Ring Documentation, Release 1.

34.5 Example

The next code create a SQLite database, add new records then display the data.
oSQLite = sqlite_init()

sqlite_open(oSQLite,"mytest.db")

sql = "CREATE TABLE COMPANY(" +

"ID INT PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL," +
"NAME TEXT NOT NULL," +
"AGE INT NOT NULL," +
"ADDRESS CHAR(50)," +
"SALARY REAL );"

sqlite_execute(oSQLite,sql)

sql = "INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) " +

"VALUES (1, 'Mahmoud', 29, 'Jeddah', 20000.00 ); " +
"INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) " +
"VALUES (2, 'Ahmed', 27, 'Jeddah', 15000.00 ); " +
"INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)" +
"VALUES (3, 'Mohammed', 31, 'Egypt', 20000.00 );" +
"INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)" +
"VALUES (4, 'Ibrahim', 24, 'Egypt ', 65000.00 );"

sqlite_execute(oSQLite,sql)

aResult = sqlite_execute(oSQLite,"select * from COMPANY")

for x in aResult
for t in x
see t[2] + nl
next
next
see copy("*",50) + nl
for x in aResult
see x["name"] + nl
next
sqlite_close(oSQLite)

Output:
1
Mahmoud
29
Jeddah
20000.0
2
Ahmed
27
Jeddah
15000.0
3
Mohammed
31
Egypt
20000.0
4

34.5. Example 188

 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Ibrahim
24
Egypt
65000.0
**************************************************
Mahmoud
Ahmed
Mohammed
Ibrahim

34.5. Example 189

 CHAPTER

THIRTYFIVE

SECURITY AND INTERNET FUNCTIONS

This chapter contains the security and internet functions provided by the Ring programming language for Hashing,
Encryption & Decryption.
Before using the next function load the openssllib.ring library
load "openssllib.ring"
# Use OpenSSL functions

MD5()
SHA1()
SHA256()
SHA512()
SHA384()
SHA224()
Encrypt()
Decrypt()
Randbytes()
Before using the next function load the internetlib.ring library
load "internetlib.ring"
# Use the Internet functions

Download()
SendEmail()

35.1 MD5() Function

We can calculate the MD5 hash using the MD5() Function

Syntax:
MD5(cString) ---> String contains the MD5 hash of the string cString

Example:
see "md5('happy') = " + md5("happy") + nl +
"md5('Hello') = " + md5("Hello") + nl

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Output:
md5('happy') = 56ab24c15b72a457069c5ea42fcfc640
md5('Hello') = 8b1a9953c4611296a827abf8c47804d7

35.2 SHA1() Function

We can calculate the SHA1 hash using the SHA1() Function

Syntax:
SHA1(cString) ---> String contains the SHA1 hash of the string cString

Example:
see "sha1('hello') : " + sha1("hello") + nl +
"sha1('apple') : " + sha1("apple") + nl

Output:
sha1('hello') : aaf4c61ddcc5e8a2dabede0f3b482cd9aea9434d
sha1('apple') : d0be2dc421be4fcd0172e5afceea3970e2f3d940

35.3 SHA256() Function

We can calculate the SHA256 hash using the SHA256() Function

Syntax:
SHA256(cString) ---> String contains the SHA256 hash of the string cString

Example:
see "sha256('hello') : " + sha256("hello") + nl +
"sha256('apple') : " + sha256("apple") + nl

Output:
sha256('hello') : 2cf24dba5fb0a30e26e83b2ac5b9e29e1b161e5c1fa7425e73043362938b9824
sha256('apple') : 3a7bd3e2360a3d29eea436fcfb7e44c735d117c42d1c1835420b6b9942dd4f1b

35.4 SHA512() Function

We can calculate the SHA512 hash using the SHA512() Function

Syntax:
SHA512(cString) ---> String contains the SHA512 hash of the string cString

Example:
see "sha512('hello') : " + sha512("hello") + nl +
"sha512('apple') : " + sha512("apple") + nl +
"sha512('hello world') : " + sha512("hello world") + nl

