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Liquid ice surfersthe construction of

surfer identities in Norway
a
Tommy Langseth
a
Telemark University College , Norway
Published online: 24 Aug 2011.

To cite this article: Tommy Langseth (2012) Liquid ice surfersthe construction of surfer
identities in Norway, Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 12:1, 3-23, DOI:
10.1080/14729679.2011.599987

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 Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning
Vol. 12, No. 1, March 2012, pp. 323

Liquid ice surfersthe construction of

surfer identities in Norway
Tommy Langseth*
Telemark University College, Norway
Downloaded by [El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, A.C.] at 17:54 26 June 2015

Surfing is getting increasingly popular in Norway as well as other countries that have a coastline with
rideable waves. As surfing gains in popularity, however, the boundaries of the surfing subculture
become increasingly guarded. Through ethnography and qualitative interviews, this study examines
identity construction on an individual and group level among Norwegian surfers. The study reveals
that successful integration in the subculture is dependent on identification with four fundamental
forms of symbolic capital: skills, subcultural knowledge, commitment and local affiliation. First, the
paper analyses how the individual surfers through a process of identity construction get accustomed
to, and incorporate, these values. Second, the paper examines how out-groups are constructed
against groups of surfers lacking these forms of symbolic capital.

Keywords: Surfing; Identity; Subcultures; Symbolic capital

Introduction
Sports that go by names such as risk sports, extreme sports, or alternative
sports are becoming ever more popular throughout the Occident (Arnegrd, 2006;
Creyer, Ross, & Evers, 2003; Palmer, 2004; Puchan, 2004; Rinehart & Sydnor,
2003; Stranger, 1999; Wheaton, 2004). As part of this trend, surfing has steadily
increased in popularity since the 1950s (Booth, 2007; Ford & Brown, 2006; Kampion
& Brown, 1997). Despite the fact that Norway does not evoke images normally
connected to surfing: summer, tanned bodies and beach life, surfing is increasingly
getting more popular. There are surf breaks that are regularly surfed along the coast
from Larvik in the southeast to Finmark in the north. The best known and most
frequently surfed spots are in the Jren region, close to the city of Stavanger in
the southwest, the Stad Peninsula at the northwest coast of southern Norway, and

*Department of Sport, Physical Education and Outdoor Life Studies, Telemark University
College, Hallvard Eikas plass, 3800, B i Telemark, Norway. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1472-9679 (print)/ISSN 1754-0402 (online)

2012 Institute for Outdoor Learning
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2011.599987
www.tandfonline.com
 4 T. Langseth

the Lofoten Islands in northern Norway. This research focuses on the Jren region
because it is the only area in Norway that has consistent surf and is densely populated.
It is thereby the only area in Norway that a surf culture has developed to some extent.
With four surf shops, a number of surf schools and an estimated 10001500 surfers,
Stavanger has become the surf city of Norway.
The surfing subculture in the Jren region started developing in the early 1980s.
However, it was not until the mid-1990s that the surf population started to grow
considerably due to the boom in snowboarding, developments in wetsuit technology,
and the simple awareness that it is possible to surf in Norway. Tor clearly states his
dislike for this development:
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We were a small family that helped each other and took care of each other . . . . We just
surfed and nobody knew what we were doing, a little clan of 1020 surfers. . . . Then it
said bang after the movie Point Break. It was Point Break that was the problem, that started
the whole shit. After that, it went down the drain. And the skating and snowboarding . . .
Hkonsen started surfing . . . no, no, no.

The Hkonsen Tor referred to is Terje Hkonsen, a Norwegian snowboard icon who
took up surfing in the late 1990s, thereby inspiring other snowboarders to follow suit.
Hkonsen advocated snowboardings oppositional values, for example, by refraining
from participation in the 1998 winter Olympics. Even though such actions increased
his status as a subcultural hero in the subculture of snowboarding, his status was
not automatically translated into the surf culture. In the Jren region, he was seen,
at least by some, as a representative of the forces that make surf spots increasingly
crowded. The growing number of surfers in the Jren region in the last 15 years has
resulted in a limited access to the inner circles of the subculture, which has become
progressively more protected. The reaction from the quoted surfer can be seen as
part of a process that Weber (1978) calls social closure. The surfing subculture in
the Jren region can by no means be considered entirely closed, but the boundaries
for getting inside have become increasingly guarded. As Heino (2000) argues, when a
new sport develops or is adopted, issues such as social class, gender and legitimization
have to be renegotiated. As surfing has developed in Norway such questions have had
to be raised. One of the most fundamental questions that the surfers must answer
is who the insiders and outsiders are. The partial closure of the social system of
surfing can be seen as an obstacle that a neophyte has to face on the way to becoming
accepted as a real surfer.
Despite the global popularity of surfing, relatively modest social research has been
conducted on the sport. Some studies have identified core values in surf subcul-
tures (Booth, 1995, 2003, 2004, 2007; Butts, 2001; Hull, 1976; McGloin, 2005;
Scheibel, 1995; Stranger, 1999). Also, some researchers have shown how different
sets of value apply to different groups of surfers. Pearson (1979) has detailed the con-
trasts between surf lifesavers with Protestant values and the more hedonistic surfers
while Finney (1959) showed the differences in values between local Hawaiian surfers
and visiting surfers from California. The values of surfing are not just a personal
matter. McGloin (2005) shows that in Australia, surfing is connected to national
 The construction of surfer identities in Norway 5

identity. Other researchers have focused on surfing and masculinity (Lewis, 2003;
Stedman, 1997; Thorpe, 2006) and commercialization of surfing (Beal & Smith,
2010; Lanagan, 2003).
Even though some of the work mentioned has touched on the theme of socializa-
tion, little empirical research has been done on the actual identity formation process
in surfing. This paper examines how Norwegian surfers develop a surfer identity.
First, it analyses how surfers develop from being neophytes to accepted members of
the surf subculture. Questions such as how and why do some people get interested
in surfing, and when do neophytes start to think of themselves as proper surfers,
are raised. In this section of the paper the mechanisms behind subcultural learning
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are studied in regard to how status hierarchies are learnt and how the value systems
of surfing are internalized and incorporated. Further, the effects of possession of
symbolic capital in regard to successful/unsuccessful integration in the surf subcul-
ture are analysed. The second main section in this paper concerns the question of
how boundaries between insiders and outsiders are negotiated in the surf subculture
in Norways Jren region. What are the processes behind the construction of out-
siders? How do the local surfers demonstrate the boundaries between us and them?
Furthermore, the second section of the paper is connected to the first by an analysis
of how symbolic capital contributes to the construction of out-groups.

