a a OSWALD J. L. SZEMERENYI | Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics “Translated fom Bijan in die vrgleichnde Spracheiomchaft with addona notes and references CLARENDON PRESS » OXFORDnna nade nf One Pr ree ao ey rh Ley Cat i Pio at voy of Cons Cat nb De ‘ati trent oh Bg) “itera nf | lbp tap ag Comet Passi ee dintee sane Preface to the English Translation ‘This work was first published in 1970—in German, since it had been commissioned by the wellknown German publisher Wissenachae liche Buchgeelshatt (WB) of Darmrtadt. In de courte the German cnginal war followed by truslaion into varius ether langunges, ‘bviounly Beaune the work ws fl oils gap inthe tertare ava tbl forthe study of Indo-European linguistic, First came Spanish translation in 1978, no doubt helped by the weighty recommendation (of Profesor Eugenio Cozei followed by & Russian transition 1980 and by an Taian translation in 198s, which was ia facta enced tnd enlarged eciion, the basis of the thoroughly revised third German ttn of 198, The second edition of 198 brought only the cotee- tion of the numerous minprints ofthe fst eon, sedi the fourth ‘tion of 991 in telation to the third edition. The detail ofthis eng nd complex tory an nom be readin my Swing Up Life of v9 passe) "The appearance of translations into & number of important work languages raises at once the quetion Row it hac come about that there hn been 20 far no English tranlation, especialy the author i Know wo be proud of having been born In nd city and bas been ish iien by bith for eighey years now. Ie can be stated sight say that am atempt to produce an independent wor, an Tntadution {o TE Philology, ea actly ated inthe mids ong before the German Biftirang 1 worked on this ook quite hard and stil ave so rypewriten quarto pages to show the seiouress ofthe efor 68 ages presenta survey of the TE languages end pp. 169-546 ive & thorough phonology, (ee Summing Up. pp. 408). But i remine tue that although T worked hard Tdi ot wor hard enough, and when the request of che WB came in Jananry 1965 to wnt for them German Binfuhrang, the English plan was masurally shelved, ot least forthe time Being In these cifcumstnces i came ata reat suprise when, after the publication ofthe Eifhung i toy, the WB ilormed te in Match* Preface tothe English Frmaion 197s that «il eginee in California had fed produce an Efuichteataonandn supporto hie ofr hn tered to Be Macon Bele, profes Bebl wh dad hat bok wos tna inveducon tothe sas mot ot oes bront Bier and recat shat seed inthe Sifchuny ish tse ‘toring on anna ironed wen ono cen hand Ie ape tyr burl cry Se plated ner pea Bagund’s dren har was eer ob fled “Tis old have meant snd a ope af evr secng my idee ut TE linguini an Englah ge Balhae no cease fogihe.tn December soo Atta Morpurgo Davy see opt Brofesr of fe Piology in Ove ren te stenton oe Ox Univeray Pree to my Bojan and nigeee es eines ‘no Enea might wef dente prone “The eth now he han te nde of my eae {ends in Bogan David Monon onesie oss Profesor ot Giese tt Weneid Coleg Univeiy of Landon, tnd tow ‘eiremen i Penance eu iling to shoule the tk of exnon ‘rhs mie rene owe tem peound grate frag sa Sita so cet also hope te Ovford Caner Pres ‘ili the vere a unewnring dering As way the ae withthe Tian aon ty ook as agin enced tyne hehe pane phe ne of ‘ton, Ihave once gin ted fo nelae tering hat eo rotate Tas hata new generation of sean pec Engh spears thoughout the wow ed tat thes ee oe served by me and my nlc Prete Br Ona Ssemerényi Sly one Preface to the First Edition "This work was conceived bythe publishers as an introduction to com= parative Indo-European linguistics, and the author har caried out Their intention to the bert of hi ably. The introductory chapters f=) be of a more general nature, but the main pat proses «comparative Phonology nd morphology ofthe Indo-European languates. Th the veatmen of problems, imporance has been asathed to mak ing a clear distinction between the Indo-European situation a recon fructed bythe comparative method and the diachronic interpretation ff thie situation. In shi way Ht was hoped to ensure thatthe student ‘vould always Leep these tw problems separate and san himself not {ortcke the second unl dhe fire war resolved ‘The work is envinged ana genuine introduction tothe subject. For ‘his reaon every effort has been made to set ou fats, problems, and “onclsions at simply as porble. Even » beginner, however should be'pur im poston to euaint himself wath the intiaces of the ‘serious problems. In contast t0 the practice of some well-known Introduction, schich provide only a summary bibliography atthe end fefeences to frther literature are piven throughout, oti Fotos tht at the end of each section. Sine Indo-European linguistics f= trrid-wide discipline caltvaed in many countries Ihave sought to Include everything of importance walle to me, expel recent sna contemporary literature, while forthe eal prio the Fader is for the most part refered to the bibliographies! collection i older Regarding the reference to the literature of the subject Ihave had the advantage of working for many ears in cesearch establishments Dlentflly equipped in tis Beld of sey. Special thanks ae due 0 ry former home, University College London, to the other institutions ‘t London University, especialy Bedford College, and tothe British Museum, to al of which with their rich treasures T had consinuous ‘icon for fife yous, Inthe lst Bive yearn through the generous Support of the Land of Baden-Wortemberr and of my newi Preface tthe int Edition ives, have been able 0 evilith «recarch cents ere in Fetburg th, Tn few cuentas weed dese orem et wich T have not sons these ve ideed by an wer tn the Ton since the end of 1968 when the anascpe mw ent to te publnher a umber of inpertant works have appeaed Tose hae ‘fc td ult once, but ow unfortunately impossible to treat ‘hm with he sme throughnere ss carlerpbaton: If work = ‘or mentioned this Sos not ecstsry mean tht i i unkown to mm. I ahoul, however, be grate i authors who Goat find seit ‘rods uted hee wold end them t me; they woul be of adeetoge Inthe even of cond eon Tahould ke oto mention that te Ir par of the reserch within the at al cetury hehe ented brimelnahitrareven appear in Carn Tenn ng “There emai nly the plestnt dy of expressing my grate to those who have helped ie ith thie orks Special turks sre due {erm former secetary, Mis Ingrid Lang and 0 Dr Ue Massa Br Aled Bemesberger, “ Ce Mw and Preface to the Third Edition “This work iret appeared over fiteen years ago, I ithas the same good fortune in tr new revised form, afer anther fifteen years it wil ave tered the third millenium, a prospect which brings home is ‘Sthor the reat responsiblity inherent in hs undertaking his book Stars do janice to thi dieu but noble tank, i reqited «thorough Tevision inorder to absorb and crllyrefet the many new ides ‘hich have matured in our field of study during Steen years. has omeauenty undergone many changes These changes have in part been made in dhe ex itself This was recent) whee I have changed my views oF found t dsinle t Formulate them more preseely, and, much more often, where the fener had to be given information on recent development, since oly Inthe way could the original sie of the work be safeguarded. This tres unmvoidabe, for example, in the case of the sovaled glottal heory (6), or of the verbal sspet (0-4-4) the ater in particule fequred a more detailed and decided treatment, Hut even beyond these major prablems has been necesory to include much new UFrnouns and veree ez, Such additonal sections have been indicated, ‘there posible, in the Table of Contents, Furthermore, the rapid progress of world-wide research has, of course, necelated changes inthe nots. The authori more than rer convinced (end tht conviction hs been strengthened by many ‘Sta and weten communications secived frm others) that an into Glocuon can ful te purpove only Hf helps the beginner fo gain foothold by opening up fr him the many ways of ongoing esearch, Tn the present werters opinion, auch help-may be impaired 0° even Tender whelly inefecive i two ays: First, 90 more than a biblio- [ranical sppendix may be even, stung important works, 8 ese Ei'ocrrines appear to be peculiarly thoe of the author, whereas In face by and Inge they represent the commas opinio of is tine Thi the case with Milt's Tatroducion and ecounts for certainx Preface tothe hind Bition peculirtesof French works on Indo-European, Secondly, there are {hose whe, ike Brugmana in hie Gnindry provide an ample bible rap for each separate chapter, but not sep by sep for each point a {Ssue. In mayo case, from the Rest edition onward, i hat seemed ‘more honest and more helpful to make the reader avare fom the out feethat we have hal many precurtrs and to show especialy wht they Schieved. [have also sought to avoid at far se pombe a one-iced presentation: to mention not only those writers whose views coincided fnith mine but seo those who held other opinions, nd offen o indicate {rie how their work should be jaded. Ihave sta fel appropriate to give due prominence to old views slongside the new, thus making ‘lear and maintaining te ink withthe founder of our sence “The great number of references ruben it necemary radially © bbrevinte the tides of the more fequenty cited books and period ‘ale Ieonlys ame (obvioualy that of an author) and yea are given, the work wil nal probability be found red under ‘Abbreviations For abbreviations of names of languages there isa separate iat. [Abbreviated names of journals are included isthe mai index, but itis Possible that fw rarely cited periodicals have been omited these ‘an ently be found in the Ut of abbreviations a the begining f each ‘lume ofthe international Biierophe Linwttiqe, Old abbrevi ‘ion these days ae often superseded by new one, hich ae aay fich a to revel that their inventors have no fsling for historical cone ‘inuty. For me, an abbreviation such as BGDS. can only imply Aeiberate rejection of the historical fac thatthe journal in quseion teas founded and for many years edited by Hermann Paul and Withelm Braune, and ws accordingly for a whole century unt recently referred to only as PBB. Equally unhistorcal, or even ant storia to my mind isthe ue of ZVS for the venerable RZ, which constantly reminded us ofthe journal's founder Adalbert Kukn.* No less unplearant ss the frequent changing of ureration in periodical fers, 2 practice which takes no account of the pride & contbutor Should fel at ecing that his work decorates, ey, vol. t¥9 and not merely vol, 3. Ie with equal pleasure that one sees that APA {cached its hundred volume in 1979 and likewise JAOS in 198; that in 19g BSL reached is eghteth and KZ i niney-cghth volume ‘Much reater are the diicultis of nding one's way in the French RPA, in which new series are inteoduced st ever shorter intervals; rosime ace he British Arch ae rtd Games as RE Fateh Tek Preface nthe hind Eaton x ‘Filly, should perhaps be mentoned cht within the book numerous crowreferences are provided to other passages dealing sith» parser problem, Thad almost completed he log tsk of revision when, through the kindness af one oft authors, Lfceved 2 new and copious wrk of ‘Sich, regetably, Twas notable fo tke full account but which, for Ubac very renon, fact emphatically revommend hee (4 ao a 1.6 BeUISE snp eter to sol 1 of the Infogermoniche Grommatik Founded by Jey Kurlowica, which contains the introduction (0 the Indo-European languages by the late Warren Comgil, 20 eat Ulpareds andthe phonology by his very active collaborator, Manfred Mayshoter ‘Aer this lengthy discourse I can only sy: die aoa animam pay roeContents Abbreviations, ete. si Toneuages Cited = 2 Language in Change i revi 10, Forieno, read fel 30.84. Fora, read at #8. For Lith (early at) read Lith pas early pti) 94:6, For oer end o-tg. 137,24. For al read hal 196,29. or thas read ihe 97.31. For tadhes, per ead *pdher, bier 205,25. Portia red a 39. For bstanily read substantially sey pain. Fors readyContents Abbreviations, ee. wi Languages Cid sa 1. Intodtion i 13. The found f compara ing : NE Tetubjececmacter the Indo-European languages ° 2 Language in Change " 35 Reel nnd cage 3 2p Cohen mins x a Comparion of ihe nite 2 2 Tasks of Indo-European Linguistics » 4) The storm of Indo-European * 4 Phonology: Reconsracion of the System ” Eo Diphtonge a $5 Seinowet a SE Static guide siv Contents Content » ‘$5. The phonological system of Indo-European 6 923. Imperntive endings 23 sara eee x Gree setae 4 Prehistory of he Indo-European Phonlogil Sytoms——an gua paints FA ae i fae “ fee ean ae es Se Aewendte ass 2. Peli reason oun nesion us (er Atboone aac os 32 Scmmendnginspe 4 {Stim sare ea 15, Newland uid me ‘a {0 Se * 8. Morphology Il: Pronouns and Numerals 293 : as 5 Demnnesiveproneme en S St Ran 854. Personal pronouns a SEE Ae in verte 85; Name = oy. Sse prions oman 9. Morphology 11: Verbs ne ee ene, eeeinle‘Special Topics fader Contents Lower ions? Abbreviations, ete. AAvitang= Ate Anta Harari, Bape. ‘trmiles nme ef mei Linu, Cheseln’, Ohio GinsG'= Amtndaner Barge ar ern Geman. Area ‘Aer, Werner od, Kanethie, rere sm Ma, Main ies ad eaarged ed. 2973, Vers “Bessy eactaredelb ndapes, Mai, 1963 ie new mage AE oer fs eon, IP. 993 28. BGI nie Geto elo, Florence. ‘tb ann nde Eropron Dat cH. Bisa ad J, Pe, Los {ON L~ al dln Orewa dt Nepal, Seione Ling AIGLL'™ mericon Jounal for Germanic Languages and Litraturs, AYP (A) = meron Jura of Pilg, Bair AKUP = arbeten tam Rtles Univercien Prot, Cologne Lt tajes ete Linge (Hah Copenhagen ‘ARI? due and Nearer omhee Wee. Teor 'W: Haase, Bern 072 (2/1, 198 Ant Reine, Tevoacton ie Herc and Comporaine Ling, rorsiand edn 1986, Pitt aibtpapier aden af Init for Lng, University of ‘Copeshage Abin, Yo Le) In Memoriam Be Shar 298ai ABbrevatons, Amie sr Gezemart, and ed. Feb 19, Antica, Msi ASGM = At dl Soa Gato Mion, Mien. ‘ASNP= Ana data Seats Nomaty Sper di Po ‘Ravan Syfsin (el), Anwine Mee cep de som temp’ HEL vo a9a8 aes ‘Stang oa: reve by Houde, Kr 38109734 alt= Balhomho Eohoonome Linge Balbo So Bemsmeberer, Ale, Stn sar arya ks, ir dupes te gormanichen Vato 86 ieee Lanmetton 8 Sie itopblpe de ugemonihen Nomen, 990 1BB= (Brosnbrgrr Bia sur Kunde der. Speck, 879-1998 {BBCS = Bullen he Board of Cee Sas, Cart BDPAS = Biogphcal Disionary of the Phonic Scenes, eA. ‘Bronstein Raphael ad © | Stevens. New York 977 asker RS. Larggeais= The repent of th Pro TE Layman “Gath The Hage ne Cri The Onn of the 1 Nominal fection tabu 98 A Cromer Cathe deen, 98 SEN it ead et a Wah Benvenste, le, Oriner = Ones de a formation det moms ind TTT hte et nd-caopien Berger, Hermann, Ege Bree der Phoemsatnih,AbBandhnge det esilberger Siadem, gs 987 ace Terns, Krat 3, 988,187, ‘ior = Baleshna Ovens Lasden Bima, Henk, Proline of pli ond Geni Linge Viewed in “Cenrte Fronewarh, The Hagens BY bo Joon of Lng oe ‘Bombar aa Rr Neate = Tard Poo Netatic Amsterdam 198 ind J.C" Kerns The Notratie Mecrfamiys A Shay Ditnt “Ling Rito, Brin 99 ‘Bopp Fra, Kongo = er das Cojgetionysen der Sent rmanihen Space Frater mn 136. BET] ™ Biatym Palo Tower Jeyhornmceg| Dulin de le ‘Sect Palma de Ling, Wr Beda M, The pina of Semantics ead rns. G, Wal, Lando 193 Brag Kark Grantee © Grinds sor crlachendo Grammatih der ‘nogemnihen Sprachen sod clit, sorted TRG a Kure erinchond Graninaih, 0 tna Hermann Otho, Morpologiche Untermchamgen of den Geb “rindgemanchen Sprachen 87940 Abit, si BSL = Balt dela Sot de Ling, ari 86>~ BSO(A)S =" Balm of the See! of Onesie fond African) Sti, Buse trig ur Namnforcng, Weiler ‘Cerona Gorges), Ino Euopene on Indo: Burpee, 1978 errata, Ono ed), Tard Hite Gromer, vs 1992 (CEC= Camden de Pit Case, Ma. (GPS = Coles Fernand te Sue, Gaon. “abe Chath, (Minor 3-2, 208. (Ghtnnine, Prt, Pf = He pret re, 98 eM = Morphol tre area dn he SDELG = "Dicom drain de Ta ang segue is, a "gt Sarereny Ox 5 as 41-7549 Ht), 16 8) C98 CH= Chicas te Dictonary i LN), 180-9 CL = Cate de ita de Linge de oi. (Call ye» (Tuteratinal) Colpo Myceracon Stas, 195693 Colnge, NE, Lr = The Laer Indo Buren, Arras 198, ae Basen Language, Leno 070 Coupe dear dX) Caos naling) lt prromana ela Crates te set thse, sen “Citgo 1-9 195093 comely Wand Mayol, Bi, Tndpemaniche Cal, Win Momory of = Stein Memory of Warren Covi, Brin vo 60" Casal Quart {ysl Duvi, The Combrge Eyed of Langage 187 (CFL Caren Pent Liga Coin od. TAY Seb, 596-76. For ‘ome especialy interning volume ee Samer, Kat 20 (000), ot2 (eo: entra), an Phos (ay 98-58 onsite, 179) both Desc AV. (ed), Ama mje copoy atte gy erheeno, 98. Dirt so bran ad Mali iTiepet verbal en greta, Spat 7 (004 9 Dyen tone = indore Dyen,Jvept B. Kesha and Pol Sac, A 18 “Canaan A Loctite Experiment, Phailh 2 [ELE = Baas ado erp, Lyon Elnhener, Eveline, ve Jugtrmmaier, Tee, son; ce Calligs, HL 18= Abbreviations, te tomer, V.V, Joan (nem pei, Mateo, 1999- Bes Bont, Mae ‘Bhar, Asal ‘Due Dulendung (a und die Zahir Stor Bre, T96siArs. Shine. Morea Bro 1970 Ser mag der Retro Tope und Modus Idogrmanschen ae, Verto, Beno, 1989; Klein, 196,199,304 biti: Nomnaifenon nde Gr, nearac 193 “open = Sen sr Ethene, Opin, (08) (1988) ‘emalop,eO.N. Trobe, ana publcton, Meo Euler Woliws, Indsvonth-Crchache Gomes der Nomina ‘sd deve Cranage, lemsorach 1979. —Srsteriattmpore fr Vergungenhet in Heren ig. Sprachen’ in Wackernagel Kolm, 1990, 13049 ‘Bsn = eine or Laryngeal, oW- Winter, Te Hague 1965 ‘Fechtopung ® Ae der Pachapog de Tndogeenichen Geli 1-9, Fang. M, Veal spc Now Tatament Grek, Oxford 950 UA Fallow othe Bria Aceon Feras = Fens, Deering, ed. W.M. Lindy, Giomaia “atne sn fcadmioe Boece wt, 3-07, Pars 1930 re Hildecheve ots ELPA = Forage (und) Forti Flimere, Care The ene or ein E Bach ad RT. Harms ed), Unni hy 8 ha ey sect Oran uchorJorroen Pred ix Phnsoal Par, Copenhagen, 975 Fi, Rent Demet cP Pe Hage ed, Miao! Moray, The Hoge 9, ow rotation of Longe Fol Fai Linas sara). ach Falk RD, The Orga IE Quantitative At, Inabrck 986 ‘Gumkitse-ivanor = Thora V. Comleee and Vaden V. Trav, “ndroph rg nro Rebate rb ilogs ‘rain projeshe 1 prtohalary mi, Toy 1984 Av English taslin oan Mosier seins ‘Steel tase arturo oe eran [Ghigo = Hane Marin Gauger, Wall Outer, and Radel ‘Wsich Binehng sermons Sprochacscaf Dar the History ofthe IE Language, Soe 19H et pba Rasen 198). OGAICGN © Gane Gre fasten Nechrchen Abbreviations, te wi GL = Gomera Linguistic, Universi Pak, Pa Giana, Going Ga Gunman Munich (Goda Rober Ftc oth Stay of Cail Amann, Wiesbaden (Grad Jn, Mods = Phe Character ofthe IE Moos, Wiesbaden 106 ea liptaa Pct a the Rie Pree onder 8 Gie= Groce and Rome Grumonnt Meur, Pade hadi, aca 63: shed. 298 GURT= Groen Univenty Round ‘Tabie on Laneuges and ‘Adele, Ship = Sucve and ptt, New York 983 ren, in Stn sm Waren ombrach 193 ‘Tan Poke deft mona 198 wai Paper =" Working Pepe te Liga, Unieity of Hawa Hegers Klnn Mone, Wort, Sate wnd Tex, nara od, TRnion whe tose ee) —"Ftononfomen, Vaal sd Wortartn, dlr 985 TEL Hine pitino, Lange Heh ond = htc wd ndogermnih 2 New od Mei Hire Hermann, 10 = Indgemantche Grommet ri Hedberg 193 LL Hargraphi Linsitien, Amaerm. "Hook, Hans Hench Pol of Moral angus, erin 086, Host, Charen Pd Moma! f Phono, Balter 183 Senate Cat oder inguin, Nee Vor 138 eemereld, Pa = Potcih for Hey Held onthe Osan of it “Steak aay, Tabngen 1987 atin rs wat = Ber neato Vd, 9, ae iin er darth 79-68 953 ‘onan Seomyr =) Br Hofmann and K. Sua, Lateinich Sota und ‘Shaded, Murch 196s LHS" Hutonche Spracfocang ew tle of KZ sine vo. 11,1988: 6 he ein tne reac sth ede. of th Inrdein 1989 a oe [Rein the nnsenth onry Semen Pe Siren, 198: 0.7 USCP* Hharand Ste i Clavel Poly Hibechmanns Heinrich, Armenicle Crema, Armeiche Boma eats wor: ee lect 963 LASTOLy)"= Tova Ahadon Nok (Otis Literary 4 Jorge), Monon 1C° Indgemaniche Chr, bisogrphical supplement of Sprache, 1-36 cptorgah when it edt cee publics interior Coneenc on Hato Ling.ro ai Abbreviations, te B= Indo-European Te and Ise Cardona Te degre Force Bet, Li nde: Tronian Fora, Dover. Ihe-Sen Vy ate. = ema oben bait {ajo ‘Mosconi Englah venation by Re: Led and Re F Fea, Nominal Acro Bal and Slate Carbide, Mas. 1070, Indoemanich nd Rath oe H. Seb Ta Tren Linge, ee Uecbuert Lambe sc am Wink, Memoria “icles Linge Crone Latia 193 nkins Univeroty Lise Ch. Iraron, VN, Obra ~ OM-indoropcii,prolaonsae i anata egies Saja at rpathaci lage, Moscow 198 TZ (Tees) Inertia Zach fr geet Spratt, ound edited by F. Taher 491) se ly oe sles | ne supplement bevnean 884 ad 89099 ts mportne see K Koerner IR'BDIAS soo, "The imparance f 12 in te development of genera gui (ona Barons SSL a4 W984 e-8 eeu AN, Ja Foaral Ati, Ps ‘eis, Stari Wy Puntion and orm i th dye Formation of he i AOS fours the Ameran Orel Sait, Nev Have, Cone. nan Js Sater = Sto ond Morse 9 CL Yamal of Cle Ling, Cadi 192 ES = Journal of Conejo Sra, Came, Mas [JECPIni Yura Bg and Garman Pais, Lewd Jepeten, Oto, Language = Lane Tt Notre: Decipmest ond Orin, Udon 102th ean 150 (paperback New York, 1) JHEP furl of ioral angry and Pal, 18" 11S = jl of Hele Studer Lana. ss = Journal of 18 Stas near Mie, The Journal of Lingus, Cambridge Soman, he Langa! Thor Coteal Sere, 978 RAS” Jira of te Repl aan Soy, London Kohow, Fe” Pott Henry Kohan 1H Hock, 1973 Kemuncater Avoca, “Heart = Heth, Pouch, Lawitc und Mieroghpheluwiod im Altlemeseiche Sprcten, Leer 196 89" 103 ure Devan Spa Ki aire serie ie CN Totncomincton de larly, Lig, w99ec Lindeman, Krat 7 (oop Bsa int ari, Ler tate ni antig i, Wiesbaden, 9 Abbreviation, st Kem, J. Ai, In Memory of Boro Homini Doman: Eneys in Hera Tp b Steory 0f. Alzaner Kes Pie Yt ban od "EBomhars, Ameer so Klan Schock Mi, Itasca morpho marr Bere 98 lun, Cathar, Zim Unprang de Teopermane, Boos 298 Locher Yon ittenbuch,Krat apr, sory. A Hauler Jbranchit far mate deaiche Vorgrhcke 89h 9923 king, RO. tone! Linger and Generative Grammar, Enlenod ‘hits, it Kipeny, Pal Beplonaton x Phony, Dordvesh 96. Rene EB Konrad Waser Tico of Linge Thought: tm ‘ett Chong BBlgraphy 182-1976 Ame 17 inh, Hann tp Sp» Inseformaicks Sprache Sed fh Ke od Maho Rronaet Ec Bei der Bitch Sprache (0, 18), Sis Riot Bde ‘hn, Thomar 8, The Stace of Siete Reston nde. 170 Kylie, ere Bm = Bud nope Tepes Ragu ingtiuer, Manich 2d de 10752078 eater & The nectonl Caterer of I. 9h 1G Sntpemantche Granmoth ie nt, Ans, 1968 FH Wid Seger z= (Ku) Zetec fur eemlachnde Sprocorchang se HS. Letingtone, Pats Toe Wil Bul LACUS ~The Lana Forum, Clam, SC, 107-4, 190). LALIES = Ave de Seon de Linge et de Ltr, Pi atin nd indagermanch ae Panag Koch TBS Leone Bigen, Loa [ehmann WP PIE Dro Phomslgy, 2952 Tle, Lanne Pole. one “Theta! Bae ofa Broan Ling, New Vor 9. Tans'E Mae (ode, Disco for onc! Lingari, Auwin, Tex se Saemereyi, Leto (sah 2-32 ete) Popes Hira Lin, 98. eS = Ling Sie, Blog {Coma = Manu Leute, Lateinchs Laas wnd Fermi, nd on smpriel oundnion', in Lehmann andnv Abireciatons, Lei, Henry and Pedersen, Holger, CCOG = A Conve Comparative Celie ‘Grammar 197 4 9 ig Lampge! Jornal of he Linge Sct of America, aieore 1935 a tng Iginy, Canbriae, Mas, ndman, Fresik Oto, Enfurng nd Laryaalo, Bein on te Toe Repeat of Soa im Grek ad Some Related resins of Te Phony, Onl 98 recon the Laryngeal Thar, Oso 198 Tange Lng, Bei otkwcod, WB. 1E Pilg: Mitre and Comporaie, London 985, Fat Pomona IB Langa ao 150 Lentae Seine lrg, nds 1979 Tego dhe, Hees (cd), Konuatitertnce Crone der Sprah- ‘ed Bern ro Mate, Vator, Boma, Cambie 10. Ga) see Lahinaon ta allele) ‘Mat. Soanh ofthe Indo-Buropens, 8. Marne Andv, onic = commie de changements pond, Bere 995 ST Renton Pwo Lanwog,Onerd 1952 et Crommaie oncom rant, Fae 1979 Stone entra Ps, hve Lar BSL a 1986, 7-2 Di per astm nde et en upc, Pa t8 Mayioter, Mantes, KEWA.Kuragfontesemaogche Wirerbach der NTA Tet Jahren: Ferdinand de Sausres Frwerk wad sin Reaeption gh see Semen Rat 38,1984 549 aria Hiymdogchs Worry Aden, 186 Macon i, The IE Ong of te Ol rh Nal Pry nmr 3eb06. ee 2086 Met, Wallan, Dt grmaniche Prem, Inbrk 7 bas Peon vo i Indra 1989 MairBragpe Michael, Grachiche Sprachaiueacft ih Sammbang ‘Ginchen 902 als Si, ne En Te gma competed omni cai, Von, ier tdci 2908, a e982 Pwd comparative det enguet ie, Pati 908; Abbreviations, a and Marcel Coen, Las ange du monde, Pars gat ane 1988 (opt vle 981) fe wil be epaed by J Pero (e) Le lame dant (RL Sit Mode Prete fone on mab-Sbaian ict ted pidgin ances appeared in 98. tint Mendes Joep Tait 2e prammaine comparde des lager lon gn ae. 153 Mant Cert: Legace der mirc Sprache, nrc 1986 MHF Meu ct, Beste Mics Guide, La imoatie tntale¢Vndoropn: paiva, Brescia ino = Mins: Resin de loa Rea, Ssemanes AIIT'= Manus nna ot Tetaolgy, Comrie, Mas, aon = Meemoyne Leven. Monin, George Hira del initrd vgs au XX* ice, Pais er A nei di Xie, Pa 973 Iasi? Nl dla Ss de Linge de Per. MSS Manson Stale sur Sprache MEAG = (0) Sayer Tademanjs Akad (Fa) [ML™ Morpgpcte Unter ee Bragran and Oto My. Calgon se Col. oe ogy Groton Grech Dias and the Trafomation of om IE Pres, Mier Mas, top ace Seemerny, Kat v4. 107% 15745 (=Sh 086 aw Bh 0) ‘96s 2D = Das hte Mada nd nie Grantoen, 168 ins ls fe) ehh and doen Insbrack 979 ewmeyers J. (eth Linn: Phe CanbrgeSerecy tv Cambie sos AJ Nore Jara of Ling, Oa NOWELE= Noro Burgeo Lanne Besuion, sent. NPS = Non Tui for Spopedenta, Oso umbour, Ay ent and Hora a. Be 986 Sar Wyats = Onerechach Mhadone (der Wsemchatn) Anse. Wrst Onemachnche Akademie de Wisemchfin,Sizangore. ‘etgey, Norte: Da Sitg at ettuche Verb, 1979 GT Ouomachuche Lingastentern. O12 = Oniuatiche trated rir nce Bragmana and Oso Pine Fra Ry Mon! Matty, Cambridge 1986; se Haste, 2S “98m 29a alts, Lavo Ry Pe Latin Lanne, London 1956 Pa pts and Comparator nga, Landon 197 The Grek Language, London 80. Pama Orwld, sod Rrachy Thomas (edn), Latin und Indogermanich, Inerpaton de haitachenmebopasinn Verbaformen,avi Abbrecitions, Paul end Browne: Beige sr Gah der deatchen Sprache end Taran TH Tegel POLS(D) = Procadngs of the Cheng insite Sct (Porension Pedersen, alge, VG = Velachnde Cromath dr blac Sprachen aoe Lint Scice sm the Ninn Cons, 93 ‘Discoery of Langue, Borgen, fd, 198. ara ick nd tne Spacen, 98 ——Tocharh com Gracin dese Sprecherlacang, 198 eros Meier and Coben Peer "Slavin, Untemehungn sur Vetting deride. Larymgle im Grichiche Venn, 980 Petron, Heber, Sue ier did, Hetratie, Land 1934 er Kents dere Hotrine, and a Lspig 1923 ICS = Praeings of th ferational Confrence of Cee Ste DPICHL = Papen from the ntermaonal Confer on Hit Lingitic. ‘ICL = Proceso the Inrntional Congo of Ligue 1-1 1878, 13 (Tek ssa 14 (Bern so) pt), 958 PICO Pravin ofthe nteratinl Conger of Oneal PICPS = Prcedig of he nested Cogn of Pane Since 1, PIE” Prv:tndo-Baopean ‘ic, Herbere, Phoneme i, 3d en, 197 Phar, Harm, Lain Syniatand Sant, London, x92; coniderble huge fm Duh rg of 184 Gorm von atic Stee Pn Vitor, Sid nla peti dele ing, Rome 193. Gigi ndrrpe, Roissy 96) 15-6. Trista, en 987 elie deren 8.197% Potomy, Jaan, ZEW indoprmonichs eymaagicher Wirrach 5, Tour eis tea Polo Bdgr Ce), Rovareh Guide on Language Change, Barn 90 Ry Penpit on TE Lanrage, Calne aed Rtn, HES Monograph 7.1998 PelomtSti = Sati in Hower of Bar C. Plame, M. A. Jaye sed Werner Winter, Brin and New York 296 see Lamberto, BSL ifs too aan orn, Wales, indrume dai Sprache, tose Porno Gene, M. bs Latarte dt Me D al ithe history of Latin), Rome BP" be Parl det Past, Nope. Prat, Laut, Morptaryan de Pablo oti orchie,Pati Prokosch E 4 Conporaie Corman Gramma, 1939 roe Bint dad» Preceding of te Ba fcany (London, vel Jean, Lorman the 1B Ver pe. ONG) Shan nd Sete of Lane; 96, peback: The Abbreviations, sai opie = Hite Bymeaial Diconary 4 (a), Ben, 198 (htop Alona stnge ninteenth center ste AMER, Hone ede) Ascent 1 Das, 166 (QPL Quad Patni inguin Pod enor Moreen Advan (od), pea Sif di Aine Mei Bas, 987 RAL Reno dal’ Academia Lines Rese AecaenieiLime Fase, J Eee arta Ingerman, Capengen 4 eB bursed APIERU 788), 1a sede sur Mephoponel erecta, lesbrck 180 RBPA rae Bape de Phe et dM, Basel IRC fares Cele Par REA = Reeder tr Ao, Borde. [Edm = Ree des Bre rnin, Pa REG" Revs ds Pde Greg, a [RBG = Rese ds Eades Corns et Cocaine, Pais [REIL Revur de ne Ind sop, Bacar, 4 1984 REL = een de de Late Pa [RES = Rev dt Bates Saver Pa. HHA = Rea Hite Arconi, Pi [RIOT = vata Ind race, ome 2987-38 RIL enon da Tito Lombard, Man [Ruch r= wipes! Bra Bich Betin 986 a en i ein cmprn,Pu0 Fix lot Horch Grom sicher, 996. SS far Enon dts, Medtech 986 ite PE Mile SS 49 (980, Tota Ae onchnbiche ahr 983 Bip Pa = Ingerman et Hata, abr £93 RAR = Ree er Lames Roman, Montpelie RO Rocenh Onrtliciny Wart Febine Rs doen and Medora! Grammatical Theory i Buse Giial Ent: Am Introductory Srey, London tb a Srey of Cnt, Landon ie Bysenane Crome’ Tr Pan Hoy, Brin 03 [Rp = Res de Plog, Ps Phen" Revue de Pho, Par iad) Hip de insivin, Made Raiptce Martin, Stone de apectr,Salamancy 954 Pench tas Suna, Fedinand de, Cau = Cow deine dre, 916; 20 — al = Ree der pletion siete (1-268 the nous Mei, eee ys pang imthe nent), Gener. ge: ee Maher ohavi Abbreviations, ‘le = Sada Calica, Cail Scherer, Anton, Getimamen bl don, Vdhern, 1953 SON), Die Urb der Iasgermane 988 Henibch dr ttanchen Sta, 978 “Scherer Fr = DomonIndeprmarcan: Pg or A. Scherr, 19% Schmltig, Wilim By Indo Europe Langs A Nes Sythe, Pen, ote Sehmd, Wolfgang P, Stadion sm blichn wd idogermanicen Verba, Schmit, Gert, Stuns emanichen Ader, de, Bali, 198 Sic wd Ren Poeniin, 98 Sel, Schmit oun Die Vercors deri Sprachen, 873 hie Prthdinge dey Not, pe Heth, 8 eather nina dt ph i ‘Sehmude, Karl Hore, De Ranorton in galichen Prema, Tobie (a 2CP at saaet) rh, Indpemanich ued Katich, Wiesbaden 972 Smid KH P= Indpemance Coenen PL RH.S. 094 Sch, Rotige Dicey nd Dichtonpracs i tnogemanicher Zeit “Wed, 16 (6) tniogemannhe Dickenprack, Dara, 968 ineprmaniche Dhtrad snd Neng, esi, 1973 Biting nce pchchen Dilte, Darta, 97 Se Bimota armas, 977 Gramath ie Klick dari, nabs, 198, ‘Sehmuirend, Rober, Ds Easing ea Vokes, 967, Schmecsel Retard, Bs Hiram eu Wa ender: Die Cech der ‘ren Indo: Ewopder uma 98s SchraniG, Nonmihat ond Bieoprahe,Giinge, 1957 Scheer Pi, Tae Ress ofthe PIE Larygeie Lett, Amsterdam Schroer, Eduard, een! = Dihetram Groscrom emp epgephice ‘pore (gdedn of Dc inerpona Grace prop dlr ‘emoraiiny ed Case Leip 933 Tec Gree Grommatih toned, (A. Debranne), Munch 860 sma lati Oriental Ps SeSI= Stond Sinuen Copesages ‘SE Sid Bonu, Florence ‘Seehld Elmar, Da yond, Haliahl, 974s Schinde, Sprache ie Sear Penman nn frmaice Sprci SEEJ™ The Sivan Bs aroean Jura, Main, Wh ‘SEER = The Slavonic ond Bat Perper Reve on, Abbreviations, te. six Seis, Henn, Stig = Di PrindenecichesStiernorae, “on, Zach se ier ey dn teeter, Pasi 98 itn Abt nt Apps Winner ee Ra 1 6, Tahir €.Smh "Deen and sie ar 61. Sesh Stametny Re v2 a6 ase UE Tia Werkdep 8 Vorbies ou im Univenatenrt Spc Spaces lected paper, Mani, 97 VE Tonpge Uncen contre, tr, Teing 198 3009 = Sen mje grommatn omar hoe, Mono, i (68 Brennen Sits Sr Ln SILTAT Stud fh initia Terie od Appia, Pub ‘Stung, Maia SIS stud me oe Siecs, Urbana, Sita = Sat Mon eda, Rome. S$0= Spatlr Once SOL = Sma Ones ini, Bolg ‘Sma Fete, Htndlach dr atachn Lt nd Forme, and “ans lott wma traded tr se Sommer tn Rad Pe, ended autre ee Bategen ar Lan Frm, rere tn pchicrs Nonilmpaie,1 “Sexmer ft Coral Linge Ps fir PS Web 05 Stat ‘Susmpbenhe dr Pranicen‘Ahaaeme er Wine, rn spect Fran, Unprane = Unger ie Dentin 144 06 Shie Sttetrh Papen iti S57 Sines Stacm, Prase ‘SSL Sade Spying, Pi. ‘Stig, Chan 8. Grom “Sprachen Ono 1 Stare Frnks Dis Pnkionn der dimension Kane ad Adee in “ition, Wieden 977 A itrmcany sro det beech Nome ‘Weldon oocee Mal Hts (09) 9 sen, Rls, Net = Nolan nd ons, Sm Potala “kongire Sprache ot mein de ‘ompeenFeipraqen Muh 9 —ticmcratenasrbleme, Pacipun 194 37-42 les) Pen dr lacie Gramma 10 Senve Eige H, he Pent of ck and etichede Grommati der balckoo Abireciatons, et '94e; and edn. Groningen 98 The Indo Large Baiare 1942, ros TE Suva and E- Adsae Hahn, A Comperative Grammer fe ati Lana sr New Haren, Con fs I Ee Biche srtee tonya. nen Ssexmereny Oval John Lowy Numeral = Stir i he 1E System of haat = “Goth aha und the vl : PEB/T) Bs, gb +(2SA 2st. “=e —hricpies of etymolgal reserh othe IE langunes, Facog 2 Coosa pester repr im Re Shit, Bylo, apy, a86rWh (SM em mds = Trends ad Tate i Comparative Phibloy (agree, 23 Oct 961), Landon ye SM sey Sst’ Structural and Substrtume Ine-Earopens and “ences Col ye 4 1085 trae (SM ts) Rw Lan # heme lak of IE recomavoctin nd poly inate it 5 Nv) Pn 7 gpa stir iets Sa pm Bat, 8 —ethodsogy = Methodology of Geneve Linguistica Bmshopie der eitenssenhaicencrvtmetoder ptt Mladen dar Space ‘Semel, Manish and Oldenburg 1988, 18 2 iRicksersandiung’ = “The Ate “Rockverwandlng” or Atoms and “Serer ot ten’, tm Caden for W Brandowt, 988 tear Sar s0 Bete inte ogee Spracaienchat, Dasma 170, 3 emily ors dn, tg 4h: nppr Spas ean 178 ‘Rate, 280 ean, 298 ARF “Phe name of he “heen in Domi Balam to CS. Stan, ‘Seekoin ore 843 CSM 19-95). ingen dor modarnen Spraheiuomchft | (3 opts Spanah aston "97 thiorie de lrg de Swuoire 4 Kersomice ot & Benveniste ‘ide retvlenton BSL GB, a7 tas (2S ratats). TEN Gant Sastry toma 2 8 9752486 (eS 21696 rable ofthe fomaton and gradation of Latin adjective in Stade 50), Heiebers, Vana voy (= eta romeo 1) 98,240 ihe KH. Seb De elantticken Sprachen, Innsbruck Abbreviations, si acre oh 0-2 CAE cet be hnary a Ung FH Se, 9, Tansee eee een Space (30-6), 108; Sih mani agi, 7S 888 vote ads en ote pe es vara salsa if SieMnre ork 87a (ond nde, 1092 ieee ona, mbes os ee teat Fa oe Sctinths Srebenfc ca tome Seer ei mga Leo Sen tag ae Ane Papal “tn Che Cl ree Ce, gia de Prager Fee ee feed, Tah a Sob Sm “St Zan, Radi t= Grammar of Oh, bia Bee rein kno. Fe acai tego emac itn Tepid ni Bt Fee ea de tran Sib Fee Pee Lae ne Tee Pc Pasa Sy Ont Fe ca at Pop used PORE eee ns Mota i: Hort Gite Geta ar Wan Binge, nd Aah Or sete eo, preamnin " eet mai pers eg at “ VST FD in, Moco For ce Slee Sic an he Boation Sendo to ee er and TE ein 18s we Surin, Dic nants a eee ecco, Ongen de le fei nomial naan, Mai oy atin en lei inten, Soe i ee fn tpi gni Abbreviations, te Vin, Be Le Bg ie ‘pacer, Pn 385 Vepon Jesphonoi, Moo pra Sejosae Jesters Moncom hema snd Dsirmcr Ar A= indice Grom ‘ier, bene, ooes Wachrag Rtg (98) eee Kes 3,99, ‘Wenner hich Dr hoon Sepak bpm Space eps Pa whet sven: Ong = Th Oi of th Cac Ver, Dai sh, Vb = Ikon Qrmahu:Go tg Pals, Tolar jn 7in the mano Steg the gin M. J Molin 6), Tey amd the Trogon Worth a eed ting Longe ond Ling, tym, Cate ond son itiniee, Monoriae* Si tomes Indep mere A J. on Winders 19151989) data oo ohn, Lauren 1 winlachy Rud, vichen Sinan un Suara’ nF dhe Cai nh tage) San my ww slr change voters Werner, Voaine = oone mnie Pel 03d 7 Weber Jack fod Atria ‘Wouthuien, Fred, Te Langa ft Sea Prope, Aterda 99 tas = Wend Soke Fi Wont Wit fe HE Pdts tore rmenariaetestasoeDie Hi, Re 2A Gotu fr Arnle, Bein DL = Zatch fr Duldtope sn inp, Wiesbaden ZOMG Zech der ashen Moretti Goel, Seager. 