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 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Output:
sha512('hello') : 9b71d224bd62f3785d96d46ad3ea3d73319bfbc2890caadae2dff72519673c
a72323c3d99ba5c11d7c7acc6e14b8c5da0c4663475c2e5c3adef46f73bcdec043
sha512('apple') : 844d8779103b94c18f4aa4cc0c3b4474058580a991fba85d3ca698a0bc9e52
c5940feb7a65a3a290e17e6b23ee943ecc4f73e7490327245b4fe5d5efb590feb2
sha512('hello world') : 309ecc489c12d6eb4cc40f50c902f2b4d0ed77ee511a7c7a9bcd3ca8
6d4cd86f989dd35bc5ff499670da34255b45b0cfd830e81f605dcf7dc5542e93ae9cd76f

35.5 SHA384() Function

We can calculate the SHA384 hash using the SHA384() Function

Syntax:
SHA384(cString) ---> String contains the SHA384 hash of the string cString

Example:
see "sha384('hello') : " + sha384("hello") + nl +
"sha384('apple') : " + sha384("apple") + nl +
"sha384('hello world') : " + sha384("hello world") + nl

Output:
sha384('hello') : 59e1748777448c69de6b800d7a33bbfb9ff1b463e44354c3553bcdb9c666fa
90125a3c79f90397bdf5f6a13de828684f
sha384('apple') : 3d8786fcb588c93348756c6429717dc6c374a14f7029362281a3b21dc10250
ddf0d0578052749822eb08bc0dc1e68b0f
sha384('hello world') : fdbd8e75a67f29f701a4e040385e2e23986303ea10239211af907fcb
b83578b3e417cb71ce646efd0819dd8c088de1bd

35.6 SHA224() Function

We can calculate the SHA224 hash using the SHA224() Function

Syntax:
SHA224(cString) ---> String contains the SHA224 hash of the string cString

Example:
see "sha224('hello') : " + sha224("hello") + nl +
"sha224('apple') : " + sha224("apple") + nl +
"sha224('hello world') : " + sha224("hello world") + nl

Output:
sha224('hello') : ea09ae9cc6768c50fcee903ed054556e5bfc8347907f12598aa24193
sha224('apple') : b7bbfdf1a1012999b3c466fdeb906a629caa5e3e022428d1eb702281
sha224('hello world') : 2f05477fc24bb4faefd86517156dafdecec45b8ad3cf2522a563582b

35.7 Encrypt() Function

We can use the Encrypt() function to encrypts the data using the Blowfish algorithm.

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 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Syntax:
Encrypt(cString, cKey, cIV) ---> Encrypted string

35.8 Decrypt() Function

We can use the Decrypt() function to decrypt the data encrypted using the Encrypt() function.
Syntax:
Decrypt(cCipher, cKey, cIV) ---> Decrypted string

35.9 Encryption and Decryption Example

The next example demonstrates how to use the Encrypt() and Decrypt() functions.
These functions use the Blowfish algorithm.
See "Enter a string : " give cStr
list = 0:15 cKey="" for x in list cKey += char(x) next
list = 1:8 cIV = "" for x in list cIV += char(x) next
cStr = Encrypt(cStr,cKey,cIV)
See "Cipher Text : " + cStr + nl +
"Plain Text : " + Decrypt(cStr,cKey,cIV) + nl

35.10 File Hash

The next example demonstrates how to calculate the hash functions for files
cStr = read("myapp.exe")
see "Size : " + len(cStr) + nl +
"md5 : " + md5(cStr) + nl +
"sha1 : " + sha1(cStr) + nl +
"sha256 : " + sha256(cStr) + nl +
"sha224 : " + sha224(cStr) + nl +
"sha384 : " + sha384(cStr) + nl +
"sha512 : " + sha512(cStr) + nl

Output:
Size : 58079876
md5 : 762eee15d8d2fd73b71ea52538b28667
sha1 : 9212c0c7258bad89a62bd239e1358a9276a9d070
sha256 : 7d6724e69b6c553da749ba31b6185dddc965129b64d9e9bf3de88f67df3b1cdc
sha224 : 5a9c8a7d662bce4f880ba94f90a79362b672528b9efd5abc718c7a3d
sha384 : 18e23f973abedbeb3981c423f12aeadecf96f9c6fb28aeabe3be4c484f8540afcc3861b
b370ce2b59cf3c99c130b856b
sha512 : da3d5e997d06f8b2a7a9964b77f7d82eedb76b245c611082c1639f83f51d83880bcd08f
cd53dcab1167bdca0b82fec5071971ac17c76479d76985ced4ab0d18e

35.8. Decrypt() Function 193

 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

35.11 Randbytes() Function

We can generate a string of pseudo-random bytes using the Randbytes() function.

