the

Art reading
of buildings

John Mittendorf & Dave Dodson

the
Art reading
of buildings
John Mittendorf & Dave Dodson
 Disclaimer: The recommendations, advice, descriptions, and the methods in this book are presented
solely for educational purposes. The authors and publisher assume no liability whatsoever for any
loss or damage that results from the use of any of the material in this book. Use of the material in this
book is solely at the risk of the user.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mittendorf, John, 1940-
The art of reading buildings / John Mittendorf and Dave Dodson.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-59370-342-4
1. Fire extinction. 2. Building layout. 3. Fire risk assessment. I.
Dodson, David W. II. Title.
TH9310.5.M58 2014
628.9'2--dc23
2014024469

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
and recording, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

12345 1918171615
 his book and its primary focus is dedicated to all past, present, and future fire service personnel

T who willingly risk their lives in firefighting suppression operations within structures that are under
demolition by fire and gravity in order to maximize the safety of any trapped occupants and minimize
the loss to property. The unselfish devotion of the American fire service to the people they serve is one of
the hallmarks of the United States of America.

Additionally, every firefighter owes an immense amount of gratitude to two well-known and respected
authors from the American fire service who have worked to chronicle the increasing dangers of building
construction. The late Francis Brannigan devoted countless hours to his monumental work and numerous
editions of Building Construction for the Fire Service (first published in 1971), which focused attention
on the multitude of dangers associated with building construction when applied to structural firefighting
operations. Retired Deputy Chief Vincent Dunn, Fire Department of the City of New York (FDNY),
also devoted numerous hours and publications to building construction, specifically his text Collapse of
Burning Buildings: A Guide to Fireground Safety.

The authors hope that The Art of Reading Buildings becomes an adjunct that will respectfully continue
the traditions of Brannigan and Dunn.
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
FESHE Objectives Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Section 1: Building Your Foundation

Chapter 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why This Book? Why Now? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Overhead Issues and Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Maximizing this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 2: Essential Building Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Why Should You Read This Chapter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Building Material Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Specific Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Chapter 3: Anatomy of a BuildingA Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Communication Skill-Building for Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Structural Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Structural Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 4: Classifying BuildingsNFPA 220 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Its Politically Incorrect to Profile Anything . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Classifying Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
NFPA 220 Overview: The Five Classic Building Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

vii
 The Art of Reading Buildings

Chapter 5: Classifying BuildingsHybrid, Era, Use, Type, and Size Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Thinking Beyond the Five Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Hybrid Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Classifying Buildings by Era, Use, Type, and Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Chapter 6: Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Performance Design Has Nothing to Do with Firefighters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Alternative Building Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Evolving Building Methods/Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Section 2: Building Components and FirefightersPractical Lessons

Chapter 7: Foundations, Floors, Ceilings, and Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The Box That Surrounds You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Chapter 8: Reading Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
The Importance of Reading Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Eight Most Common Roof Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Unique Roof Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Roof Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Roof Appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Chapter 9: Building Features and Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
The 800-Pound Gorilla in the Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Utility Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Alternative Energy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Overhead Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Renovations and Remodels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Light Wells, Skylights, and Atriums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Miscellaneous Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

viii
 Contents

Chapter 10: Reading Buildings: How to Size Up a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Time to Put It All Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Building Size-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
The Six Tactical Challenges for Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Perspectives On Building Triage and Predicting Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Chapter Review Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Section 3: Rapid street-read guides

Chapter 11: Using the Rapid Street-Read Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
52 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Design Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Using the Rapid Street-Read Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Rapid Street-Read Guide Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Rapid Street-Read Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Single-Family Dwelling (SFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
SFD 1: Colonial and Georgian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
SFD 2: Victorian/Queen Anne and Cape Cod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
SFD 3: Craftsman and American Four Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
SFD 4: Prairie Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
SFD 5: Split Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
SFD 6: Modern Lightweight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
SFD 7: McMansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
SFD 8: Manufactured (Mobile) Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Multifamily Dwelling (MFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
MFD 9: Brownstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
MFD 10: Tenement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
MFD 11: Row Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
MFD 12: Railroad Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
MFD 13: Center Hallway Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
MFD 14: Garden Apartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
MFD 15: Project HousingLow Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
MFD 16: Project HousingHigh Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
MFD 17: Legacy Townhome/Condo/Apartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
MFD 18: Lightweight Townhome/Condo/Apartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Main Street Commercial (COM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
COM 19: Pre-WWI Ordinary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
COM 20: Pre-WWII Ordinary (Taxpayer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
COM 21: Industrial/Legacy Strip-Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
COM 22: Modern Strip-Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
COM 23: Fast Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
COM 24: Mega-Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
COM 25: Big-Box Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Manufacturing/Warehouse (MANF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

MANF 26: Block/Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
MANF 27: Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
MANF 28: Concrete Tilt-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
MANF 29: Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
MANF 30: Converted Mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
MANF 31: Public StorageSingle Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
MANF 32: Public StorageMultistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Office Building/Hotel (OFF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
OFF 33: Pre-WWIILow Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
OFF 34: Post-WWIILow Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
OFF 35: 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
OFF 36: High Rise1st Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
OFF 37: High Rise2nd Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
OFF 38: High Rise3rd Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Institutional Building (INST) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
INST 39: School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
INST 40: Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
INST 41: Detention (Jail) Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
INST 42: Attended Care Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Public Assembly (PUB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
PUB 43: Restaurant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
PUB 44: Stadium/Arena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
PUB 45: Auditorium/Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
PUB 46: Meeting Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
PUB 47: Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Miscellaneous Building/Structure (MISC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
MISC 48: Pole Barn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
MISC 49: Kit Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
MISC 50: Silo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
MISC 51: Historical BuildingDwelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
MISC 52: Historical BuildingCommercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

x
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
hank you to the various organizations and individuals for their willing-

T ness to provide resources and information for this first edition of The Art
of Reading Buildings. An endeavor such as this can only be accomplished
with the help of many individuals who share ideas, provide feedback, and lend
technical assistance. The number of individuals who have influenced the content
of this book exceeds the space we have here, although wed like to specifically
thank the following for sharing their expertise and time:

The City of Bend Fire Department, OR; Firefighter Dion Evans, Compton
Fire Department, CA; Battalion Chief Jim Forquer and Deputy Chief John
Nohr, Portland Fire & Rescue; Battalion Chief Joe Castro, Los Angeles Fire
Department; Jerry Knapp, Rockland County Hazardous Materials Team, NY;
Training Officer Jason Hoevelmann and Fire Marshal Steve Gettenmeier,
Florrisant Valley Fire Protection District, MO; Lieutenant Christopher Flatley,
Fire Department of the City of New York; Firefighter Ric Jorge and the crew
of Engine 33, Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue, FL; Chief Mark J. McLees and
Battalion Chief Todd Milton, Syracuse Fire Department, NY; Deputy Chief
Kenneth Morgan, Clark County, NV; Captain William Gustin, Metro-Dade Fire
Department, FL; Captain Rick A. Haas Jr., Cosumnes CSD Fire Department,
CA; Battalion Chief John A. Alston, Jr., Jersey City, Department of Fire, NJ; and
Chief Dan Petersen, Jackson County Fire District #3, OR.

Special thanks goes to John J. Lewis and the other photographers who have
provided photographic support. Likewise, thanks to Paul Bunch for his talents
in creating our graphics.

Individually, John Mittendorf would like to thank his wife, Janice, for her
patience and support during his numerous hours of contemplation, typing, and
taking numerous photographs. Additionally, a special thank you for the oppor-
tunity to work with Dave Dodsonand still remain friends after this project.

Likewise, Dave Dodson would like to thank Chief Bobby Halton, editor, Fire
Engineering magazine; Deputy Chief Phil Jose and Captain Steve Bernocco,
Seattle Fire Department; Battalion Chief (ret.) Katherine Ridenhour, Aurora Fire
Department, CO; Training Chief Mike West, South Metro Fire Authority, CO;

xi
The Art of Reading Buildings

and Division Chief Brian Kazmierzak, Penn Township, IN. A special thanks to his wife, LaRae, and
to Becky Stafford for their tolerance, patience, and unconditional support. Working with John was an
amazing experience!

We cannot pass up the opportunity to acknowledge the various instructors who have spent a great deal
of time preparing and delivering training programs related to the importance of building construction on
a national level, and that as a result have significantly increased the safety and operational effectiveness
of the fire service. Instructors such as Chief John Norman (Fire Officers Handbook of Tactics), Chief
John F. Skip Coleman (Managing Major Fires), Chief Anthony L. Avillo (Fireground Strategies), Chief
Michael A. Terpak (Fireground Size-Up), and a host of others have willingly devoted their time, talents,
and expertise to help the fire service.

The gang at PennWell are simply amazing. Mary McGee, Marla Patterson, and Mark Haugh deserve
high fives for their encouragement, persistence, and direction. Wed also like to show gratitude for the
PennWell review and production teams.

There are probably other individuals and departments that we have forgotten, but our collective old age
and fading memories will have to take precedence.

Finally, and most importantly, wed like to thank Captain Mike Gagliano of the Seattle Fire Department
for his inspiration and efforts that helped bring together the wandering thoughts of your authors.

xii
FESHE OBJECTIVES CORRELATION
This text is written to meet the course outcomes for the Building Construction for Fire Protection
curriculum established in the Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Model Curriculum.
Outcomes are met in the following chapters:

Objectives Chapter(s) Comments

1. Identify various classifications of 4, 5, and 6 plus rapid
building construction. street-read guides
(RSRGs)
2. Understand theoretical concepts 111 plus RSRGs All chapters contribute. RSRGs highlight
of how fire impacts major types of potential fire impacts of 52 common
building construction. building types.

Outcomes
1. Describe building construction as it 111 plus RSRGs All chapters contribute. RSRGs focus on
relates to firefighter safety, buildings firefighter safety and strategy and tactics.
codes, fire prevention, code inspec- Fire prevention and code inspections are
tion, firefighting strategy, and tactics. outside the scope of the book.
2. Classify major types of building 4, 5, and 6 plus RSRGs This is a local agency outcome. The book
construction in accordance with a can help local agencies classify buildings
local/model building code. in agreement with national and interna-
tional codes.
3. Analyze the hazards and tactical 111 plus RSRGs All chapters contribute. RSRGs focus on
considerations associated with hazards and tactical considerations.
the various types of building
construction.
4. Explain the different loads and 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10
stresses that are placed on a building
and their interrelationships.
5. Identify the function of each 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10
principle structural component in
typical building design.
6. Differentiate between fire resistance, 4 NFPA ratings and definitions are
flame spread, and describe the testing explained. Testing procedures are outside
procedures used to establish ratings the scope of this text.
for each.
7. Classify occupancy designations of 5, 10, and RSRGs Occupancy types are defined in chapter 5
the building code. (NFPA and IBC). Tactics/hazards associ-
ated with occupancy types are expanded in
chapter 10 and the RSRGs.
8. Identify the indicators of potential 211 plus RSRGs Structural failure indicators are included
structural failure as they relate to throughout entire book and are highlighted
firefighter safety. in chapter 10.
9. Identify the role of GIS as it relates RSRGs The role of GIS is driven by local agencies
to building construction. and outside the scope of the book.
However, the RSRGs provide an excellent
GIS template for buildings.

xiii
Section 1
Building Your Foundation
INTRODUCTION 1
Objectives
List the three influencing factors that allow firefighters to perform interior
fire operations.
Identify the three new building trends that are reducing firefighter safety.
Outline the commitment necessary to help achieve safe fireground
operations.
Describe the challenges that exist for conducting relevant building size-ups.

Why This Book? Why Now?

sing questions as an introductory title probably violates some rule

U somewherebut we did it anyway! We could have easily started this book

by citing numerous firefighter injury and death statistics, line-of-duty death
(LODD) investigative reports, and case studies designed to sell you on the need
to read this book. Rather, we want you to know why we wrote another building
construction book when several great ones already exist. The answer: Society has
changed the fire and society has changed the building. Basic curriculums utilized
to teach building construction havent kept pace with the societal changes.
Further, we feel there has been a missing element in construction curriculums:
rapid recognition of building factors that impact first-due decision making.
Dont misinterpret what we are saying. We absolutely appreciate the classic fire
service books dedicated to building construction. What we do believe, however,
is that there is a middle ground between how buildings are built (Brannigan)
and how they fall down (Dunn). That middle ground is rapid recognition and
tactical relevance.

For the most part, firefighters are dialing into the changes in fire behavior:
higher heat release rates, higher temperatures, compressed time to flashover,
and the explosive nature of ventilation-limited fires. We can thank the works of

1
The Art of Reading Buildings

the National Institute of Standards and Technology it a practical and tangible part of building fire
(NIST) and the Underwriters Laboratory (UL) responses. This book is designed to do just that.
for their tireless work quantifying modern fire In fact, our overall approach to the book was to
behavior. The second societal influence seems to combine the best of previous fire service building
be a bit more elusivethe changed building. Sure, construction books into a single desk reference that
weve heard our fire service leaders talk about also addresses modern construction, rapid-recogni-
the new lightweight buildings and the challenges tion assistance, and practical relevance.
they present to firefighters, yet we still find too
many firefighters trying to apply a 1970s tactic to Before we jump into the journey, wed like to
a newly constructed building. We dont fault the present a few overhead issues and concerns that
firefighterswe fault the painfully slow process of are impacting structure fires today (vs. yester-
updating the training standards, curriculums, and year). Well follow that with a brief explanation of
practices that have guided our fireground decision how you can maximize the information contained
making. Jason Hoevelmann, training officer for within this book (our methodology).
the Florrisant Valley Fire Protection District in
Missouri, summed up the issue perfectly:

Since well before my very first attendance of

an organized firefighter certification class,
Overhead Issues
instructors have stood in the front of class-
rooms lecturing about the critical relationship
and Concerns
of building construction and fire behavior. Through incident responses and building famil-
Instructors would pound the pulpit and iarization activities, firefighters are discovering
state the same common phrase that we have new and innovative building materials and methods
all since heard over and over again, the that collectively reduce the amount of time that
building is the enemy! With this essential firefighters have to safely mitigate interior fires.
point made, students are then held in a trance Unfortunately, new construction methods are not
while discussing the five different types of usually designed to assist fire suppression opera-
building construction. tions. Considering the cost of labor, equipment, and
building materials, it is not economically feasible
Building construction and fire behavior
today to construct a structure the same as those
lays the groundwork for fire service knowl-
from the 1800s and early 1900s. In many cases,
edge. But, what has been missing in a great
heavy timbers have been replaced by 2 4s of
number of these classes, is the tactical
varying lengths of finger-jointed and glued sections
relevancy of the subject for firefighters and
of wood in lightweight truss configurations, and
fire officers. Too many times these classes
petrochemical-based compounds have replaced
and texts have one common themethe
many conventional building materials, regardless
building is badas a generalization. We
of building type or size.
can, and must, do better at making building
construction mean something. We must make As a current example, engineered wood
it tangible for firefighters and officers to use products are beginning to replace concrete and steel
every time they respond to and operate at a in many structural applications. As modern archi-
building fire. tects reduce the amount of mass and change the
chemical composition of building materials, the fire
The ability to read a building has never been
service is losing three valuable factors that allow
more critical. As Jason points out, we need to
us to perform interior fire operations: (1) safety, (2)
take building construction knowledge and make
sufficient time to conduct suppression operations,