2D Zeer fr dure Space, Be RSL = Zh fr frase Sprahand Lieaar, Wisbaten, 2i1= Zahn fr Fog nd rh, epi 02953-98 2) = che jr Meng, Wat, 9h hang _2Phon, ZPSK = Zetchrit fr Pho, Spracheisemcaf and Koma. tieaferhen, ri LZREIA)= Zahn romance Pile, Tabiogen {SP = Zatch fr stake Phaope, Hessler. Zeta, ene, Viyee Indra” Sader 2 arfgsforen, Munich Languages Cited Poca Brash & Geet German Indosburopen Cohueian Mile High German Panes Thee Teoh Middle Low Ges New Hig German New Pern ‘Ot cha Sic Ola Ena Ot ted Ot an Ott Pesan Seer Seome SaneIntroduction Anyone who in addition to his own language is familiar with foreign fanguage wl, in suitable case, perceive not only unsurprising ds~ ‘inulontice but als remarkable similares between ther. An English Speaker staying German needs no instruction to. observe that ‘German ‘Vater Mutter Hand, Bis wound very much like father Inoter, hand, ein hs on language: Tn the same way. an Tin earning Spanish cannot long remain unaware that Spanish padre, madre, mano, pie oe Wentcal, or neaely ao, nih the corresponding ‘Tord in Tain, A Rssian taeling in other Slavonic counties wil Tom ntie thatthe words rua ‘hand, aga Tot sma wine te SF hs native speech are the same of similar in most other SI Iangages Th vic ofthe carly Gres reptatin for unbounded curiosity we shoul on the base of our own experience expect them ro have ade ular oberroine, Weare, however, disappointed sn this expect. Tt ‘sof coure, not surprising th they fale to discover reaemblances, ‘Shvioun a these ate to ux between thelr lngvoge and Latin, since {Ein came toon int het of view: Tey mht, however, with language and that of thei svete the aor is recordedy although, ax we now know, such revmblances Could ens have, been recognized: 10 Greek sari, yng, dt ‘Sourepond Persian pie (ase ptarom), ma (ce. maar-om). a {vent is interesting hat Pato ini logue Kalo (410 pro poses to derive Creek rip, Shep nav and "many other words’ from Bhrveians onthe grounde that they had ellos the sare form in that Tangunge and were not cay explicable within Greek, The linguistic [ihtevement of the general Epamnondas i, however, much more Iiprssive. According to Athenacus (13, 6s0f) he based the claim of irae ety, Thebes tthe ditit of Sida on the boundary of2 Ineaduction Bocoti and Aca on the fact that os pomegranate’ was 2 Rocotin word, fr which the Athenians ured fod. This show, a do various Gilet scenes in Aristophanes’ comedic, thet the Greeks had keen ‘en for language distinctions atest within the fel of Grech, and we ‘an only regret that, unlike Napoleon, who tok scholars wah him on his Egyptian campaign, Alexander the Great incladed ho exper it Tinguistics among the men of leering who accompanied him to Asta stmembers of hie stall ‘What was sid above about the Greeks in relation to Latin sppliee only wo the pre-Helleniatie period. When the Greek fealy came to Know the new language, they must have quickly secngnsed is resem blancs to thet own. ‘The Romane, to, sa that tin tex srpem corresponded to Greek & dard, and, ssuming that the early Rosman fubsituted for the Greck aspirate, regarded sua a correrponding to Silas dcunt et nos lus iem tex et fred scptem (Fetus 392), “Hence sme drew the conclusion that Latin wasn Grek dsc few went further, considering Latin tobe an Acaic dialect, rnce theo Caled recessive accent of Acolie barytonesis) was very sila to that tain Maca esa hb LO La cea nga Sa Rome ne fasten Pehatoge Set noc n he Reman a atte Ses ke Inthe languages mentioned iis posible to establish similarities not only of woesbulary (he ao-cale lena coreaponences) but asa of irammar, Clery the covrespondence between Eaghah love loved= {vad and, German lirbortiedve-gelat is no less sing than that ‘between father and Vater or ir and fa. When an Kalan uses the construction hy cantata ay the pase tense of cantare "to sing and 2 Spaniard says he canto, the agreement im srcture cious a {i another form of the past tense, Italian contavelcatafcataca nd Spanish contba[cantabar/catab iis surprising that such structural similarities passed so long un- noticed, of at lest unteoorded. We hear of no observations of this Kind in ancient times. "The medieval snd easly modern periods aloo Simply ignored them Even the astonishing Joseph Justus Sealiger (is4o-s60p), who hed the insight to anccpate the ide of linguistic felitionship and accordingly recognized in Europe eleven snatually independent “mother tongues’ including =. ew-languages 4 Fae ca a ttt ee ety Introduction a Romance, and ¢‘god-anguage’, ie. Germanic, did not go beyond lexi comparisons (Arens24."The time had not yet come fora tue {understanding ofthe iden of language comparison, nthe same way, the idea of historia development was no more than a promise forthe fture. The changes occuring inthe develop rent of Latin word forms to Romance continued to be formulated in the arc terminology of antsguity, nd inthe seventeenth century td even later the use of term such ss aditon, subtraction, tran positon, and inversion of eters eee 21) wat taken for granted a had been by Quintin. Before him, Aristotle had show slr lack of percepsvity im dealing wth language changes in the hstocl Betad (Pies 148), Finding in Homer sos Mn be Explains them as produced by lengthening fromm wae, [aon the forme of his own days Homeric xt, 8a, and were in his view shortened fom up, Bip, hur It does not trouble him that Homeric forms, in use at least five centuries before his own time ae thas derived fom ater forme, In fat for hm language i unchangee able, and if in spite of tht changes appear to occur they are to be ‘explained at instances of arbitrary poe hence 1.3. THE FOUNDATION oF ComPARATIVE “This was the postion until the end ofthe eighteenth and beginning ofthe nineteenth century. Two circumstances contributed t changing fe. Firat, the tea of comparison had established el ima number of ‘ciples, most conspicuoualy in ‘comparative anatomy” Ia 1787 han hob Ke (733-807) owed tha al ngage ndings of nouns, degree of comparion of ejetives, conjugation of ‘erbt, word order in affirmative and negative statements and. que ‘one’ should be elected and stout (mae aptly ooze cards, per- hapa) in nuch way that ‘each langunge may be compared with each other language ie any wey desired (Arens,143), ‘As eaty 8 1781 Johann Christoph Adelung ( down preci for diferent dogres of lang 32-1808) had id lone owe Imewaes ates wih ne sme in hi 00 mode and inex ‘nd dereaonal splay overall th nly + fw eens, andthegE a A Introduction dies of one aot... tere re marked ferences interno fu cesveonal sya, they te merely ltd languages Comply ern in of Ceraon anion ote ith marked erence {nthe rots andthe mesning inst ore or les ie! Lange (rene ta) ‘This doctrine requires comparison of grammatical structure a well as Othe oot and their meaning’ Ls of wocabularys the resmblancer nd discrepancies in structure, not whither in vocabulary alone, ae ‘Eesive forthe degre of reatonsip” "The second factor leading to the overthrow of traditional concept, and oto the foundation of modern Hingis he intensive sad ‘t Sansket theo iterary language of Indi. Ater many ocasonal feiermcre by cther writes fo entries with European languages Sir Willm Jones (1746-94), High Court Judge in For Wiliam, Bengal, succeeded in reaching a truly novel and Hberating view Te leetre of 1786, but not published unt 1788, he bref summarized the new dtcovery eee Ive Ben produced by scents tong ne tht mo pooper ould leeeen tere ee Saar oes Revearch on vocabulary (which is what Jones means by ‘roots of verb ice his view nouns are derived fom then) and on grace imate eructure thur leds to the tue interpretation of language felatonship: if number of languages agre to an adequate extent im ‘oth these respect, the only posible explanation that they derive {fom common ancestral soute, which elf ay no longer exist and te inthis ence genetically rated. In other words, genescaly related sguages ae divergent developments of « common original language Trapt of these cacoverien Sir William Jones was not seen by his contemporaries and zubrequent generations ar the founder of the ew gece The reson lest onl nthe ircamtnces ofthe nee rench Revolution and the Napoleonic Ware—and his own eh death, bu in she fact that the iden pst forward was «preliminary ‘ute rather than a thesis fly supported by evidence and argument. ‘The same most be sid of Friedrich von Schlegel (1772-182), wh iileriy enlightened by the study of Sanslen, employed the name Geto be proved He svat a enablihed and requiring no proof not Introduction 5 ‘comparative grammar’ (wrgleichende Grommati) for the new scence imhir book Uber die Sprache nd Waihi der nde (1808) ‘Th old Indian Sonat fo ete ls elatonship with she Reman Ti Stet weas wih he German and Pesan ngtage Thesis ‘he bet extend te nero rutre apd amma The creed ‘he's therefore not sce t be expe a do titre, Da El pong omnanoriin (Arent 160), “This sin much the same seria Jones statement. Schlegel goes farther, however, he gives an indication, bref though i sof the Incthod of the new comparative grammar, using Persian to exemplify “The dvensin fers ays o, mare preci, ething.. The coi ‘ln much meses the rk of te Bt pen om, which as Sper in iCute he ler frm mia Inc and Gre fom oof he econ fart in Ii pd Grek oly frera he mart of the tid Peron 0 “olara lawin brn and Geman reek har he lle and fling ‘he curr form, The Pern preset sve parole in hi He te ‘Geran nearer 6) “The method presented inthis pasa, and what flows tina sty and programas frm wast ot by «younger schol who Uertsng tobe dened nh flan soning eae of he ‘ice Its ne wonder that conterporaies and sbsequen gener {ons altc have clebyted Frans Bop (p98?) a he rc funcer tPtoaaorae gusts. In is mowed work Kenesationttom, pulsed ‘mn 1816 Bopp tt hiss the aim f showing how. a {he OL Indic conga, whe determination of relationship. te SSGecned by eoeopending medfcatanr ofthe toot and how at Sines the sero aivacon fest be") colesces ith the te Stet form» single word and thatthe sre was the cae fn rch and La, and fall of proving "that inal howe anges ich dere fom Sadr or tpehor with Sars rom a smmen Thats eerminason of renahi expressed by zn nfexon ‘Thc they do nu have in commun wih tht ancestral language I Wilupenabl he says awe al ofaate curves with the Cenugtonal ye ofthe Old Tne agg and enw a » ‘horoush compart of the constant of he Gree, Roman, ‘German, and Pesan langongs whereby we perceive the en heen 0), Tr erden that Bopp ino theoeiin. He ofers no genera reftctians on how langungerlinship i fo be understood and how° Introduction ‘only the once of language elatonsip but alto the existence of such ‘reltonships nthe tena os common org, beteen the ang stich he har investigated, What he mck co prove something ute ‘Bferent, Tete thar all hae language exhbirs common structure and furthermore tat ll the mater components of ha cactre 00, cing et are tential. ‘The concept of language relation, an be Seen fom the seements of C.J. Kens and. Adeung guoted fore, tad hong been in the ai, Instead of thes vague theoreti {sneraliies Bopp erected afm edifce which by very exience fn enstence which itowest Bopp—became the compeling prot of « Itngungerltioahip which aa former been mere aepton, Ax ‘nthe Ha infarc continue othe present day “The two supporting pillars of Bopps teaching, agreement in ame mail siractre and nthe language material Shich bears the sro tare, sil stand The relationship ofa the Polynesian languages Cerin Amennan languages can, even today, be demonstatd oly withthe aid of these principles Both are of equal importance [Agrement in grammar strucare lon, without seen te ietguage tcl cnbodying ts we can, for expe ino come tanaon of Hungoan with Tussh noun inenon, adept 1 prove genetic connections» ‘pat ene apg ee eS te age 6 Wim Vay x nh ot Ardy we Seo Pn Up Spe ey areore otnsSii ae ra ya ne es i ea ene tt Intrusion 7 fag Rte ee See Sen Ar Language comparion cannot, however, be the fist step in out ‘adenours, Anyone with a command of English and German alone tht, on the basis ofthe principles established above, be tempted 0 Conch frm the current forms howe, mouse owe wd Haus, Mans, Tes thatthe common original forms were haus, mau, lus. ‘hanks the evulaiiy, Rowever, of copious linguist evidence covering peviod of more than a thousand years, we know that the ancient forts had not au and must in consequence have been, mls. ican accordingly be stated ar general methodological principle that language comparson sn the sends indicated above ean be under= taken only shen dhe flest posible ue as been made of the histor. Kal study of language: The tmportance ofthis viewpoint was alveady feeognized by Schlegel in UBer die Sproche und Wea de Indie, Inhere be allows in etymological revenrch “no kind of rules for the hanging or transposition of leters’such as had been the practice in amiguity and sll was in his own time, But demands ‘complete Sulanty of the word for proof of derivation. Ofcourse ifthe ner= imedinte stages can be historically demonstrated, then flome can be Gerved from sr” But one mst, hasbeen sad beable o prove ty historical metnods the intermediate orm or the genera analogy ‘here mast be na inveting of sions on the bass of principles” He ecognized equal ley that for the prove of language comparison the caries sages of languages are to be used. Modern English or ‘German ie not o be compared with Latin ot Greek, but recourse mst ‘eit to Ol English or Goth (Arens 1616) “The true founder of strc linguistics rightly considered to Ihave been. Jacob. Grimm (1785-1863), In his fouraolume. work Destiche Grommet (2519-37) he had the cleat stm of producing «| ‘hitrical grammar of the Getran language” (he here ures Gera inthe sense of (Germanic). Consequently he deals with all the Germanic languages, and gies a systematic acount one fet another of the earlese middle, and modern phases ofthe varius Germanic Jnguages, beginning with Gothic and ending with Modern English "The ett nan fac a grammar both tor! and comparative (See D._ Cherub, on die hitorische Sprachwssenechalt Tegrnder? Zs® Intredection Quite dierent was the development of research inthe Beld ofthe clase languages, Initially and for many decades Latin and Greek srere compared with Sandkrtand other langunges, while ther internal Fistor was nepected and left to clascl scholars Not uti the end of the