Syntax:
Randbytes(nSize) ---> String contains random bytes (bytes count = nSize)

Example:
salt = randbytes(32)
password = "SecretPassWord@$%123"
see salt + nl
see sha256("test" + salt) + nl

35.12 Download() Function

Syntax:
Download(cURL) ---> String contains the server response

Example:
cStr= download("http://doublesvsoop.sourceforge.net/")
see cStr
write("download.txt",cStr)

35.13 SendEmail() Function

Syntax:
SendEmail(cSMTPServer,cEmail,cPassword,cSender,cReceiver,cCC,cTitle,cContent)

Example:
See "Send email..." + nl
sendemail("smtp://smtp.gmail.com:587",
"[email protected]",
"password",
"[email protected]",
"[email protected]",
"[email protected]",
"Sending email from Ring",
"Hello
How are you?
Are you fine?
Thank you!
Greetings,
Mahmoud")
see "Done.." + nl

35.11. Randbytes() Function 194

 CHAPTER

THIRTYSIX

OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING (OOP)

In this chapter we are going to learn how to use the Object-Oriented programming paradigm inside the Ring program-
ming language.
We will learn about
Classes and Objects
Access Objects Using Braces
Composition
Setter and Getter
Private Attributes and Methods
Operator Overloading
Inheritance
Dynamic Attributes
Packages
Printing Objects
Find() and List of Objects
Sort() and List of Objects
Using Self.Attribute and Self.Method()
Using This.Attribute and This.Method()

36.1 Classes and Objects

We can define new classes using the next syntax

Syntax:
Class <Class Name> [From|<|: <Parent Class Name>]
[Attributes]
[Methods]
[Private
[Attributes]
[Methods]
]

195
 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

And we can create objects using the next syntax

Syntax:
New <Object Name> [ (init method parameters) ] |
[ { access object data and methods } ] ---> Object

Example:
New point { x=10 y=20 z=30 print() }
Class Point x y z func print see x + nl + y + nl + z + nl

Note: We can use { } to access object data and methods.

Tip: we can declare the class attributes directly after the class name.

Output:
10
20
30

We can rewrite the same program in another style

New point # create new object using the point class
{ # access the new object attributes and methods
x = 10 # set the x attribute to 10
y = 20 # set the y attribute to 20
z = 30 # set the z attribute to 30
print() # call the print method
} # end of object access

Class Point # define the Point class

x y z # the class contains three attributes x, y & z
func print # define the print method
see x + nl + # print the x attribute
y + nl + # print the y attribute
z + nl # print the z attribute

Also we can write the same program in another way

P1 = New Point
P1.x = 10
P1.y = 20
P1.z = 30
P1.Print()
Class Point x y z func print see x + nl + y + nl + z + nl

Note: we can use the dot operator after the object name to access object members.

Also we can write the same program in another way

new point { print() }
Class Point
x = 10 y = 20 z = 30
func print see x + nl + y + nl + z + nl

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 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Note: we can set the default values for the class attributes when we declare them.

Also we can write the same program in another way

new point(10,20,30)
Class Point
x y z
func init p1,p2,p3 x=p1 y=p2 z=p3 print()
func print see x + nl + y + nl + z + nl

Note: we can call the init method directly using () when we create new objects

Also we can write the same program in another way

new point( [ :x = 10 , :y = 20 , :z = 30 ] )
Class Point x y z
func init aPara x = aPara[:x] y = aPara[:y] z = aPara[:z] print()
func print see x + nl + y + nl + z + nl

Tip: using Hash for passing method parameters enable us to create optional parameters and change the order of
parameters when adding them to the Hash.

36.2 Access Objects Using Braces

We can access the object at any time using braces { }

Inside the braces we can use the object attributes and methods directly
This can be done when we create the object using the New keyword or at any time using the next syntax
ObjectName { access object data and methods }

Example:
See "Creating the Object" + nl
o1 = new Point
See "Using the Object" + nl
o1 {
x=5
y=15
z=25
print()
}
Class Point x y z func print see x + nl + y + nl + z

We can use braces to access objects when we call functions or methods

Example:
o1 = new Point

print( o1 { x=10 y=20 z=30 } )

func print object

see object.x + nl +
object.y + nl +

36.2. Access Objects Using Braces 197

 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

object.z

Class Point x y z

We can mix between using braces and the dot operator to access the object in the same expression.
Example:
o1 = new Point

O1 { x=10 y=20 z=30 }.print()

Class Point x y z
func print see x + nl + y + nl + z

36.3 Composition

The object may contains other objects as attributes.