2
Chapter 1 Introduction

and (3) the ability to conduct a relevant building the new construction trends? There is a wealth of
size-up. Lets briefly look at these three factors. information that is readily available when you take
the time to look at your fireground office when
driving through your district (either returning from
Safety responses or doing area familiarization), conducting
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) fire prevention inspections, or just spending a few
technical reports indicate that firefighter injuries hours on the weekend to see whats new. There is
and deaths related to structural incidents are a also a tremendous wealth of resource information
result of three primary factors: (1) it falls on you, available in books and online to help you under-
(2) you fall into it, and (3) flashover. The ability to stand buildings.
read a building and translate that information into Safety is not something that just happens
fireground operations that are safe and relevant is automatically at a fireground and/or something that
the key to reducing and/or eliminating the chance always arrives unannounced when necessary. It is
of the building falling on you, you falling into it, or a commitment you make to be familiar with your
you being caught by flashover. surroundings, operate in a predictable and standard
Although some older methods of building way, and train at every opportunity. Remember
construction are still being utilized, many construc- that training is the most important nonemergency
tion methods are being replaced by new and more function that we do, and typically pays immense
cost effective techniques. This new approach dividends in the form of safe fireground operations.
to construction is typically accomplished by
maximizing engineering principles (math) and
minimizing material use (cost). As mentioned previ-
Time
ously, new construction methods are not usually When the word time is mentioned, some of the
designed to assist fire suppression operations and/ initial factors that come to mind are how advanced
or enhance fireground safety. The loss of material is the fire, how long did it take someone to become
mass and the engineered shape of essential struc- aware of the fire and report it, what was the dispatch
tural elements is a double whammy for firefighters. time, and what was the length of time for response
The reality is that new construction methods have of resources. While these factors are certainly
increased the chances that a building will fall on applicable to fireground suppression operations,
you or you will fall into it. Further, newer construc- we must also add in our setup (evolution) time and
tion methods and materials are designed to better the time it takes to make a visible impact on the
insulate the building against weather elements and fire. This fireground clock starts when the first-due
reduce heating and cooling costs. Those insulation apparatus sets the parking brake and we go to work.
efforts can actually speed the occurrence of flash- We address the fireground clock in more detail in
over. New building trends have thus created a triple chapter 10, but suffice it to say that the prearrival
whammy for firefighters or, to borrow a baseball and fireground clocks are ticking when a building
clich, three strikes and youre out. is on fire. Time is a constantyou cant buy it or
sell itand you must be aware of its passage. Each
Strike 1: Lower material mass tick of the clock has the potential of weakening the
Strike 2: Engineered shapes for structural gravity-defying nature of the building. Eventually,
elements the building will succumb to gravity and begin to
collapse in partial or general fashion. As we know,
Strike 3: Better insulation
fires are dynamicthey are not static. Destruction
These three strikes have the impact of reducing is taking place (often exponentially) until we stop
firefighter safety. So how do we address safety with it. Unfortunately, each building has its own set

3
The Art of Reading Buildings

of factors that govern the amount of time it can Hose lines are still advanced into involved build-
withstand the fire (and our operations). With that ings, searches are still conducted in hazardous
said, we must also say that the time we have to conditions with little or no visibility, and ventilation
make an impact on a fire (and save the building) operations are conducted to improve the internal
has been reduced for all buildings. Weve made environment. But are modern buildings the same
the point that our safety has been impacted by new as the buildings that were constructed just a few
building trends: engineered shapes, lower mass short years ago? They are not even close, and the
materials, and better insulation. Yet the higher rate gap between construction methodologies of older
of heat release in todays fires accelerates building and newer buildings is continuing to widen due to
degradation in older buildings as well (blame the evolving technologyto the detriment of the fire
abundance of synthetic contents). Reading build- service and firefighters, whether paid or volunteer.
ings and tracking the passage of time has never Face it, in a simpler time, we could teach firefighters
been more important. the strengths and weaknesses of five general types
of buildings and outline a dozen or so visual clues
that could help with size-up. That is no longer the
Relevant size-up case. The palette of buildings we face has grown
Websters Dictionary defines relevant as perti- exponentially (figuratively and literally). Therefore,
nent, applicable, important, pertaining to, and fireground personnel who can quickly recognize
the fire service often defines size-up as a mental and evaluate the relevant strengths and hazards of
evaluation of incident factors that determines the differing buildings will increase their own safety
course of action necessary to achieve a desired and efficiency. A working knowledge of building
goal. From a simplistic viewpoint, if we combine construction provides not only the necessary exper-
the terms relevant and size-up into one definition, tise to conduct a quick and accurate size-up of a
it can be summarized as the ability to quickly building, but as we have previously mentioned,
determine an applicable impression of an incident also the foundation for safe, effective, and timely
(particularly buildings) that lays the foundation fireground operations.
for a safe abatement strategy that continues until Although it is relatively easy to challenge
the conclusion of the incident. When applied to personnel to develop a working knowledge of
reading a building, it is easy to see that if build- building construction, it is becoming more difficult
ings did not collapse and/or f lashover did not to achieve that goal due to evolving technology and
occur, firefighter injury and death statistics would the vast differences in methodologies and materials
dramatically decrease. However, building collapse that have been used in building construction since
that can consist of walls, floors, roofs, and/or a the founding of this country. As an example, fire
complete building has been a consistent and promi- departments whose districts are predominantly
nent cause of injury and death to firefighters that comprised of older construction should be able to
are involved in structural suppression operations. anticipate what should be encountered, such as the
The ability to quickly read a building to develop an beneficial strengths of full-dimensional lumber,
effective foundation for safe suppression operations conventional construction and materials, the identi-
does not come overnight. It takes diligent study and fiable characteristics of older construction/build-
time to become familiar with the relevant attributes ings, and the common hazards of balloon frame
of building construction, particularly when applied construction, knob-and-tube wiring, multiple layers
to the area of your responsibility. of roofing materials, and so on.
Fundamentally, the fire service is fighting fires Interestingly, this same viewpoint also applies
in buildings the same ways and using the same to departments whose areas of responsibility
basic principles that were used over 50 years ago. are principally comprised of buildings of newer

4
Chapter 1 Introduction

construction. In this case, these departments

should not be surprised by a lack of the beneficial
strengths of conventional materials/construction
and the rapid and catastrophic collapse of varying
types of lightweight metal and wood construction
in minimal time frames. The substantial challenge
that most fire departments must recognize is the
diversification of old and new construction that can
be found in most areas of this country, particularly
when buildings have been renovated to include new
construction or remodeled to appear different from
their original configuration.

An example of this dilemma is illustrated in

Fig. 12. The interior of the building in figure 11 is signifi-
figure 11. This commercial building appears to
cantly different from the exterior.
be a modern type of building that could easily be
considered as constructed with current methods
and materials. However, after stepping inside the Another example is the common understanding
building, a far different picture emerges. It quickly that a large, well-involved fire within any building
becomes apparent the building was constructed in can lead to collapse. Although this is a true assess-
the early 1900s due to the presence of unreinforced ment, it is also becoming obvious that common-
masonry walls and a gable roof constructed from appearing buildings that incorporate varying
solid wood truss structural members (fig. 12). degrees of modern construction techniques and
materials can be responsible for creating an
unexpected hazardous environment and/or building
collapse potential from seemingly small fires. The
following example is a recent incident that occurred
in Clark County, Nevada, and is reprinted with the
permission of Clark County Deputy Chief Kenneth
Morgan:

We have all read about or heard of the dangers

of engineered wood joistsor I-joistswhen
exposed to fire, but they dont need to be on fire to
degrade. Developed in 1969, I-joists have become
Fig. 11. This building appears to be recently constructed.
a construction staple because of their economic
value and ability to shoulder large loads over
long spans. Originally constructed of a plywood
web and solid flanges (chords), the flanges were
replaced with laminated wood in 1977. The switch
to orientated strand board (OSB) webs occurred in
1990. Just how much does it take to damage these
engineering marvels? When exposed to heat, they
degrade rapidly, so the importance of knowing the

5
The Art of Reading Buildings

structures in your first-due response area becomes 13, the height of the flame can be noted on the
alarmingly evident. wall. In figure 14, the height of the heat pattern
can be noted along with the degradation of five
An occupancy fire in Clark County, Nevada, adjacent I-joists over the fire, caused primarily by
in the early morning hours of March 5, 2009, convected heat. Not only were the joists damaged,
was a reminder to the Clark County (NV) Fire but the connections to the wall were also compro-
Department of how even a small fire can place mised; heat had attacked and degraded the roofing
crews in imminent danger. This occupancy, system. There was no notable alligatoring on the
constructed in 1992, was in an area of the county flanges, yet the webs in over half of the joist span
known for light commercial businesses that borders were completely gone.
the city of Las Vegas and on the southern edge of
a larger complex of similar structures. It was of
typical block wall construction with a flat roof and
was split into two occupancies. At 0422 hours, a
caller advised the fire alarm office that there was
an orange glow coming from under the garage door
with gray smoke showing from a small, single-
story commercial structure at 3111 S. Valley View
Boulevard. A fire attack engine was assigned, and
a second engine arrived and forced entry through
the roll-up doors. In all, eight crews were called to
the scene.

Once crews gained access, they advanced a

1-inch line, advised command of poor visibility
and low heat, and requested ventilation to assist
them in locating the fire. A truck company
advanced to the roof to vent; the officer from the
company used a thermal imaging camera (TIC) to
attempt to locate a heat signature, but it indicated
no hot areas on the roof other than at the base of a
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
duct. The company close to an area around the
duct decided to open the roof, thinking that it may
follow the HVAC ducting. There was no indica-
tion that the roof was compromised. Shortly after
the fire attack crew made entry, the fire was found
Fig. 13. This was a small rubbish fire with the height of the
and easily extinguished. The smoke level began to flame visible on the wall. (Photo by Kenneth Morgan.)
dissipate, revealing a small debris pile consisting of
some boxed textile material.

When the smoke cleared enough to see the

interior roof, a horrific sight appeared. The roofing
system was constructed of engineered I-joists, and
many of the joists were completely compromised.
Although the fire was confined to the debris pile of
origin, the I-joists were severely degraded. In figure

6
Chapter 1 Introduction

the roofing system. This can give you a false

sense of security. If the roof sheathing had been
OSB instead of plywood, the roofing system
might have completely failed.

Although this was a relatively small article

that appeared in the August 2010 issue of Fire
Engineering magazine, it illustrates an expanding
predicament that every firefighter engaged in
structural firefighting operations can easily
encounter. The increasingly common situation is
less fireground time and rapid collapse of floor
Fig. 14. The height of the heat pattern is visible in
and roof systems as a result of heat and also due
addition to a degradation of adjacent roof I-joists. (Photo by
Kenneth Morgan.) to the dynamic changes in building construction
that are constantly being pioneered by the building
industry in an effort to reduce costs and improve
profits. If history can be an indicator of future
events (and it often is), it should be noted that all
fireground personnelwhether a firefighter on an
This incident presented the indications of a
initial attack nozzle or an incident commander at a
small fire, but it held a secret that had the poten-
command postshould be familiar with this article
tial to kill firefighters. The crews learned and
and incorporate its concerns into their fireground
reinforced several valuable lessons that morning,
decision-making process. Additionally, the
which included the following:
preceding examples that consisted of the remod-
No fire is routine! Do not become complacent. eled building and the small debris fire in a light
commercial area in Las Vegas graphically illustrate
The value of knowing the first-due area cannot
the importance of being able to conduct a relevant
be overstated. If this building had been identi-
building size-up that results in a workable aware-
fied as having an engineered roofing system,
ness and knowledge of what is about to be encoun-
alternate, safer tactics could have been used,
tered in suppression operations.
and no personnel would have been placed on
the roof. It is our belief that (1) the type of building
It does not take much fire to make an I-joist construction that is being exposed to fire and/or a
fail; heat alone can do this. There is some noteworthy amount of heat and (2) the approximate
indication of fire in the truss around the wall amount of time of exposure should be incorporated
area, but the majority of the damage is strictly into an initial and continuing size-up provided
heat related. to an incident commander at every structure fire
(when appropriate). As an example, assume you
Consider identifying roofing systems and force entry into an older-appearing single-story
placarding the buildings so fire crews dont strip mall (mini-mall) of masonry construction and
have to guess what they are walking on. encounter high heat and moderate visibility. Prior
Thermal imaging cameras did not help locate to advancing into the structure with an initial attack
an area of concentrated heat. This roof was line, you quickly use a pike pole to pull the ceiling
composite foam over plywood, which hid above of your position and discover that fire has
any heat signature. The lack of heat signature extended into the attic space above your position,
and no indication of compromise in the foam and the roof structural members are comprised of
suggested a small fire and no involvement of 2 4 in. glued, parallel chord trusses. Does this

7
The Art of Reading Buildings

fictional scenario immediately raise a concern that

compared to older conventional 2 6 in. construc- Maximizing this Book
tion (or larger), you have a minimal amount of time
before a structural collapse of modern lightweight The primary intent of this book is to provide
roof assemblies? Additionally, should this infor- a reference text that helps you understand and
mation also be quickly be relayed to the incident predict how the buildings in your response district
commander (who is probably looking at the exterior behave when they are burning. If you can do that,
and thinking this building is an older Type III then you will make better fireground decisions.
building of conventional construction)? Obviously, Obviously, we havent seen all the buildings
the answer to both questions is a resounding yes! in your districtyou have to do that. We can,
however, provide a detailed look at common types
of building construction methods/materials and
Quick summary their potential risks to fireground personnel from
a practical perspective. That perspective is gleaned
Firefighters are losing the three valuable factors from decades of personally fighting fires in build-
that allow us to perform interior fire operations: ings, reviewing case studies and investigative
safety, sufficient time for operations, and the reports, researching evolving technologies, talking
ability to conduct a relevant size-up. to construction industry professionals, and making
Firefighter safety has been diminished in newer countless building visits (under construction, under
construction as result of lower material mass, demolition, while in use, and after fires).
engineered shapes for structural elements, and Organizing all that information is a challenge,
increased insulation. but we think we hit on a logical, step-building
A commitment to being familiar with your approach that will help you. The three sections in
surroundings, operating in a predictable/ this book build on each other. We also throw in
standard way, and constant training is essential some features that can help you apply the informa-
to improving fireground safety. tion in each section.
The passage of time is constant and fires are
dynamicthe two combine to degrade a
building and eventually cause its collapse.
Section 1: Building
The amount of time that a building can resist a
Your Foundation
fire is governed by many factors, but has been The first step in understanding any building is to
reduced in almost all buildings due to the higher capture the language and concepts that are used to
heat release rate of burning synthetic contents. explain how (and why) a building is built the way
Conducting a relevant building size-up has that it is. Knowing the relationships of materials
become challenging due to evolving technology and loads helps you see (know) how weight is
and the vast differences, methodologies, and carried and transferredand how they react in a
materials that have been used in building fire. Next, you discover the basic anatomy of any
construction since the founding of this country. buildingwhich gives you the X-ray vision neces-
sary to see behind what is typically covered up.
Classic building fire attack tactics (interior
attack supported by rooftop ventilation) As buildings evolved, it was discovered that
can no longer be a default. Prefire planning, there were many ways to make the basic anatomy
building familiarization, and developed skills in function. Occupancy needs (use and size), fire
reading a building are essential to fireground and earthquake resistance, resource (material)
decision making. economies, world wars, and inventiveness have

8
Chapter 1 Introduction

all factored into the evolution. Given all of that, such as single-family dwelling and office building.
we know of many types of buildingsalthough We encourage you to use the street guides to not
efforts to classify a building can help us quickly only help you rapidly recognize buildings, but to
understand its strengths and weaknesses from a fire develop your own guides for preplans and training
spread and collapse perspective. Section 1 discusses activities using the suggested format. With your
the various ways to classify a building and is full of input, we are sure to expand the rapid street-read
issues, concerns, and tips that can help you make guides for future editions.
better decisions with each type of building.