Method
The study is based on multiple qualitative methods: fieldwork at several locations in
Norway, 22 semi-structured interviews and analysis of debates on Norwegian surfing
web sites. The interviewees consisted of six female and 16 male surfers. Most of the
interviewees belong to the inner circles of the Jren surf culture. It can be questioned
whether studying core participants is a legitimate strategy. As Donnelly (2006) points
out, focusing on allegedly core members can lead to essentialization and homogenize
the way in which such cultures are described. Further, she holds that authenticity
claims made by core participants tells more about those that classify others than it
does about any real-life differences. That is undoubtedly true. I still want to study the
core participants because it is exactly the politics of authenticity I want to describe:
how the core members define who real surfers are and who we and them are. This
does not mean that the boundaries between the inside and the outside of the surf
culture are fixed. The boundaries are fluid and continuously negotiated. However,
the core members have more power than neophytes when it comes to negotiating
and defining these boundaries.
To ensure that the surfers interviewed were core members of the regions surf
subculture, I got in contact with the first interviewee through two acquaintances
who have been part of the surfing community in the area since the mid-1990s. Most
of the rest of the interviewees were picked out from a snowball sampling method
where the people I had interviewed recommended other core members, while some
were surfers I met through my fieldwork. In addition, three surf camp owners from
surf destinations farther north in Norway were interviewed. The interviews were all
 6 T. Langseth

semi-structured (Kvale, 1996). Through the interviews I obtained information about

the surfers personal narratives about their involvement in the sport and how they
define other surfers. During the interviews I used an interview guide with some pre-
defined themes. Still, the interview guide was formed in such a way that it allowed
for follow-up questions and elaboration on interesting themes that came up during
the interview. The interviews were all fully transcribed. They were analysed alongside
ethnographic data and theory with emphasis on utterances regarding the process of
becoming a surfer.
To understand the surf subculture, this study also relies on ethnography. Fieldwork
as a method helps the researcher to get first-hand experience from the field under
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study and thereby helps the researcher to understand the meanings and stakes within
the specific culture (Fangen, 2004; Sands, 2002). During the fieldwork, I oscillated
between three rolesparticipant, participant observer, and observer. My main period
of fieldwork involved observation and hanging out with a group of five to six surfers,
all core members of the Jren surf subculture, for about a month in January and
February 2007. This group of surfers was recommended, as was the case for the
interviews, by my acquaintances in the surfing subculture. I got in contact with one
of them, explained my project and he said that it was no problem to hang out
with them. Still, it was not easy to acquire the insight that I was hoping for. As a
beginner, I could not go surfing with them on the more difficult surf spots. Also, they
probably wouldnt want another surfer in the water, competing for waves with them.
My strategy, then, was to hang with them at the parking lot before and after they
had surfed. Unfortunately, since the temperatures in Norway are rather low in the
winter there is not much beach life going on in between surf sessions. Hanging out
on the parking lot is therefore limited to a minimum. Surfers change hastily and drive
back home. The information I was able to gather was thereby somewhat restricted.
Also, having to call them each morning and ask them where they were going to surf
today, made me feel that I was being a bit too importunate. After a week of frustration
I got hold of a video camera and I offered to film them surfing. As the surfers were
interested in watching themselves, and it normally is difficult to get someone to stand
on shore filming in minus 10 degrees, they were suddenly very interested in having
me around. Instead of me calling them in the mornings, they started calling me.
Also, after surf sessions I got invited home with them to watch what I had filmed.
Listening to their comments on each others surfing gave me further insight into the
surf subculture.
Shorter periods of fieldwork were conducted in October 2007 on Jren, in May
2008 on the Lofoten Islands, and during a surf festival held at the northwest coast
in October 2008. Owing to my status as a learning surfer, several weekends and
vacations have been spent surfing at different locations in Norway, Morocco, the
Canary Islands, Mexico, Portugal, Costa Rica, and California. While the focus on
these trips has been on improving my own surfing ability, it has also been a way
of doing auto-ethnography (Anderson, 2006), providing me with insights into the
process of becoming a surfer as well as getting to know the surf culture from within.
Throughout the periods of ethnography and auto-ethnography, I have been tak-
ing field notes about significant events, cultural phenomena, conversations, and my
 The construction of surfer identities in Norway 7

own development. The ethnographic material was analysed in conjunction with the
interviews.