Using braces to access objects can be nested.
Example:
R1 = New Rectangle
{

Name = "Rectangle 1"

P1
{
X = 10
Y = 20
}

P2
{
X = 200
Y = 300
}

Color = "Blue"

see "Name : " + R1.Name + nl +

"Color: " + R1.Color + nl +
"P1 : (" + R1.P1.X + "," + R1.P1.Y + ")" + nl +
"P2 : (" + R1.P2.X + "," + R1.P2.Y + ")"

Class Rectangle
name color
p1 = new Point
p2 = new Point

Class Point x y

Output:

36.3. Composition 198

 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Name : Rectangle 1
Color: Blue
P1 : (10,20)
P2 : (200,300)

36.4 Setter and Getter

We can define methods to be used when we set and get object attributes.
Syntax:
Class ClassName

AttributeName
...

Func SetAttributeName
...

Func GetAttributeName
...

Example:
o1 = new person

o1.name = "Mahmoud" see o1.name + nl

o1 { name = "Ahmed" see name }

Class Person

name family = "Fayed"

func setname value

see "Message from SetName() Function!" + nl
name = value + " " + family

func getname
see "Message from GetName() Function!" + nl
return "Mr. " + name

Output:
Message from SetName() Function!
Message from GetName() Function!
Mr. Mahmoud Fayed
Message from SetName() Function!
Message from GetName() Function!
Mr. Ahmed Fayed

36.5 Private Attributes and Methods

We can define private attributes and methods after the keyword private inside the class body

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 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Example:
o1 = new person {
name = "Test"
age = 20
print()
o1.printsalary()
}

try
see o1.salary
catch
see cCatchError + nl
done

try
o1.increasesalary(1000)
catch
see cCatchError + nl
done

Class Person

name age

func print
see "Name : " + name + nl +
"Age : " + age + nl

func printsalary
see "Salary : " + salary + nl

private

salary = 15000

func increasesalary x
salary += x

Output:
Name : Test
Age : 20
Salary : 15000
Error (R27) : Using private attribute from outside the class : salary
Error (R26) : Calling private method from outside the class : increasesalary

36.6 Operator Overloading

We can add the operator method to our class to enable using operators with the class objects.
Syntax:
Class ClassName

...

36.6. Operator Overloading 200

 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Func operator cOperator,Para

...

The function operator takes two paramters, the first represent the operator and the second represent the second param-
eter after the operator.
Example:
o1 = new point { x = 10 y = 10 print("P1 : ") }
o2 = new point { x = 20 y = 40 print("P2 : ") }

o3 = o1 + o2
o3.print("P1+P2 : ")

class point x y

func operator cOperator,Para

result = new point
switch cOperator
on "+"
result.x = x + Para.x
result.y = y + Para.y
on "-"
result.x = x - Para.x
result.y = y - Para.y
off
return result

func print cPoint

see cPoint + "X : " + x + " Y : " + y + nl

Output:
P1 : X : 10 Y : 10
P2 : X : 20 Y : 40
P1+P2 : X : 30 Y : 50

36.7 Inheritance

We can create class from another class in the class definition using the keyword from.
Syntax:
Class <Class Name> [From <Parent Class Name>]

We can call a method in the parent class from the child class using the super object.
Syntax:
func methodname
...
super.methodname()
...

Example:

36.7. Inheritance 201

 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Func main
e1 = new Employee {
Name = "test"
age = 20
job = "programmer"
salary = 20000000
print()
}

Class Human
Name Age
func print
see "Name : " + name + nl + "Age : " + age + nl

Class Employee from Human

Job Salary
func print
super.print()
see "Job : " + job + nl + "Salary : " + salary + nl

Output:
Name : test
Age : 20
Job : programmer
Salary : 20000000

36.8 Dynamic Attributes

We can write instructions after the class name to be executed when we create new objects
Example:
o1 = new dynamicClass
see o1.var5 + nl # output 5

Class DynamicClass
for x = 1 to 10
cStr = "var" + x + " = " + x
eval(cStr)
next

Tip: in the previous example var1, var2, ..., var10 will be defined as attributes.

Tip: The problem with the previous example is that x and cStr will be defined as attributes too!

