Quantum Computing for Beginners:

Building Qubits

Suzanne Gildert
Condensed Matter Physics Research (Quantum Devices Group)
University of Birmingham

28/03/2007

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Overview of this presentation
What is a Qubit?
What are the 'basic'
principles of the
What are the qubit system?
Delft 2005
design rules?

What's so great
about them?!
How are they
fabricated?

How do researchers What are the

test them? applications?

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 What is a Qubit?
What is a Qubit?

A qubit (or QUantum BIT) is similar in concept to a standard 'bit' - it is a

memory element. It can hold not only the states '0' and '1' but a linear
superposition of both states, |0> + |1>

In physicicts terms, we denote the states |0> and |1> respectively.

QUBIT vs. CLASSICAL BIT

Classical bits |1>

1 Quantum bits

Bit number |0>

Bit number

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 What's so good about the Qubit?
Qubits are useful for quantum computation

Useful when lots of permutations need to be tried

Suppose we want to calculate and store all possible outcomes of a

particular calculation...

A classical register A quantum register

00
10 |0> + |1>
|00>
+
01 |01>
+
|10>
10 10 |0> + |1> +
|11>
11
Computation no. 4231 SINGLE COMPUTATIONAL STEP

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Choosing your Qubit
Qubits can be realised using many different methods:
It is widely believed
Photonic systems
that the only way to
Laser Ion traps / NMR systems
realise large scale
Quantum Dots / artificial atoms
integration of qubits
will be with solid
We are working towards Solid State Qubits, using
state technologies, in
Superconductor technology
the same way that
current computation
There are 2 main families of Superconducting Qubits:
can be scaled up by
using transistors.
Charge Qubit and Flux/Phase Qubit

Nippon 2004

CHARGE FLUX
QUBIT QUBIT

Riken 2006

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 What are the basic principles?
The Josephson Junction is the basic building block of a superconducting qubit,
and thus a quantum computer.
Junction consists of 2 superconducting regions separated by a weak link (usually
an insulator)
Electron wavefunction Superconductor Energy
Energy diagram
diagram of awith
of a ring junction
a junction
Electrons
U = LI2 Energy
Energy minimum
minimum
Energy
Energy
Energy maximum
Weak link
Weak link
Energy maximum

00
Phase across
Phase, or fluxjunction
inside junction

The qubit consists of a ring of 1 QUBIT

or more superconducting Measuring
Josephson Junctions, with this loop
same energy landscape.
Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits
 Designing Qubits
When the energy of the system is correctly chosen (by carefully choosing the
capacitance and inductance of the device), quantum mechanics dominates the
junction behaviour...
Apply a particular
magnetic field, and
both energy states are
equally favourable.

What's more they

become quantum
mechanically 'linked'
through the barrier!

J Healey 2007

The qubit can support

The 'ground state' of the currents flowing in both
system - no currents flow. directions at once!
Apply a magnetic field, We can encode our data,
currents will start to flow |0> and |1>, into these two
around the loop. states.
Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits
 How do you make one?
Ramp Junction Use material deposition
Technology Insulating barrier
techniques to place a layer
of superconductor
Pattern a ramp into the
superconductor
Oxidise the surface of the
superconductor (or deposit
an insulating layer on top)
Superconductor Gold to form the Josephson
Electrodes barrier

Make a via (hole) into the insulating layer and attach electrodes to each side of
the junction

Different superconductors can be used for the two layers, to investigate

interesting effects

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 How do you make lots?
Single device vs. VLSI techniques

Single device is OK for research...

...But VLSI needed for anything useful!

Standard fabrication techniques in device

physics/engineering to make Junctions

Metal sputtering / Pulsed Laser deposition

FIB etching - to
produce a single
device.... or an e-
beam mask for
multiple devices...

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Our fabrication plan
We will employ a double-angle shadow
technique - simple, quick and can reproduce
junctions to within a small tolerance

E-beam
Junctions
direction x2

Shadow mask

Superconductor
regions become overlaid
Double angle shadow evaporation

However, we will also be looking at other,

Self-alignment Ramp
more novel fabrication techniques in the Single crystal Junctions?
meantime - there are lots! whisker stacks?