last century as it recognized and repeatedly emphasized, epi by Pal Kremer (oi), hi «Nr od of en rereuitite for shel comparative Tes peepbe pment tae hc i in SE ere ae hd aera ae By Faget ae her nce a eet Si anes gn no Mr {Soman cama opt China Row 1 at nce mb, ME 1 seh ee xin wa tgs it) Sh 1.5, AIMS OF COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS “These two complementary lines of research have slo common hares tha bor make wi of she comparnve method. While ‘Nkoiea sudy involves comparison of diferent chronologies actions af the sume langage, comparative linguitce liga erent languages with ead to teeter, pris connectons” ‘Su ace haves tec in The Sint i to restore of secon he hypotetie rg language ng the comparative trethod When th has been achieved soft poses the ‘earcher's cond tak io show how the india language ave oived from sins development lrting fr centuries or sven millers bis "The a econo thane ras fos pag fn uals Republi Inthe unforgetable seco onthe Dvsed Line (opts) he derives how the eke ser rath sable se {eran the undeved fe poncpe nd argv ofa and er freping tht descend agin to the Concise (gh) So or the ESmpartine lng the ind! lngunge ae the Tothlds and Introduction ° starting-point, by means of which he ean make is way back vo the tesinning of them allan then, having taken hold of the Beinn Chr understand and explain the special features of exch * sede cores earn get et a et er er a, a Spada nde 2 Baran Comoe, aol Nr ee eat, i Wie, 8533 1.6, 178 SuBJECT-MATTER: THE INDO-EUROPEAN "Now that we have setched in broad eurlne the sim of she compara- tive study mhich isthe main concer of hiebook, we must proceed 0 Csfine more closely ite subjctemarter, mame the languages which ae fo be compared Tr his enrest work Bopp dealt with ony ie languages, Sanit adiz), Persian (iranian), Groth, Latin, and Germanic, which ean be fepanded the founder-tembers, 20 to speak, ofthe language fail ‘ned ater them cIndo Germanic, and which even today consiute the base equipment of the Indo-Europeanist™ Later, but a some ares by Bopp imelf, many other languages were recognized as cloning to te far, inching Celie and Albanian. Our centr fas added umber of languages, the Former existence of which tres previously unknown, Of expecta! significance i the discovery of The Anuotien group in Asia Minor, of which Hite isthe chief Feprerentative, and of Tocharian in Cental Asi "Aithough it imposible to review here sv any detail the members ofthe Indo-European language lily, it seems appropriate at est 0 hummerste them Bret" Aryan includes Indic (nore secaraely Indo-Aryan, since not all the language of Ina are Indo-European) and Franan, both known a least fm dhe midale of the frst millenia ¥en their background fee A. Purp, “The coming of the Aryans’, Studia Orentlia 64, Totty igpeton ef. Tchler, ZDMG 140, 1090, 397-8: Kuiper, Aryans Inthe Rigeede Amsterdam v991- Note also Gambeldze and Tvanov, "Die Indo-Ewropier, im. Unpracke und. Urhimat, Moscow and [Lepr 1490, 8" ‘Biology confirms that Indo-Iranian cae to Tain fiom the Near Eas. Only in this care could alr [) not have Ihurmed then: On Ont, we Christal, LALIES 8, 1990, 759. sfmmeman known fromm a translation of the Bible and other works© Introduction documents go ack to the Hitite Old Kingdom, some perhaps a fr ‘the eightenth century c. The bestsknown and therefore fos ws the ‘ost important language ofthis group i Hite. but the more arcs Lassian i ale historically signiScant and sour mote rely accesible Closely related to Luin i Hieroglyphic Hittite» language sed hieroglyphic inscriptions of the Tate Hitste and post Hite pecods, ‘especially in northern Syria In the northern are ofthe Hite empie Jn Asia Minor, with se centre at Hattare (movers Bogharhdy) to ihe cast of Ankara, Poleie was spoken. Recent researches have reves ‘hat the languages of western Asia Minor known frm the Ret lens nium ne, Lycian, Lydon, and probabiy alka Cavan, mere litewine descendants of Hite oF Luwan. Recently there have even heen ‘tempts to connect Biracan, directly or at Test ineely with Anatolian (c.Beckes, Fe Ris, 1993, 488, and foe the texts Ron Berukche Texte, minor, ii, Pabingen 1994), sd the language of ‘the Trojans (has also been chimed an 4 member of the anaeaian sroup (Wathine 1986; see Bader, BSL Bs), 198, sax) On the so filled ‘sea peoples’ see Woudhulzen 1992 4 Tacharion i known in two dialects designated A and B or East snd West ‘Tocharan, of Agnean (=A, langunge of Agni, Turfors ‘Quaraishr area) and Kuchean (=B, language of Kuta), They are ested in manuscripts ofthe second alt ofthe fst milena 49 from Chinese Tarkeran 5, Greek recorded in « mulipliciey of dlect, of which the literary dialects, above all Atsc-onic ae of expec importance for Indo. European studies. Unt the enly 19501 the history of Greek begen with Homer: since then the deciherment of the Linear Bett oe used back our heron by half millennium. Fay general errare fee Scher, GG tLe Rt Pane, The Grek Lamp, London, 6 Tali principally represented by Latin, whote beginnings have long Been seen in two insrpsons ofthe sith century ne bat te Pratnestine brooch, formerly dated 600 Be, hay turned out 10 be foxgery. Most closely related to Latin ie Falucem, on which see B.D. Joseph and RE. Wallace, ‘le Falcon a loci Latn patos iachronca 8/3 (1901), 159-86. The so-aled Teale dsl iemioe known from inscriptions, ate alsa important, especially Oican tnd Umbrian; on “Sabine see Nege, ‘Le, lingua ds Numa, in Ps Ssemerdmi i, 329-65. On all problems of alc vee Lcumannty Meise 1986; Rie (a) 1993. 17. Vou, formerly teed ata dsc of Vlrian, has ony ecentty been recognized at an independent language I is now know fart shout 275 nsritions. Is ery closely related tothe Tlic poup, to Introduction ” wich sme scholars n fet ign. Muna, “The dnc Scr saternUays JHES tsb, tose (Rate Ven {iguan, Lepontil, Porch wns, se Peleg and Prono, Ea ling net ato, Anna Mines Le sso ade Tt gg’ Shuma, De athe sche enerac spe 1 Cue eabacs Contino Casc—preeted by Gato and sa sv by pan Conon Fao Cate, wi sal ht {So branche Goda compring rth, Seo Gace and the Tun (ice 19a) exint Mans tad pth (or simply Bri) Cra ches eh Beton, and Cori of hich he Wt ha ee {ince since 177 hen ie Dolly, Petes the lst speaker of omnis dicts For sh sec RW. Blo The Puen of ton Sonn: aye. On the vga of te Open’ wing of Olt Ina se Stn Wa, “Derheringthe Ear Tah Om alphabet TPS 93,30 5 Boma analy divided notre branches () Bast German, which the main vpresettve is Goh, chy : es from Wulfila's translation of the New ‘Testament (fourth sera m) (0) Wes Geman: High Geman, Lae Geren, ger wth Dutch Beetohand rite (North oman Noregin Teed Wet Non), Sadish nd Dan ant Nor Un abot soo te seed Pro None thows vey ty dale repo More eon theory bins (a) and (tote snl sou 10 Sich thename Rok Cement even snd) shine weorpend. Truly waned South Cement For starter vent ce Maan HS {21199 9h tree 10. Baie smprer Old Pras, xine snce 1700 and known nly tom sew tes Wat al) staan dats (art Sale), both recorded forse sxe cenry and now yng 8 Tr Slee vided int three rest rope (0) Bart Staves: (Get) Rasim, Uhonon and Whe Ras (8) We Sorc: Cie and Soca Put, Seton nd soe ir, ly extn, language. (o Sou Stare Bugaton, Macedonian, Serb-Crat,and Slovene “The lds frm of Savi, andthe ment ingrtantforthe compari, is id Church Slane with code ging bck she mnt ey Tn sit of doping ditoct ests of Bulgar and do Macedonian, thaw tsertevenaly ae cig com ten Seea Inroduton 12, Albanian, with two main dialect, Tosh and Get, known since tne fifteenth century ‘To this ound dozen of main branches of Indo-European may be sued other language ateted in an extremly fragmentary ste? fiom inscriptions or metly from names’ Phrygian, Thracian, Daco- ‘Marian Urian with Mesapic, Ligurian 2), Ancient Macedontan* Iti self-evident tht for the purpose of language somparaon the caries period ofeach ofthese groupe i the tost important eg, Old Indic, or even the “Oldest Tad’ of the Vedas, and not the mesdern Tndian languages such at Bengali or Hinds Old Persian and Avestan the steed language of the Zarathutian religion, and not madern Pern; Old High German, Old English ete ‘Anyone who wishes to become faint with the problems of the Indo-European languages and t0 work in ths field wil need to sat with base equipment of Latin, Greck, Old Indic and Goths and in {he course of time toad farther important languages such a tie, (Old Church Save ete ggraiet tet n ptn Seopa ee cme aca emer ted a i ae aie dee SSS eereiers eae neers oh igri Coir te ome 1 aa geet Sw da rth) dh nd Sy Hime Gea Introduction 5 pieces term tote entrar Sey Gene Seat pt NOR et tet gag wr Zor em ac be Te SE PRINCE aos imei dete ci ey SE I mae, omar Ter aaa ee oe "Oe Langage Aan erp capoe iag receKas 4 98, ta 08 Riaencimer goa tae mer re ec tat eka ins ES ea ‘owt mgs tent Le of eens, Has ‘Be Spt ot Rn Rc tr Ras Ce ea Bins. vee, sc de etna aa, orev, ANRW. 1h Huo ip Pen, br gi a i on eee ie ieee ihre areas ‘Marr UA fr Onenforhong fs, 19. a4). The Corps mrp pa ioe eR Socee aee2 Language in Change How, thes the ask of langage omarion toe undertaken? WI ‘ean be compared, and how? “es ae he rt lc, cident ht word nts, which a be alte fy ey. itcomparton, Ite aes exposed 1s) tena word, for example and Gro: B the peo Sera tem wrestle tan appear ha conparton re ‘her meaning and enrenon bth coe is sly coat that La ptr and Ge rrp soul have sen independent ond haven enc wth on nate: cen nce oe ts ftom and meaning ot compte, smparann, inthe some ee sump to nabs concn, hard We toa ta Yoon Ce eet, bth nan em Cerny groan se Se eid tere be tempted tke eae ew is sane el patrnary ce. We Ln, howeter an the case eel sncten antl approximate brining a he Chestan ep ss prone Pheri pk Sting tt at on wpe sa +i in Sos German plone tom ehenge Tete ompatoon ‘then, of ferd and pher® to be abandoned? Clearly not. ” Hw fr hen, dacrepancy efor or meaning adil? ‘Achat point wil the lt of tlerner be recess The meet sole were perme nts pec Ten sleet to te he thenoteon dt rom Psd Ldn. pt OF the four explanations offered only two ae interna, based on Latin, ‘The fiat is ofthe type laus a non lcend and thes account only of the element de in de To the second the sane element proves the bis fora quite diffrent etymalogy The other twa elanaions hate Language in Change 1s recourse to Gredh. En the thi the formal agreement complet, but tin the st evo, dhe meaning is Iboriousl are oft. Only the fourth explanation canbe regarded s plausible fom the point of view ff meaning, but the question then ste whether the procedure here ‘opted te modifcaton of Gr, Bls by omtason ofthe aspirations ‘ealy admissible, According to our current knowledge ti impos be: omision of the aapiration could have given ony Mo, whence Tet tes, not des far rom Br, unm from Boo “Thin objection vest of couse onthe serumption that i Knew ‘change there exit a certain velar, and tha parila in sound ‘hanger there inno pce forthe various ibees ‘hich the ancient Schaar, fellowed by those of the Middle Ages and eatly modern times, tok for granted. Thus according to Varro (De Lingua Latinas bret 7,2) word change occurs by omason or adition a eters and through thelr anapoition ar change literaum enn ft demptione tut addione et propter eam eaiectonem aut commutationem =) {Quinlan (1.6.32) gives «sia but somewhat flr description of ‘he methods of ecymologats of his orn day qu uerba plum del fata varie et multipicter ad weiner reducun (ce etymologies] aut Correptis aut porrects ait adeti aut detaris at perma ters frllbie (ef 15108). ‘As tothe exten to which formal discrepancies can be admitted, i ‘was not until the nineteenth century that e fundamentally new con Ception war reached. Ie can be formulated, rather parsdoscly, 8 follows: no its are se to deergencer so Tong as they canbe shown 10 be regular ‘To give an extreme but by no means enypical example: the corespondence between Eng hel, Gr nines, and Old. Za ‘despite appearance to the conteury, exact To hai (a6 We shall se ner, 4750 ‘With regard to metning, however, the fact themselves compel us sHlopta mich more liberal attitude It or netance, fr from obvious that Fr. chnton Christian’ and ‘rt idioe have any connection et ‘oth derive from Lat’ Chvtianan which became crctin in the dest of Valais (Switacrand). Similarly, Eng. ally and Gem. slg ate formally identical in Ola English sig sil meane “apps, Besse Tea formagro and Fr. fromage (eit Jormare) oth mean “heese and come from Lat. Hormatiur, a dervative of fora. The oil ‘expression was caves formate cheese made ins mou’ fom which the meaning “cheese was absorbed By formats, and eats could be omitted as superftaous6 Language in Change Language in Change a ‘This snot say that inthe development of meaning, only regular and unaccountable changes ae tobe fund. Certain genes tendencies ir recognizable even in semantic ehange- It does ot, however, foe Tow, if im one wellauthentcated instance » word meaning fence comes to mean “own (as ean be seen from the pat Gm. aun od Eng. ten, that fence’ alway Becomes own’ or town’ swage comes from ene follows shat, in language comparison, priority mutt be given un onitionaly tothe form, If so forms correspond easly ot accords ing to the rules, this compensntes for some degree of discrepancy i the mesning. On the other hand, if wo forms cannot be refered o 4 ‘oman denominator thie isnot ott even by total agreement in meaning. For reson of form, deus (sl desi ealy kin) can more be connected with de than with English gd. {genet ie Bete f Sanat Usa Te Pos of Sow acer aa aa ne HS aE cee ama £6 ng ie 1 eg art i iherar iB Paige ane mace ere ek ea en SSN iegsome Stee bee ne here tm CD indacie pn ‘Sommerer PSR ty ea aan ee aed ct nd atm orga t roa! Foes hm snc 8 Rey, Sen Thea Slap 2.3. REGULARITY IN SOUND CHANGE ‘To make the compizon f forme from diferent languages stall powible acenically, dey must be spit up int smaller, inded into {he smallest posible, unite. A. general impression, while It may provide the impulse fora comparison, ix not seceatble to cient ‘erfeation. The minimal components ofthe word unite ae the speech Sounds. Instead of «vague comparison of two of more words which five general impression of sounding alike’ and ako have the tame ot Similar meaning, methodical comparison therefore ade ofall the Sounds of which each word is made up. Though this may seem selrevident now, a he beginning of the inetenth century i 848 © revolutionary change of atude leading reo generations later to con= equencer which ae il fet 0d ‘ter few long since forgotten predecessor, the Danish scholar Rasa Kestan Ras (1787-1852) established in 8 tha in many Germanic words which could be compared with correxponding words in atin and Greek, the lees had undergone change in such way ‘that cera le’ could be setup. For example» regular transition Item ptf ita be cbeerved betwocn Gr. nar, Lt pater, and Ole, {Jodi and between wo, ps, ad ir, et. The sare teguarity ean be ‘cen inthe cave of Gr. + #8 7.8 8x. which become in Germanic bh thd. "These observations, corect with one exception (Rak had wrongly Judged the development of TE 2), were taken over by Jacob Grimm in the second edition of the fist volume of is Daiche Grommati (625, Dp. $6, #61) and expanded into an impresve sytem By attributing {0 Greek 8 y the modern pronunciation he could make them eau ‘nent tothe Germanic fb x and thas represent the whole develop. {neta Circulars IM ia used to Jenove the vrcedstope (median dg Teo denote the voiceless stops (emus) p¢, A the aspirates aspiratae) 4.8 and the sprane f py nth which they were equated. the Germanic changes indicated above (adding the connection of TEP with Gmc. pan be se outa flows "T becomes A ‘Abecomes M Mbecomes T or sill more simpy aT Vd* Language in Change ‘The regularity of these changes, the extent of which Grimm snereaed by the discovery ofa simiarcitclur development in Old High German, so impressed his contemporaries tht what he himset| ad called Lauterchichung (sound hi) they named, after i dit overer, “Grimm's Law, lo de Grimm. For the Sst time not only bad a large number of phonetic correspondences, or rater phonetic divergences, between different languages been precisely formulated, bburalin it hed ben shown thatthe various prt development stood Ina coherent relationship to each other Te as thi that const [Grimm's originaty and so powerfully impressed his contemporart. ‘That