Note: we can write class definitions inside a string then using eval() we can execute the string to define the classes

36.9 Packages

We can create a package (a group of classes under a common name) using the next syntax

36.8. Dynamic Attributes 202

 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

package PackageName
Class Class1
...
Class Class2
...
Class Class3
...
...

Example
o1 = new System.output.console
o1.print("Hello World")

Package System.Output
Class Console
Func Print cText
see cText + nl

Note: we can use the dot operator as part of the package name

Instead of typing the long name PackageName.ClassName we can use the import command
When we import a package, we can use any class inside this package directly.
Example
import system.output
o1 = new console {
print("Hello World")
}
Package System.Output
Class Console
Func Print cText
see cText + nl

36.10 Printing Objects

We can print the object state (attributes and values) using the see command.
Example:
see new point { x=10 y=20 z=30 }
class point x y z

Output:
x: 10.000000
y: 20.000000
z: 30.000000

36.11 Find() and List of Objects

We can use the find() function to search inside a list of objects.

Syntax:

36.10. Printing Objects 203

 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Find(List,ItemValue,nColumn,cAttribute) ---> Item Index

Example:
myList1 = [new Company {position=3 name="Mahmoud" symbol="MHD"},
new Company {position=2 name="Bert" symbol="BRT"},
new Company {position=1 name="Ring" symbol="RNG"}
]

see find(mylist1,"Bert",1,"name") + nl
see find(mylist1,"Ring",1,"name") + nl
see find(mylist1,"Mahmoud",1,"name") + nl
see find(mylist1,"RNG",1,"symbol") + nl
see find(mylist1,"MHD",1,"symbol") + nl
see find(mylist1,"BRT",1,"symbol") + nl
see find(mylist1,3,1,"position") + nl
see find(mylist1,1,1,"position") + nl
see "Other" + nl
see find(mylist1,"test",1,"name") + nl
see find(mylist1,"test",0,"name") + nl
see find(mylist1,"test",5,"name") + nl

class company position name symbol

Output:
2
3
1
3
1
2
1
3
Other
0
0
0

36.12 Sort() and list of objects

We can sort a list of objects based on an object attribute using the Sort() function.
Syntax:
Sort(List,nColumn,cAttribute) ---> Sorted List based on Object Attribute

Example:
myList1 = [
new Company {position=3 name="Mahmoud" symbol="MHD"},
new Company {position=2 name="Bert" symbol="BRT"},
new Company {position=8 name="Charlie" symbol="CHR"},
new Company {position=6 name="Easy" symbol="FEAS"},
new Company {position=7 name="Fox" symbol="EFOX"},
new Company {position=5 name="Dog" symbol="GDOG"},
new Company {position=4 name="George" symbol="DGRG"},

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 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

new Company {position=1 name="Ring" symbol="RNG"}

]

see sort(mylist1,1,"name")
see copy("*",70) + nl
see sort(mylist1,1,"symbol")
see copy("*",70) + nl
see sort(mylist1,1,"position")

class company position name symbol

Output:
position: 2.000000
name: Bert
symbol: BRT
position: 8.000000
name: Charlie
symbol: CHR
position: 5.000000
name: Dog
symbol: GDOG
position: 6.000000
name: Easy
symbol: FEAS
position: 7.000000
name: Fox
symbol: EFOX
position: 4.000000
name: George
symbol: DGRG
position: 3.000000
name: Mahmoud
symbol: MHD
position: 1.000000
name: Ring
symbol: RNG
**********************************************************************
position: 2.000000
name: Bert
symbol: BRT
position: 8.000000
name: Charlie
symbol: CHR
position: 4.000000
name: George
symbol: DGRG
position: 7.000000
name: Fox
symbol: EFOX
position: 6.000000
name: Easy
symbol: FEAS
position: 5.000000
name: Dog
symbol: GDOG
position: 3.000000
name: Mahmoud

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 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

symbol: MHD
position: 1.000000
name: Ring
symbol: RNG
**********************************************************************
position: 1.000000
name: Ring
symbol: RNG
position: 2.000000
name: Bert
symbol: BRT
position: 3.000000
name: Mahmoud
symbol: MHD
position: 4.000000
name: George
symbol: DGRG
position: 5.000000
name: Dog
symbol: GDOG
position: 6.000000
name: Easy
symbol: FEAS
position: 7.000000
name: Fox
symbol: EFOX
position: 8.000000
name: Charlie
symbol: CHR

36.13 Using Self.Attribute and Self.Method()

Inside the class region (After the class name and before any method) and the class methods we can use self.attribute
and self.method()
Class Point
self.x = 10
self.y = 20
self.z = 30
func print
see self.x + nl + self.y + nl + self.z + nl

Note: using self.attribute in the class region to define the class attribute protect the class attributes from conflict with
global variables.