Other features
Section 2: Building Components In addition to the typical learning objectives,
and FirefightersPractical Lessons diagrams, photos, and glossary you find in most
books, weve added some features that we hope you
If youre like most firefighters, youll want to
find useful:
skip right by section 1 and jump into practical
stuff. We get thatbut encourage you to resist Case studies
the urge because section 2 is written using the
Feature perspectives from other fire service
language established and defined in section 1.
leaders
We all know that the fire service has developed a
unique language of slang and that there are regional Quick summaries to help you capture key
or geographic nuances (East coast, West coast, no points (as you study for your next promotion!)
coast); section 2 will make more sense having A master acronyms list
invested in section 1.
Review activities
In section 2, we get down to the nitty-gritty Resources for further study (books, websites,
components that fill most buildings and discuss the etc.)
challenges they present whether you are stretching
a line, pulling a ceiling, cutting a roof, or securing We hope that this introduction underscores
utilities. Taking that further, we end the section the importance of fireground personnel being
with several perspectives on how to rapidly assess able to understand the basic concepts of building
(size up) a building. In doing so, we present some construction, and being able to apply its relation-
building triage ideas, risk (rescue) profiling clues, ship to formulating safe and effective strategic and
universal size-up considerations, and collapse tactical decisions on the fireground. We further
prediction algorithms. hope that you find something in this book that is
very practical and relevant to your efforts to make
it safer for you and your fellow firefighters.
Section 3: Rapid
Street-Read Guides
The last section of the book contains a handy
reference tool that can help you index the build-
ings in your jurisdiction. The 52 Rapid Street-
Read Guides that are assembled include pictures,
construction characteristics, and tactical issues that
should be considered for each. To help categorize,
we group the guides based on the street language
we use to initially describe buildings we respond to,

9
The Art of Reading Buildings

Chapter Review
Exercise
Answer the following:

1. What are the three influencing factors that allow

firefighters to perform interior fire operations?
2. New construction methods have impacted
firefighter safety in a negative way. What are the
three trends contributing to that impact?
3. How can safe fireground operations be improved
by individual firefighters?
4. What modern influence is reducing building
integrity time for all buildings?
5. What does the phrase relevant building size-up
mean?
6. List several factors that challenge the ability to
conduct a relevant building size-up.

10
ESSENTIAL BUILDING CONCEPTS 2
Objectives
Define loads and imposition of loads as they relate to buildings.
List three types of forces created from imposed loads.
Explain the effects of fire on common building materials.
List the factors that determine the suitability of a building material for a
given application.
Describe the relationship of surface-to-mass ratio and fire degradation for
building materials.
Differentiate the terms native wood, traditional wood products, and
engineered wood products.

Why Should You Read This Chapter?

he fire officers who read this chapter are better prepared to not only read

T a building, but better prepared to communicate building problems, hazards,

and collapse potential. Likewise, fire officers need to learn a certain language
that is used in the building construction/engineering field. That language helps
the fire officers teach new firefighters, prepare more complete prefire plans, and
interact with building representatives and engineers during incidents.

The intent here is not necessarily to make you a building engineerfar from
it. We do, however, define basic terms and concepts that come from the building
construction world and help provide a bridge to the 2:00 a.m. fire suppression
world. Additionally, this chapter helps address an evolving issue that is related
to younger generations of firefighters. The fire service is experiencing an evolu-
tionary change in the types of individuals who serve as firefighters. In the 1960s
and 1970s it was very common for firemen (as they were called) to possess a
significant understanding of building construction trade knowledge. They were

11
The Art of Reading Buildings

carpenters, plumbers, electricians, roofers, and with simple definitions, then adds some specificity
masons as their primary career (volunteers) or as for certain applications and situations.
part-timers on their off-duty days (career). Those
who didnt possess that experience/knowledge often Dead loads. The weight of the building itself and
learned building construction by helping other anything permanently attached to the building.
firefighters with home projects, trading favors, Live loads. Any load applied to a building other
firehouse do-it-yourself projects, and such. The than dead loads. Live loads are typically transient,
bottom linemost fire training programs didnt moving, impacting, or static (like furniture).
have to emphasize building construction because
it was a common knowledge base. Unfortunately, Live and dead loads can be further classified as
that is not true today. to their application nature. For example:

While skilled building tradespeople still exist Concentrated load. A load that is applied within a
in the fire service, their numbers are dwindling small area or at one point.
quickly. Many of todays new recruits have little
Distributed load. A load spread over a large sur-
building trade background. Terms such as ledger,
face area or over multiple points.
torsion, lintel, sill, ductile, and rafter tie plate have
little meaning to them, and they are unable to trans- Impact load. A moving or sudden load applied to
late these terms into determining strengths and a building in a focused or short time interval. For
weaknesses when reading a building. Thankfully, example, wind, large crowds, and fire stream water
these new recruits are well versed in gigabytes, are all impact loads.
phone apps, extreme sports, and multitasking
which show they have a tremendous capacity to Repeated load. Loads that are transient or inter-
learn and absorb knowledge. mittently applied (like people on an escalator).

This chapter outlines some essential terms and Static load. A constant load that rarely moves.
concepts as it relates to loads, forces, and materials
Suspended load. A load that is hanging from
that are used to assemble the building that may
something above.
ultimately fail/collapse during fire suppres-
sion operations. Wind/snow load. Atmospheric loads that stress
a building.

The fire service uses the term fire load, which is

the potential amount of heat energy (measured in
Loads British thermal unitsBTUs) that may be released
when a material is burning. The term fire load is
To be sound, a building must be designed,
not a building engineering termits purely a fire
engineered, or otherwise assembled to resist a load.
service one.
Loads are static and dynamic weights that come
from the building itself and anything that is placed
within or acts upon a building. Gravity is respon-
sible for creating most loadsas any natural or
Load imposition
human-created thing that has weight is being pulled A firefighter team making a panel cut on a
to the planets surface by gravity. Likewise, gravity pitched wood roof for heat ventilation (while
is trying to flatten buildingswhether the building working from a roof ladder) can be classified as a
is on fire or not. Other loads come from atmospheric live, impact, and distributed load (the firefighters
conditions such as wind, rain, and snow. To help are the live load, the movement of the firefighters
classify all these loads, the building industry starts are the impact load, and the ladder beams are

12
Chapter 2 Essential Building Concepts

distributing the firefighters weight as a distributed

load). That live, impact, and distributed load is
imposed on the roof and its supporting elements.
The imposition of loads refers to the contact orien-
tation of the load to the material(s). Loads can be
imposed three ways (fig. 21):

Axial load. Load is imposed through the center of

the material.

Eccentric load. Load is imposed off-center, caus-

ing a material to want to bend.
Fig. 22. There are three forces created when loads are
Torsion load. Load is imposed in such a way that imposed on materials: (A) compression, (B) tension, and
causes a material to twist. (C) shear.

Obviously, the material chosen to receive the

imposed load must have characteristics that resist
the forces that are created within it. Further, the
material must transfer that load and eventually
deliver the load to earth in compression.

Note: There are very few building/structure

applications that deliver a load to earth in any force
other than compression. Guide (guy) wire anchors
that are drilled deep into the earth for a suspen-
sion bridge or tower antennas are noted exceptions
(they are delivered in tension and/or shear). Next,
we discuss the relationship between loads and
Fig. 21. Loads can be imposed three ways: axially, eccentri-
cally, and torsionally. material characteristics.

Quick summary
Forces resisting loads Loads are static and dynamic weights that exist
Imposition of loads on a given material causes within or on a building.
stress within the receiving material. These stresses
There are basically two loads that exist within
are called forces. Forces help resist the load. There
every building: live and dead loads. Live and
are three primary forces created within materials
dead loads can be further classified as impact,
(fig. 22):
suspended, distributed, and concentrated.
Compression. A stress that causes a material to Fire load is primarily a fire service concept.
flatten or crush.
Loads are imposed three ways: axially, eccentri-
Tension. A stress that causes a material to pull cally, and torsionally.
apart or stretch. Imposed loads create forces within materials:
Shear. A stress that causes a material to tear or compression, tension, and shear.
slide apart.

13
The Art of Reading Buildings

From a firefighters point of view, the more mass a

Building Material material has in a given surface area, the more time
(or heat) is required before the material starts to
Characteristics degrade. When a material does degrade it may also
deformthus changing its engineered shape and
The previously mentioned firefighters making the way loads are resisted. A change in a materials
the ventilation panel cut on the pitched roof are a shape causes a change in load impositionpoten-
live, impact, and distributed load being imposed tially resulting in rapid failure (fig. 23).
in an eccentric manner that is creating a compres-
sive force on the roofing materials that the ladder
beams are resting upon. If you can picture this in
your minds eye, then you are well on your way to
reading buildings. This whole load/imposition/force
equation relies on certain material characteristics to
prevent failure.

When discussing the characteristics of materials,

we have to understand that there are many factors
that determine the suitability of the material
for a given application. These factors include
the following:
Fig. 23. A change in load imposition can result in
Type of material (wood, steel, concrete, etc.) rapid failure.

Shape of the material (round, square, rectan-

gular, etc.) The building engineering community also
Orientation or plane of the material (vertical, considers mass, but from a different perspec-
horizontal, etc.) tive. Economics, sustainable-resource concerns,
and technological advances have challenged the
Mass of the material (surface-to-mass ratio, building community to maximize strength with
density, depth, etc.) reduced material mass. Basically, most new build-
Material surface (rough, slippery, hard, or ings are high-strength/low-mass buildings. If mass
adhesion/connection ability) is time during a structure fire, then time has been
lost to fight fires in new buildings with modern
Additionally, the fire service looks at how
lightweight construction methods and materials.
these materials react during a fire and how their
Granted, the building may be stronger, but that
ability to resist a load changes during fire condi-
assumes that building materials are not being
tions. Of importance to firefighters is the concept
heated, have not changed shape, and are loaded
of surface-to-mass ratio. The more mass a material
within their engineered design limits.
has relative to its exposed surface area, the more
it is resistant to heat. We learned in fire behavior The engineering community also classifies
class the concept of heat flow: Heat flows from hot materials as being brittle or ductile based on their
to cold (heat seeks cold). Materials exposed to the reaction to imposed loads and resistive forces.
radiant heat of other burning materials serve as
a heat sink. The amount of heat the material can Brittle. A material that will fracture or fail as it is
absorb before it starts breaking down is directly deformed or stressed.
proportional to its surface-to-mass ratio. In essence,
Ductile. A material that will bend, deflect, or stretch
mass is heat resistance, and heat resistance is time.
as a load is appliedyet retain some strength.

14
Chapter 2 Essential Building Concepts

Simply stated, a brittle material breaks before previously been used as structural members in
it bends and a ductile material bends before it building construction.
breaks. Wood, plastics, and most metals are ductile,
whereas masonry, tile, and cast iron are brittle.
With an understanding of building characteristics, Native wood (cut or sawn lumber)
we can now discuss individual materials. Native woods (or sawn lumber)whole lumber
pieces cut from a treeare not created equal.
There are hard woods, soft woods, tight grained,
Quick summary knotty, old-growth, and new-growth woods.
Factors that can help materials to work or fail Each has interesting characteristics and the true
can be defined as type, shape, orientation, craftsman woodworker knows how to maximize
mass, and surface. the strength and application of each. However, it
would be easy to assume that wood taken from the
The surface-to-mass ratio of a material is trees of today is roughly the same as wood that was
especially important to firefighters. Mass is heat taken from trees yesterday. Unfortunately, that is
resistance. Loss of mass (high surface-to-mass not the case as it is relatively easy to overlook the
ratio) means loss of time during fires. fact that the wood currently being used in modern
Most new buildings are comprised of high- building construction is significantly different from
strength/low-mass materials such as light- the wood that was used in older construction. From
weight wood construction. a logging perspective, old-growth trees that were
common a hundred years ago are just a memory,
Materials can also be classified as either brittle
with new-growth trees (or second-growth trees) and
(breaks before bending) or ductile (bends before
plantation trees normally replacing the older trees.
it breaks).
Interestingly, it is common for todays timber
industry to harvest trees similar to corn or wheat.
As an example, pine and spruce trees can often
Specific Building be cut 25 years after they are planted. This is why
modern lumber trucks routinely carry numerous
Materials smaller logs (fig. 24) instead of yesterdays
logging trucks that routinely carried several
In the past, four basic materials were used to large logs. This has resulted in wood that is not
erect buildings: wood, steel, concrete, and masonry. only different, but wood that also burns signifi-
Today, advanced material technologies have created cantly hotter and faster. Old-growth trees produce
composites of the aforementioned materials as well a wood that is denser and has a reduced level of
as new plastics, graphite, wood derivatives, and pitch (which burns like a petroleum-based product).
exotic metals. Lets look at the four basic building Additionally, in the past it was not uncommon for
materials (wood, steel, concrete, and masonry) as woodparticularly wood that was to be used for
well as some of the new composites, particularly structural membersto be cut from the heart of
wood composites (often referred to as engineered a tree (which has maximum density and minimal
wood). In this section, we take a closer look at wood pitch). Conversely, new-growth trees are less dense
as it is the most predominant building material of and have a higher concentration of pitch. This has
the past, present, and likely the future. Engineered resulted in wood that is lighter in weight (which can
wood products are not only progressively replacing reduce strength), is capable of burning more rapidly
native wood, but also concrete and steel that have and with a higher British thermal unit (Btu) heat

15
The Art of Reading Buildings

level, and in cheaper types of wood being used for In the past, firefighters could gauge when a solid
structural members. hardwood beam would collapse because it started
to sag a bit before it failed. Today, lightweight wood
construction can catastrophically fail in a short
period of time (compared to conventional lumber)
and without prior warning signs such as sagging.

Traditional wood products

Used here, the phrase traditional wood products
refers to the century-old development and improve-
ment of manufactured wood products for a specific
application that cut lumber cannot fill. Namely, we
are talking about heavy timber, glue-laminated
Fig. 24. New-growth logs are typically smaller in diameter beams/columns and sheathing. Within this context,
and length and less dense than old-growth logs. engineered wood refers to modern, technologically
advanced wood products and is covered separately
after this section.
As a result, it should not be surprising that
around 1986 the lumber industry changed its Glued laminated heavy timber. Originally, the
rating system from Utility (utl), Standard (std), common availability of large trees meant that large
Construction grade (cons), and Select (sel), to #3, pieces of sawn lumber were available for use in
#2, and #1 (best). Additionally, Douglas fir was the sizeable buildings that required large supporting
standard for exterior bearing walls (the good stuff), and/or structural members (this is readily observ-
with white fir or hemlock used for interior walls able in large older buildings). As large trees began
(the cheaper stuff). Today, the building construc- to become more rare, the original glued laminated
tion industry routinely uses the aforementioned beam or column (glulam for short) was born from
cheaper grade of lumber for exterior load-bearing the fact that trees only grow so wide and so thick.
walls. To compound the problem, todays sawn It was quickly discovered that a heavy timber beam
wood is known as nominal dimension lumber as could be created by using a number of smaller cut
opposed to yesteryears full-dimensional lumber. lumber pieces (fig. 25).
Previously, a 2 4 was really 2 in. by 4 in. A
nominal dimension 2 4 is 1 in. by 3 in. When
the preceding factors are combined, it should not
be a surprise that modern structures built with this
type of lumber (that is used to replace conventional
construction and also used in various lightweight
configurations) are collapsing faster and burning
hotter than the structure fires of yesterday.