Grimm made some ears, even in esenil points suchas the nator of the aopirtes, makes no difernce a all 0 his historical Senifcance “Aare spr Devenp’ nd Si, "Bpenency phono and he et Germanic ccmonest Polly oe gu ew nw Soe Be PORTA eh Ren syne oe 2.4. EXCEPTIONS AND THEIR EXPLANATION ti inerestng tha neither Rask nor Grim conser the regular- ites which they discovered in round change o be generally aid. Rask held thatthe consonants often" changes secordance with the sated ‘les, while acording to Grimm the sound shift is eared through "in| the mane’ but “is never tiily finished of nthe snvidal ease. Some words remain inthe erly state the sear of change has passed them Dy" (Arent, 193,208). Even forty years later, G- Curtin could lay doen that inthe ifeof sounds» Baed laws canbe recognized which ‘ave a validity almost at consistent at tht of natural forces, but nevertheless added that among sound changes two kinds ae te be dis- Tinguuhed, “renslar or general and “ieregulat oF sporadic of which the later type secure ‘only im a more or les reticted number of Inuances’ (Aten 208; Pulgeam, Std Boll (198s), 275-9) “This was understandable at that period, since was an undeniable Language in Change » fac that alongside the many cies in which development took place Sainte the rl, tere wee corn which os obnered 0 {Show eierens cone or example den cut of corepondece such a Got it haf {anodes nt La cop pc oe wee mn breach of the ule fees since m Catan hha not be shite es weve nyt size thin see sear the uae ound we preeded by sspivans whether herited) or produced bythe Tou shit J). The enemy therefore, that he soured shit had ot ‘Shon lce suo to neds sequence of ropes Pb ete The Stmortance of thc enpanaton yin the recognition hat an eeption tothe eglarsya the sou ht wa al reer. ‘ashe group of ecepions represented by these words which in Germanic have two vores op Cath bindan to bin sree pon do tach errerpond Sit and wo ind. We Sie upsoas deutien however, when we examine the compe Sem nde peceely "The corepondenee oth a She od bm Mefectedaording to the fle of tesa shi, but Gh, be Sk ‘Test pouiton sans coat the rls Yo Skt ap should Corradi German Av long it was sken fr eran ail Sis'Seae shore he carer form plausible caplanation forthe rote cout not be found: He however the eden of Germanic i geeneaul weight, aon points to TE bed Grossman ried InSb6r Sue he ineglany in auch eases onthe side of Soni ‘a Grek, both languages show disinlaton in» succession of 40 Spt by shh he Swe opto Ao utes {Shed ane the duped vrei ee ngage In Ine he SW Ot prevent tee of dat has the fo ddan ct rom the erterpnding by (oh) es rey afr @ Srsiiton of the tape, oe would have expected “dha dtm Sten” persed on sorte tee became 2 Sic Uer de aan In this group, hen it turned out that there was no question of excep fons tothe sound shift: te regularity was on the side ofthe other Tanguage ud even this was fou bea regulaits "here now sil2 Language in Change Tei on ge roup of ena, Asoring we gor ‘iin TE coe sie gen Geman ie ml ‘atcha wine ppc iw. tor ind eee erat ‘Three meres oar naar Seen Patil popes procnderwnbteni ag la pen camera Conti tare atta aseee Fen Sci ee es ae a ‘Serine node Sa a ae "Fae cpeton of ie tis cece ee hia sayy ie Bath lr Rat ern nee Se ‘ict dat te ep deregmet ca genus oa Se copie oe tele ong nee eee Suave etersteen eater nec at he ae et ctirge Sinan cee Sea ne ‘clay a oe pnt ea eon a a Tanne ‘panes erase "ances cana O18 open btn pn to te Sy at ge eet ere erent tnd grea eerste ga ce th oe ONG ton weg OF epee oe Se vowel bu she neti eae net taper ever et gh tend Fr te Pond wth cae eed ce Wierd ihe coon f ye wig hee a pits inndal pon pen ae et ee pe fam 1 fm ped yee Tsay an aay rarer caer ea ono Bari onc er ear ed we there Te enden ica rae i ee ny in Cont ake a a Soe sear See fran ed ma 1 Comguenty pet a POF a Se tem nlite erotics Neneh gemonasses cesar tokaays Lace Nene Kee g k e ctr Gonos ‘Semaine tae cin Spigot er Language in Change » 2.5. SOUND Laws ‘These results of persevering and ever more accurate research ein cvitably toa appraisal of Curt’ dichotomy of regular tod sporndic ‘ound change Gee 24) Ifthe alleged sporadic changes are time and Spun revealed a simply another kind of replant, the conclsion can tly be tha every sound change i proper tobe vegarded a regular. ‘This new doctrine, at announced by W. Scherer in 187, found ‘post enduring expression in 188 in the words of the leding ‘Neogrammarans, Hermann Osthot (1847-196) and Kael Bragmann (845-1919) ‘epinsie the dvcion in hick Sound sc to change ccureim the sume condone are feed By te ‘Rates itbou exernen “This programmatic stent isto Be found in the pete of HGuolf and KBragmann, Mrphlgiche Unerachangn af dom et der. Sprachen Lena, 1878, px Tae whole eae Sas confoion of fait of immense acu andeectvents Thich the Neogranmarans tok ine with ther predecessor he Shapter inthe neverending drums of the quarrel bewcen Anson ‘alsoder "The concept of tnd lw brought tan ed the fst prescicne inguin, Irs sud tw ens being, ie Beche a tertence by nother and wo he operon fa tog oe Teds ta he tery ofthe sound law isnt sii poorest in a pwns of sce nar. cn cry be aid ‘Saree pouvely regued by wines of tnroons—and tot only thee concerned withthe sound shft-and so had» contin iSducve bn. Thana To the woe of Karl Poppe, however, wo ow inden tha y induction no hypothesis cat be vere deed, {he talu of hypetiewestinn the temps trough further continued tse and went ty ten Be long ths dso ape, they ‘etn the fll cet ‘nm the technique af eng p und lw, se Beer, “Wie wet sman in Lasiguts sf RBS sta 19878 3-105, amr’ tae i ea eea Language in Change 1k Mager Rien Taspenlit nd onpsogaton FA 3 96 3.56 ‘ge Nem Evie Sir Bremen et ieee a nk ts 5 eine a, Te Lg of Stay, ane Ream tn Spee Ses nn Rot ‘Gambro Feil We yrtah | Grama Lenn Sytem a Bone 6 Fc rir gs Be ke a Sore Eo apace ge Wikre pee SAT nee cea tne! tae Eee Sa eg ere a nC. a ah 2.6, ARE THRY VALID 8 Nor? “This does not mean tha the concept of sound law has nt since 1878 often been challenged. Particularly impressive were the results btained by “lect geography" (voraphi lngtiq). The pro= ttammatic statement tat cach word har its own history appeared to Seer that there could be no generally valid sound development, no ‘ound laws. This interpretation, however, overlooked theft that the "Rudy of the hutory of te individual word (concluding, for instance, ‘hat abile “bee isan intrude in Parsan French) i pone only ‘becnuse the sound laws provide a sure means of exablshing whether & ‘word in «particular region i native or an immigrant rom outnde, Language in Change a loan word-even if fom dhe same language. It must also be noted thaw the slogan of alee geography, "Each word is its ow history i's grows laggertion; thou raher be sai with Malki, that "Many (or tome, or jst afew) words seem to have truly unique Instorles Thue the static basin ofthe objection and its degre of probability are fundamentally altered" "The ether objection raed by dialect geography, thatthe Boundary wvthin which the sound law operates diferent foreach word, so hos litle validity since itn fat relates ony to the transitional zoe» between wel-dfined dialects and no tothe central area, in which Fcrech’ word is feted by a given sound change ‘Daurat is therefore quite right when he says Ave le recul d'une ueptine années, apparale pax que la geographic ingistiqe ait ieusorent sap leslie edie deve parla igourewse methode des revgrammairien and: La constance des ls phonetques reste done, principe, hors de tout aceite’ ec tat eit ne Sra hd Bi cceemenerne eetca waa oo Sn i le ety ce dard ten Spe Fecieenyeit tiara ore rite ee cin SLR teers ene ter hen Sra Sate a ae i wn a = cere Es gait Re ips d Pe Py. seed Reh fe oa Rech ch opp a SPARS i rt i Ta et Tec i ty ma mate aes tte pry eee. tatapem eaten oe Ten in Scns woe aS ee tts Sr tel ei sine eatin flog seen tan ree eRe Et oes4 Lenguogein Change Faget 1.0 oe ao Lah nd 5. Ray sw npn mee i ua Cr Pepa. Se Te Se 2.7. CONFIRMATION BY PHONOLO ‘The concept of sound law has gained fresh support from modern developments in inguistc, expecially inthe eld of phonology "The old phoneir had investignted the articulation of speech sounds sminutly down tothe amalest det. Av reaction apsinat this fog™ ‘menting and atomizing procedure there arose sn the late 1920s the feience of phonology, which directed it aim atthe function of specch curds." From thie point of view i became evident the minute ‘iecencs of pronunciation t such are of no ngnicane or relevance for the linguist Only those diferences are significant and relevant ‘which have function i langunge te. which serve to diferente Between unite of speech, For example, the German ch sounds tn nicht land Nacht are forthe phonetician two diferent sounds. The speaker, However, is unaware of the diferene, since ie ha no signiseance for hie language, these pronunciation variants ae not ved to divtinguih ‘words.‘On the other hand, the two rounds which in English are ‘Senoed by sa in lore aid oe can in German, itll, diferente ‘words ony in medil position, eg reieneael and rien tear, but Im French, arin Engliah, te aiflerence is significant in any poston ‘ous and cousin, Same and zone dfer only in this rape, Sabrertbre ssa sl calles, sat, sein main ‘The linguistically sgnifeane sounds, or phoneme of «language can tbe moet eal etablised by the use of “rina pire. pats of ‘orcs distinguished by singe speech sound, a cat mal ca eat eat on By tis method of commutation. changing one sound sta tine, ‘ny word ean be Broken up ino its component phonemes. Ths the [honemes of Eng. dread can be idatied seb (by comparing tea), ef. bled), (broad: the speling variant clea bas no phonemic felevance), (ck. Breath, in which th denotes single sound) ‘As the seam of speech is divided into ever smaller unite—con ‘by he fact hat Ts themecles but nly nerve to differentiate guage in Change Ey er units: they are jut dicritil signs. They are not, however, the Tis in the sense of being incapable of farther analyst they can be tdscibed in tors ofcrtsin articulatory features Tethe sounds pk bid which function a phonemes in many languages, are compared Iwi one another, it wil be found thatthe second serie is dt fused rom she fs only by the fact tht all te members ae voiced, SSheten the members ofthe Sat series are voiees. The phonemes? nub fer ftom eachother lyin respect of voicing and ate other- ‘ise Kenic bus they ifr frm the other members of both series in Tring labialr-sound aricolated withthe lips. In contest to other libs, mor oro, it can Be seen that p Bare characterized by # Conure of the lips which released in the proces of atculaion, ‘Thus the phonemes ?and beach have three distinctive features {Glosure, bil nrelstion, presence o absence of vic), which taken together diferente them from allover phonemes, eluding exch Uther they are characterized andy au it were, consétuted By thes {Gatun so cht in genera ca be au hat he phoneme Bundle of hint features SES een emns canes re ‘ced nde Raton ny mp pny te mn i ‘Mtg ong vos Maras, Banos ingest Mei Neral tng te ri Pome Ste OT Rhos Ne pe Plat, eek coe BSCE S dd Satna th: bento Ti, Ne ah Slim Pt Leiog aay $8 Tora heer ‘ms, neon CN gt Lad Emer Pi Yok6 Language in Change Language in Change * TEI noteed nt ae 2G Cons te bak Poca ‘eee ipo te me Lng i oo rt She 272 ‘The result gained from the synchronic study of languages in their ‘moder state must, of course, be applicable to thir diachome oF itorsal rods, eapecily in the fl of sound change "The phoneme iar hs been said,» calective concep: i brings together all hore phonescally tinguishable but sil snr sound the allophones, which do not serve to diferente meaning A ‘Phoneme i simply the sum (or els) of it allophones, which can [ther standin fre exchange (ther ie deers by mon linguate {actors} or occur in complementary distribution, ns far they ate ‘bound to certain positions and conditions. Thus the English phoneme is apirated before the sess (bl, tp), but not when ts prseded bys Grable, stop. An allophoni station of this hands deseribed in Verner’s Law (Gee 244.1) the new voiced spirante were allophones of ‘he originally voiceless spirant, with which they aernated in comple= ‘distin, ‘Bren more signicant for sound change isthe interpretation ofthe phoneme ata "bundle of distinctive feature” If phoneme, sy by fhanges, it means that one of ie dstintive features change Fo ‘example the festute of closure can change: the lip intend of being Completely closed, are carlealy lft hllcpem, tue proucing ‘spirant This change took plac in Ancient Gresk abou the beginning ‘ofthe Christan erm so that in modern times Ps pronounced not Siitary, there canbe change invoicing if the vocal chords are no Tongerin vibration during the articulation, the relia» change of b to voiceless. This happened, for example, n Gerri, n which p ‘corresponds to IE b. Phonemes are not, however, lated in the ‘Phoneme system; itis normal to Bnd sete of phonemes sharing ‘common dssinctive fearre: OF the three features which characterize two, closure and voice, occu ako in dang, which fer from 8 Gnd eich orher only in their pace of sviclaton Te follows that a slnsnetive feature changes in particular phoneme, the same change (ince itis mde unconsciously) mst tke place not only in al Instances of that phoneme but also in all phonemes exhibiting the ‘tne distineive feature, Thus inthe Germanic sound shit the change in the feature ec led to the common sit of IE bd gto Gmc. #8 Sound change accordingly segue, tnd indeed! systema, fom hi standpoint also" Tn conchaion, it should be noted here that the various kinds of sound change canbe cased in the following manne: {@) seule sound changes, i regular change of singe phonemes; (8) sepular group changes, Le regular changes of dine phonemes (Gsimilaton and dination oop ef b> Ln (© iregulan (sporadic) group changes, eg AUC Képeopa from Kipeepe* 2.8. ANALocy What we ave sais fr sbout the sound law requires an additonal, rote, The Neogramarians themeelve had empbsized (sn that part St their manifesto quoted above tha thee statement applied to sound ‘hang in ao far av it proceeds mechanically” Tes clear that sound Tame can be interfered wth, not only other sound tne, but by 2 further powerful factor in language change, ha of analog. TH eas, ined, im contrast tothe concept of sound Invs that tit tery which goes back to ancient tea, guined the precise meaning thar it has in modern linguistics, Analogy denotes morphological teunsformation on the mode! of form already exiting inthe language When thi cute, purely phonetic developments in accordance with ‘he sound laws ae for the most part suppressed and obscure, In German, atthe end of the MIG and beginning of the NHG periods, the calier paradigms sien: sectigen, tegen: Bow agen, rndn bantbunden gave place to NHG stegtegen, b/gen, Bond bandon. "The aarmion of thes. ad pl fore was simply a case of mlogial change, not the result of phonetic processes. A phonetic evelopment from sti to tog oF for tandem to bandon isi Tac ltmponible, inthe sere that could not be reconciled with our other knowledgea Language in Change ‘ion fn teh hn colo oe Somer aha tg, olinge ca not) Set fee Nia rd De sate Pelt eta 2 SEL. ty sobs goy4se Te Reach, “Anaopche Prone in dee et stat a "S5, pl Vk nd Wir Sart Nerval Fendt Ry of Poms Chan ree. 2.9, COMPARISON OF HIGHER UNITS ‘What hasbeen sid i this chapter about sound change valid mutatis smutanir for lanqurge ats whole-morphology, syntax? vocsulay.