Tip: if you typed the class attributes with self.attribute and there are a global variable with the same name it will be
used and the attribute will not be defined.

Check the Scope Rules chapter to know about the conflict between the global variable name and the attribute name
Whay this may happens?
Because
Because in the class region we can access global variables.

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 Ring Documentation, Release 1.4

Before defining any variable, Ring try to find the variable and use it if its found.

Note: Try to avoid the global variables, use the main function and start their names with $

Tip: In large programs protect your classes and define their members using self.attribute

36.14 Using This.Attribute and This.Method()

Inside class methods we have access to the object scope directly. we dont need to use Self.attribute or Self.method to
read/write attribute and call methods.
But we can use braces {} while we are inside methods to access another object, In this case the current object scope
will be changed while we are inside the brace.
How we can get access to our class attributes and methods while we are inside braces?
This can be done using This.Attribute and This.Method()
Example:
new point

class point
x=10 y=20 z=30
print()
func print
new UI {
display(this.x,this.y,this.z)
}

Class UI
func display x,y,z
see x + nl + y + nl + z + nl

36.14. Using This.Attribute and This.Method() 207

 CHAPTER

THIRTYSEVEN

FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMMING

In previous chapters we learned about Functions and Recursion.

In this chapter we are going to learn about more Functional Programming (FP) concepts like
Pure Functions
First-class functions
Higher-order functions
Anonymous and nested functions.
Equality of functions

37.1 Pure Functions

We can create pure functions (functions that doesnt change the state) by the help of the assignment operator to copy
variables (Lists & Objects) by value to create new variables instead of working on the original data that are passed to
the function by reference.
Example:
Func Main
aList = [1,2,3,4,5]
aList2 = square(aList)
see "aList" + nl
see aList
see "aList2" + nl
see aList2

Func Square aPara

a1 = aPara # copy the list
for x in a1
x *= x
next
return a1 # return new list

Output:
aList
1
2
3
4
5

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aList2
1
4
9
16
25

37.2 First-class Functions

Functions inside the Ring programming language are first-class citizens, you can pass functions as parameters, return
them as value or store them in variables.
We can pass/return the function by typing the function name as literal like FunctionName or :FunctionName for
example.
We can pass/return functions using the variable that contains the function name.
We can call function from variables contains the function name using the Call command
Syntax:
Call Variable([Parameters])

Example:
Func Main
see "before test2()" + nl
f = Test2(:Test)
see "after test2()" + nl
call f()

Func Test
see "Message from test!" + nl

Func Test2 f1
call f1()
See "Message from test2!" + nl
return f1

Output:
before test2()
Message from test!
Message from test2!
after test2()
Message from test!

37.3 Higher-order Functions

Higher-order functions are the functions that takes other functions as parameters.
Example:
Func Main
times(5,:test)

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Func Test
see "Message from the test function!" + nl

Func Times nCount,F

for x = 1 to nCount
Call F()
next

Output:
Message from the test function!
Message from the test function!
Message from the test function!
Message from the test function!
Message from the test function!

37.4 Anonymous and Nested Functions

Anonymous Functions are functions without names that can be passed as parameters to other functions or stored in
variables.
Syntax:
Func [Parameters] { [statements] }

Example:
test( func x,y {
see "hello" + nl
see "Sum : " + (x+y) + nl
} )

new great { f1() }

times(3, func { see "hello world" + nl } )

func test x
call x(3,3)
see "wow!" + nl

func times n,x

for t=1 to n
call x()
next

Class great
func f1
f2( func { see "Message from f1" + nl } )

func f2 x
call x()

Output:
hello
Sum : 6

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wow!
Message from f1
hello world
hello world
hello world

Example:
Func Main
aList = [1,2,3,4]
Map (aList , func x {
return x*x
} )
see aList
aList = [4,9,14,25]
Map(aList, :myfilter )
see aList
aList = [11,12,13,14]
Map (aList , func x {
if x%2=0
return "even"
else
return "odd"
ok
})
see aList