Theoretical framework
To analyse identity construction among Norwegian surfers, this study relies on a
combination of Donnelly and Youngs understanding of identity construction in
sport subcultures (1988) and Bourdieus concepts of symbolic capital, field and, to
a certain degree, habitus. Sociologists of sport subcultures have to a certain extent
embraced Bourdieu in the last decade. In particular, Bourdieu has been used to show
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the relationship between sport and social class. Fletcher (2008), for example, has
used Bourdieu to show the relationship between risk sports and the cultural tastes
of the professional middle class. Others have used Bourdieu to study the field of
adventure racing (Kay & Laberge, 2002), symbolic capital in snowboarding (Thorpe,
2006) and skateboarding (Atencio, Beal, & Wilson, 2009; Wheaton & Beal, 2003).
In this paper Bourdieu is used to understand surfers identity constructions in terms
of incorporation and internalization of subcultural values. As Dant and Wheaton
(2007) point out in regard to windsurfing, the cultural learning that participants go
through makes the values of subcultures meaningful. In order to understand how
surfing becomes meaningful to the participants in my study, and how being a surfer
becomes a part of their identity, we must understand the relationship between the
field of surfing, forms of symbolic capital in the field and how this becomes part of
the participants habitus.
The field concept is to some degree contested. The concept refers to social are-
nas where agents fight over symbolic or material interests that are common to them
and only them (Broady, 1991). Can we really talk about a Norwegian field of surf-
ing? Bourdieu has rather strict criteria for what we can and cannot name a field.
However, several researchers have used the concept to describe risk or adventure
sports. Fletcher (2008) holds that risk sports share a common logic and that we
thereby can speak about them as one field. Kay and Laberge (2002) on the other
hand, use the concept more narrowly and talk about adventure racing as a field in
its own right. In this paper I use the concept in a pragmatic manner to highlight the
specific characteristics of the culture under study.
The construction of identity is, in this paper, understood as a process whereby
a neophyte surfer develops an understanding of the values in the surf culture and
starts to adopt these values. The specific values in the surf culture can be seen as
what Bourdieu calls symbolic capital; actions, beliefs, etc. that are recognized within a
group (Bourdieu, 1977, 1990, 1991, 1996). Valuing a specific turn or trick in surfing
is dependent upon a field where agents acknowledge this type of action. For a neo-
phyte surfer, then, an important part of identity construction is to learn, internalize
and incorporate the forms of symbolic capital that are current within the surf culture.
Bourdieu does not, however, give us much of a clue about the actual process behind
this form of learning and habituation (Noble & Watkins, 2003). While Bourdieu
remains the theoretical cornerstone in this paper, I also use Donnelly and Youngs
 8 T. Langseth

understanding of sub-cultural identity formation (1988) to get a more nuanced view

of the actual process behind the development of surfer identity. According to them,
identity construction in sport subcultures is a deliberate act that goes through four
different stages: presocialization, selection and recruitment, socialization and, finally,
acceptance or ostracism. In this paper, these four stages are used as a heuristic tool to
highlight the processual character of identity formation. In real life, identity develop-
ment is, of course, not a straight-lined process with distinct phases. A problem with
connecting Bourdieu with Donnelly and Young is that their sense of agency is some-
what conflicting. Donnelly and Young see identity development as an intentional act
where new members of subcultures begin to deliberately adopt mannerisms and atti-
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tudes (Donnelly & Young, 1988, p. 224), while Bourdieu grants agents less reflective
capacity. Without venturing into socio-philosophical debate on agency, this paper
relies first and foremost on Bourdieu regarding this issue.
Another problem that should be considered before continuing to the empirical
findings is the use of the contestable concept subculture. Without going through
the entire subculture- vs. post-subculture debate, it is worth mentioning that several
authors have argued that the term has been used to such an extent that it has lost
its meaning (Breivik, 2004; Crosset & Beal, 1997). Others have strongly criticized
the Birmingham School approach to subcultures and argue that they overemphasized
working class males, over relied on semiotics, over politicized sub-cultural actions and
falsely depicted subcultures as coherent (Clarke, 2005; Stranger, 2010; Wheaton,
2007; Young & Atkinson, 2008). However, just because the concept is rather diffi-
cult to grasp, doesnt mean that it is useless (Wheaton, 2007). As Hughson (2008)
argues, some subcultures are tightly knit and homogenous, while others are loosely
knit and heterogeneous. In accordance with other studies of surfing (Fiske, 1989;
Hull, 1976; Pearson, 1979), I will still use the term subculture to describe the surf
culture in the Jren region. As Thornton (2005) has argued, a culture does not nec-
essarily have to offer any real resistance or opposition to be labelled a subculture.
Thornton understands subcultures as groups that share a set of values which, from
the members own viewpoint, makes them different from the masses. The set of val-
ues thereby provides mechanisms of distinction toward other groups of people and a
means of distribution of status and prestige within the culture. Thornton argues that
subcultural studies should focus on the distribution of subcultural capital. This con-
cept, inspired by Bourdieu, refers to what has value for a specific group. Subcultural
capital is the access an individual has to things and ways of being and acting within a
subculture. The term subcultural capital is not quite consistent with Bourdieus use
of the concept of capital, as cultural capital is reserved for the forms of capital that
indicate access to high culture. To determine the types of capital that entail prestige
and status in sport subcultures, I prefer to use the broader concept of symbolic capital.
Another debatable term in this paper might be the use of the surf culture. It can
be argued that such a term is overly essentialist. Clearly, there are several subgroups
within the surfing community that have different ideas of what it is to be a surfer and
that associate different values to the act of surfing. When I still use the term, it is
 The construction of surfer identities in Norway 9

because of the existence of, at least in my data, core values that all of my informants
relate to in one way or another.