Despite this fact, while from an engineering

point of view wood has marginal resistance to
forces compared to its weight, it does the job and
is the most used building material. We also know
that wood burns and when it does, mass is lost.
The more mass a section of wood has, the more Fig. 25. Glulams are a popular modern replacement for
solid lumber.
material must burn away before its strength is lost.
16
Chapter 2 Essential Building Concepts

These pieces were originally strapped or bolted plywood based on its grain density, thickness,
together before suitable glues were developed. As and gluing/coating process. When exposed to
described here, glulams are heavy timbers and fire, the plywood layers start to char and burn
can absorb lots of heat prior to failure. They also away, layer by layer. When exposed to serious
burn forever! However, under heavy (or lengthy) heat (as opposed to flame), the layers dry out
fire conditions, glulams can fail and often cause and begin to curl. The destruction is usually
a failure of large sections of a building (fig. 26). easy to detect. Obviously, the thicker the
The glues are deeply impregnated and protected plywood sheet, the longer it can withstand heat
by the shear mass of the wood pieces used. and flame, but similar to other wood products
However, remember that the glues or adhesives that use adhesive compounds for bonding
can, depending on their chemical composition, emit strength, a toxic smoke can be emitted under
toxic gases when burned or exposed to heat. fire conditions. Generally speaking, plywood
has been replaced with a true engineered wood
productoriented strand board (OSB)which
is covered in the following section.
Particle board. Wood sheathing made from a
coarse sawdust and glue is known as particle
board (PB). Particle board appears very smooth
and consistent and has no wood grain. The
sheathing is relatively heavy due to the compac-
tion of the sawdust and glue during manufac-
turing. Even with this density, PB sheathing
is actually quite weak with low resistance
to trauma (it cracks and crumbles easily). In
Fig. 26. When used as primary structural members, the failure fact, its own weight can cause a large sheet to
of glulams can cause failure of large sections of a building. crack just from flexing. Because of its fragility,
PB used as a floor or roof cover must be well
supported with closely-spaced joists (beams)
Sheathing. We can think of sheathing as merely a
and include a durable surface covering. Fire
cover for something. While floor and roof sheathing
and heat will easily destroy particle board. PB
needs to have some strength, wall sheathing
breaks down so easily in heat conditions that it
requires very little. This led to the development of
is the sheathing of choice for the pyrolyizing
traditional wood sheathing products to maximize
(off-gassing) fuel source in flashover simula-
the waste parts of a tree left when lumber was
tors. The smoke produced from the degrada-
cut. All sheathing products can be considered
tion of PB is full of wood particles and sticky
high surface-to-mass. Traditional wood sheathing
aerosols (hydrocarbon-based glues) that are
includes plywood, particle board, and decora-
quite flammable and toxic.
tive (paneling).
Decorative sheathing. Thin wood paneling
Plywood. Often called the original engineered used to finish interior walls or the outside of
wood product, plywood is made from layering cabinets are classic examples of decorative
sheet veneers of wood such that grain directions sheathing. These products are not intended to
alternate 90 with each layer. (This is similar to resist loads and are merely decorative. This
the engineered wood products that are listed in sheathing can range in thickness from in. to
the following section.) These layers are glued in.meaning a high surface-to-mass ratio.
to each other as they layer together. There are Because of the rapid flame spread character-
various grades of strengths and applications of istic of decorative wood paneling, most are

17
The Art of Reading Buildings

not allowed by code for interior wall finishing. and is amazingly lightweight compared to natural
Additionally, if adhesives are used (which is forested woods.
likely), they will emit toxic gases under fire
conditions. Once harvested, the wood is milled into veneers,
wood chips/slivers, or shavings (shredded wood
fiber or pulp). The milled product is then processed
Quick summary into forms, emulsified in binding agents (glues/
adhesives), then autoclaved (application of heat and
Old-growth trees were widely used for large pressure) to set the binding agent. The glues that
timber structural members in older buildings. bind engineered wood products require only heat
These members can resist the effects of fire to break down and are also toxic, combustible, and
for longer time frames than newer construction will contribute to burning.
materials due to mass.
Engineered wood products are cur rently
Newer lumber is typically harvested from
being used as a replacement for solid sawn wood
new-growth trees, which results in a softer
materials (cut lumber) in common applications due
wood with a higher pitch content.
to their advertised advantages of higher strength;
Older conventional roofs can often sag before greater stability over longer spans; resistance to
collapsing, while newer lightweight wood shrinking, crowning, twisting, and warping; ease
trusses do not prior to catastrophic collapses. of manipulation; and efficiency in using more
Traditional wood products refer to older portions of a tree. Following are common examples
sawn lumber products like glulams and of engineered wood products that rely on adhesives
plywood sheathing. for bonding strength.

Plywood, particle board, and decorative Oriented strand board (OSB). Known mostly by
sheathing use adhesives that may emit its acronym, OSB is sheathing that is formed with
flammable and toxic gases when exposed wood shavings and a urea-formaldehyde adhesive.
to heat or fire conditions. The wood chips are oriented such that the grain
directions are randomly oriented and layered.
An adhesive locks these layers in place such that
multidirectional and uniform strength is achieved.
Engineered wood products OSB is used extensively in new construction as a
While no official definition exists, the term structural sheathing to form roof and floor assem-
engineered wood is used by the fire service to blies (when glued to trusses) and as the web portion
describe a host of wood products that use modern of a wooden I-beam (fig. 27). OSB is subject to
methods to transform wood chips/slivers, veneers, degradation by direct sunlight (UV rays), moisture,
shavings, and even recycled wood products into and heat. The heat of fire or smoke can cause rapid
components that replace sawn lumber, sheathing, destruction of OSB. Likewise, direct flame contact
and other composite structural materials. The wood will cause OSB to ignite and burn rapidly and emit
used to make engineered wood products (EWP) toxic gases from adhesives.
is typically derived from new-growth forests and
The strength and economy of OSB has led to a
rapid-growth tree farms, although in some cases
proliferation of its use in residential buildings. As
it is possible to manufacture similar engineered
an example, a typical 1,800-sq-ft two-story new
cellulosic products from other lignin-containing
home would use a concrete foundation, I-beams for
materials such as hemp stalks, wheat straw, and
floor joists (that use OSB for the webbing), OSB
other vegetable fibers. In either case, the wood
sheathing for the flooring, OSB I-beams for second
used for EWP is loose grained, has lots of pitch,
floor joists, OSB stair treads and kickers/risers,

18
Chapter 2 Essential Building Concepts

exterior OSB sheathing, and OSB roof sheathing

attached to trusses that may also include OSB
stiffeners. As a result, a major portion of this home
would be comprised of wood chips that are bonded
with an adhesive.

Fig. 28. Laminated veneer lumber is often used in place

of cut lumber.

Laminated strand lumber (LSL). LSL is a struc-

tural composite lumber manufactured from flaked
and chipped strands of native wood blended with
an adhesive. Mostly, LSL uses strands oriented in
a parallel fashion (also known as parallel strand
lumberPSL). PSL is similar to LVL in its use.
Fig. 27. OSB is used for sheathing and for the web The primary difference is that LVL uses sheet
of engineered wooden I-beams. veneers of native wood whereas PSL uses flaked
wood strands. The glue may be phenolic resin,
urea-formaldehyde, or phenol formaldehyde. All
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL). To form LVL,
of these glues are derived from crude oil. Fire
thin sheet veneers of native wood are stacked with
behavior wisdom suggests that LSL/PSL will
grains aligned and then glued with a phenolic
fail before LVL. LSL/PSL can be used as beams,
resin. LVL is used in place of cut lumber for beams
headers, studs, and rim boards.
(fig. 28). LVL is also used to form the chords
(or f langes) that are glued to the OSB web of Cross-laminated timber (CLT). CLT is an engi-
engineered wooden I-beams. LVL is designed to neered wood product using several layers (three to
have the load imposed axially and perpendicular seven or more) boards that are layered crosswise
to the grain. While the mass of LVL is typically (typically rotated 90) and glued. CLT is used as a
higher than OSB, it is still degraded by the heat of structural element for columns (much like a glulam
a fire or smoke. is used for beams). CLT uses actual timber boards
cut from smaller trees to form a panel and the
Because LVL is formed with native wood
crosswise layers. In many ways, CLT is a structur-
veneers, the individual sheets hold together until
ally sound form of plywood but thicker. CLT can
the wood burns. The glue that binds each layer
also be used for long spans and structural assem-
tends to cause delamination of the veneer sheet
blies that are used for roofs, walls, and floors.
by sheet when heated. LVL is commonly used as
a replacement for conventional sawn lumber and This product is gaining widespread acceptance
timber for beams, joists, rafters, columns, studs, due to its improved acoustics over sawn lumber
and rim boards. and its reduced carbon emission footprint. For
example, for every 1 ton of wood, it takes 5 times
more energy to produce 1 ton of concrete, 24 times

19
The Art of Reading Buildings

more energy for 1 ton of steel, and 126 times more The proliferation of engineered wood products
energy for 1 ton of aluminum. CLT also advertises a over solid wood is based on multiple advantages
greater resistance to fire. This claim is based on the that include greater strength and stiffness, pound
premise that due to the solid nature of the material, for pound strength that is greater than steel, more
it will char at a slow and predictable rate (similar efficient use of wood (use of smaller pieces, wood
to mill construction type members). The char on with defects, wood chips, etc.), and conformance
wood forms a crust that slows the burning rate and to emerging green considerations. From a fire
helps shield the wood from further degradation. service perspective, however, there are huge disad-
vantages associated with the use of EWP.
Glued laminated timber (GLT). GLT is comprised
of multiple layers of dimensional timber bonded Some products may burn faster than solid
together with moisture-resistant adhesives. GLT lumber; they have a high surface-to-mass ratio.
is a more modern form of the traditional glulam
Some adhesives are toxic, and some resins
heavy timber covered above. GLT can be used as
can release formaldehyde (urea-formaldehyde
horizontal beams and vertical columns, and can
resins). Currently, there are four basic types
also be produced in curved shapes, which makes
of adhesives that are used in engineered wood
this product very attractive to interior designers
products: urea-formaldehyde (most common),
who want visible structural members that are more
phenol-formaldehyde, melamine-formaldehyde,
decorative than straight members.
and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (expen-
Finger-jointed lumber (FJL). FLJ has become a sive). So, it is easy to see that three out of the
common method to produce long lengths of wood four adhesives are formaldehyde based.
members from multiple short pieces of native As adhesives pyrolize, the resulting gases can
wood lumber. When joining these short pieces, become flammable.
the joining ends are mitered in an interlocking
fingers configuration and pressed together with an
adhesive as a bonding agent. Using the FJL process, Quick summary
wood manufacturers can create a long, straight, and
Engineered wood products are those made
solid wood joist or stud from a bunch of scrap mill
from wood chips/slivers, veneers, shavings, and
ends. FJL can also be used to join one section of
recycled wood that have been bonded using
lumber to another (such as a 90 angle, as shown
various adhesive methods.
in figure 29) with an adhesive that is used as a
bonding agent. The wood used for EWP is often harvested from
rapid-growth tree farms. These trees are then
milled (shredded into a pulp). The pulp is very
lightweight, loose grained, and contains lots
of pitch.
OSB is the most prolific of the EWPs. It is used
extensively in modern residential construc-
tion for beams, structural sheathing, and stair
assemblies. OSB is very susceptible to heat
degradation and burning in fire conditions
leading to rapid failure.
Although engineered lumber can offer many
advantages over sawn lumber, its primary
Fig. 29. Finger-jointed lumber is commonly used to join one disadvantage to the fire service is threefold.
section of lumber to another.

20
Chapter 2 Essential Building Concepts

Steel has excellent resistance to compression,

It has already begun to change the way build- tension, and shear forces. Its strength-to-mass
ings are being constructed when steel and ratio is excellent. Additionally, steel has factory
concrete are replaced by wood products (see versatility; that is, its relatively easy to fabri-
chapter 6), some applications can burn faster cate different shapes, sizes, and strengths during
and with more intensity than sawn lumber (OSB production. For this reason, steel is a popular
as an example), and many of the adhesives choice for large commercial structures. From a fire
that are used as a bonding agent will emit toxic service viewpoint, steel has two weaknesses: it is
gases such as formaldehyde. engineered for very specific applications (thick-
ness, length, shape, and strength) and it softens and
elongates when heated.
Steel In a fire, steel acts as a collector of heatit con-
Steel has been a staple building material for ducts heat readily. Steel loses strength as tempera-
commercial buildings for almost two centuries. tures increase; the specific range of temperatures
It is used extensively for columns and beams (the at which it loses strength depends on how the steel
true bones of a building), especially in applications was manufactured. As a general rule, cold-drawn
where strength, long spans, or tall walls are needed. steel like cables, bolts, rebar, and lightweight fas-
The classic I-beam and H-column are most associ- teners loses 55% of its strength at 800F. Hot-rolled
ated with steel. More recently, lightweight steel structural steel used for beams and columns loses
C-channel is being used to replace wood studs in 50% of its strength at 1,100F. Structural steel
occupancies that have noncombustible or low dead also elongates or expands as temperatures rise.
load requirements. At 1,000F, a 100 ft beam can elongate 10 in. In
cases where a steel beam is affixed at both ends and
Steel is made from iron ore, carbon, and an alloy heated, the steel cant elongate, thus it will twist,
agent (metallic solid solution). During manufac- sag, or buckle as it tries to expand. This deforma-
turing, iron ore is crushed and made molten using tion can cause an immediate and often general col-
a blast furnace and smelted with coke (a carbon lapse of floors and roofs.
source that is a derivative of coal). Alloying agents
(like chromium, nickel, etc.) are added to help
achieve strength and ductility. The molten solution Cast iron
can then be formed into pieces by casting, hot
rolling, or cold rolling. Casting is just thatthe Cast iron is a material usually formed from pig
molten steel is poured into a desired mold to form iron, which is a high carbon content iron. The iron
the finished product. Hot-rolled steel is the result is heated until it liquefies and is then poured into
of molten steel shaped at temperatures above the molds to solidify into desired shapes. Because of
crystallization stage, which allows thinner sheets the high carbon content and lack of alloys, cast
or shapes. Hot-rolled steel is often called extruded iron is brittle. Cast iron has good compressive
steel. I-beams and H-columns are typically strength qualities and acceptable shear strength if
hot-rolled extruded. Cold-rolled steel is shaped the cast iron was formed with significant mass. In
as it cools (below crystallization temperatures, the 1800s and early 1900s, cast iron was used in
forming stronger steel). Some call cold-rolled steel structural applications such as columns and door/
cut or rolled steel. Nuts, bolts, cables, rebar, and window frames. Many historical buildings still
wires are examples of cold-rolled steel. Lightweight have gorgeous, ornate storefront cast iron columns
C-channel studs are also cold-rolled steel. (fig. 210).

21
The Art of Reading Buildings

As a building material, aluminum is considered a

soft metal that is high strength-to-weight, highly
ductile, noncorrosive with air/water, and nonmag-
netic. Because of production costs, aluminum is
rarely used for the main structure of a building
but is used extensively for trim, brackets, finishes,
sheeting, and special applications where light-
weight, noncorrosive materials are needed. During
fires, the low mass and ductile nature of aluminum
causes rapid failure.

Titanium. Like aluminum, titanium is an abundant

Fig. 210. Cast iron columns were used on the storefronts of
metal found in many minerals and is lightweight,
many older commercial buildings.
low density, noncorrosive, and nonmagnetic.
Titanium alloys are known for a high strength-
Unfortunately, cast iron is brittle and history has to-weight ratio and tremendous resistance to heat.
shown that it can crack from aging, eccentric and/or Most firefighters consider lightweight as a recipe
torsional loading, and trauma. Cast iron has great for rapid failure. Titanium is an exception to the
resistance to slow heating and cooling. In a hostile rule. For most buildings, titanium is too expen-
fire environment, cast iron can initially resist heat sive to be used as a building material although its
fairly well but tends to fracture (or crumble) more light weight and high strength makes it ideal for
easily when an eccentric load is applied (sagging of innovative architectural designs (soaring beams,
a floor or being struck with a powerful fire stream). twisting columns, etc.). As material technologies
For this reason, cast iron is no longer used for progress, more variants of titanium will be found
structural applications. in building materials.

Research shows that there is still debate on

whether the application of cold water to fire-heated
cast iron causes explosive fracturing1. The debate
Quick summary
centers on two arguments: Steel has been a staple of the building industry
for many years, and is a structural material
The rapid cooling causes sudden contraction that is used for both lightweight studs (interior
that implodes the brittle material. and exterior) and lightweight roof structural
The physical force of the fire stream is an members as well as primary structural members
impact load that rapidly separates the brittle in the form of I-beams and H-beams.
material. Steel is made from iron ore, carbon, and an
Regardless, most agree that cast iron is a brittle alloy agent that provides increased strength and
material that can fail more easily when heated by fire. ductility. Steel products are either hot-rolled
(extruded), cold-rolled (cut steel), or cast.