Func myfilter x
if x = 9
return "True"
else
return "False"
ok

Func Map aList,cFunc

for x in aList
x = call cFunc(x)
next

Output:
1
4
9
16
False
True
False
False
odd
even
odd
even

37.5 Equality of functions

We can test if function = function or not using the = or != operators

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Example:
f1 = func { see "hello" + nl }

f2 = func { see "how are you?" + nl }

f3 = f1

call f1()
call f2()
call f3()

see (f1 = f2) + nl

see (f2 = f3) + nl
see (f1 = f3) + nl

Output:
hello
how are you?
hello
0
0
1

37.5. Equality of functions 212

 CHAPTER

THIRTYEIGHT

REFLECTION AND META-PROGRAMMING

Since the Ring programming language is a dynamic language, we can get answers about the program code and we can
modify our code during the runtime.
In this chapter we will learn about this and the available functions to use.

38.1 locals() Function

We can get a list of variables names in the current scope using the locals() function.
Syntax:
locals() --> a list contains the variables names in the current scope

Example:
test("hello")

func test cMsg

see cMsg + nl

x = 10
y = 20
z = 30

see locals()

Output:
hello
cmsg
x
y
z

38.2 globals() Function

We can get a list of variables names in the global scope using the globals() function.
Syntax:

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globals() --> a list contains variables names in the global scope

Example:
x=10 y=20 z=30
test()

func test
see "message from test()" + nl +
"Global Variables:" + nl
see globals()

Output:
message from test()
Global Variables:
x
y
z

38.3 functions() Function

We can get a list of functions names written in the Ring language using the functions() function.
Syntax:
functions() --> a list contains functions names

Example:
see functions()

func f1
see "f1" + nl

func f2
see "f2" + nl

func f3
see "f3" + nl

Output:
f1
f2
f3

38.4 cfunctions() Function

We can get a list of functions names written in the C language using the cfunctions() function.
Syntax:
cfunctions() --> a list contains functions names

Example:

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aList = cfunctions()
See "Count : " + len(aList) + nl
for x in aList
see x + "()" + nl
next

Output:
Count : 233
len()
add()
del()
get()
clock()
...

Note: The complete list is removed from the previous output.

38.5 islocal() Function

We can check if a variable is defined in the local scope or not using the islocal() function.
Syntax:
islocal(cVariableName) --> returns 1 if the variable is defined in the local scope
returns 0 if the variable is not defined in the local scope

Example:
test()

func test
x=10 y=20
see islocal("x") + nl +
islocal("y") + nl +
islocal("z") + nl

Output:
1
1
0

38.6 isglobal() Function

We can check if a variable is defined in the global scope or not using the isglobal() function.
Syntax:
isglobal(cVariableName) --> returns 1 if the variable is defined in the global scope
returns 0 if the variable is not defined in the global scope

Example:

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x=10 y=20

test()

func test
see isglobal("x") + nl +
isglobal("y") + nl +
isglobal("z") + nl

Output:
1
1
0

38.7 isfunction() Function

We can check if a Ring function is defined or not using the isfunction() function.
Syntax:
isfunction(cFunctionName) --> returns 1 if the Ring function is defined
returns 0 if the Ring function is not defined

Example:
see isfunction("f1") + nl +
isfunction("f2") + nl +
isfunction("f3") + nl

func f1
see "message from f1()" + nl

func f2
see "message from f2()" + nl

Output:
1
1
0

38.8 iscfunction() Function

We can check if a C function is defined or not using the iscfunction() function.

Syntax:
iscfunction(cFunctionName) --> returns 1 if the C function is defined
returns 0 if the C function is not defined

Example:
see iscfunction("len") + nl +
iscfunction("add") + nl +
iscfunction("test") + nl

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Output:
1
1
0

38.9 packages() Function

We can get a list of packages names using the packages() function.

Syntax:
packages() --> a list contains packages names

Example:
See packages()

Package Package1
Class class1
Func f1

Package Package2
Class class1
Func f1

Package Package3
Class class1
Func f1

Package Package4
Class class1
Func f1

Output:
package1
package2
package3
package4

38.10 ispackage() Function

We can check if a package is defined or not using the ispackage() function.

Syntax:
ispackage(cPackageName) --> returns 1 if the Package is defined
returns 0 if the Package is not defined

Example:
See ispackage("package1") + nl +
ispackage("package4") + nl +
ispackage("package5") + nl +
ispackage("package3") + nl

38.9. packages() Function 217