Becoming a surfer
Becoming a surfer is not just about learning the practical skills of surfing but also
about getting accustomed to, and learning the values of, the surfing subculture. In
other words, the neophyte has to learn how to act and think as a surfer. Surfing holds
an aura of freedom, youth, and hedonism that seems to be an attraction worldwide
(Ford & Brown, 2006; Lanagan, 2003). The media-imparted images of surfing that
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draw people to the sport can be seen as part of what Donnelly and Young (1988, p.
224) call presocialization: all of the information an individual acquires about a spe-
cific subculture prior to the initial participation in the subculture. Also, as Bourdieu
(1984) has shown, social background gives a strong impetus on the actors world
perceptions and gives direction to the kind of activities the actor chooses to pursue.
Several studies have shown that participants in activities such as surfing and other
risk sports are mainly white men from the middle class (Fletcher, 2008; Wheaton,
2004). Certain social backgrounds thereby seem to give some people higher chances
for getting a feel for the game than others (Kay & Laberge, 2002).
Social background also influences the activities which the actors are socialized into
by their families as children. Arnegrds (2006) study of adventure sports in Sweden
reveals that the adventurers had backgrounds in traditional sports and outdoor activ-
ities. The surfers in my study had all been active in several sports while growing
up. This indicates that socialization into sports and outdoor activities during child-
hood is an important factor for getting involved in surfing. A positive interpretation
of the surfing subculture prior to involvement is probably not random but relies on
background factors such as social class and activity history.
My data revealed that there were three ideal-typical ways my informants tell about
their first fascination for surfing. Many of them make use of several of these ideal-
types to explain why they were drawn to surfing. First, some of the informants
connect the interest in surfing to their activity history. Especially snowboarding, but
also skiing, seems to be an important impetus for the desire to take up surfing.
Second, many of them were drawn to surfing because they saw it as an appealing
lifestyle. One of the female surfers said that It was just a lifestyle that I was curious
about, that suited my values and thoughts. Third, some of the informants saw them-
selves as watermen, having a deep connection with the sea and water in general, prior
to getting involved in surfing. One informant said, I have always been a waterman
and have always been interested in things going on in the water. Waterman is a
term used to describe surfers with a broad knowledge of a wide range of water activ-
ities and is presented through the surf media as an admired ethic (Warshaw, 2003).
When my informants understand themselves as watermen, it could be interpreted as
a way of reconstructing themselves in the light of the knowledge that they now have
about the values in the surf subculture. By connecting themselves to the ideal of the
waterman, they tie themselves to the values within the surf culture.
 10 T. Langseth

Their positive interpretation of the surfing subculture meant that my informants

had a desire to become surfers. Obviously, they did not have complete knowledge of
the surf culture before they started surfing themselves. Nevertheless, this stage must
be seen as part of the socialization toward becoming surfers. This is partly because
their backgrounds make them attracted to surfing and partly because the dream of
becoming a surfer informs their pursuit of a surf identity.
Following Donnelly and Young (1988), actors have to become members of a sub-
culture before a more accurate identity construction can occur. After a long process
of practising standing up in the white water and reading the waves, many of the infor-
mants said that finally catching an unbroken wave was fantastic. One informant said
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that talking and thinking about his first proper wave is so strong that after 20 years of
surfing it still gives him goosebumps. Karens description illustrates the significance
of the first wave:

Suddenly one day at the end of the summer, I surfed my first unbroken wave. At first I
thought I should surf straight ahead as I used to do, but the board just took me in the
right direction. I got a real a-ha experience. A fantastic feeling. I remember that day very
well. It was on Hellest Beach. It was glassy. The waves were maybe a half to one meter.
The waves were so clear that I could see fish . . . It was late in the afternoon so you could
see the sun through the waves . . . and then I took that wave . . . Then it was done.

Her remark at the end of the quote illustrates that surfing her first wave was an
important part of her identity construction as a surfer. For Karen, there was no turn-
ing back after catching that first wave, meaning there is no way she could stop surfing
after that. Surfing the first wave is probably remembered so well not only because it
takes lots of effort for most people to get to that point but also because it can be con-
sidered a first step toward becoming a real surfer. It can be seen as a defining moment
in the surfers subcultural career. To surf the first unbroken wave is, for surfers, part
of an identity transformation. By surfing the first wave, they have demonstrated to
themselves that they can surf a wave the way it is supposed to be surfed. It is seen
as a confirmation that they are starting to become proper surfers. Catching the first
wave is the first little deposit of symbolic capital in the beginning surfers credibility
account.
That does not, however, mean that they are full members of the subculture.
Beginners are an out-group in the eyes of the inner surf circles. Their lack of sym-
bolic capital means that they are looked at as uncultured annoyances. Experienced
surfers can determine at a glance if a surfer is a beginner by the way they put on the
wetsuits, the kind of boards they ride, their paddling technique, where and how they
enter the water, and, of course, the way they surf. The worst sin of a beginning surfer
is not knowing the informal rules of surfing. They do not know the rules and nobody
talks hard enough to them and they do not care about it and then . . . chaos, one of
my informants said. The experienced surfers know that there are strict rules about
who has the right to catch a wave according to their position in the water or line
up as it is called in surf language. The surfer sitting closest to where the wave starts
 The construction of surfer identities in Norway 11

to break has the right to the wave. Violation of this rule is called dropping in. The
beginner, according to experienced surfers, is prone to take off on any waves and is
apt to collide with another surfer on the wave.
Even as beginners pass the first gate of access to the subculture of surfing by catch-
ing their first waves, they still have a long way to go before they are considered real
surfers. Even though catching the first wave is a defining moment for the individ-
ual surfers, it cannot be seen as a rite of passage that opens up the gates to the
surf subculture. To become fully consecrated, they have to acquire further symbolic
capital.
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Are there rules?internalizing subcultural values

As beginning surfers spend more time in the water, they start to understand the
value system of the subculture and start making these values their own. Donnelly and
Young state that in this part of the process, the members learn the characteristics of
the subculture (1988, p. 225). Learning to understand waves and developing skills is
a slow and gradual process. Other facets of the surf subculture are learned in a more
sudden and abrupt manner. The fact that experienced surfers want few people in
the water often collides with the understanding beginning surfers have from previous
stages of socialization. Elsa said: It is not strange that beginners end up in bad
situations. They get the impression that surfing is about summer and joy. She had
started surfing on Stad, a surf camp on the northwest coast. At Stad, there are very
few residing surfers. Most of the surfers in the water are beginners staying at the surf
camp. She revealed that, at Stad, she felt that everyone who surfs was welcome, but
when she moved to Stavanger, she got another experience:

I quickly understood that people who surf often dont want a lot of people in the water.
The first unpleasant experience I had of the surf community in Stavanger was when N.N.
came paddling (towards me) looking really grumpy and pointed me down the line up,
just get out of here, you know. I got really scared.