Other metals Steel has excellent properties such as versatility

and resistance to tension, compression, and
Aluminum. Aluminum is a natural element that shear forces.
exists in many minerals and ores. In fact, alu- Steel will act as a collector of heat in a fire
minum is the most abundant metal that exists on and lose much of its strength above 800F,
earth. Unfortunately, the reactivity of aluminum which can cause it to elongate, twist, and
requires massive amounts of energy and refine- ultimately fail.
ment to produce the beer cans we are familiar with.
22
Chapter 2 Essential Building Concepts

material and then tensioned, compressing the

Cast iron has been used in the building industry concrete to give it the required strength. Cables can
since the 1800s; however, as opposed to steel, be pre-tensioned (at a factory) or post-tensioned (at
it is a brittle material. the job site).
Cast iron can fracture when heated in a fire
Precast concrete. Slabs of reinforced concrete that
and then exposed to water from suppres-
are poured at a factory and then shipped to a job
sion operations.
site (fig. 211). Precast concrete can be used for
Aluminum and titanium are abundant minerals walls, floors, or roofs. Common applications of
that have excellent strength-to-weight ratios. precast concrete are the venerable tilt-up slabs that
Due to manufacturing costs, neither has been are used for walls and twin-T slabs used for floors
used for the structural bones of a building and roofs.
although that is starting to change. Aluminum
fails quickly during fires whereas titanium
shows significant resistance to heat.

Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, sand
and aggregate (usually gravel), and water that cures
into a solid mass. The curing process creates a
chemical reaction that bonds the mixture to achieve
strength. During the mixing process, gravel can be
added as a volume and strength expander. The final
strength of concrete depends on the ratio of these
materialsespecially the ratio of water to Portland
cement. Low-slump concrete is stronger and has
a lower water-to-cement ratio, while high-slump
concrete is wetter and flows easier.

Cured concrete has excellent compressive

strength but poor tensile and shear strength. Pure
concrete is considered a brittle material. For this
reason, steel is often added to concrete as reinforce-
ment when the concrete is being used in a way
that will subject it to those forces (like a floor or
roof). When steel is added to concrete, the finished
material is considered a compositebrittle with Fig. 211. Precast reinforced concrete slabs are being trans-
some ductile properties. Steel can be added to ported to a job site.
concrete in many ways during its casting:

Reinforced concrete. Concrete that is poured over Monolithic buildings are concrete buildings built
steel rebar, which becomes part of the cured on location using a steel rebar frame and wood or
concrete mass. composite material forms to shape the concrete.
Concrete is then pumped into the forms encasing
Pre- and post-tensioned concrete. Concrete that the steelcreating a reinforced concrete building.
has steel cables placed through the plane of the Monolithic is derived from the Latin word for single

23
The Art of Reading Buildings

stone. Monolithic buildings are typically built one concrete mass, causing catastrophic spalling and
floor at a time. The columns are built ahead of the failure of the structural element. Concrete can also
floors and utilize a slip form, which moves slowly stay hot long after the fire is out, causing additional
upward as each level is poured (fig. 212). Floors thermal stress to firefighters performing overhaul.
are then anchored into cured columns. The floors As an example, these conditions were present in the
are built upon a scaffold-like platform (called false- Central Library fire in Los Angeles, as described
work). Once a floor cures, the falsework is removed in chapter 4.
and rebuilt on the next level.

Masonry
Masonry is a common term that refers to brittle
materials like brick, tile, concrete block, and stone.
The classic concrete masonry unit (CMU)some
call it a cinder blockis the most common material
used for building a masonry wall (fig. 213).
Masonry is used to form load-bearing walls because
of its compressive strength, but it can also be used
to build a veneer wall (one that bears only its own
weight). Individual masonry units are held together
using mortar. Mortar is a workable paste made
from a mixture of sand, cement or lime, and water.
Once cured, the mortar serves as a binding agent
for masonry blocks. These mixes have little to no
tensile or shear strength; they rely on compressive
forces to give the masonry strength. It is impor-
tant for firefighters to know that a masonry wall
actually gets stronger as axial loads are applied
and compressive forces increase. Obviously, there
is an absolute maximum weight that can be applied
before the brittle material fails.

Fig. 212. A wooden slip form is used as a concrete mold for

the construction of a monolithic building.

Unlike steel, concrete is a heat sink and tends to

slowly absorb and retain heat rather than conduct
it. This heat is not easily reduced. All concrete
contains some moisture and continues to absorb and
wick moisture (humidity) as it ages. When heated,
this moisture content expands, causing the concrete
to crack or spall. Spalling refers to a pocket of
concrete that has crumbled into fine particles
through the exposure to heat. Spalling can reduce
the critical mass of the concretethe mass used
Fig. 213. Concrete masonry units are a popular building
for strength. Steel rebar that becomes exposed to a material for walls.
fire after spalling can easily conduct heat within the

24
Chapter 2 Essential Building Concepts

Individually, brick, CMU, and stone have excel- Reheating a thermosetting plastic will change the
lent fire-resistive qualities. Oftentimes masonry composition and will likely result in breakdown.
walls will still be standing after a fire has ravaged Most plastics are considered ductile.
the interior of the building. Even though the wall
is still standing, the loss of the roof means the wall The building industry is the second leading
no longer has the compressive forces needed for consumer of plastics in the U.S. (packing and
strengththe wall is unstable and can collapse shipping is first). Since the mid-1960s, plastics have
quickly when an eccentric load (like wind) is been increasingly used for just about everything
applied. The masonry wall also has an Achilles except the structure itself. That is now changing.
heel: the mortar used to bond the individual units. Plastics are now being used to reinforce wood and
Mortar is subject to spalling, age deterioration, and concrete. Several all-plastic buildings have been
washout. During a fire, masonry blocks (or bricks) constructed to demonstrate the potential of plastics
can absorb more heat than the mortar used to bond to replace wood, steel, and concrete. Clearly, the
them, creating different heat stresses that can crack trend is for more plastics to be included as building
the binding mortar. Whether from age, water, or materials. From a firefighters perspective, this trend
fire, the loss of bond causes a masonry wall to can have negative impacts on building stability
become very unstable. during fires as most plastics melt at relatively low
temperatures and emit very explosive gases that
add tremendous heat-release rates when the hydro-
Composites carbons burn.

New material technologies are posing inter- Carbon-fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP). CFRPs
esting challenges for the firefighting community. are composite materials that include a reinforcing
The term composite can be used for many things material (the carbon fibers) that is bound together
but in this case refers to a combination of the with a polymer (like epoxy). Carbon fiber is amaz-
previously mentioned basic materials, as well as ingly strong and can be woven or shaped in many
various plastics, glues, exotic metals, and assembly forms. To put things in perspective, the carbon
methods. One thing is certain, these materials content of steel helps gives the steel its strength.
are designed to offer maximum strength with Manufacturers have figured out a way to take that
minimal material massa dangerous proposal essential strength element, crystallize the bonds,
in the structural firefighting environment. Given and form a fiber. The fiber is a fraction of the
that, several composites are commonly used for thickness of human hair, pliable, and heat, corro-
building materials. sion, and rot resistant. Because of cost, CFRPs
are not prevalent as a building construction mate-
Plastic. Simply stated, a plastic is synthetic or rial, although engineers are finding application of
semisynthetic material that is made of moldable CFRPs for reinforcing concrete and steel. As the
polymers (a molecule with many connected atoms). cost comes down, more applications will be found.
Most plastics are derived from petroleum. The
hydrocarbon chemical chains found in crude oil Under fire conditions, CFRPs offer initial heat
can be altered with other chemicals to form many resistance until the polymer degrades. Once the
different products. While there are thousands of actual carbon fibers are exposed to flame, they
chemically-named plastics used in everyday life, separate and release microscopic carbon particles
most plastics can be divided into thermoplastics that can burn. The particulates from CFRP smoke
and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics can be are especially destructive to microelectronic circuit
heated and reshaped without losing the inherent boards as they can form a conductive path between
composition found in the plastic. Thermosetting components.
plastics use heat to harden or set the plastic.

25
The Art of Reading Buildings

The expanding use of composites for many To finish this section, it is important to know
types of building materials will certainly change that technological advances in material science
the basic perceptions of fireground operations that are ongoing and new combinations of materials
have been taken for granted for many years. This are finding their way into buildings. In chapter 6,
is a primary reason why firefighters must keep we further explore some of the evolving building
abreast with technology and resultant changes in methods and the material composites that are being
building construction, particularly in your area used as well as some firefighter tactical consider-
of responsibility. ations we face in them.

Quick summary Chapter Review

Concrete has been a primary building material for
hundreds of years and is a combination of, sand
and aggregate, water, and Portland cement.
Exercise
Answer the following:
Concrete is known for its high compressive
strength (hence its use in foundations), but has 1. What is a load?
poor tensile and shear strength.
2. How are loads imposed on materials?
Steel is added to concrete as reinforcement
3. What are the differences between compression,
for applications that require tensile and shear
tension, and shear forces?
qualities. Reinforced concrete can be formed as
monolithic, pre- or post-tensioned, or precast. 4. What influences the suitability of a material for
a given building application?
Concrete will absorb and also radiate stored heat,
and can spall when exposed to heat from fire. 5. How are brittle and ductile materials different?
Masonry often refers to brick, tile, concrete 6. Describe the relationship of surface-to-mass
block, and stone. ratio and fire degradation on building materials.
Similar to concrete, masonry products have 7. Match the wood products in the left column to
good compressive strength, and are generally the associated wood type in the right column:
resistant to heat from fire.
Plywood Engineered
In particular, CMUs (also known as cinder wood product
blocks) have become very popular due to their OSB
strength, resistance to fire, and minimal ongoing LVL
Traditional
maintenance. These factors are a benefit to the Sawn Douglas fir wood product
fire service.
Glulam
Standard materials that are commonly used in
Heart wood Native lumber
building construction are constantly evolving
in concert with advances in technology, and 8. At what temperature does hot-rolled (extruded)
as a result, the term composites is becoming steel begin to fail?
more familiar to building construction method-
ologies and materials. Two notable examples 9. What is meant by spalling and how is it
are plastics (being added to engineered wood caused?
products) and carbon-fiber materials. 10. During a fire, two conditions will cause a
masonry wall to become unstable. List the two
conditions.

26
Chapter 2 Essential Building Concepts

Resources for note

Further Study 1 The authors searched dozens of building fire
collapse reports where cast iron columns were
APAThe Engineered Wood Association, cited as a contributing factor. Several concluded
A Guide to Engineered Wood Products, that the introduction of cold water streams caused
www.apawood.org. the collapse. Most, however, did not make that
APAThe Engineered Wood Association, conclusion and cited poor casting, gravity connec-
A Glossary of Engineered Wood Terms, tions, and sagging as the collapse cause. Noted
www.apawood.org. fire service building construction author Francis
Brannigan calls the cooling cause questionable.
Brannigan, Francis L., Building Construction
for the Fire Service, 3rd ed., Quincy, MA:
National Fire Protection Association, 1992.
Authors note: Brannigans third edition is no
longer in print. A revised fourth edition was
coauthored with Glenn Corbett following
Professor Brannigans death and is available
through Jones and Bartlett Publishing.
Canadian Wood Council, Wood Products,
www.cwc.ca/Products/EWP/.
CertiWood Technical Centre, www.certiwood.
com.
Engineered Wood Products Association,
www.ewpa.com.
Modern Construction Considerations for
Company Operations, DVD Training Program
and Instructor Guide, ISFSI, Pleasant View,
TN, 2010. Available through www.ISFSI.org.
Report on Structural Stability of Engineered
Lumber in Fire Conditions, Project Number
07CA42520, Under w r iters Laborator ies
Inc., Northbrook, IL, 2008. Available at
www.ul.com.
Zoltek Commercial Carbon Fiber, Carbon
Fiber, www.zoltek.com/carbonfiber.

27
ANATOMY OF A BUILDING A MAP 3
Objectives
Define foundations, columns, beams, and connections.
Identify the parts of a truss.
List the three types of structural connections.
Define structural assembly.
Define the difference between panel, partition, and curtain walls.
Describe the structural hierarchy.

Communication Skill-Building
for Buildings
hen launching an aggressive interior fire attack on a building, you and

W your crew are relying on building integritythat is, the buildings resis-
tance and reaction to heat, fire, smoke, firefighting impacts, and gravity.
We know that a building can only stand so much fire and heat assault before
gravity takes over and the building starts to fail. Before you can predict building
failure, it is important to understand basic building anatomy and the appropriate
terms and concepts that can help you communicate collapse concerns. In the
previous chapter we made the case for understanding common building construc-
tion/engineering terms and materials. In this chapter, we strive to help you
understand the components of a typical building. While this sounds easy enough,
the importance of this understanding and the use of appropriate terms and labels
cannot be over emphasized. For example, confusing the term column with beam,
or truss with rafter, can have detrimental consequences when communicating
with an incident commander or safety officer. Likewise, understanding the inter-
play of structural components can help you make better decisions regarding safe
or unsafe positions from which to operate or complete your tactical assignment.

29
The Art of Reading Buildings

Lastly, the critical communication information At first glance, you may argue that walls, floors,
found in this chapter can help you understand the and roofs are missing from the structural elements
language used in the following chapters of this list. In some cases, walls, f loors, and roofs are
book where we talk about different construction structural elements, but not always. In many build-
types and the considerations related to fighting fire ings, you can remove the walls, floors, and roofs
in, on, or around buildings. and the building will still stand. This is where the
phrase structural elements differs from building
coverings, finishes, and features. If you remove
or damage a structural element, the building will
Structural Elements begin to fail. Granted, this may be semantics,
but once again, the use of appropriate language
Buildings contain many elements, components, will help you better communicate issues during
features, finishes, and systems that come together your firefight.
to form an enclosure for a given purpose. Many of Understanding whether or not a building com-
the aforementioned things are not necessary for the ponent is a structural element begins with the
building to stand with integrity. From a firefighting definition of foundations, columns, beams, and
perspective, attention must be given to the under- connections and the interplay each must have. In
pinnings of a building that must be monitored when this chapter we define structural elements (and how
evaluating the buildings integrity to standthe they affect each other), then define other building
structural elements. Further defined, structural components. In later sections of this book, we dis-
elements are those essential underpinnings of cuss the firefighting concerns associated with them.
a building that allow it to stand erect and resist
imposed loads and gravity (fig. 31). Structural
elements work together to deliver all loads to Foundations
earth. In the simplest form, there are four structural
elements of any building: The foundation of a building can be defined
as the buildings anchor to earth and base for all
Foundations elements built above that anchor. This anchor
Columns must have properties that allow it to deliver all
imposed building loads and deliver them to earth in
Beams compression. Further, foundations must be designed
Connections in a way that will help keep a building level, and
resist the chance of sinking, twisting, or leaning.
The foundation of a building can be formed using
footers, foundation walls, slabs, and/or pilings.

Footers: Footers (or footings) are weight-distrib-

uting pads that serve as the bottom of foundations.
Footers are typically the lowest/deepest part of any
building and directly contact earth. Footers can
serve as a perimeter base for slabs and foundation
walls or as solo pads to support columns (fig. 32).

Foundation walls: These are walls installed below

Fig. 31. Structural elements work together to deliver
grade to serve as structural support for other struc-
a buildings loads to the earth. tural elements and also to hold back soil and other
materials. Foundation walls also typically serve

30
Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

as the perimeter basement walls of a building.

Most foundation walls are poured-in-place, steel
rebar reinforced concrete, although masonry block,
precast panels, or heavy timbers and planking
can be used. Often, foundation walls incorpo-
rate footers.

Fig. 33. A column delivers the weight of beams and other

columns to a foundation.

The load that a column can carry is dependent

on many factors such as the material used, the
Fig. 32. Footers, solo pads, and foundation walls length (height if vertical), and its cross-sectional
shape. The cross-sectional shape of a column is
important because columns carry compressive
Slabs: Slabs (when used as a foundation) are flat loads axially through their length. The best shape
horizontal elements that simply rest on the ground. for a column is one where the compressive load
Some call this a slab-on-grade foundation. Most is shared equally (and spread further) from the
slab foundations still incorporate footers. center axis of the material being used. Rectangles,
squares, and cylinders (like a pipe) are preferred
Note: Foundation walls and slabs are covered from
ways of shaping columns (fig. 34).
another viewpoint in chapter 7.