* ‘We can and mst follow the sume principles for the larger nits a for the smaller and smallest. The foundation must slays be materi] ‘entity or similarity, which maintain is power of support even when ferean or reanings show wider divergences The covery hot tenmble and can lend to nothing but unfounded asupions and cone Sion. ‘The messore of material enti or inilnty—a quetin which war left in abeyance at the beginning af this chapter (21 fis an now also be defined more precisely” the divergence must be i greement with the sound ls. Many almost incredible correspond pees are found inthis way which are nevertheless exact from the point of view of linguistics. An ofen quoted example of such dere izent development inthe Armenian numeral eke two" in retion to the forms inthe other TE lnguages,e Lat. duo A comparison With TE td arouses inthe uninitiated the unpleasant felng than hie instance not single sound Bits, and rightly 0, neverthelen, can be demonstrated that he comparison is coret. The proa can, however, ‘be established only by the most caefl abseration and determination ofthe phonetic developments, eof the wound ln” For this reason ‘Phonology remains the surest foundation for all comparative Hingust- kes and ean never be neglected, however nweleome some Ty find this: Here too the wuth ofthe proverb is confirmed fer arpera ad Language in Change Ey ote tne W-7 Lena, Bap eee a Wallin d Se Get BW Bryn ee etter im Sm ee ret ‘Sey React a nostra Sea at poe eH Raa Coen HE Sue Pe et sak Siang es hn png pape Rear i ate e (S sh Ant iy RESSL Sar eau oe ‘ot ETESATG Elie SMa eng ante Ee she arnt 19h Bw ces eed pak ‘As we have sen, the principle that sound laws admit no exception tras fst extablished by the Neograramarins (1878). In conzast 10 Tovmer practice they alo emphasized that correct understanding of the fe fs language can only be gained by one who ‘auto the eon, thick with theores, ofthe workshop in which the Indo-European bask forms are forged one day ate forth into the clear air of palpable tals, and esurate himwef tthe guidance of later, even the most ‘ent times and, above all of ving dialet (sce pp. e-= of their preface, referred tom 3) In the hundred years snc thei ume these [leas have besm developed further in variourdrecuons (te 26,2), tnd today Ive reached a point where the synchronic situation {Tasting into a mast of face which cannot be Drought under rales— ‘orerpending, one might sa, 10 the state of society, oF at Ist of Teste therefore 0 poin out th this pceureof things doesnot necessariy apply to calerpeios, or rather, only orth tit limita tome Since inary times society war iself much smaller, more United, and, owing to meaures of central contol much move strongly ahesve than today the language stanton also was much more2 Language in Change unified. This diference is clearly significant for the problems of Phonetie development and unexceptional sound ls 3 ‘Tasks of Indo-European Linguistics 3.1. THE RECONSTRUCTION OF INDO-FUROPEAN “The fac that 20 many languages of Europe and south-west Aaa show Uridespeead agreements in thelr grmmatial stractire and vocabulary ‘hn be explained a we have see, ony bythe sumption that hey all Spring from » sommon Bas language which we al Indo-European, thd areal wathing oer than independently developed variants of is ‘riginal language, the Usprache Te follow thatthe fet task of the Indo-Europeans i to work back to the fullest possible reconstruction of Indo-European. The phon ‘eal system, which as of courses cloned stem, can be reassembled {orn emsfociory extent and with a fair degree of certain. ‘The mor- Pholopcal system, although Tikewise closed, presents significantly freaterdiicules, but thr ao can be recovered to large extent, ‘Much mote problematic isthe sytas. Here the urts with which we have to work are lnge, snd consesunty iti only with much Tes fonfidence thatthe historical variations can be used ar 2 bai for covering «prehistoric system. Finally, the eoabulary ean be reow rise in x main outlines with considerable success, especial On ‘erional bas, but vocabulary does not form a closed system in any lenauage, ti only pavlly discoverable fr Indo-European aso" ‘Nest, the recontrated Indo-European language system can and must be uned ss a sarting-point forthe interpretation ofthe sytem hd is pechsory For this we are in 4 partclaly favourable position: a great eal can be established about the prehistory of ‘farther important wk ofthe Indo-Europeans ito use the recon structed original language as starting-point and wath it hep thro light on the prehistory ad cary hiatory of the inivdual languages Aerved from i "The main historical periods of thes languages are tf courae, ouside the scope ofthe Indo-Curopeania’ ork, which iluinates only their orgie ee above, 1s Inthe teatment of bath tee tasks there are 180 positions which2 Tass of Indo-Buopean Linger, in theory are sharply divided. In the view of some scholars, the ‘comparative method can do no more than etublishcorrapondentr Tf swe ne compelled by the facts to recognise that, for example, Latin ‘dey, Old Tra da, Lithuanian dies, Old Indic devs, te wich ll tea god’, ae gene related, tis means onl that we ean that Lat d corresponds o Ole Lith, Olnd dete; we cannot go ee fom. ‘The recon. ould be thought of ws merely providing formula to simply nd fam up the clumsy and long-winded statement ofthe established cor respondences‘ In opposition to thi, others hol thatthe comparative ‘method enables us to recover an extinct phate of language. A reson ‘ructed form, eg. dea, iathe realty which underiesthe frre in the individual languages, from which al of them have developed in ‘ccordence with thes own eound lavas It mune, ofcourse, be edit- ted tha the reconstruction reflects the sate of ings at ven time. Thus itcan ike a theory in natural cine, be modified and imnpeoved by fresh dicoveis, Infact our present reeontrutione (et is Yecopnaed also by the supporters of the fst poston mentioned hove) are ‘bewer” than thore current a centry 380, 1 they Corrrpond better to the historical factx® But vo only when we Acknowledge the reali of the varius econstracted forme that we ean ‘meaningfully occupy ourselves with the question how they are related toreachother, Le how the sytem war built up. From the outa re tao, rine appreech,playn.a delve part ia recostruton, since the feconsruction of phoneseally imposible sounds and sound ‘quences (swords) can be considered thing bat anil game? In {his Tntoductiom, therefore, we adopt the second of theta positions Dutlined above, tht of raion "To ndieate that» form e reconstructed, not atested, i preceded by an anerhe der Tas applies not only t TE form but aso | ‘eeontruted forma inthe individual language. (ee ce ee ee iy Semi! Wie neh hf EGR romana ye Haley ‘See pbs eer nami ood 7 he Tas of Indo-European Linguists s et ne nr Se an Se SSeS reset nn nner. gai Erde Reco Pens ema Th aed wei At eR Fe ar ae peng gene Ltn eral She ase ee Seti Neco Se paca a ‘eee aah My crt iss oe Eigee tennessee esata Ae cat mck eit ce ‘igasa step res ne rao canny Canoe ‘EEalym rf oma een Deca eh rpms Fr sca tal nme "ton 19 4.2, FURTHER QUESTIONS “The reconstruction sete a mumber of further take, When a good part Grthe vocabulary hae Geen restored, various questions ean” be Shoneied which ate of great inferen to the student of ery historahs of Indo-European Linger ‘What war the structure ofthe amily’ and of society in general?" What ‘were the beliefs of the Indo-European, what di they know? Did they ‘mori gods” What knowledge did they posses of metals, animals, plans? What can aneiere wo these ast question contribute to solving the problem of their homeland and period? Did they already posese ‘cevated poe diction an perhaps so poetic farms3* "There also arise further ingustie questions. Can we discover dialet Aitferenes within Indo-European? What can be exabished sbout the Drocesr of diferentiation which led to he formation ofthe indidual Fanguages? "To diacus all hese quetions would require larger bok than the present one, The Ptrducion i on 0 imied 9 scle tht it x only Dostible either to tuch on all af them superficially orto sneestgnte fore thoroughly just fw problem arse, We have sdopted the later ‘ours in the hope thatthe reader who has gained secure base will ‘exten ha interest 0 further probleme? Se, Kini; Guenter 19-9 Hey SS eae pe ee aaa pe ete a me SSPASiin oe Gomi Regency MoS oa Wate, a sie Gori Met ove Ye Polo 1 Hany a ESSE an er yk ela ‘Cony pede mn a ee i pee (chro 8 gay. Bay are Le Te New Compare Si Sec Sh in ot). as Thy Worf tr Ce The ‘Sell yi: Ldn rec A Soman Geng Da Poet em Sey Sn hy. 25a VV, hans Ia dsm hihi na ali, Mono so Mii log rank Plana icing wl iat ake eh Fig coms Fane ws TE gt Spe te Pte (sate fale lr ty, a Sb Mata Vea by Secong de Usha Spc, sgt ei sa lpn i ro Eat titer ea, me {runs 2 (tian Gall lan at Moy ck ttn Si cent tr yy Co Ne seeeng aaa ae ey St “Tass of Indo-European Linguists as Aches Ee ween ee ern ep wari Stitt aral 209 oi oe. ‘Sint proper sor mate protmgy om he Snlpmental ud enprl aut o ‘oink reiting apps oy A at Sr sa inp er na I ‘run He ea sor sa ey Ret ei of rnp ne rn Bn ge rns Site a ‘pam her, ie Braga seb at ete Bre PETS A i Me Snr in ee Epo ae se Se Soret Simca be “Etichete Gm ys Sr Jn yo i ha we sce cae (SSSR Shinn ho rte raTasks of Indo-Buropean Lines id ch nen Cn ns mt roc: ODay, Pl Prone A Cpt Ream, 4 Phonology: Reconstruction of the System From comparison ofthe individual languages it appears that Indo "European posresed the five busicvowel, both shot and ong In Greek his vowel system remains intact in mot dist. In Attic snd Tone, however, long was raised to, which inter coleseed with Inherited #10 give, but was in Attic changed back to. fermi, and r (Gee Szemertny Rickverwandiang’)"In both dialects sors and Tong 1 were shifted forwards to give a In Latin the longevowel set i faiy well preserved, whereas the abort vowel, excep i nial ay Lables, were subject extensive weakening snd even niin slabs snere often affected by thee phonetic environment. In Aryan thes fem was completly changed by the falling together of the thet lower towels a eon 4, and of the corresponding long women esling in threesvowel ystem? In Germanic » pat coalescence took place: and oll together ina, Band din 8, OHG se; in Gothic there teas farther colescence of « and in i while the long t and ? Femained separate, In Slavic the development was the opposite of Germania and o fll together no, a and ima. In Lithsnian a nd gave ad and 8 gave or uo. In Slvie/ and became te wlre-shart, fGlong and @ becoming andy.§ Phonology: Reconstruction ofthe Stem This shor survey cannot, ofcourse include al the details, but gives a general picture. Further dete sonectning Latin ae given below (12). The developments mentioned are llustated bythe xamples which follow 2-10), Jeb ev’ Grp, Lat ag Sk fm ON ak ‘dive, ave ses etree Gp Late Sarr, Gt es Sdn "eat Gr. dap, Une daca ter facrma), Goth, tay ‘OHG zahar, ‘ » Gs ‘thom gone: Gr x (AR), Lat amor, Sk. haa ‘gos, sva', OHG gan ace Symbol Nila 1585026575 mar (Ah at Sm, ON sich Gio (A, hh, OG ba ie Sk. har, OG tg ow A athe Gr pdr fr, Lat mr, Similar, OF rb, OHG mtr Lith mat woman, wile, OCS mal moter ssh oe Ge erie a La Si bhratar-. Goth, bropar, OHG bruoder, fre ‘ter aa Gt, do Lat fe, Stari, Goth ia “leribetre ana GHG Sr (Grn ten En bah Gtr Lt a Sat ol Go Steorrce, amy, Wn Ge est pa, Sons “te, meh "Sud sy Gen dl a nal, nabhas-, OCS nebo, mebes- ve Phonology: Reentracion of the System » 414.2 (became din German, except Gothic, in Celtic) svegahing’ Lat, SK. 98 hing, Oe. en.) TE Riot Lec sine: Gots menos mankind, work, OHG ‘ao, OCS sing, Ola sed itp, do ake Ge ebm min ded inact, OG spi tall Grn lem, SH prota at fn, Goth kt. dada, susie sok ihe: Gr. Bry Lat. ct, Sl. pt, Gosh, ata, Or. kt TRE Sheep. Ge. Bat oly ate ni Ske gar, Goth airs (pen) epi! ONG ou( tw), Lith ath, OCS ove, port tord, rte, usar Grabs (ordre, Lats pois patio, ‘Skt. pats, Goth brpfobebrideproom’, Lith: (early pet "is band arr oephan, destitute: Gr, dpb, Lat. rd, Arm. orb ‘orphan! ‘Goth or sertane’ (orbyom), OG ai, er, Ole. orb hes inhertane’ 4160 inom Ge. See peice, Lat gc (preelas.), nl, SI “tose. Lat (g)nou), OCS sat ie gee. Saban, drome: Gr, Cana Burs Bape, La th dma, Sk dads dma, OCS dat, dar, Lith ds sha‘: Gee, Lat ir, St a Sythe gud oneelts Gr: Gory wo Gr, Aves, yt i, Lith "fot gre, OCS pore ile sand seit. kno Hom, Ge (Pier, Skt, vm, Goth. in Sitsecd widow at sidua, Ske vuhaed, Goth wide stan, OCS older sind pay’s Gr, put, Skt. midhax(itha) “rie Avest. m= my OCS miada, Goth- miedo, NHG Mies ev Seid whos what Lat que guid, Hut huts bi, Gr ‘dea a. onc:scusSSSSuSSSSSRSSSSSUSSSSSESSSSSUSSSSSUSSSSSESSSSSUSSSSSUSSSSSUSSSSSESSSSSUSSSSSUSTSCSRSSSSCRSSCSCRSSOCORCSOOOE S++ SSS SSSSS aS ° Phonlogy: Reconstruction of the System 48 eos ‘lve Tving: Lat. aoe, Skt, jt, Lith, ghee = ‘F ett strength: Gr, (2, Lat. sproon- at Ge we, Sit ph’: sp drok Gr mi nt Sk ta “Seunk’, OCS ie bee 19a ‘syuaam ‘yoke Gr. tds La. agum, Skt. yg, Goth jk, OCS igo ‘Om then rather Gr dupe, Lat, ruber, Skt, rudhira-, OCS rid ‘media honey’, mend’ Gr. ud, Ske mate “oweet dey honey ‘OCS medi ‘honey’, OF med, OIG met mead ‘emus ‘dnuahterinlw; Ge. rss, Lat manu, Sk sma, OG smu, te Sremerenyi, Syncope 81 sui.@ nts mouse Gr. ui, Lat: ms, Sk. mi, OCS mp, OB OMG may Eb. "brow' Gr. bps (orgs ‘eyebrow, Skt. rt, OF bra, ‘her “ses: Lat. ther, Ske dhar, OF der ONG ar ‘htm smoke Sk. dma, Lat man Lith iman, OCS dy; alo Gr. pss, 4:1, Seb {An additonal vowel sintered from cen mogphologca orrespond. fences auch ‘Skt tht. standing: Gr, ovads, Lat st Skt aint jd sar mid of da give) Ge dooro Skt ptar: Gr veri bat pater ot in which Aryan i stands in contrat to ain the other Indo-European languages (in Grech, also to coo, which often appear in ple of on the analogy of related forms with of w, tg. en” rbyon Bg ‘Bey. Since nether TE 1 nor a, dace above, an aecount he ‘hese correspondences, its uuaiy assumed tha an Indecberepe, ‘murmured vowel (perhaps similar 0 the sound of im Bog, oes ‘sfa) must be posted, This vowel is called schoe (ndogermencony, 4 term bortowed from Hebrew grammar (denier Tor the ‘murmured vowel beeen consonants), and is usually denoted by oe inverted ¢(), Its nature and funesona role i the vowel sytem aoe hole will be weatedin more deal ter (5-4-4), Parle o this schoa indogermanicum prin some scholars posit « Phonology: Recotiacton of the System “ schon indogrmonicum wcundum: wheres the former ia weakening of Tong vowel, the Inter is held to represent the weakening of thor ‘vowels, The factual base ofthis hypothesis, however, inadequate (eee 86.18), In Lata te insted sytem of short vowels eject 0 chan, ‘Sosy ep of he mile vowel and. (pe becom (2 bee a ama nw’, Gr nid: OLa. nr, es hy syecor ‘hisses, Ge ote OL. toe twee Seemereny th se (berm ot bees Rat me hen eter ite? sonar Goth uta Ea sar heer: taer Te eer scene! “ound Sowa: OLA emi cp OF sf ee, dca: Lat sms ps Co tfoe nel 1 prceding eck vel go and con sonant other than cen tele Seanad in en al Appear uals au rom sels Paleo oe Be ees nt tt ry ln, (HE c becomes core awl os e-beam ie erro eve tings Meer, fom TE pene wth ston a Prbextne ute engened by ano eth ge) {i TEs botomes'u before var Atal fn hoo’ Lat sca, before mb: Latte ambition Gt Seat ear lef ‘nl, Ge hase om Pll fn eer by (HO) above SG. Des wo bere acne soot 1506) OLat. wrt erat soser ave Deca we tr erwin, a att ‘nd adogermanich gyn 678 in nonsnaolaber genera elsing of short vowels. aig in she tection of fa oo place CE fa aft ac re om rina campre in honed syle the ang apy 0. The {xem pune hi tendon bees yop Gr et i dar enc Sey Sa Sly aT case of cope {sowing postcmsnana aother vowel develope beeen te con Sonar Ola abo th enn) wan yep ots, whee Slaton hers the sue way ers came ar—————_—— @ Phonalogy: Reconstruction of he Sytem Phonology: Recontracion of the Sytem s 4:2. DipuTHoNes onion fh moe pen von vowel io ioe NURS eid seth wit oy iadtutslio dackig weineorsinesmsia Satelit ie an oe Su pment Upng hr carpnde ht of a pn Tea she Tene ea eae a Paro ape ny Soci a Sem en Sehcd ech Sr har cr sam ay SeSTTein bua tong ad ed ne Se Sond Gretta sept ate When rea es Slngh cma ee She Ticbe hind hein er fase Pode comune ‘Mew examples for each diphthong can illstrate these developments: ssid. ‘bur’: Gr. ida, Lat and shrne, howe’ (orginally “earth, tis ets, Skt. da tnder’, ONG et aera pyres Peston lind Lat eats, Ol. eich ‘one-eyed, Goth hai (i). Ge aus north-eatt wind (he ‘dt one’ diy hasband's brother Gr. aj, Ske dear, Arm. tier, OCS ‘eeert, ONG sehur io Lat Som *dbir under the nucnee ‘tla (aj leu ur) with non-Roman phates owt Lat, had, Goth gas, OHG gets aie “show, a9" Gr. Brg, Lat 8, Goth, gotihan announce, infor, OHG sthanaceure’ [aoa Ls, uy, Skt Bean, Pras. des, Lith devas Seba gee: Greely Lat ft, Ske Lith ti) neigh to snow Gr ifn OLat sa, ONG oman 4753) sid Ago Gr (ea, Std, OC8 2, Gt it, ONG pe: Groby the ane ona ice’, Lat. ama (OLA), Gath simirhes “a's Prue map, Lith sigs, OCS ane, Goh. weiss they Gr: (Don) rt Lat. Sk. th, Goth, ge “to increase’: Lat. aged, Ge. ale afin, Goth, auhon ‘irana), Lith due grow’ stn ey Gata, Skt as (rom 09) Lith, sas, OCS sei, ‘OLG vren wo dy up ser ear, baton ania, Goth. aus, Lith. ait