That there are rules in surfing also comes as a surprise to many. Several of my infor-
mants told similar stories of getting yelled at because they did not know the rules
and, without knowing, had stolen waves that others had the right to. Morten said:

When I got yelled at the first time, I understood that I had something to learn. I dropped
in on one of the local heroes and surfed the wave to the shore. He was yelling at me the
whole time. I didnt understand why he was yelling. Afterwards, he asked me, Dont you
know the rules?. I just thought: are there rules?

The rules of surfing are a result of crowded surf spots and scarcity of waves. As
there is usually only room for one surfer per wave and the waves come irregularly
with long waiting periods in between, there is often fierce competition over the surf
space (Wheaton, 2007). The rules regulating surf spaces are sometimes enforced in
an aggressive manner, by yelling and letting the beginners know that they are not
welcome. This practice often collides with the impression neophytes have of surfers:
 12 T. Langseth

relaxed, peaceful and freedom-loving semi-hippies. As surfers get more experience,

the rules get internalized and looked upon as a natural part of the game. One of
my informants told me that when he first got yelled at for dropping in, he answered
back and said that we were here first. He thereby clearly revealed that he didnt
know anything about the rules he was supposed to follow. He further told me that
retelling that story is so embarrassing that I really shouldnt be telling you this. His
embarrassment reveals that he has gone through a process: from not knowing about
the rules to taking them seriously enough to become embarrassed when he now talks
about his previous misconceptions. The rules are no longer external to him but have
become internalized. For the experienced surfers, the rules are natural, a part of the
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doxa that constitutes the surfing game.

Learning the value system in surfing is also learning about the subcultural status
hierarchies. As Nazer (2004) points out, social upward mobility within the surfing
subculture can be ensured by improving skills. Managing the technical skills is one
of the most important forms of symbolic capital used to gain status among the expe-
rienced surfers. However, what is considered to be skill is often not obvious to the
beginner. During my fieldwork, I was in one of the surfers houses, watching a video
that I had filmed of him surfing. I commented that I thought he surfed really well. He
responded, No, it looks awful; look at that hand!. His arm was positioned in a way
that he thought made his style messy. Obviously, he saw something in the video that
I couldnt see. This illustrates that I had not developed a clear understanding of good
and bad style. From my own experience as a learning surfer, however, I have noticed
how the value system in the surf culture is directly connected to my own feelings of
pleasure. As I started surfing, I was happy each time I caught and surfed an unbroken
wave. As I progressed, the feeling of happiness became more connected with doing
turns and manoeuvres on the wave. In other words, my immediate feelings became
connected to the manoeuvres that give status in the surf culture.
When most of my informants said that they would rather surf with a couple of
friends than do it alone, it is not just an issue of security. Through surfing with
others, they get comments about their style and manoeuvres and learn from what
the others are doing. The presence of others gives them the chance to display their
skills, thereby providing an opportunity to rise in social status. Apart from learning
from friends and fellow surfers, the values of surfing are distributed through surf
magazines and videos. Several researchers have pointed out that consumption of spe-
cialist media is important in learning subcultural values (Borden, 2003; Thornton,
2005). As Wheaton and Beal (2003) remark, alternative sport cultures are taste cul-
tures in which specialist media serves to circulate cultural knowledge, symbols and
values. Christensen (2001) states that snowboard magazines and videos function as
knowledge bases. Through pictures or video sequences, snowboarders see moves and
tricks that they might like to learn. Concerning pictures in skateboarding magazines,
Borden (2003, p. 120) states that skateboarders use imagery less as pure image,
and more as an integration and representation of that imagery through skateboard-
ing practice. Similarly, one of my informants said that he can watch some of the
surf videos almost every day, and that through videos he gets inspiration to try new
 The construction of surfer identities in Norway 13

manoeuvres. Through studying pictures, and trying to learn the tricks performed,
the pictures are reintegrated into practice. In addition to inspiring surfers to try out
new manoeuvres, international surf media also signals what kind of moves are highly
valued and thereby entail status and prestige. Wheaton and Beals (2003) analysis of
skateboarders and windsurfers revealed that beginners and intermediates were most
enthusiastic about specialist media. This indicates that magazines and videos work
as socialization agents in these types of sports, as they provide information about the
actual subculture.
In addition to the rules and the technical skills, getting trained in the value system
implies learning about different types of boards and different surf spots. A demon-
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stration of symbolic capital was given to me one day when I was coming out of the
water after a surf session. A surfer of the older generation looked at my board and
said, That is a really good board; it would be perfect in two to three meter waves
at Reve Harbour. He further commented about the shape of the board, saying that
Kym Thompson really knows what he is doing. That way, he revealed his symbolic
capital by showing that he, by just a glance, could say something about the waves on
Reve Harbour, what kind of boards work there when the waves are a certain size, and
how my board would react to that specific wave. Further on, he showed sophisticated
knowledge by identifying the maker of the board just by looking at it.
Skills and subcultural knowledge about rules, different types of boards, and surf
spots are important forms of symbolic capital in the surf subculture. That does not
mean that the surfers automatically think about status when they show their knowl-
edge or skills. Rather, the value system has become naturalized and has become an
unquestioned way of thinking for the individual actor. The social structure of the
surfing subculture becomes embodied as part of a learning process when the surfers
devote time to surfing and dig deeper into the surf culture.
During the process of identity formation and embodiment of values, surfing goes
from being a mere pastime activity toward being what Stebbins (1992) calls serious
leisure. Tores development as a surfer illustrates this transition. He said that when he
first started surfing, we were just laughing at it . . . like . . . we thought it was funny.
We didnt take it seriously. We were out taking pictures and just messing around.
His statement clearly reveals that he does now take it seriously. For a person who
is not a devoted surfer, it is not obvious that surfing can be anything more than a
hobby. However, for a person who has embodied the values of surf culture, surfing is
to be taken seriously. Gunnar states that, If you get bit by the bug, you get totally
absorbed. It becomes the reason you exist. When surfing is an important part of
a persons identity, of who you are, surfing is not something that you can laugh at
and be unserious about. Tore tells that surfing became so serious that he started
working only in the summers to be able to surf as much as possible during the main
surf season, which, in Norway, is in the winter. He states that, to be a surfer, you
have to have eight-to-four leisure time. That surfers want to spend as much time
in the water as possible is probably not special for the Norwegian surfing subculture,
but because of the limited daylight during the winter season, it is probably more
important in Norway than most other places. Having a normal job means that it
 14 T. Langseth