Pilings: Pilings are vertical posts that are driven

down into the earth to serve as the foundation or
foundation anchor of buildings.

Columns
A column is defined as any structural element
that is loaded axially, along its length, in compres-
sion. In most buildings, columns deliver the weight
Fig. 34. Rectangles, squares, and cylinders are preferred
of beams and other columns to the foundation.
ways of shaping columns.
Columns can take on the form of a wall or a post
(fig. 33). When a wall is used as a column, it is
often referred to as a load-bearing wall or, more Hot-rolled steel is often used for hollow columns
appropriately, a wall column. In earlier times, the that are either square or cylindrical, or a cross-
term pillar was used synonymously with column. sectional shape like the letter H (hence the term
More recently, a pillar is defined as a freestanding H-column). The use of an I cross-sectional shape
vertical post, monument, or architectural feature. is not ideal for a columnit becomes prone to
buckling because the load is not shared equally

31
The Art of Reading Buildings

around the axial center. Hollow columns incorpo- through its length. Figure 36 shows horizontal
rate a cap of some type to help connect the column columns that are being used to keep two brick wall
to beams and distribute the load evenly around columns from falling into the alleyway. Horizontal
the perimeter shape. Concrete masonry blocks (or columns are called struts and diagonal columns
CMUs) used to build a wall column are typically are called rakers. A typical application for a raker
rectangular, suggesting that they dont disperse is a post driven diagonally into the ground to help
weight equally around their center axis. Closer hold shoring for earthen excavations and trenches.
examination of these CMUs shows that they are Exterior load-bearing walls under construction are
formed with multiple squares (two, three, or four often wind-braced with rakers until a floor or roof
cubes) that are joined together to achieve uniform load is applied.
distribution.

Columns are considered a critical element of

any buildingthey hold up floors and roofs. For
that reason, columns must be designed and built
with resistance to lateral forces that could knock
them over. The material used and the application of
compressive load through the length of the column
help to resist lateral loads.

Buttress and pilaster: A buttress is an exterior wall

bracing feature used to assist with lateral forces
created where roof beams or trusses rest on a
wall. Buttress are structural in nature and can
take on numerous shapes (a diagonally ascending Fig. 35. Buttresses are used to counteract lateral forces in a
stack of stone or brick is most common, as in vertical wall and pilasters are used to strengthen a wall.
fig. 35). Some textbooks use the term pilaster to
also describe a buttress. Historically, a pilaster is
a decorative column that protrudes in relief from
a wall to give the appearance of a separate post
column. Over time, the fire service began using the
term pilaster to describe any interior or exterior
thickening of wall used to add lateral support for
roof beams and trusses.

For our purposes, we accept that both pilasters

and buttresses can be structural and that they can
be differentiated by shape. A pilaster appears as
an interior or exterior vertical stack that thickens
a wall column, whereas a buttress is a separate,
diagonally-stacked brick, stone, or concrete wall
that protrudes perpendicularly from the wall
column supporting the roof.

While most columns in a building are vertical

in attitude, its important to note that columns
can also be diagonal or horizontal. The guiding Fig. 36. Horizontal columns that are compressively loaded
principle is that a column is compressively loaded through their length

32
Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

can carry for a given span is actually proportional

Quick summary to the square of its depth. If you double the top-to-
bottom depth of the beam, you can carry four times
Buildings are comprised of many structural the load. If you triple the depth, you can carry nine
components that combine to form an enclosure times the load. For example, a simple 2 4 in. wood
for a given purpose. beam might carry 50 lb. If you attach a second
The primary structural elements of a building 2 4 next to ityou merely double the weight it
are foundations, columns, beams, and connec- can carry to 100 lb. If you replace the side-by-side
tions. These elements work together to transfer attached beams with one that is 2 8 in. (increase
all loads to the earth. the depth), it can carry 200 lb (fig. 38)! The length
that a beam can span is directly proportional to its
A foundation is a buildings anchor to the earth.
depth. If you double the top-to-bottom beam depth,
Columns are a primary structural element that you can double the span. These depth relationships
delivers the weight of beams and columns to are simplistically sound although the engineering
a foundation. community uses complex formulas that take into
Buttresses and pilasters are used to enhance account shapes, materials, spacing, and safety
the stability of an exterior wall. Buttresses factors when designing beams.
assist with lateral forces and pilasters help to
strengthen a wall.

Beams
Beams are used to create a covered space
usually between columns. Roofs, floors, and most
loads placed in buildings are picked up by beams
and delivered to columns that deliver a load to the
foundation. By definition, beams are structural
elements that deliver loads perpendicularly to their
Fig. 37. Beams transfer load using opposing compressive
imposed load and in doing so, create opposing
and tensional forces.
forces within the element. Any load placed on a
beam (and the weight of the beam itself) causes
the beam to deflect. That is, the top of the beam is
subjected to a compressive force while the bottom
of the beam is subjected to tension (fig. 37). In
between the compressive and tensile load is a
neutral plane. The neutral plane creates an area
where there are no stresses. This is the area where
a small hole can be punched through the beam
to accommodate piping, electrical wires, or for
other purposes.

The distance (or depth) between the top of the

beam and the bottom of the beam dictates the
Fig. 38. Beam strength is proportional to its depth.
amount of load the beam can carry or the distance
the beam can span. The amount of load that a beam

33
The Art of Reading Buildings

Beams are typically labeled by their applica- Rafter: A sloped wood joist that supports roofing
tion and by their designed shape/material arrange- coverings between a ridge beam and wall plate on
ment. Well discuss shape/material a bit later in peaked and hipped roofs.
this chapter. Beams labeled by application include
the following: Ridge beam: The uppermost beam of a pitched
roof. Rafters attach to the ridge beam.
Simple beam: A beam supported by columns at the
two points near its ends. Purlin: A beam placed horizontally and perpen-
dicularly to trusses or beams to help support roof
Continuous beam: A beam supported by three or sheathing or to hang ceilings.
more columns.
Suspended beam: A beam that has one or both
Cantilever beam: A beam supported at only one ends supported from above by a cable or rod
end. (Or a beam that extends well past a support in (sometimes called a hung beam).
such a way that the unsupported overhang places
the top of the beam in tension and the bottom Most beam applications are such that the
in compression.) beam is laid in a horizontal attitude. Beams can
also be vertical. A retaining wall for landscaping
Lintel: A beam that spans an opening in a load- or grading is essentially a vertical cantilevered
bearing wall, such as over a garage door opening beam. The same can be said for communication
(often called a header). Lintels can also be antennas. A highway billboard has to be built like
commonly found over windows and doors in a beam to withstand windanother example of a
unreinforced masonry construction and in newer vertical beam.
CMU construction (fig. 39).
Beams are further classified by their material
arrangement and shape. A solid wood or reinforced
concrete beam is simply thata solid beam. A steel
beam that is cross-sectionally shaped as a rectangle
is also considered a solid beam, although techni-
cally it is hollow inside. Beams can also be created
or built with various shapes and pieces. The term
I-beam reflects the shape of the beam viewed
from either end. The top of the I is known as the
top chord (or flange); the bottom of the I is the
bottom chord (or flange). The piece used to span the
Fig. 39. Lintels are used to span an opening in a load- distance between the chords is known as the web
bearing wall.
(sometimes called the stem). The two most popular
I-beams are the popular engineered wooden
Girder: A beam that carries other beams. I-beams (see fig. 812) and extruded steel I-beams.
Both of these beams have a solid or closed web,
Ledger: A beam attached to a wall column that although small holes can be punched through the
serves as a shelf (ledge) for other beams or neutral plane of the web to accommodate utilities.
building features.
Truss: A truss is an engineered structural element
Joist: A wood or steel beam used to create a floor that uses groups of rigid triangles to distribute and
or roof assembly that supports sheathing or decking. transfer loads. The triangles create an open web
Joists span between primary supporting members space. Trusses are used in lieu of solid beams in
such as foundations, load-bearing walls, or struc- many buildings. Although the initial perception of
tural beams. this definition may seem slightly complex, the basic
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Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

design of a truss is rather simplistic and has been member is called a king post truss, which consists
used in this country since the early 1800s. The basic of two angled supports that intersect a common
concept of the truss is not new, but the materials vertical support (fig. 310B) that is joined to the
that are currently being used in its construction bottom chord.
are new as heavy timbers have been replaced with
lightweight wood and/or metal structural members.
This has resulted in a significant change within the
building industry and has dramatically changed
how many buildings burn and fail when exposed to
heat and/or fire. Because truss construction has, in
many instances, become the norm for many struc-
tural applications, lets take a quick look at the
concept of a truss.

A truss is nothing more than a structure that Fig. 310A . A single triangle is an example of a simple
consists of one or more triangles formed by straight planar truss.
members whose ends are connected at joints that
are referred to as nodes. The triangular configura-
tion is the key to the success of a truss as the struc-
tural stability of the triangular design/shape is the
simplest geometric figure that will not change shape
when subjected to a load if the lengths of the sides
of a truss are fixed to retain its shape. Remember,
the strength of a beam is greatly enhanced by
depththe distance between the top and bottom
chords. Interestingly, it is the depth of a truss (or
the distance between the upper and lower chords) Fig. 310 B. When a single web member is added to a planar
that also results in an efficient structural design. truss, it becomes a king post truss.
However, because the perimeter of a triangle is an
inherently strong shape, it also results in a hollow
Trusses can be built in many configurations
center. As a comparison, a solid beam of equal
using a multitude of materials and shapesand
strength would result in a substantial increase in
with that another set of terms:
weight, size, and costhence the popularity of
modern lightweight truss construction. Triangular truss: The most common type of
truss used to form a peaked roof.
The simplest form of a truss is a planar truss,
which is a single triangle and is comprised of a Parallel chord truss: A parallel chord truss is
bottom chord and two top chords (fig. 310A). In one in which the top and bottom chords run in
this form, the two top chords are in tension and the the same plane. Parallel chord trusses can be
bottom chord is in compression. Triangles (or other engineered where just the top chord is attached
hollow shapes) are labeled as open web. Common to the support (column/other beam) or tradi-
modifications that are used to increase load capaci- tionally resting on the bottom chord. The top
ties and design configurations of a planar truss chord of a parallel truss is loaded in compres-
configuration are to add diagonal and vertical sion and the bottom cord in tension. Parallel
members within the triangular shape. These chord trusses can be manufactured using wood,
members are referred to as truss web members. metal, or a combination of wood and metal.
A simple example of a truss with a single web The term bar truss (or bar joist) refers to steel

35
The Art of Reading Buildings

parallel chord truss assembled with angle iron pilasters for masonry walls to help accept the
for the chords and cold-drawn round billet for lateral forces that may be developed as the live
the web. The pieces are tack-welded together to loads are gained or lost on the roof.
form the truss unit (fig. 311).
Other types of arched roofs existnamely tied-
arch and lamellabut they are not true trusses.
These are covered in chapter 8.

Fire service texts dont always agree on these

descriptions and labels for arched trusses; they
are presented here in a way that helps the fire
officers determine how an arched roof will fail
and the potential for roof and wall collapse. We
include a section titled Historical Perspective on
Arched Trusses to help dissect the terminology
Fig. 311. Metal bar joist trusses enigma. Additionally, figure 312 shows how each
of the arched trusses are supported and the forces
are created.
Arched truss: An arched truss is one where the
top chord is arched and the bottom chord is
straight (horizontal). Arched trusses are often
called bowstring trusses, which could be
Quick summary
confusing when understanding how arched Beams are structural elements that deliver a
trusses fail. Arched trusses can transfer loads load perpendicularly to its imposed load.
to columns in multiple ways, which help us The distance between the top and bottom of a
better label the type of arched truss you may be beam dictates the amount of load it can carry.
dealing with at a structure fire. Arched trusses
can be labeled as rigid arch or bowstring. Beams can be classified by use, shape, arrange-
ment, and/or materials used.
Rigid arch truss: Also known as a rib arch
truss, a rigid arch truss has a curved, self- Lintels are used to span an opening in a load-
supporting top chord (not tied by the bottom bearing wall and can be made from wood, steel,
chord) and horizontal bottom chord along with concrete, or stone.
web members that are all rigidly connected. A truss is a type of beam that uses geometric
The load of the truss is delivered axially shapes to form an open web, and is nothing
downward through the bottom chord and onto more than a structural element that consists of
support walls or columns. These trusses can one or more triangles.
be constructed with steel or heavy timberthe
The hollow shape of a triangle is referred to as
latter creating a very tough roof with predict-
open web.
able fire reaction.
Geometrically configured trusses have largely
Bowstring truss: A tied truss with an arched
replaced sawn lumber when used as struc-
upper chord and a horizontal tension bottom
tural members.
chord that connects the ends of the arched
cord, creating compression in the top chord. Two common arched trusses that can be
Diagonal web members are added to help encountered at structure fires are the rigid arch
transfer loads. The top chord of the truss truss and the bowstring truss.
abuts to the support wall or column. A true
bowstring truss typically requires buttresses or

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Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

Historical Perspective on
Arched Trusses
It is common for firefighters to classify an
arch-shaped roof as a bowstring truss roof.
The reality is that an arched roof can be created
using many different construction methods.
Four notable methods are: bowstring truss,
rigid arch truss, lamella, and tied arch. Each
is unique and can behave differently during
building fires, as described in chapter 8.

So where did the terminology go awry? A

quick historical perspective may answer the
question.

Bridge building in America took on a fevered

pace in the late 1700s and early 1800s. Wood
was abundant. Using the inherent design
strength of arches and trusses, all manner of
wooden bridges were built. Specific bridge
engineering was one of discoverysome
worked, some didnt. Most discovered that
wood had serious drawbacksmostly due to
weather and stress/strain issues.

Innovation continued. Of note is the Pratt

truss, which uses a trapezoidal shape (unequal
parallel chords) and diagonal tension members
between each panel (or section) of the truss.
The timber bridge truss roof construction,
which is presented in chapter 8, was derived
from Pratts design.

Another innovator, Squire Whipple, improved

on Pratts design using wrought iron as diagonal
tension members that cross multiple panels.
Whipple, known as the father of modern bridge
construction, decided that wood was not well
suited for bridge construction and set about
designing and constructing a bridge from cast
Fig. 312. Differences between a rigid arch truss, bowstring and wrought iron. In doing so, he created a
truss, and a tied arch
tied arch truss that used a cast iron arched top
chord that was splayed to receive tensioning

37
The Art of Reading Buildings

rods from a wrought iron bottom chord, which kept the top chord in compression. He reinforced the
design with diagonal tension bars that helped keep tension on the bottom chord. Each side of the top
chord attached to a support abutmenttypically stone or concrete with a cast iron pad. The innovation
was quickly labeled a bowstring truss bridge after the classic archers bow. Thus, the bowstring truss
was born and innovators, wary of Whipples 1841 patent, began to improve the design.1 Bowstring was
all the rage for anything structuralthey looked good, could span distances, and were quite durable.

Applied to buildings, it is important to note that arched roofs of the day were made of cut timber
(fastened with iron pins and plates) using a rigid (non-tied) truss approach. In many ways, these
timber arches were more like Pratts bridge truss in that they relied on a stout bottom chord to sit
on walls and receive the stresses of the top chord and web members. It was quickly discovered that
the wooden bottom chord fatigued from the constant strain, leading to cracks and splits in the wood
(especially after significant snowstorms). A quick remedy was to reinforce the bottom cord with an
iron tie-rod and turnbuckle (much cheaper than replacing the roof) and thus making the rigid truss
a true bowstring. The remedy is still being used today to fix older rigid arch and bowstring trusses.2

Learning the lesson, builders began assembling bowstring trusses using various combinations of wood
and iron (and later steel). The use of bowstring truss roofs was quite prevalent well into the 1950s
especially in warehouse or repair facilities that required open span spaces. Still, rigid arch trusses
and tied arches were being usedespecially the wooden glulam rigid arch truss that was designed
to produce a desired architectural feature that was functional. Modern arched trusses can be found
in two configurations: a bowstring truss where the top chord abuts to the wall with the bottom chord
tied to the top chord, and a rigid arch truss where the bottom chord sits upon the wall.