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Testing and measuring qubits
What temperatures do the qubits operate at?
They need to be in the superconducting regime
They need to be cold enough that thermal
fluctuations are unimportant.
So in the energy well diagram, the energy of the
system is unlikely to be accidentally 'excited' over
the barrier.
The qubit sits in a
copper box, which
Thermal fluctuation reaches the lowest
temperatures
here approx.
30mK, (or 0.03 of
a degree above
absolute zero!)

QUBIT MYTH:
Even if you had Room Temperature Superconductors, qubits would still
need to be refrigerated down to very low temperatures.

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Why is it difficult to investigate qubits?
Qubit research is difficult you have to be really careful... 2 main problems.

Noise can affect your experiment as

explained earlier. Many steps taken to
reduce the noise level...
Specialist amplifiers & comparators
Custom designed shielded electronics systems
Take many, many measurements to compile a
good average
Great care is taken to calculate the effect of
noise so that it can be eliminated

The measurement problem reading a

qubit without disturbing it....

Most people use either a SQUID loop or

a resonant coil to infer the state of the
qubit
Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits
 A typical experimental set-up
0.3mm Attenuating
What does it look like? coaxial cable

The lower section of the apparatus is

housed within a vacuum can
Sub 1K filter
Filter modules at various temperatures modules
along the length of the cryostat

Run apparatus from battery power and

send signals through fibre optic (non
electrical) links

Fully shielded cables and fully Mixing chamber

shielded ground

Junction
Sample box

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Experimental Setup (2)
Time Interval Counter

Preamplifier IV characteristic display

Fridge Insert kk

Stanford Amplifier

Fridge
Fridge dewar (He4) control
Histogram display
unit
Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits
 What can you actually measure?
Rabi oscillations & Ramsey fringes can illustrate the quantum
coherence (showing that the two states, |0> and |1>, really are in
co-existence

Microwave spectroscopy can probe the energy levels of the

qubit and help us to understand the potential of these devices

Quantronics CEA University of Maryland

These experiments show very fundamental quantum properties

which signify a working qubit, before trying to couple the devices together

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 New experiments our contribution
Cutting edge qubit
technology!
High Tc experiments
Microwave cavity experiments

J Healey 2007

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Applications
(...so can I factorise 15 with your qubits?)

Unfotunately.....not (yet)

May have heard of the IBM 'quantum computer' factorising the

number 15 the system uses an NMR technique ensemble
quantum computer

This is currently beyond the reach of solid state quantum

computers (you need at least 7 qubits)
IBM's 7 qubit
However solid state qubit technology is progressing very 'molecule'
rapidly indeed, and hopefully there will be more and more
results and demonstrations in the next few years

D-wave systems 'The quantum Computing company' are in the

process of producing a large scale qubit system using similar
Josephson Junction technology

Possible cryptography applications, and integrating with

current optical quantum technology D-wave's 16 qubit device

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Conclusions
Qubits are interesting both from a physicist and an engineer's point of
view, and are definitely worth investigating further.

With enough qubits, it is possible to run quantum computations, which

can outperform current technology in some specific cases, and may
provide other means of replacing (or enhancing) semiconductor
systems.
The fabrication technology is improving all the time and soon qubits
will be routinely implemented into superconducting circuits
New materials are being discovered all the time which may improve
the operation of the qubits further - in the same way that the
semiconductor industry is progressing now.

The applications are somewhat limited at the moment, but hopefully

the field will continue to advance in the future.

Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits

 Quantum computing for beginners: Building Qubits
Thank you for your attention - Any Questions?

Further Reading for interested audience members:

M. Tinkham 'Introduction to Superconductivity', Chapter 7

D-wave systems: http://www.dwavesys.com/

Some nice introductions to quantum computing:

http://www.cm.ph.bham.ac.uk/scondintro/qubitsintro.html
http://www.cs.caltech.edu/~westside/quantum-intro.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubits
http://www.csr.umd.edu/csrpage/research/quantum/index.htm

Suzanne Gildert
Condensed Matter Physics Research (Devices Group)
University of Birmingham
Quantum Computing for beginners: Building Qubits