will be dark after working hours and surfing will be limited to weekends. Among my
22 informants, only three had day jobs. The rest of them either worked nights or
shifts. Morten said that, [surfing] has taken many of the decisions of how my life
has become. Furlong and Cartmel (1997) have shown that, for many people, leisure
activities have become more important than work in identity formation. Thus, the
surfers in my study can be seen as representatives for a late modern identity pattern
where surfing seems to be more important than work for their identity.
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The boundaries of the Jren surf subculture and group identity

Following Donnelly and Young (1988), the step where actors gain knowledge about
the subculture and start forming a subcultural identity is followed by a stage where
this identity can be accepted or rejected. At this stage, the identity as a surfer
can be confirmed by other surfers. Bourdieu points out that To institute, to give
a social definition, an identity is also to impose boundaries (Bourdieu, 1991, p.
120). The confirmation of surfer identity means that lines are drawn between real
surfers and other surfers and create in-groups and out-groups. As Thornton (2004)
has explained, the construction of an outside is important in identity construction
because it makes it clearer who we are. As surfing increases in popularity, surfer
identity is not only constructed against non-surfers but also against other groups of
surfers (Lanagan, 2003; Swoboda, 2000).
In the previous section, I have mentioned skills and subcultural knowledge (spots,
boards, weather conditions, etc.) as important forms of symbolic capital among the
Jren surfers. Two other important forms of symbolic capital in the region are local
affiliation and commitment.

Locals and outsiders

As mentioned earlier, the competition for waves can be fierce in surfing. Surfing
mythology is rooted in a romantic idea about a mans solitary meeting with nature.
The ocean is seen as a place where one can escape the constraints of culture (Fiske,
1989; Ford & Brown, 2006). The crowding of surf spots threatens this mythology; the
waves and the ocean become cultivated. Partly because of that mythology, and partly
because waves are a scarce resource and every surfer wants to maximize the number
of waves per session, it becomes important to limit the number of surfers in the water.
This paves the way for exclusionary practices, and to some extent legitimizes the use
of violence when disputes occur (Olivier, 2010). In order to protect surf spots against
crowds, localism of various sorts has developed in many places around the globe.
Localism is a form of territorialism where surfers living close to the break feel that
they have priority when it comes to the right to surf the specific spots (Scheibel, 1995;
Warshaw, 2003). As surfing gained popularity in Norway, localism to a certain degree
 The construction of surfer identities in Norway 15

started to develop. Surfers from places other than Jren often form disregarded out-
groups. The most important out-group for the Jren surfers is visiting surfers from
eastern Norway and Sweden. Karen said:

People from eastern Norway are in a class of their own. Many of them have been studying
in Indonesia or Australia. They think they are so experienced. They come here wearing
shell-necklaces outside their wetsuit. Were thinking yeah, right. Their boards are brand
new, without a single bump, newly waxed, and the fins mounted in the wrong direction.
Then, we understand that they are just snobs from eastern Norway.

In the same way that travelling surfers from the inland valleys in California are placed
in the derogatory category vals, surfers from eastern Norway and Sweden become
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stigmatized in the Jren region. In business and politics, eastern Norway is the centre
in Norway. However, in the surf context, Jren is the centre and eastern Norway,
the periphery. People from eastern Norway are seen as uncultivated intruders who
invade our surf spots. When talking about rules, one of the informants stressed the
importance of never dropping in on anybody as long it is not a Swede. If it is a
Swede, it is okay to drop in. That means that the locals have privileges because they
are from the area. This can be seen as a form of what Wheaton (2007, p. 9) calls
micropolitics of subcultural space, where affiliation to the geographical area gives
the locals privileges that extend the rules of surfing. As long as it is against an out-
group, breaking the rules is not seen as problematic. Nevertheless, it is the outsiders
who get accused for not following the rules. Tore said:
Where we surfed today, there once came one of those guys from eastern Norway. He had
been abroad and thought he could do as he wanted to. Every time he had had a wave, he
paddled up and placed himself deepest in the line up. Everybody became pissed off. We
were 1520 guys from our gang . . . and we decided that we had to do something with
him. . . . We tagged his car with wax. We drew peace marks and swastikas and things like
that . . . . Then he understood, ok, you cannot behave like that.