Connections Pinned connection: Pinned connections are those

that use a screw, nail, nut and bolt, rivet, or
Obviously, structural elements must be connected similar device to pass through the elements being
to one another in such a way to effectively transfer connected. Pinned connections concentrate trans-
loads. Arguably, structural connections can be ferred loads to a single point.
considered one of the most important structural
elements (discussed in the section titled Structural Rigid connection: Materials that are bonded together
Hierarchy). One thing is surethey are small, are considered to be rigidly connected. Examples
low-mass points that must transfer a great deal of include bead welds in steel, glues, poured concrete
force. As we know, low-mass means poor resistance over steel, and the like. Rigid connections tend to
to heat and therefore earlier failure during a fi re. spread transferred loads over a greater area. A spot
For this reason, structural connections are often weld is more of a single point tack and should be
considered one of the weak links in construction. considered a pinned connection.

As can be imagined, connections are subjected Gravity connection: In a gravity connection, mate-
to numerous forces that can include compres- rials rely on the gravitational weight of the upper
sion, tension, and shear. For this reason, steel element to hold them together. Beams that are set
and other metals are the most common materials into a wall pocket on a brick or masonry wall are
used. Generally speaking, there are three types of perhaps the most common gravity connection (see
connections: pinned, rigid, and gravity. the feature block titled Fire Cut Beams). Wood

38
Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

beams/rafters/joists that sit in a brick or stone wall Once a building is finished, it is not evident if
pocket used to be fire cut to help them release fire cut beams exist. From a historical perspective, it
from the wall once they started to sag after fire is also difficult to say if fire cut beams are included
exposure. for any given building. However, in many cases,
exterior tie plates have been installed to tie the floor
beam/joists and/or roof rafters to an exterior wall
Fire Cut Beams to attempt to strengthen these buildings, and they
are normally visible on the exterior (fig. 314). As
Gravity connections were quite prevalent in the a rule, however, firefighters should treat late 1800s
pre-WWI building. Masons would build walls of and early 1900s load-bearing brick and stone build-
brick or cut stone and include pockets for the inser- ings like they have self-releasing floors. Any visual
tion of wooden floor timbers. It was discovered or audible evidence of floor sagging should trigger
during fires that the tight fitting gravity connec- a switch to exterior-only operations.
tion of the wood and masonry had an undesirable
consequence. As the wood floor beam started to
sag during a fire, it exerted upward force on the
wall pocket. Because the wall was designed to only
transfer a downward compressive load, wall failure
ensued. To correct the problem, builders discovered
that a simple diagonal coffer cut on the top side
of the wood beam (where it inserted into the wall
pocket) would help the wood beam release from the
wall if it sagged (fig. 313). This idea was expanded
to include floor joists and roof rafters.

Fig. 314. Visible tie plates indicate the location of floor

beams/joists and roof rafters that are likely fire cut.

Pinned and rigid connections are considered

restrained connectionsmoving forces of one
element are transferred to the other. A gravity
connection is considered unrestrained. A gusset
plate or joist hanger uses small metal teeth to
puncture the wood grain of lumber to form a fric-
tion connection. Technically, these are pinned
connections, although that may be dubious.
Fig. 313. A wall pocket and fire cut beam
Because the teeth dont anchor completely through
wood, they may easily pull out of the wood when
From the builders perspective, this was smart: minimal moving forces are applied. For that
the floor/roof would release and the wall would be reason, firefighters should consider these unre-
saved. Following the fire, a builder could come in strained connections.
and insert new beams into the preserved wall
saving lots of time and money. From a firefighters
perspective, this is a self-releasing floor and/or roof!

39
The Art of Reading Buildings

Structural Assemblies
A structural assembly can be defined as an
engineered collection of interconnected building
components that form a cohesive structural unit
such as a roof or floor. In more simple times, build-
ings were constructed with individual parts that
could stand alone to serve a purpose. In some ways,
older buildings were over-built and had redundancy
in structural elements and therefore more strength. Fig. 315. An assembly-built structure and roof
If one rafter failed, no big dealthe rafters on
each side were still sound. Perhaps the first struc-
tural assembly was the wooden stick-framed wall. Structural assemblies are now commonplace in
Frontiersmen discovered that a series of small new construction. In the context of this chapter,
dimension wall studs attached to a top and bottom structural elements are defined as individual
sill formed a decent wall and used much less wood components. As you can see, structural assemblies
than a log cabin or heavy timber pole barn. are indeed structural elements.

As the world became more industrialized, archi-

tects, engineers, building supply businesses, and Sheathing
financiers realized that there are many ways to
build a building and use less materialand build Sheathing describes all manner of materials
for less cost or for more profit. Engineers met the used to cover or encase walls, ceilings, and roofs
challenge of retaining desired strength by designing of framed structures. It is the first layer of covering
an interdependence system. Building materials for studs, joists, trusses, or rafters. In assembly-
and technologies evolved with this realization and built buildings, sheathing is a structural element
thus gave birth to the concept of assembly-built or that helps lock the framed walls and roofs together.
performance-designed construction. The basics Prior to the assembly-built building, sheathing was
of performance-designed construction is that not considered a structural element although it
individual pieces of an assembly are codependent did add rigidity to a building. Some use the word
on other pieces to form a sound unit. For example, decking or sheeting in place of sheathing.
a single truss must be attached to sheathing that is Technically, decking is the durable cover used to
attached to another truss and another (and so on) to accept loads on floors, and sheeting is typically
form an assembly that meets the strength needs of 4 8 ft sheets of various materials (gypsum, OSB,
a roof or floor. In the case of roofs, the assembly- plywood, etc.). For continuity, we use sheathing to
built evolution allowed house builders to increase describe materials used to encase framed walls,
spacing between trusses provided the trusses were floors, and roofs. Sheathing is usually classified by
all joined by OSB sheathing through an engineered the materials used to create the platform.
staple and/or glue schedule. As an example, the Wood. Wood sheathing can take on many forms.
home under construction in figure 315 has been Plywood and OSB sheets are probably the most
rough framed and then sheathed with in. OSB used forms of wood sheathing. These sheets are
(which will stabilize the framing). The roof trusses glued, nailed, or stapled to the joists below. When
were then placed on top of the walls and are in wood is used as floor sheathing, it is often referred
the process of being tied together with in. OSB to as the subf loor. Subf looring is then covered
sheathing. When finished, the entire building will with some form of durable covering. Tongue and
be stabilized by in. OSB sheathing. grove wood sheathing uses milled lumber planks

40
Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

that connect together by the tongues and groves on Composites. Advances in material technologies
either edge of the wood planks. have led to a plethora of new materials used for
floor and roof sheathing. Cementitious sheathing
Sheathing is also laid perpendicularly or diag- includes panels made from proprietary blends of
onally across joists to assemble the platform concrete dust and a binding agent. They are light-
(fig. 316). In figure 316, notice the 1 6 in. wood weight, quite strong, and noncombustible. Gypsum-
roof sheathing has been installed at a 45 angle to based panels used for sheathing are actually blends
the 1 8 in. rough-cut rafters and the presence of of gypsum with mesh, fibers, or beads that give the
scissor bracing between each rafter (which is used gypsum sheathing strength.
to prevent twisting of the rafters). Diagonal sheath-
ing is stronger than straight sheathing as each piece
of sheathing covers more rafters. Now, compare the Walls
construction in figure 316 to modern lightweight
truss construction and you can see why modern Previously we mentioned that walls built to hold
construction can collapse in less time than older beams and floor or roof assemblies are called load-
conventional construction! The attractive finished bearing or wall columnsa structural element.
wood flooring found in many buildings is not a Walls that are non-load-bearing typically serve
structural element. Finished wood floors act as a to enclose a space and may not be true structural
durable cover over some form of sheathing that elements. Here we define various wall types that
rests on the joists below. are not necessarily structural elements.

Panel wall. A single-story exterior wall used to

enclose a space.

Curtain wall. An exterior wall used to enclose mul-

tiple stories.

Partition wall. A wall used to divide areas or rooms

into smaller areas or to separate one portion of an
area from another and usually not load-bearing.

Party wall. A wall shared by two buildings or two

occupancies within the same building. If the party
wall carries beams or structural assemblies, it is a
Fig. 316. Diagonal roof sheathing structural element.

Shear wall. A reinforcement wall that adds build-

Metal. Thin panels of corrugated metal placed ing stiffness to help resist the impact load of wind.
across joists form a platform known as metal
sheathing. Metal floor sheathing then serves as a Veneer wall. A decorative-only wall added to help
pan for a poured concrete, cementitious, or epoxy- improve the buildings appearance.
resin f loor finish. Metal roof sheathing can be
covered in various ways to achieve a watertight
finish. For example, built-up tar and gravel has
been used for decades. More recently, metal deck
roofs are covered by expanded polystyrene sheets
(for insulation) that are sealed with an imper-
vious membrane.

41
The Art of Reading Buildings

walls). The building is enclosed by panel or curtain

Structural Hierarchy exterior walls.

Together, structural elements defy gravity and Tilt-up. A structure built using prefabricated, load-
make a building sound. During fires, earthquakes, bearing wall sections (typically reinforced concrete)
and other destructive events, the building elements that are tilted upright, then pinned together.
are being challenged to resist attack. When certain
Wall-bearing. A building where beams or roof/
elements fail, other elements may also be affected.
floor assemblies rest on the load-bearing walls (as
This cause and effect sets the stage for the struc-
opposed to posts).
tural hierarchy, a concept that defines the progres-
sive order in which building loads are delivered to These general types of hierarchy are just that
earth. In a sound building, the hierarchy states that general. Firefighters need to classify buildings in a
decking provides a platform for beams to receive much more definitive way. The next chapter does
loads (people, contents, snow, etc.). The beam just that.
delivers the loads to girders. Girders deliver the
loads to columns (posts or load-bearing walls),
and columns deliver loads to the foundation. When
being attacked, the structural elements will fail
Quick summary
in consecutive degrees of severity that follow the Structural connections are considered one of
hierarchy. Following that logic, a failure of the the weak links in construction.
foundation will cause the most severe destruction Connections can be categorized as pinned, rigid,
of the building. Fortunately, foundations are very and gravity.
well protected (buried below grade and contacting
earth). That leaves the columns as perhaps the most Fire cut beams are designed to pull out of a wall
important part of the hierarchy. Granted, a failure during a collapse without forcing the corre-
of sheathing or beam can be severeespecially if sponding wall outward.
youre on it or below it when it falls! A structural assembly is an assembly of
interconnected building components that form a
The structural hierarchy of a building can cohesive structural unit.
be affected by the way structural elements are
constructed. In the next chapter, we look at some The concept of assembly-built relies on
very specific construction methods. Here, we individual pieces that are codependent on other
discuss some general building methods used to pieces to form a sound unit.
create the hierarchy. Structural hierarchy defines the progressive
order that building loads are delivered to earth.
Framed. A building constructed on site one piece
at a timealso known as stick-built. The building
is enclosed by simple siding attached right to
the framing.

Monolithic. A poured-in-place concrete and steel

building that forms a single stone.

Post and beam. The same as a skeletal frame

building.

Skeletal frame. A building constructed with a

series of post columns and beams (no load-bearing

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Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

Chapter Review Exercise

Name the component
In the following photos, provide the correct term for each of the numbered elements.

Photo exercise 31

Element 1 =

Element 2 =

43
The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 32

Element 1 =

Element 2 =

Element 3 =

Element 4 =

44
Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

Photo exercise 33

Element 1 =

Element 2 =

Element 3 =

45
The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 34

Element 1 =

Element 2 =

Element 3 =

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Chapter 3 Anatomy of a buildinga map

Resources for notes

Further Study 1 Guise, David, Abstracts and Chronolog y of
American Truss Bridge Patents, 1817-1900, Society
Introduction to Structural Design, University for Industrial Archeology, 2009, www.sia-web.org.
of Virginia School of Architecture.
2 Gilham, Paul C., Chief Engineer, Bowstring Trusses
Classical Truss Theory, University of Virginia Fail to Meet Current Code Requirements, Western
School of Architecture, http://urban.arch. Wood Structures, Inc., www.westernwoodstructures
virginia.edu. .com.
Hibbeler, Russell Charles, Engineering
Mechanics: Statics, 13th ed., Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2012.
Maginnis, Bernard Owen, Roof Framing Made
Easy, New York: The Industrial Publication
Company, 1903.
Ricker, Nathan Clifford, A Treatise on Design
and Construction of Roofs, New York: J. Wiley
& Sons, 1912.
Structural Building Components Association
(SBCA) website, www.sbcindustry.com.
Thallon, Rob, Graphic Guide to Frame
Construction, 3rd ed., Newtown, CT: Taunton
Press, 2008.

47
CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS
NFPA 220 SYSTEM 4
Objectives
Summarize the various methods of classifying building construction and
discuss the traps in such classifications.
List and describe the structural features of the five classic construction types
found in NFPA 220.

Its Politically Incorrect

to Profile Anything
he previous two chapters were designed to give you an understanding of

T common building engineering principles, the basic parts of a building,

and the language used to identify and communicate the interplay of those
principles and parts. Now, we present the various construction methods used
to assembleand therefore classifya building. The history of construction
methods is one of evolution influenced by myriad factors, including the following:

Fires and fire deaths Population increases

Other natural disasters Occupancy needs
Deterioration and aging Architectural innovation
Economics and profits Material technologies
Politics and codes Engineering advances
Conservation
With so many influences, its easy to imagine that there are multitudes of
construction methods that have led to many building types. For the fire service,
this presents quite a challenge for classifyingor profilingbuildings. This
chapter helps show how building construction methods are classified and dwells

49
The Art of Reading Buildings

a bit on the traps associated with profiling building and improve your ability to apply that information
types. Before we dive in, lets reinforce why this for appropriate strategic and tactical decisions that
chapter is so important. are fundamental to safe and effective suppres-
sion efforts.
As firefighters we must consider the construction
type so we can make judgments regarding strengths
and weakness of the building that can help or
hinder our suppression efforts. As you know, one of
the initial steps in the mitigation of structural fires
is understanding a particular building and/or being
able to conduct a size-up in a rapid, logical manner
that is applicable to a safe and timely conclusion
to the incident. To achieve this familiarization and/
or rapid size-up, firefighters must invest in a three-
step process:

1. Pre-incident study
2. Prefire familiarization of actual buildings
Fig. 41. There is nothing to replace walking through a
3. On-scene pre- and post-incident experience
building and evaluating its applicable characteristics.
This chapter (and subsequent ones) provides the
technical foundation for understanding building
construction methods and features. That is the
pre-incident study in your three-step process.
Additionally, you must gain practical experience
from actually walking through and evaluating
Classifying Buildings
buildings (building familiarization and prefire As we stated above, there have been many
planning). Clearly, there is nothing to replace influences that have led to myriad construction
the personal knowledge gained from a previous methodsyet most fire service curriculums present
building walk-through when involved in an an overly simple system for classifying buildings
attack or search operation inside a building at 2 (the five classic types). We feel this is a trap that can
a.m. (fig. 41)! Finally, you must blend your own lead to an error in reading a building. To address
experience at actual incidents to gain a working the above influences and better classify a building,
knowledge of how buildings are put together, how firefighters should recognize several classification
building construction affects fire and the extension methods to help them better read a building:
of its by-products, and how buildings come apart
during fire conditions. NFPA 220 (the five classic types)

Obviously, the on-scene incident experience Building era (the construction methods used
can be an unpleasant one if sufficient expertise has during a given historical time period)
not been accumulated prior to actual fireground Building occupant use (its intended use)
operations. In this chapter we present some shared
Building size (external and internal)
experiences dealing with various construction
types (from personal and historical archives) to Some may argue that the five types listed in
help those with minimal incident experience. Using NFPA 220 are actually tied to occupancy use
the three-step process above, youll improve your and building size. In fact, that is mostly true for
ability to read a building in a rapid/logical manner a buildingwhen its originally built or when a

50
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

building is renovated or altered using a code/permit accommodating and some not so much. In context,
process. This interplay of size/type/use has evolved the host was built a certain way for a certain use
into a very complex body of codes and standards and size during a certain era. Look at figure 42.
that tell a contractor how a building should be Are you thinking its just a simple house? Youre
built from an occupant life-safety perspective. right. You could even say its a Type V wood frame
The size/type/use code structure has changed over house. However, the good fire officer should view it
timemeaning that the era or time period during as a small, Type V, late-1800s (balloon) wood frame,
which a building was built must be factored. We Cape Cod style, single-family dwelling. Dont get
hope it is obvious that a 1930s Type III building us wrong, you wouldnt want to say all that for
is significantly different from a 1990s Type III. your on-scene radio report! Yet by classifying the
Unfortunately, the street firefighter is rarely house more completely (size/type/era/use), you can
educated in the interplay of size/type/era/use (a engage a given incident with an understanding of
massive body of work). Further, the building classi- the issues that might present themselves.
fications that are presented to firefighters are too
often oversimplified. Most firefighters are taught
the NFPA classification system to help them under-
stand building construction methods. This system
has served the fire service well for many decades.
Having said that, we believe that the oversimplified
use of the five types to classify a building at a 2
a.m. fire can be dangerous!

