, 2005: S38)
 Comparative and Bridging
Reference

With comparative reference, the identify of the

presumed item is retrieved not because it has
already been mentioned (or will be mentioned) in
the text, but because an item with which it is
being compared has been mentioned

Ex:
When it was published late last year, Oprah sang its praises, tearful
women called it the Bible, and others declared it had changed their
lives forever.
The books assumes all men are confident, or that if they really like a
girl, theyll overcome their shyness. The opposite is true.
 Comparative and Bridging
Reference

A bridging reference is where an item refers to

something that has to be inferentially derived
from the text or situation; that is, something that
has to be presumed indirectly.

Ex:
Stuart agrees. I was hopeless, he says with a laugh. Im
just not one of those blokes that finds approaching
women easy.
 Lexical Cohesion

Lexical cohesion refers to relationships in

meaning between lexical items in a text
and, in particular, content words and the
relationship between them. The main
kinds of lexical cohesion are repetition,
synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,
meronomy and collocation.
 Repetition
Repetition refers to words that are repeated
in a text. This includes words which are
inflected for tense or number and words
which are derived from particular items such
as Stuart and Stu in the following example.

Ex:
Jen Abydeers, 27, and Stuart Gilby, 22 are convinced
they wouldnt be a couple if Jen had done things the [Hes Just
Not That Into You] way when they first met. Stu was quiet and
shy, while I was more confident and forward, says Jen. He was
more reluctant that I was to ask questions or to initiate a date. I
would be the one to say to him: When do you want to go out,
then?
 Synonymy
Synonymy refers to words which are
similar in meaning such as date and go
out in the previous example and blokes
and men in the next example.

Ex:
Im just not one of those blokes that finds
approaching women easy. The book assumes all men are
confident, or that if they really like a girl, theyll overcome
their shyness. The opposite is true.
 Antonymy
Antonymy describes opposite or
contrastive meanings such as shy and
forward in the earlier text and women
and men, real players and boofheads in
the following text:

Ex:
Andy Stern, 28, a builder, says hes worried the book
will drive women towards dodgy men. Only real players do
full-on charm, he says. The rest if us are boofheads. We often
do nothing at all, and just hope girls notice that we like them.
 Hyponymy and Meronymy
Hyponymy refers to classes of lexical
items where the relationship between
them is one of general-specific, an
example of or in a class member type
relationship.
 Hyponymy and Meronymy
Hes Just Not Into You

Im Okay, Youre Okay

Self-Help Books You can Let Go Now: Its Okay to

Be Who You Are

Ready or Not, Here Life Comes

Be Honest: Youre Not Than Into

HimEither
 Hyponymy and Meronymy
Meronymy is where lexical items are in a
whole to part relationship with each
other, such as the relationship between
Jen and Stuart in relation to the item
couple. Jen and Stuart are co-
menonyms of the superordinate item
couple.
Couple

Jen Stuart
 Collocation
Collocation describes associations
between vocabulary items which have a
tendency to co-occur, such as
combinations of adjectives and nouns, as
in real-estate agent, the right direction
and Aussie men in this example:
Ex: Sarah Hughes, 21, a real-estate agent, agrees that Aussie men
need more help than most when it comes to romance. Theyre
useless! They need a good push in the right direction. I loved the
books and its message about not wasting your time but if a
mans shy theres no way itll happen unless you do the asking.
 Collocation
Collocation includes the relationship
between verbs and nouns such love and
book and waste and time from the
previous example. It also includes items
which typically co-occur such as men and
women and love and hate.
 Expectancy Relations
A further kind of relationship, related to
collocation, is expectancy relations. This
occurs where there is a predictable
relationship between a verb and either the
subject or the object of the verb. These
relations link nominal elements with
verbal elements (e.g. love/book,
waste/time). They can also link an action
with a participant (eg. Ask/guy) or an
event with its location (e.g. dating/sites)
in the following example.
 Expectancy Relations
Ex:
Art Classes
You can do just about anything in the name of art. Try
asking a cute guy to sit as your model, and if he still doesnt
take the hint, you can literally draw him a picture. Take a
free life-drawing class at the ArtHouse Hotel.
Online Dating
Hand out as many kisses as you like virtual ones, that is, Dating
sites are all about being proactive and choosing your best match.

Expectancy can also refer to the relationship between

individual lexical items and the composite nominal group that
they form (e.g. art/classes, life/drawing, online/dating).
 Conjunctions
A further way in which language contributes to the textures
of a text is through the use of conjunction. Conjunction
refers to words, such as and, however, finally and in
conclusion that join phrases, clauses or sections of a text in
such a way that they express the logical-semantic
relationship between them.
Conjunctions are described by Halliday and Hasan (1976)
under the grouping additives, adversative, causal and
temporal conjunctions.
Additive conjunctions include and, or, moreover, in
addition and alternatively. That is, they draw on the
notion of addition in both a positive and contrastive sense.
 Conjunctions
Comparative conjunctions include whereas, but, on the
other hand, likewise and equally, drawing on the notions
of comparison in both a positive and negative sense.
Temporal conjunctions include: while, when, after,
meanwhile, then, finally, and at the same time.
Consequential conjunctions include: because, since, thus,
if, therefore, in conclusion, and in this way.
 Substitution and Ellipsis
A further way in which texture is achieved in a text is
through the use of substitution and ellipsis
SUBSTITUTION
With substitution, a substitute form is used for another
language item, phrase or group. It can involve substituting an
item for a noun.
Ex: Try reading this book. That ones not very good.
I can involve substituting an item for a verb.
Ex: A: He has had dinner yet?
B: He must have done. Theres no food in the fridge.
An item may also substitute for a clause.
Ex: A: Thats great to youre still happy.
B: Oh yes very much so.
 Substitution and Ellipsis
A further way in which texture is achieved in a text is
through the use of substitution and ellipsis
ELLIPSIS
With ellipsis some essential element is omitted from the text
and can be recovered by referring to a preceding element in
the text. Ellipsis may involve the omission of a noun and noun
group, a verb or verbal group, or a clause.
Ex:
Announcer: Gary, what did you want to say to
Allinson tonight?
Caller: [I want to say] that Im very sorry for
the fight we had the other night.
Announcer: What was that over?
Caller: [It was over] something rather silly actually
Announcer: They usually are. Arent they?
Caller: Yeah [they usually are silly] and [I want to say] that I
love her very much and [I want to say that] well have to stick it through, you know?
Ellipsis

Nominal

A. Ellipses Verbal

Clausal
 Ellipsis

Ellipsis (zero substitution) is the

omission of elements normally
required by the grammar which
the speaker/writer assumes are
obvious from the context and
therefore need not be raised.
 Do you want to hear another song? I know
twelve more [songs]
(b) Sue brought roses and Jackie [brought]
lilies.
(c) I ran 5 miles on the first day and 8 [miles]
on the second
 nominal ellipsis: one of the pre-modifiers of the Head is
upgraded to Head.
Verbal ellipsis: from the right ("Are you laughing?" "Yes,
I am") or from the left ("Are you eating dinner?" "No,
washing up")
Clausal ellipsis
Yes/no answers, answer to wh- questions only with what
the question interrogates about (Why are you going
away?" "Because it's late"), only wh-element in
questions ("Leave those alone" "Why?")