While the local surfers can break the rules against visiting surfers, the visitors have
to be highly conscious of how they act and behave. The question then, is who are
perceived to be locals and who are looked upon as outsiders? As Olivier (2010) points
out, in surfing the categorization of us and them is a complex, and often irrational
process. In a conversation about an older surfer who has lived and surfed in the Jren
region for 20 years, one of the young surfers, Tore said, Nobody thinks of him as
a local. I mean, hes from a completely different place, northern Norway or some
shit like that. About another older surfer, he said, He thinks he has control because
he has lived here for 10 years or something like that. But, like . . . he is not from
here, he is from another place, England or something. However, this does not mean
that it is impossible for surfers who are not originally from the Jren area to become
accepted in the surfing community. It rather shows that being a local is a highly
contested category. The two older surfers whom Tore talked about are, by most
surfers in the region, considered to be locals. This shows that who we and them
are, is continuously negotiated. Some of my informants are not originally from Jren,
but have lived there for several years. One of them said that it is easier to get accepted
 16 T. Langseth

if you can surf well and also, if you get along with the guys that . . . how shall I put
it . . . is in charge in the area, like . . . then it is not a problem. But it takes a long
time. For me, it took several years. He further said that he felt accepted when he
could paddle out on secret spots and people talked to him and were friendly. One of
the surfers I interviewed, who is originally from eastern Norway, had lived for several
years in Australia before moving to Stavanger. He said that:

It is not easy to become a part of the surf community here. The locals here are very local.
I am accepted here, but I have to show respect for the surfers from the area. . . . I am
respected here because I surf better than most of them, but I have to show more respect
for them than they do for me, even if they snake1 on me.
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Waxing of cars, as in Tores quote above, is not something that happens often in the
Jren region. Neither is yelling nor fighting. However, for some of the surfers in the
region, it is important to create an impression that going on surf trips to Jren means
trouble. This is especially visible in discussions on surf web sites. People posting on
those web pages create an impression that if you are from eastern Norway, you are
not welcome to surf in the Jren region. This can be seen as a group variety of what
Goffman calls impression management (1971). Surfers from Jren try to keep the
surf spots less crowded by creating an impression that going to Jren on a surf trip
is not a good idea. Several of my informants told me that, when they meet travelling
surfers, they tell them that it is a much better idea to go to Stad and that the waves
are better there. One of my informants also revealed that, in the discussion boards on
surf websites, he often takes on several identities and starts discussions with himself,
to get up the temperature. The image that some of the surfers in the region try to
create is partially successful. While surfing at Stad, I have met several people who
said that they will not go on surf trips to Jren because it is just yelling and trouble
in the water. One of my informants who had lived and surfed in Stavanger previously
but now lives elsewhere said:

If I had gone to Stavanger now, I would be careful about where I surfed, because I have
gotten the impression that it has become so hard down there. . . . Bombsquad, they have
gotten a reputation. They are hard core . . . and you know what kind of people it is, it is
tattoo shop owners and Hells angels guys . . . it scares the shit out of me.

The Bombsquad is a gang consisting of middle-aged surfers. Recently, a second

gang, the Mustache Crew, has entered the scene, challenging the Bombsquad in
boxing matches and the like. Rather than seeing it as serious, it should be looked at
as playing with the cultural scripts of surfing. Gangs like Da hui and the Wolfpack
in Hawaii and the Bra Boys in Australia have been known for localizing and ruling
spots. The Norwegian gangs can be looked at as a tongue-in-cheek variety of those
gangs. They are not taken very seriously by other surfers from Jren. As one of my
informants said, They are just a bunch of hairdressers and models. Nevertheless, it
seems that some surfers outside Jren, as the surfer quoted above, take them seri-
ously, which is not strange since the Bombsquad is often mentioned in surf-related
media. The surf company Volcom had a contest in Jren in October 2008. After
 The construction of surfer identities in Norway 17

the contest, they published a paper about it on their international websites, where
Bombsquad was thanked for lending Volcom their surf spots. The gangs thereby
further create an image that the region is not a nice surf trip destination and this
helps to keep outsiders away.
Even though surfers from the Jren region make up most of the crowd in
the region, surfers from other places are held responsible for it, to some extent.
Easterners and Swedes have become scapegoats. Along with beginners, they are seen
as representatives of the commercialization of surfing that has led to overcrowding of
surf spots. Beginners are an out-group because they lack the symbolic capital con-
nected to skills and subcultural knowledge; surfers from other places are stigmatized
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because they lack symbolic capital in the form of local affiliation.

Summer surfers vs. winter surfers

Skills, knowledge and being from the Jren area are important facets of the symbolic
capital needed to be accepted as an insider. Another important form of symbolic cap-
ital is how much dedication the surfer demonstrates. As Wheaton (2003) has argued,
commitment can be seen as the most important factor for constructing subcultural
identity. Her study of windsurfers in Great Britain showed that commitment to the
sport is an important factor in the determination of subcultural status. Among the
surfers at Jren, demonstration of commitment is connected to surfing during the
cold winter months:

Those who are messing around and showing off at Bore beach in the summer are just
concerned with image. Those who have surfed for one or two years dont know what it
is all about. They dont know what it implies of sacrifice and dedication. It takes two to
three years with struggle. Because of that, I accept people on some level. When you have
been lying out there, struggling for five years . . . and have shown that you mean it, have
tackled the pressure, have shown that it is this you want, then you start to get close to that,
people think it is ok that you are there. Before that, I dont bother to get involved. Piss off.
If you can take it, have frozen through five winters, then, its ok (Tor).

Summer surfers is an insulting category that insiders use about other surfers not
showing the dedication necessary to be considered real surfers. Real surfers surf
all year, in all kinds of conditions, and have surfing as a lifestyle. The surfers who
surf only in the summer season show, in the eyes of the real surfers, that surfing
is not as important to them and also that it is not part of their identity. Summer
surfers thereby become an out-group, in opposition to us who are committed and
take surfing seriously. That also means that dedication can compensate, to a certain
degree, for the lack of skills. Dedication can make it easier to get inside the surf
subculture. Geir emphasizes that as long as you can catch waves, you dont have to
be able to do tricks or show skills to be accepted: When you are out on a day like
today, when it is winter and minus two degrees and snowing, I would call everyone
out there surfers.
 18 T. Langseth

So, if you surf in the winter, the chances of getting accepted as an insider and not
being suspected as a poser are high. For the insiders, commitment and dedication
are signs of authenticity, that you are a real surfer. Taylor (1991) has outlined what
he calls the ethics of authenticity. He states that, in late modernity, a new ethic has
evolved; in order to act ethically, you have to follow your own ideas and premises and
refrain from following traditional, inherited patterns of behaviour. Summer surfers
and hobby surfers are not seen as being authentic surfers. They are seen as surfing
because it is a trend and therefore, in the eyes of the core group of surfers, do not fol-
low their own individual will but rather the logic of the masses. Of course, as has been
shown in this paper, the surfers belonging to the core group act and think according
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to the internal regulations of the surf subculture. That means that their own internal
will is not as individual as they perceive it to be. Still, they look at themselves as indi-
vidualists while the others are seen as acting collectively. This typification of how the
others are, tells little about real differences, but rather about how the in-group wants
to view themselves: as free-spirited individualists.