these and ‘Goat see Seemercny SMEA 3 1967) 471 (SM 1273 sau to den (nner): Gr abu dear Lat, hour, ON asa sas.on sdevh "dam, hea Lat, dd (Oba dow) G fm oti swt te Gr peau, Gosh io Seta burn Gry Lat, Sk dpm - siete lah shines Geshe Goth Suh ight, Sk. at ‘hin 1h, tvhan, OHG aio 42600 sroudhos ee: Lat. rig an (Gislecl) eu,’ Goth, roads, ORG ate Lith ronda, rudeness storia, cesta’ Lt leu (OLat.leacom), Sk. [ka space. ‘tera Lith, levkas “Belt, ONG fk “overgrown clearing, cf Wateria Phonology: Recontrcton ofthe Sytem nis “butoch’: Lat, elms, Lith. flan “thigh, hip’, Skt. Sn, ‘ON Alou ‘toukso- shining: Lat. tna (Praenstne lon), OPrus aus (p,) ‘group of stars, constellation’ Ast, ranina- seaming” Indo-Buropean had alto long diptthongs such a a These, how: ever, are found almost exchvely in cate endings, and wil sceords ingly be discussed under morphology: se alo 6 614 4.3. seativowers ‘The semivowels y and w can esl be reconstructed onthe basis of the joveroelming evidence af the Indo-European language, the ce ‘oft, however, the orgie! bilabial articulation (es tn Eng. 0) wa rey replaced the erin taiton of many languages by the labiodenal (asin Eng. e, rms). The old pronuneiion wes retained in classical Latin and Old lranians aloo in English, where has survived tothe present day. In Old Toc, howe, the labios ental aiculation wat already noted by the earliest grammariana 43a The semivowel y was lost in Greek. In intl position it became the tspirateh oF {in intervocalic potion it dssppeaed altogether fonsonant groups i ed to a verety of developments: eo Pope, !9> 0 ort ec In Latin» was mostly preserved, but kt daeppesrod imervoealic postion and afters consonant generaly boca the sol fs In Germanic it was Lep, except tht in Old Nore sit 9'was oo, ‘alo i Old Iran? Eaample: peker ver: Ske yakyt, Lat. ear, Gr. fap, Lith eb {pucon yole’ Skt. yuan, Lt tuum, Gr. fyi Goth uk, ON ok reer ‘hee (Sh rayan Lat ris (Grom eres), bene (Ge ri with 29), Goth res brs contacted Irom brit ef. "aber ‘other: Gr. Mae (with asain fly to, Lat ales (iy abi), Goth ali ‘machyos ‘Gn the) middle: Skt. mad Tat: medias ersnliabi), Gath midi, Gr. pétoor rom ty), Phonlagy: Recomtrton ofthe Sytem 4s age ah ay ee ee hin er ER in Soap “The semivowe wis unknown in At-Tonic frm the eal records louie period and in Mycenaean al preserved generals In Old Irah thas become fin initial postion, in Welsh, Examples ton ios man Se. wna her', Lat ir, Lith ran, Goth secidaT know Sie. 2260, Gr (tin, Got, weit, OS v8 st sheep Ske. avi, Gr, La ot, newos nen’: Gr nie, Lat. mous, Skt. nova, OCS noc, Goth doh NASALS AND LiguiDs "These sounds ae among the most stable elements of Indo-European, In all the languages they ate preserved in general unchanged The onl signicant exception i Arjen in which and often coalesce: n (Od Iranian bearer throughout, while in OM Ind daece mitre hss confused the origin! stun to nich an extent that I and can tach represent IE or r+ The nal denoted byw can of course, diet Dhoneially according to the following consonant in née dental {nk velar But thie difference te not phone: the vant weal ‘hones of the phoneme n. On the other hand, m isnot determined by {he phonemic envionment; comes nal poitns and isan indepen ‘dnt phoneme. Iti further to be noted that in Old Indie macs becomes a cerebral (9) In Greek ar in Hite and Armenian, prothetc vowel appears before inal 1: see below S473, and for Hise, Pacer, KZ 86 (2973) 267-86 ‘Accordingly the phonemes mr must be posted for Indo-European, ‘mane Gr arg, Lat miter, Sit mtr Seo to vomit Grady Lat som Sit mit ome!” Phonology: Racmtruton ofthe System ‘wok ‘night: Gr. wf (gen, wr), Lat ns, SH, mk (ae na-om), Lith maki, Goth, makin Bie nats eveing seme Gr, Soe Tas years, Lat snes, Sk. sna‘ Thamar, Goth inns former, saat ‘leuk “shine, give lig: Gr. Mende “white Lat fs Hcte, Goth Taha igh, Skt at shines but lo lak "worl Mle to love’: Lats bet Wet, Skt abe eo deste’, Goth, ‘dear’, OCS Habs “plus. *pelu- "much, mans’: Gr. vain, Goth fils, OG fila, Ole i Skt pur and pul, OPers pare (sce4-4 nd § 3.50) saan sre, td 08 get, “een raj (oce 428), Lith roudan, OCS OWG vr, Ske. ebit/a. but ale oir ‘ahcer. sur "Soor Gr. Bip, Lat forts, Goth, dawr, OG tr, ih days, Ske deren, ther carey Gr $épe, Lat fer, Goth. barn, Skt, Bhar ped Lit aber, be, adi, dr, Goth andes 4:5. SYLLAMIC SASALS AND LIQUIDS Up to this pone we have reconstracted for Indo-European only such sounds av are actually atested, if notin la lent some Indo European languages. A more careful comparison, however of eta forme inthe naval languages compels ut to-port sounds which are nowhere preserved ar rich, Osthll was the ft in 1896 put forward the den that, asthe relationship ofthe Skt dat. ire tothe father tothe lo. suggest, the sume sound could faneson one time ara consonant, at another (between cononants) ttt ‘vowel; further, that thi lab or sonant 7 war setained only in ‘Aryan, and thot there was tn obvious correspondence between tad the sequence pa in Gr. narpda Inthe tame year Brugmana was let ‘sume the extence of slic nasal ym) and of wile lguide tenealy(] a5 well ax 7. Since that time thee sounds hove become frm esablished as consutuens ofthe Indo-European phonological system. They are alto well Known fron many modeen guages, including English in which the final slabs of Button tom, ble contain 7 {In Slavic languages, eg. Ceech and Serbian, nich sounds are'recogized in spelingy they ave written without a vowel, 5: Caeth prt finger lk wa Phonology: Recntrcton ofthe System ” asa we contider the word for 10 inthe Indo-E cent, Gr. dare, Goth hud, Skt, ft, Lith ft, we se tha, leaving out of acount the Greek dy they al begin with 2 Sound derived from an Indo-European palatal (sce 47.4) fllowed ster an interval by the voiceless dental Gothic d tose fren this by Verner Lave C4), thr atesting the originality of the accent prsition inthe Greck'and Old Indic fre: Between teat two sop, owever, appear sounds or sound groups which differ om one language to another, and which cannot correspond {9 any vowel Si ued 50 far, nor to any group of vowel nazal. We ean, therefore ‘each ony the preliminary conclusion thatthe forms cited display the {lowing correspondence: Lat. en = Gr. a= Goth. an = Skt = Lith, im "These correspondences ate by no means isolated They are not confined to thin word, But occur quite regulary in large number of ‘words, ein the forms for en Lat decom, Gr. no, Goth, tain, Skt, df, Lith, dein, "The way to a solution of the problem posed by such correspond: ences is indiated by inter ala, certain Grech verb forms. The medio= passive present and imperfect ged pl end ueully in -rvar and rn reapecivel ch the forms radevrre Eos fromm wae it Cintas to tha, the so-aled stematc verbs have forms like Homeric (eaves wars from ua "Tle ‘Thus in such eases the athematie fara -are correspond to the thematic “rat vrs. A few years before Brugmann’s dsenvery Sautot, who way sls schoolboy athe tie, drew the conclusion that seas seve must have arisen from rar, which meaat that in cetin Greumatance m could appear ooo: The ondtion for this sound change is simply that w stood. between to consonants (ey-t-ta could ot therefore, be articulated a 4 cone Sonant, but required asllabie pronunciation In genera can Be ad that sylabie asl, whether yor a they are naw writen, became InGreck Similary the verbal adjective of wu “stretch with oot vs a the form rere besnse from dhe rot fon with leer f the root rome Init, Pep, wns formed, That the verbal adjective hes ovina2 Phonology: Recomtaction ofthe System formed ith ou ofthe 100 vowel clear om the ar fos tre ons “The ume deelopc sao found in Anan, The verbal ave of Sk tml ths ot ton tata whch ook Oa from TE *rytés: 7 By notin the correspondences ene e=u-omin st ou shoe, he devlopmens of Ey ty canbe aed se oes forms Awan Gr Lat Gme. Lith, Slr. Olt ein een) omen mmm tm Sm) mem ‘The examples discussed (100, 10) thus go back to TE hyn, ‘deh. Farber examples on ‘mais ‘thought: Sk mati, Lat. dns (gen. ment), Goth go-mande (and) memory’ Lith mints nash, OCS pom meron ‘ymehr "young, young animal Ske ycta- “young? Lame, ange, contacted fom yang), W. nan, Ol sc eg nth =) ‘e-mos ‘having come’ Skt. gates, Gr. ores, Lat ena, Lith simtas innate, native natal (ee 49.53); stip sven" Skt sepa, Gr. ors Lak. epton. ‘Nat. In Old Church Slavie fal -p -m became i cf. kamen! (ce) ore’ from em seh ts REE Nec Eee wrk “acre fc ny been made by uo crewing bed ne a ae ‘The sylabic liquide can be extablshed inthe same way. Thee one ‘inuations area follows Olnd Gr Lat, Gme, Lith, Sky. Ot Fp felah eat at itl ttt Bea OO Phonology: Reconstruction ofthe Sytem ~ [Nate In Old Church Slav the spellings» ri i appear for these tounds; ae P, Dies, dthrcholavske Grommath 1932 61). hyd (beside ther) ‘hear’: Gr. magia, Lat cor, Olt. ere fromm “ipdyam, Lith Hrdin, OCS ace (om ind), ren "hed Goth hate, O8 herta = OF hore, ONG hers aie ares Ske. dye he dares, Gr. Gpaois “bold, Goth, go dearion dar sigh "Se Sh, dh ok’, Gr. Spa ‘eteh sight oF OF. drech “ace” (from *dnki), Gmc. Sarita. in OE ‘ark, OMG sora ‘ah ‘eleos "Wel? Sk. ephan, Lith, elas, OCS elke, Goth. elf (oe 475.0) split has wide: Ske pros, Gr. wards, Gaul. Litana sia), Ol. ethan aie sof: Ske mpd, Gr. Hch) Babee dSroro (Bla From tn), Lat mls from smal a ss in Si ee Maa, (Gh. ON. Ca. Fa ee ee iG ence ta Be Va at etn St en. Se 2 Corresponding to these short syllabic nasal and igus, a number of ‘lear comparisons sce to atest the existence of lng syllabic liquids Sind naan, ‘Thue the Olnd. verbal adjective jae ‘born’, fom the verb root Jan(s),coresponds to Lat. (gnats, Gaul Cit gta ‘est-bors ‘md Gath fund Te follows than these instances -nd-nd-un corr ond to one another, and have their common origin in rlabic na Ithich cannot however, be identeal withthe shor syle meal We fan therefore infer aac of long s)llabie nasal and guid, which ae ‘presented as follows inthe india languages Olnd Gr. Lit. Cet, Gmc, Lith, Slav 6 ee me ee ioe & @ &@ wo oa @ In the Olnd. forms of the liquids, the vowel i if preceded by « labial 'oF former abivelars im Iranian, ar appears throughout. In Bali and Slavic, some tances of u instead of occu, atm the cise of the short sonata In Germanic, Bal, and Slvi, the continu ‘Sons ofthe long sslabic sounds ae ential with those ofthe shor,7 Phonology: Reconstruction of he System Phonology Reconstruction ofthe Sytem RRS cane on “i Bt ocegen area sfrom eround (ad), ri: Lat. grmm, Ole. grin Samy then aurea’, OCS sie goss, Ske fas ‘sound Sin Peres er few Ss. paras, OCS pris, Lith. poman Goth frame, OF Jorma eas Boe Goth. haure “alegPlm (ftehan O: tm, OMG fans, Gr. mdign, Lan rnd fe un Ls ARTO, foro, cue’ Sk. ire ores fo, ere DeLee shoo. branch’ Groban ny ete Lasgo ‘ “cnet fen A Por Seo yi Cad Re pte, 2 osiEetonean a privtiveportii i aeted in mam {8 Ser eda, Ge ves ‘nds (Singin which tape 8 then generale), Goth, ‘meré nites, un Sch Brvaives can also be ated on words with ntl vel the parle {hen takes a diferent orm in some languages eg Gr seer a lea = Sit onudra~. Thus i i customary to speak of ole we lide in prevocalic postion (denoted by im oF RY ee eae in fact involves «contradiction, at thee sounds ee Coe ai aly Betwcen consonants it sa question here athe apreenncy Llsoned by the phonetic environment, of saptyche coe ties {arlous ways became sable elements af the phonslogen rene 6.18) Since the denotation moms misleading ing he ares ft sllabic followed by consonantal me shall ee 9 the prevocalie postion alo. In moat languages tht sarees the sume asin the other positions, but divergent deccloge EEE), Ge a op oh Old an am rand aes ob ae Iabiovelar) wr, ian’ am ama, Sav itn ea "tm hin’: Sk ome, Gr ars ‘ong', Olt. tenae ONG dunn, OCS “em someon) Skt sama, Ian ham "any Gr. ie, op ‘Goth. some, Eg. some “ete Meay' Sk. gure, Gr. fap, Goth hours (rom Shura; on La eros ee Scemerty 996 43h (eM abe “ol; muuch, many’: Sk. pune, OPers, pare see 4.3; Stemerée, KZ.8, 1954, 731 = SM gio go), 4:6. spinanrs. no-European only one sptant can be established with cetiny Trleclet -Volced also occurs, but only as an allophone ofr is In generals preserved in Old Indic, Lithuanian, and Old Church Slevin Greek it is hept before and tte stoped ahs eae ther postions it becomes an aeprate (i), which Ie Kena vowels and in numberof so-called plc dinecan cnt etme” inital postion alo. In Iranian almoat the same esegont: founds Phonlogy: Reconstruction of he System ee‘ St vat puto Lat. wt ws, Gr. up ai. Geop‘outet garment Ht we put on, Goth at aren peters cua bam’ Gr. (rom Sak wih ancpaton of the tite, Tar. ours, Sh so st ab fhe ro, contacted A. Late ut ‘Ske asa fe. Sart Sa lth Kt in Ga IE a ie Sects era ‘The eastern development i sen, for example, nthe locative plural, of which the ending wus Ske fede nthe mate, Dut aga the fies simu “in the sone, eth ‘in the ward pies the father’; OCS isin thre’ yminalin the sons Als ine fallow fe "ery": Gr. sipnpas "Become dey’, Lat. ttt (fom *rosie), Goth. gocbaran ity up’, bounties’, OF puri, OHG dust, Skt tay ‘thias, Avert. torna "thie Lath te ser Tigh place Lat, weraca locus Editi et asper (Cat), ware’, Skt. varmans “height, peak, Lith. enfs ‘summit, OCS oid ‘sammie eight." sa ‘The vacant 2s well exemplified in the flowing ‘mizdhon ‘reward, pay": Goth. mid, OCS mind; alo Gr. us, ‘Aves. mifdas(ie->-i8- a it-> i), Skt dhs ‘ekdes "branch Gr Stor, Aeok.Soer, Goth at Ari, ot ‘winds ‘new’: Lit. nus, OG net Skt. idan (fom wisdo-> smifdad), "Atm. misty probably alo Lith lisdor with analogy ‘odie initial consonant. 463 Further spirans have been sumed for Indo-European onthe basin ‘oft fem comparisons in which» Greek dental corresponds oan Argan 4 Tein clea, for instance, that Skt pga "ber’coresponds to Gr Phonology: Reconstruction of the System 8 Spo (o cognate ae Lat rus and Olt), de Sk. tka “Sapte to Gr serena hehe ao TE ental or TEs appa 0 ‘Spline sitio hus be conan pectic since Brogan {© penton internal pian bth int, ogeter mith wed Serterpure (hn than even pirated bah, Fron te socal point of row this satmption can hardly be Juste, "The scary steed IE piss s ba no vos courier ‘nes alophone) snc woud be sang tn inerdenal sre rere more fly developed” An itrderal series woul, moreover ive very ardour dstihuton, scaring ely hr ttre Te tmor probable therfore, that such cats we net dont with Ihaopenent phonemes, but wth pee Sevcopments ng ttn found groupe Tis imprest gts hether sapere the ise thain ene where he mater fo Copan i arene ‘Se ssrumption of inerdenay contacted bythe evens “nt cution Gr By yap = Sk hom ary etn se light by the dnsovery of Hit tchan, gota Toc sho "Te string pont wat orn *dheghom, with variants "Depo “lighon/sdhgiom: a termined by the isin. From *dghon trove the Hite frm, whe om “dha by tvesion fe na nsonant group care Gr. yPoi ltr yd Lat. oman, OCS Sembj, G.Sona re tbe explained as due split of igh tor Sie yew spec devlpment ofthe te acl na oun. “The sauttion proc = py ko appears in new ight now tha Hit having probly Lelong othe group of word ths ese the sartingepsint mun be fom */Hpte- which appears to le Shing ehehamay Hite peling in Greet gave Spee By ‘tse in Ine underwent spel reopen wh ase oe cope es othe ire Tea Rope AS Wg Se inlet i ny ae Se ap en te Sai i en a 464 ‘The atemps to ascribe to Indo-European an africate¢(=t) can be considered failure"o Phonology: Recomtructon of the Sytem 4:7 sToPs ‘A cursory comparizon of the phonological systems of the individual languages shows that they have inerited from Indo-European a least labial dental, and guttural stops. Tecan just a ely be establahed ‘tha, in addition tothe apposition voiced voiceless atleast one other tmode of articulation war tn ise 1 each ofthe svtislatory postions ‘mentioned above. Greek has «system of three serie: voiced voice Tesecoicles supra, eg Bw To this corresponds in O10 Indic rail the aprem viced-vokeote-voiced spate, eg 8p Bh, These {hee serie are alto represented in any ofthe other languages, even {tnor inthe same way. In Germanic, for example, pare found ‘corresponding to Old Todie 8p bh, += to Olnd. bh corresponds Gre bra voiced sound, nota voiceless in Greek In other languages, es Uithuanin and Slavic, the correspondences to Olnd. Band Bh a together nb 0 that n them too 4 voiced sound cortesponds to Ol, bh For the reconstruction ofthe third mode of articulton, therefore, ‘wo indicators are avalale: (a) Greek and Old Inde agree in pointing to aspiration asa ain characteris; (0) hey der in rexpec of woe ing, nd the evidence of O1 Indic in favour ofa voiced aclation sported by the majority of the other languages ‘Prom this she wadonal conlason ean provisionally be drs that (Old Indic has most faithfully preserved. the original situation, ‘Accordingly we must se up forthe TE rubaytemn of ots the follow fe & bag ho ek ‘The question whether such system of thie series is possible and scceptable on general ground wil ocupy us ater (7.0 Furthermore, it must be noted that Olé Indic poneaes closed fourcrerin sytem not only p b Oh but a symmesial set ph © Dh, [And so the question arises whether this doesnot mae fatal refit ‘he orginal state of afr than the thre sree sytem of oer lan suages, and whether corespondences tothe Old Indic fourth series tre not tobe found eaewhere Tere ae infact numb of examples ‘which seem t0 poi to fourth series alo in Greek and other lane sunges, and formerly the existence of such a series in Indo-European Sta taken for granted. More ecen research has abandoned this point Ut view onthe grounds thatthe fourth ares only weal aeted, for the most par Aryan, 20 that tis notunsetsonale to svar that i was a novation. This question too must be teed in more detail ater (48. 