Womenambivalent statuses
Wheaton (2007) states that gender, sexuality, class and race often lie beneath exclu-
sionary mechanisms and authenticity claims. How then, are women looked upon in
the Jren surf subculture? Reading surfing magazines, one can get the impression
that it is not easy for women to become accepted as surfers. Rinehart (2005) has
described how advertising in skateboarding magazines often reifies and sexualizes
women. Similarly, in advertisements in surfing magazines, women are often depicted
as passive ornaments. Stedmans analysis of surf medias portrayal of women con-
cludes that surf cultures attempt to stay alternative to mainstream society has made
way for rampant sexism (Stedman, 1997). She holds that sexism and antifeminism
have become a way for surfers to show their oppositional status, but does her anal-
ysis of the surf media reflect the gender order in the line up? My data revealed that
women have an ambiguous status in the Jren surf subculture. My female informants
stated that it is easier for them to get accepted, or at least included, by male surfers
than for men in some ways. They often get invited to go surfing with the core mem-
bers in the subculture at a much earlier stage of their subcultural career than they
would if they were men. A reason for this can be that they are not seen as a threat by
the men in the subculture. Not being taken as a threat also means that they are not
expected to catch as many waves as their male opponents. In his studies of surfing in
Australia, Evers (2006) found that men often drop in on women because women are
not thought to surf at the same level as them. The same mechanism seems to be at
work at Jren. Several of the women I interviewed complained about often getting
dropped in on. Women seemingly become a category of surfers that it is ok to drop
in on, not because they are not locals but because they are not expected to have the
skills, and perhaps also because dropping in on a girl does not represent a risk of
physical violence.
 The construction of surfer identities in Norway 19

Like some of the guys, some of the girls on Jren have started their own surf gang,
The Boob Squad. It is composed of around 10 female surfers. They do not surf
together often, as their skill levels differ a lot and they surf at different spots, but they
have different social gatherings, watch surf films, etc. The name of the gang can be
seen as a way of empowerment: a way of making fun of the masculine ideals found
in surfing, as represented by the Bombsquad and a way of showing that they can be
women and surfers without being one of the lads. They thereby construct a room
for femininity in the surfing subculture in the Jren region, but the construction of
such a room can also be seen as reflecting the ambiguous status of women in the surf
culture: not completely insiders and not completely outsiders.
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Concluding remarks
The scope of this paper has been to highlight identity development among surfers
in the Jren region of Norway. As surfing has increased in popularity in Norway
the surf subculture has become characterized by a partial social closure. As a result,
membership in the local surf subculture has become increasingly guarded. To become
full members of the surf subculture the beginner has to go through a socialization
process in which the values of the surf field become embodied and adapted. My
data reveal that successful integration into the core group of surfers in this region is
dependent on the individual surfers amount of symbolic capital. The four dominant
forms of symbolic capital that the surfers have to possess to become insiders are skills,
subcultural knowledge (rules, types of boards, surf spots, etc.), commitment and local
affiliation. As the rules of the game become adapted, surfing takes a stronghold on
these actors lives. Surfing goes from being a hobby towards being an all-embracing
lifestyle. Individual identity is developed as actors undergo identification with these
values.
Acceptance in the subculture is determined on the total amount of symbolic capital
the surfer possesses. Lack of one form of symbolic capital can be compensated for by
another. A surfer who is not a local, for example, can gain membership in the Jren
subculture by being highly skilled. Of the four forms of capital, skills are, of course,
the most important. You cannot become part of the surf subculture if you cannot
surf.
While individual identity is developed through identification with these values,
group identity is constructed against other surfers who lack these forms of symbolic
capital: we are the ones who are skilled and have subcultural knowledge as opposed
to beginners; we are committed as opposed to summer surfers; we are locals as
opposed to Swedes and surfers from eastern Norway.
Readers familiar with surfing will probably acknowledge that the values identified
in this paper are central in global surf culture. Rather than being local values, they
might be seen as local enactments of global cultural scripts. These cultural scripts
are interpreted and given a local colouring. Commitment, for instance, is in the
Norwegian context connected to surfing in cold winter conditions and thereby to
 20 T. Langseth

national myths about Norwegians natural love for winter and snow. An interest-
ing task for future research would be to carry out cross-cultural comparisons on
how surfings cultural scripts are implemented in different locations across the globe.
A comparison of the Norwegian surf culture and other newly-developed surf com-
munities that surf in similar conditions, such as Nova Scotia in Canada, would be
especially intriguing. Another direction of future research would be to compare the
values in surfing with other adventure or risk sports. Focusing on what role risk-taking
plays in different fields of risk sport might reveal interesting data on the development
of risk-taking behaviour within sport subcultures.
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Note
1. Snaking is a way of breaking the rules, where a surfer paddles past the queue system in the
lineup.

Author biography
Tommy Langseth is an assistant professor at the Department of Sport, Physical
Education and Outdoor Life Studies, Telemark University College, Norway. He
received his Cand. Polit. degree in sociology from the University of Bergen in
2003, and is currently working on his PhD thesis. His primary research focus is
on new forms of outdoor activities and the social processes behind risk taking in
adventure sports.

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