6.7.14). For the sme being we may accept the Phonology: Recontraction of the Systm ss ‘honeme types represented by p8 has the thee main epee for Indo European. Their existence, apart from inital, proved by large numberof correspondence Tn the cae ofthe voiced aspirates we may ask whether they were rmonophonematic (se. single phonemes) or diphonematic (combina: tions of ro phonemes) ‘The question cn be decided only onthe basis ‘ofthis dats, In Indo-European there were sequences uth a “pret *pag-tdrom and also *Bhrter-Sdieughe ee be segues of Yoiceles/oiced stop liquid and voiced apiatesiguid, but not Sequences of tree consonants, op tapirant guid (ot pe) “Tas implies tha in dstelbutinal term Bh and dir cam count ony a a sequence of two phonemes, not thee 0 that Bk and dare mono: ‘honeratice "The development ofthe series of stops inthe individ languages may now be taced in descending line from Indo-European. The ‘rgial clases are preserved only sn Old Indic. In Greek the voiced Spires, the so-clled mediae aipiretae (MA), became. voices: ‘pirate, the sowalled true pirate (TA), thus th> ph (3) ee? "The Germanic development i evolutionary and compen, but can be summariad very simply by the law of the sound sb (23 bof tk asatesed Became became? gbecame k a tee 1 should be noted that in the erly historic period Ge. sil ‘had pronunciations simular tothe correrponding Spanish phonemes in itervcaie postion they were voiced epirans inital and after ‘nuns and they were voiced stops, Subsequently the voiced variants ising by Verner’s Lv (241) fell together with her Old High German dif ftom the general Germanic situation as the reiult of the second or OHG sound sift By thi shife the Germanic voiceless stops, when double or after consonants and i tially, became nfscater (p>pf ¢>s=t8 and in the routhern dlcts bo hy), while berween vowels and when final after vowel they ‘became long spires (Q>ff, >= K>Af). Gime and d ave dand t respectively Tm Latin the development of the thd series is complicated, and pastes through many intermediate sage hich ae sil n part contro= Nervi) But the foal result cetr® In nial poston the vored Ssprates become voiceless spirants: Bh->fo, dhe>fo. gh->he I internal postion sey gave voiced stop without spiration) Shs sdhobode om cert conditions -b,-ph->-p, but between vowels, ‘epartng from the general trend, ch In Teanan, Lithuanian, Slav,6 Phonology: Recomtracton ofthe System and Celtic the voiced aspirates fll together with the unaspirated Seized stops. In Armenian sound shift very similar to that of Germanic tok place Tei interesting that pit lost in Celtic but in [Armenian becomes, which dnappeas before or the development ofthe voiced aspirate in Greek and Old Inc, Grassrann’s Law of Distmiaton (24) must also be taken int count ina sequence containing two apiaed sounds, the Bt lovee {te aspiration, From IE sbheudh comes Olnd. "beud, then Bah, i Gree, fist spheuh-, whence ved Peter ne es pon iin of Be. i, bh Oh tpn Bs Raped ur tas ETS, Mh ho bon meri gion on Bens oe hema A TA eB mer ia see SES TaTat tired an tote ene a Peo ite hegre soe pone oo em ih tps Brey et ie CLS py nn re cee he eeenma nee EASo Sue cee aes See aa re Romer toate ema nee eat Fa cede —$———_—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—_— Phonology: Reconstruction ofthe Systm 2 478 Labia sou SE tots rms nbs Lat. le i, Sk. pad Gh "sh het oot Lt pee, Gr, oderops (ith neron af hy, Ave pars ONG apn oy site Near Eee, Se tpt ar, cates hin OCS oi ac supe ovr abe Skt. wp, Gr inde, Lat ser, oth. er ‘Bie tr Ca arab {ce 67.4.8 and Cowgill and Maythoer 16/2, 996) belo “srengt Ske. balom, Gr. BOcreor “atonger, beter’, OCS ‘ml igger’, Lat bbl “remgtless, weak” see Burrow, Fr Hloevinoal, 6, pitas “drinks: Ske. ibs, Let, bit (by assiation), Or sid hea ‘dep, holon’ Gath dips, Lith. dubs, OCS dir ‘gorge, tevin, Gel, Dubna Working’ Or, dom sl, Wd Shortt Comill tnd Maythofer, opr cit 100 (dubs on Celt rember). gas Shear, cre’ Sk. hare, Gr uy Lat. fer, Goth. bran: “Shendh bind Goth, bndan, Sk, bandh, bandh relation Lat of fends chinsteap 09a priest's ap Gt. ny rope, cable’ (om nti taterinla relation by marrage’; seibos "ites Gr (Hach) diets ews, Lat alas, OF ta qb “ot, row of et’: Gr. plone, yoni ‘mol ‘St. Jambhas uth’ fambhyar “molar, OCS ahi woth’, OG. amb OF cum comb’ (oot, Toch. A am, B heme oth se Narn, KZ 79 (1900) 3556 472, Dente Sper thre’ Skt trayas, Gr pt Lat tae 4.2.15 ‘tou ‘race, peopl Oth. aula ‘people’, Ose: tuto ‘sate city’ ‘Gir tat ‘peopl, land, Goth inde, OG ait (whence da today death, Hite tai ‘army' se Szemerény! 1978, 10-8; ste emble, fear Skt taste, Grp (Blom. at. pfoaa) fear, "Be Lan tere Mir. tarach timid Lith, rau T teemble EEE* Phonology: Reconstruction of the Sytem ‘peter, Ay, al: Lat et Gintama iam wr appetba), Gr. rower ‘Ry’. sire all’, Ske pat es, basen, al, patra ester, wing’ (Lat: powa fom etna), OF fber, ONG fara eather, plumage (petra, Mis eth “bed (etn pasa ‘dames nous’: Gr Auer, Lat domas, Sk, daa sed ea Lat Gaps st), Burs (Hom, or (Doe), Skt sade‘ La. sede, Ge. oun (ede), dpa ‘sea’, Skt. anda “at down’, Goth stan, ON at, ONG sac red. "io shout, howl: Lat. ud, Skt. radati ‘wails, weeps, Lith raudti lament OF rota, OHG rican lament, weep grag. [As already indicated, dh becomes Lat. in internal positon, but 8 ster uwand rand before rand. amos ‘smoke’: Sk. dna, Lat fms (66 43.19) ‘mediyos "middle Ske madhyas, Lat. madi (te 4.) sidhewt ‘widow Si eadhord, Lat ids (te 17), ‘dhe "udder Ske. edhar, Lat bor, OF ade, OIG tea ‘terion, “eho word Gath urd, OHG wort, at er ‘hardhd eard Let. arda, OCS trade, OG bart, Lat berba (Grom "fart by seston) radi eG. eae, Lae aber ‘sta tall Lt abla (with aaptyxs of 0 bu). 474. Gutter Shrde ‘nea’: Gr, napa, Hom. ip, Lat cor (gen. cond Go ain, Ot. ride Lith fd, OCS rade, {Porkor young ig’ Lat. port, Mir oe, OH fara, Lith. paras ‘ehwor ‘hore: Lat. aut, Goth. adhea-tndi “bramble lt. orses tooth), OS. chsh ‘groom Ske afta thas oile Gry Lat eon Skt pane 269 deve’: Gr, Sy, Lat ap, Sk. im Phonology: Reconstruction f the System so agri Gr yp, Lat age, Gath, abe, Skt fa ‘pen, got ence” Gry, eat gem, Hite pom, Si, peu to ste Gr. yep, Lat. ut, Goth, hse ty, test, Skt “tikes, enjoys Se annem yimer, now: Ge yr Lats, mas io ero winters, rom schon tne, OCS sia wn, Skt man oe) in ne andre years senha ‘row Lato porno ert) Cth apr Cara) ONG ont ng OCS gees Skt oars sdk to mou rom mad’ eae wal (ied fom thin, Langit, se, OOD. prion ken, eon trom da di Sout OH tig, Arm dizer up'-Aves Peredasas ‘cack (6. Gr. rpdBor gues pee, at ‘ord fom tania, whence Eng parade), Skt mise” Soil da sepia Gna conveyance), convey’ Gr. rage (Pap) et Wim wring evar “args, chariot Lat wis Gown. gegen ‘Nive tak, GHG meg noe Gane) OCS wee Same re cna wave Skt aha 4474, Centum and satem; palatal, velar, labiovelars Tm the examples given above, a gurtural inthe western ana regularly coresponds wo opzan (peo 4) inthe ever language. "This applies to the rarity of cases in which western TE languages present or like Germanic formerly presented a guttural. On the basis ltthis criterion wenter’ group, consiting of Greck' Latin with the Tale dates, Venei, Cafe, Germanic, and now alo Hittite and Tacharan although not appening in the West, wan setup in concrat toan taser’ group” Balu, Slavi, Albanian, Armenin, and Arya these two groupe were named respectively cent apd sat languages, fom the form taken by the word for"handred in Latin and Aveta, “Euan Mr’, rasbo Phonology: Recomruction of the Sytem type of correspondence, however, thete ae alto cavern ‘which «guttural oecurs both inthe western and inthe eastern grou, Examples ‘threw bloody, raw; Res’: Gr. apfbae “eh, Lat cro erent Ml, eng “blood. OF hrtan, OHG (hjrowtr (jr “raw Irawjas "blood, OCS hry, SKU hrais-hrar ama Res *taher(t) "0 cue Gr. mip Lat card (orig “cat, portion’), ONG. “herom—Lithsirid "Side, Ren “ut, ew, Skt htt Barat teuker ‘groves Lat Hew—Sht. Oke ‘open space, world Lith lakes G26) ‘tyuzom "yoke Lat iugum —OCS iy, Sk. yam 419) Sup "erow, increases Lat eugetLith dug (2; "tego cover: Gr. evi, Lat tegh—SK. shape ya)t “covers, veil, OCS ontop gurmen ‘egh'g0' Gr. eredyn, Goth, segen Ske sight “eps, OCS stem ‘come’ “mighia "mint Ge, tom igh ‘raph la, fot: Gr. Sut (ge, dyer, Lat angus, OG magel— ith apes" nag "hoo! OCS nope", magni ie’, Jah Lith mils, OCS mil; sso Sk mh Since the first ype of correspondence (3.741) cannot be explained as the result of development within int {o the assumption that both typer have Buropean period. To judge frm historic! parley such at Tal ento, Fe nt fom Lat cent (hentm), he spirantsinclved the ist typeof corespondence (pen) sone eon carer guttural, hich, however, in he ial phase of Indo-European cannot have bee ‘enical with the guttarsls which featured. in the. second te (6:74), since these were Hep a ach in he sate language lg. Te 1 therefore inferred that there were tuo ind of gta in Todos European, a front series and back serie "The former were pro= nounced with closure of the tongue agunst the middle of the root af the mouth (palatio, hard palate) the ater with closure of the tongue against the back of the roof the mouth (elu, sft palate). The two ‘ies are therefore distinguished ax palatal and vlan, and ie the Palatal which are inwalved in the firs typeof corsespondence: Where Tess tmporant to mark the distinction, thsi Indicated by the we of (24: Kand.g or kand kor ¥'and hy for palatal and velar respec Usually, However, at im the preceding part ofthis chapter, the t= Phonology: Reomstrcion ofthe System 6 ference can be disregarded inthe individual languages either it does ‘ot ens arin the centum languages oF else, a nthe ater language, ‘Risexprensed by sharply distinc sound type, fand hee 12pm avr ed ut! ra tte om os ee a ee SES el Sneath me Se Soa ae a pc EE ah Tet eee "Ti sey caine nae te nerogntive ad indie: suf Sehr rte Ur ns Peat ata nance Ss pa fda tee tg an Sra Mh Met ane iw eee cape Sap a Tid. oer ers Tey tenmellysdoulcy Seppo a ‘ey Ofte ee SE coe ere SUSU ehaatieen cg Fee fa Kehoe non eae Gar dtc Seale py Tilting een oe ay ata rity Shh ot eed eo Srp Nit een nb toorn cn kd ee i oe FRundng sl deeted by then ahd weiten food ie soe at et etm ee Sotiris oignan Mpg of eerste bl fond, hed in Vo ES the tae tn Alas n Laman: te Maem, Stas Moy mice Cot sek apo ts er fet eh ete Pr ee See ox women ee—$ $$$ ——— ———— 6a Phanalogy: Recotracton ofthe Sytem Phonology: Reconstruction f the System 6 spas oresntson of he biovlrn he ee langage ty Tinpt they fecal Ire te abl Clee ad eas a weer Sit de pn wear’ Crain wodibatons willbe dud 7 Tarim cemum langage the developmen re ane complicnel’ Tn Grvks av shendy dared the eelpmeneSoende on the shone envonmens ible pest bore and crmona de Si toe ana lain ners ey) efor and aero adh even becsne dna ony before ging ian toe ian fhe (an ute an connate she Sil samen iret end ony (ten) nenaon cpr, ‘ng nics expt te dit tno ed tga. Ts {Sra puioon btre a vue! = and rh crew end epee {Ry mermly bch bree betwee vols nd ge Geren 0) ‘tern eis nde eg marrage othe ie SNL (Oc, Un, ce) F Suna o t band intetre coon the hb lent won as In Garman te Ubinas ere ced oy the sound sis et om TE eek ‘Gow hy hey an peu woke expedite hn ine She Ao an heel epi Got, bin he other Germanic itngages hein itera porto lows the nal cent (Goth ate ston OFC hn nc) Phocontnsion of Teh comphesed Spon en ceri tat Gm pas hep oer nn one eee {ico burs ther a wel athe ae abl, oheree er Seow to bave come inital ponon ecg orem and Wer ‘Stora The Erte Sevelopment no dpe ane the itive in geen ESE care te net cies aT Lr at a sedis Mina Sac ah SSR ile SPT ha, pote 6 te wr Si $748 ‘The developments of the IE palatal in dhe satem languages, some of| which were illustrated in 4.7.3, ar as follows TE Oled. Avest, Sl. Lith, Arm wore Gg wor ee een TE Olnd, Avest. Sly Lith Arm a ne ee oye Get) [Note, Ong his simpli fom earlier 4747 Wchese languages the velar and Inbiovelar gave plain guttural, in (tnd. gh elsewhere hg gs in Armenian they were further changed bye ‘sound shit 1 WA. Tn Aryan and Slavic, however, af well ab co 2 lester extent in [Armenia these sounds underwent further changes which can be ‘immed up a palatalzation "These cnges ave also aie fom he Remunce lanaages in their development from Latin. Justa inthe treme Romance language the afeiats £) (Eng. ch) ame from andy before te front vowels ¢ nd the seve y 80 the gutuals which sesulted from the falling together of velars and Iabiovelrs in the ster languages became afrites of the pe & ng. eh) oF (=) In Aryan A g gk were palatalined wo £ jh before ¢ (which ater ‘etary ian. In Traian the sapirtin was lst, s that only € PSone tn Old jh Geveloped farther toh, so that €F are found ‘Thun in Olnd. the platalized earl fl together with the Gthich continue the IE paltals, Fer example hee ‘and’ Lat qu, Gr. re—Skt, Aves. Seen “woman!s Ge. ork, Goth. gino (q=kx), OHG queno—Sk ethos “Serie, kil: Gr, bu ‘stk’, zor "murder, Hit, be srk, kll—Ske, ham "atikes, Aves. on In Slave the development wat at fest the same, bat Iter wat simplified to # an + im arwre) since voiced aspirates and non ‘Epbater fell together ony the put €# are found. Por example: ‘eid ‘what: Lat. quid, Hi, hid, Gr OCS Zt Sen wort! OHG quenaOPes. goa, OCS Sena, Phen “trie Hit, sen—Lith, gent rive’, OCS ema In Slvie, however, «second palaslization ook pce." Following the menopithongztin ofthe diphthongs a ot @ Sometimes) pectin kp ceme agin before font vowel and became e (=H) and {Er Gate) by palatlzntion. Fr example ‘hut ‘whole, undamaged: Gr (Hach) she +b wae, Goth hail ‘OPras-haiastshen hele, OCS a "whole, complet pile, ‘olen, bigheprted: Goth. galion ‘coir’, ONG esi! ‘eanton, euberant-OLsth, gay highsprted’- OCS dsPhonology: Reconeructon of the System Phonlogy: Recntraton ofthe Sytem 6s mn Armenian palitalzaton took place only in the case of the IE eels tops and voiced aspitstes (Zork fou Gr. rrvapey rm ‘earm' Gr, ep) noe the voiced stope (hin "woman TE "peer, eames Tog) SELES Pace Pn of Pa eRe Chey of 4748 ‘Theldevelopmeat ofthe lbiovelars canbe summarized as follows: TE Gr La Ge Ole. OW wre gue he rr’ ©, 88) we ke be 8 Ph 60x Fe bane gg TE Olnd. Avert. OCS) Lith, Arm ed me eee ere ee ara © as ah nhs gk Ph hh Rik BRS 8 Bd 47s “These developments ae illustrated by the following example wasn Tice wo, wha’ Gren who, whee’ Lat. ud, Hie Init, Get, c(s)~Su. ha fa (eae o's pile en, C$ tsa Lith sah ‘es ‘aon Gt“ oun “Pani mvenge SH. aya engenders ence ‘cia penalty Ge. se an a oun word Ln pen) Aves Aad ‘unshment Lith hana pce OCS sta pce vehes ‘hier els ‘hel et cans Ge siden, ON hel, OF ‘etc (Gor har cee *hecols) “abe —Sht tain, (Prin lan OCS ‘etios el? Gr ior om tele), Lat, lupus (alec), Goth tuft om touts oth ramen change ON yer toma ott from emdpe TE “elie sce Mayshoe pa (ams 8:8, Sieh OCS hs sha spel ‘ives Ge lon Lat gui rom png ater gusto Gosh Fmt (fink, tad“ Sk pat, Lith pot te bs ‘ate "iow: Lat sour, Gr. fpr at, de, hal ‘hh, ek ere bongs Lat oa fom Seer seen ee Hi sows "ye Gath sete ight, pp anc’ (eum eer uepen), Ol. eye oc’ (teak), sgiey! (

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