To substantiate, consider a fire in an NFPA 220,

Type V, wood frame building (the most common
type). Is it 1,100 sq ft or 6,500 sq ft? Is it 1930s or
2010s wood frame? Is it a single-family dwelling or
Fig. 42. A typical small, Type V, late-1800s wood frame,
a budget chain hotel? As an arriving fire officer at
Cape Cod style residence
a structure fire, the specific size, era, and use of the
Type V building is much more meaningful than the
fact that it is a Type V. There are other issues with To better classify buildings and maximize the
the NFPA 220 system. For example, buildings can use of the street guides included in section 3, you
be built that are actually multiple NFPA 220 types need to have a further understanding of the whole
in the same structure, and there are buildings that size/type/era/use relationship. This chapter covers
dont really fit into any of the five types. See the the NFPA 220 classification system. Chapter 5
dangerous trap? discusses the other important classification consid-
erations. Trust us, the investment you make in the
The intent here is to not overwhelm you with
balance of this chapter and chapter 5 will help make
considerationsour whole goal is to show how the
the Rapid Street-Read Guides very useful aids in
evolution of buildings has created the need to look
learning to read buildings.
at them with a better tactical eye. In fact, weve
created some Rapid Street-Read Guides to help
you better classify buildings (in the last section of
the book). In essence, what were proposing here is
that firefighters making strategic/tactical decisions
at structure fires need to consider the building as
their hostthat is, the building is hosting a party
and you are the guest. Some hosts are gracious and

51
The Art of Reading Buildings

actual fires can burn with less or greater heat and/

NFPA 220 Overview: or flame sources, which can dramatically change
the fire resistance rating.
The Five Classic Flame spread rating (FSR). The length of time it
Building Types takes to burn across the surface of a given material
rated in minutes or hours.
As a starting point to reading a building, NFPA
220: Standard on Types of Building Construction Protected. Having a fire resistance rating of at least
provides five major types of building construc- one hour based on its structural elements or protec-
tion classifications that are directly related to tive envelope for the structural elements.
the combustibility and the fire resistance rating Unprotected. A material that when exposed (or can
of a buildings structural elements. Fire walls, be exposed) in its natural state to the effects of heat
nonbearing exterior walls, nonbearing interior and/or fire will cause a degradation of its struc-
partitions, fire barrier walls, shaft enclosures, and tural integrity.
openings in walls-partitions-floors and roofs are
not related to the types of building construction
and are regulated by other standards and codes,
where appropriate.

Before we look at the five NFPA 220 building Numerical designations

classifications, lets briefly consider several defini- NPPA 220 uses a combination of Roman and
tions that are commonly used in this area of Arabic numerals to define five types of building
building construction classifications that are based construction and the fire resistance of their primary
on a combination of combustibility and fire resis- structural components, as shown in figure 43.
tance, and then consider how NFPA 220 designa-
tions are formulated.

Definitions
Combustible. Will burn, flammable.

Limited-combustible. Materials that have about

one-half the heat potential of wood, or not over
3,500 Btu/lb. For comparative purposes, Douglas Fig. 43. NFPA 220 uses a system of numerals to define five
fir equals 8,400 Btu/lb. types of building construction.

Noncombustible. Materials that will not ignite,

burn, support combustion, or release flammable The first designation is a Roman numeral that
vapors when heated. refers to the type of construction (i.e., Type I,
Type II, Type III, Type IV, and Type V). This is
Fire resistance rating (FRR). The length of time to the most common illustration of the system and
burn through a given materialrated in minutes or is detailed in the next section.
hours. It is important to remember that this rating
Following the Roman numerals are three Arabic
is derived in a laboratory setting with a predeter-
numbers in parentheses that indicate the fire
mined heat/flame source. However, remember that
resistance of the exterior bearing walls, struc-
tural frame, and floor construction.

52
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

In figure 43, Type I refers to fire resistive

construction. The first number (3) indicates a
Type I (442 or 332):
fire resistance of 3 hours for the exterior bearing Fire resistive construction
walls, the second number (3) indicates a fire
Shall be those types in which the fire walls,
resistance of 3 hours for the structural frame,
structural elements, walls, arches, f loors,
and the third number (2) indicates a fire resis-
and roofs are of approved noncombustible or
tance of the floor construction of 2 hours.
limited-combustible materials.
Normally, as the Roman numerals increase,
the hourly ratings decrease, and as the Arabic Of the five types of construction, Type I can be
numbers decrease (from 4 to 0), so does the considered as the most fire resistive type because
fire resistance. all of the structural members must be constructed
from noncombustible materials such as reinforced
The following numerical combinations are
concrete and protected steel. Reinforced concrete
normally linked with the Roman numerals:
is a noncombustible material and provides thermal
Type I (442 or 332) protection to the steel reinforcing rebar within the
Type II (222, 111, or 000) concrete. Steel framing, however, must be protected
from heat to yield the appropriate fire resistive
Type III (211 or 200) qualities that are mandatory within this classifica-
Type IV (2HH, where H indicates heavy tion. Protection of steel structural members can be
timber) achieved by four methods, as listed below (fig. 44).
Type V (111 or 000)

Remember that any system will have its

strengths and areas that need improvement, which
specifically applies to this system. As an example,
one strength of NFPA 220 is that the system
provides a simple way to classify buildings in five
areas of consideration. It can also provide a struc-
tured outline that can be used for prefire planning
operations to familiarize personnel with a building
and its structural strengths and weaknesses, areas
of construction that enhance the extension of fire
and smoke, and so on. One noteworthy area of Fig. 44. Protection of steel structural members can be
weakness that should be remembered is that while achieved by four methods.
Type III through Type V buildings can normally be
easily identified from the street, Type I and Type II 1. Steel is enclosed in fire-resistive concrete.
buildings can only be identified from the interior
of a building, if at all. Now, with the preceding 2. Steel is enclosed in gypsum board.
overview of how NFPA 220 works, lets look at the 3. A coating material (e.g., vermiculite with a
five types of construction. cement binder, etc.) is sprayed on the steel. This
is a very common method and is illustrated in
figure 45.
4. An intumescent fire resistant coating is applied
to the steel. These coatings are applied like
paint, are about 0.5 in. thick, will expand about

53
The Art of Reading Buildings

15 to 30 times during a fire, and are designed to Primary hazard. Compared to the other four clas-
provide insulation to steel in the event of a fire. sifications of NFPA buildings, Type I buildings are
This coating has become a popular fire resistive the most resistive to fire and collapse due to their
option when steel structural members must be masonry and protected steel structural members.
exposed and concrete and/or sprayed cementi- The primary hazard is in the contents within the
tious materials are not viable options. building. Therefore, the type of buildingresi-
dential or commercialwill begin to assist the
incident commander to establish initial priorities.
Nevertheless, there are certain inherent attri-
butes that will enhance and spread the exten-
sion of smoke, heat, and fire within these types
of buildings.

Open areas. Open areas are the enemy of compart-

mentalization as they allow minimal restrictions to
the extension of fire and its by-products. Normally,
the type of building is a good indicator of a partic-
ular floor plan. As an example, hotels and other
types of residential occupancies are partitioned for
Fig. 45. Type I classification requires steel structural beams each unit, which will tend to confine fire as opposed
are protected with some type of fire protection measure such
to open areas as often found in some commercial
as a spray-on coating.
(e.g., warehouse) occupancies. Additionally, older
buildings tend to be more open than newer build-
This type of construction can be often found ings, which often favor compartmentalization.
in conventional and modern mid- to high-rise
Concrete spalling and heat retention. Depending
buildings (commercial and residential), hospitals,
on the length and severity of fire, concrete can offer
schools, shopping centers, airports, and other
several significant challenges. First, concrete can
similar types of large buildings that often are
retain a significant amount of heat and then radiate
associated with public assembly. As an example,
that heat back into the structure, making tena-
figure 46 illustrates a modern multistory office
bility difficult for attack and overhaul operations.
building that was constructed with a protected steel
Secondly, as there is some moisture in concrete,
structural frame and noncombustible walls, floors,
heat from a fire can cause the moisture to expand
and roof structural members (although the roof is
and rupture the concrete, and in some cases expose
commonly covered with combustible materials).
the rebar within the concrete causing a further
weakening. This is noted in the case study of the
Central Library fire in Los Angeles presented later
in this chapter.

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems

(HVAC). Although heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning systems are primarily responsible for
keeping the interior of these buildings comfort-
able in various types of weather, they can also be a
significant hazard as the ducting travels throughout
numerous areas, including walls, multiple floors,
Fig. 46. A modern multistory office building of Type I
construction and other similar areas. Once this ducting (which

54
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

can be quite large depending on the system) has allows the exterior of a building to be completed in
been breached with fire and/or heat and smoke, the a rapid manner and accomplishes two goals. One,
ducting can easily allow extension to other parts of a the exterior of the building has a finished appear-
building that would otherwise not be an immediate ance, and two, the exterior now provides protection
concern. This is noted in the following case study to workers on the interior of the building. Typically,
of the First Interstate fire in Los Angeles. This is the primary steel structural beams are erected, and
a primary reason why HVAC systems should be if a Type I classification is desired, the beams are
turned off in the initial stages of an incident in these protected by one of the four previously mentioned
buildings. Remember that some buildings such as methods (see fig. 44). Then, metal hangars are
motels and hotels can use individual air condi- attached to the exterior of the steel structural
tioners/heaters for each occupancy, and thus do not beams. Lastly, glass, tile, aluminum panels, slate,
require a large, comprehensive HVAC system that concrete, or other similar decorative panels are
travels throughout a building in order to maintain attached to the metal hangars. As a result, there
the interior environment. Common hallways and is a 3 in. to 4 in. gap between the metal hangars
lobby areas, however, may be serviced by a single and steel structural members (unless sealed) that
system. not only allows the upward travel of air within the
building (assisting the HVAC system), but also
Interstitial areas. For this discussion, interstitial allows fire and its by-products to extend vertically.
areas (see fig. 712) are created by false floors and
suspended ceilings that create voids above and/or Center core/center hallway floor plans. To be able
below personnel, and greatly increase the potential to evaluate potential access and egress routes for
extension of fire and its by-products. These areas firefighters and occupants, it is important to know
are not often found in older buildings (unless they the primary floor plan of a building. Type I build-
have been renovated), but are common in modern ings normally fall into three categories: center
buildings. False floors are often found in commer- hallway, center core, or a combination of center
cial buildings that house electronic equipment and core/center hallway configurations.
computers. A false floor is one that is constructed
above the structural floor, usually to allow wires Center hallway configurations have a stair shaft
and cables to be out of sight. Obviously, these voids at either end of the building that is common to the
can enhance the extension of fire, and fires in this hallways in the building (visible on the end of the
type of concealed space are capable of producing multiple-story building in figure 46).
a significant amount of smoke from plastics Conversely, center core configurations will place
(electrical insulation). the elevators, stairs, and other necessary essen-
More familiar to firefighters are the ever present tials in a central core in the middle of a building,
suspended ceilings that are used to create the with the hallways on each floor arranged around
desired ceiling height and an attractive appearance. the central core (these are referred to as circuit
This also creates a void above the visible ceiling hallways). Combination configurations are often
that can hide HVAC ducting and wiring, and found in larger buildings and can have a center core
enhance the extension of fire and its by-products. with stairways, and hallways that are common to
This hazard can also be quickly magnified by the stair shafts at the ends of a building.
ceiling collapsing in a fire, exposing the wires that Always be familiar with or able to quickly
support the ceiling that can easily entangle fire determine the best points for access and egress of
suppression personnel. personnel and occupants, as well as any vertical
Curtain wall construction. Curtain wall construc- openings that can enhance the extension of fire and
tion is a relatively new method of construction that its by-products.

55
The Art of Reading Buildings

Shafts. Always be aware of any shafts such as use wood as the primary material for doors, door
elevator shafts, zero-clearance fireplaces, pipe alleys, jambs, and door frames that in most cases can be
poke-through construction, dumbwaiters, and trash adequately forced with common forcible entry
chutes that can enhance extension of fire and its tools. Newer buildings routinely use metal doors
by-products. When evaluating vertical stair shafts, in metal frames that can be more challenging
determine whether or not the shaft accesses the roof. with conventional forcible entry methods. Some
Stair shafts that do not access a roof can be difficult of the most challenging buildings are commercial
to ventilate and keep clear of smoke and heat! residential buildings (e.g., hotels and motels) that
are compartmentalized, where each unit has a fire-
Forcible entry. Depending on the t y pe of rated door of heavy construction and each door is
building, access throughout these buildings can equipped with multiple locks. Unless a master key
be challenging. As an example, older buildings

Case Studies: Type I Buildings

First Interstate BuildingLos Angeles, CA
In 1988, first arriving companies found the 12th and 13th floors fully involved in the 62-story, First Interstate
high-rise building, with fire extending upward at a rapid rate. The fire ultimately consumed floors 12 to 16,
took over 3 hours to control, and burned about 45 minutes per floor with temperatures estimated at 2,000F.
After the fire was extinguished, the following factors were noted (in no particular order):

The structural steel had been coated with a vermiculite type material, which was successful in
protecting the coated steel. After the fire, the interior of the building was cleared of all debris, repaired,
and the exterior aluminum decorative material replaced. The building then reopened for business.
Fire had extended up a portion of the HVAC system and started a fire in a storeroom on the 27th floor.
Fortunately, the fire self-extinguished due to a lack of oxygen.
Fire extended vertically from five different avenues: (1) lapping (autoexposure), (2) curtain wall
construction, (3) HVAC system, (4) poke-through construction, and (5) radiated heat through the floors.
Typical with fires in multistory buildings, the higher the fire above the ground, the more difficult and
time intensive it will be to place sufficient resources at the floor(s) of involvement for extinguishment and
search operations.

Central LibraryLos Angeles, CA

In 1986, first arriving companies to the Central Library building in downtown Los Angeles initially found
only a very slight odor of smoke. Further investigation found a well-developed fire in a room that was in
the process of being extended within the building. The building was built in 1926 and was constructed of
reinforced concrete walls, floors, and roof. The fire burned for over 7 hours and was responsible for an
immense amount of damage to the contents of the library. After the fire was extinguished, the following
factors were noted (in no particular order):

Due to the length of the fire, there was significant spalling to the concrete that was in direct contact
with fi re. Although collapse of the building was not a consideration, the significant damage to the
concrete did expose the metal rebar.

56
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

is available, forcing entry into each unit will at best modern HVAC systems) and are normally tempered
be time consuming and difficult. glass, which can be difficult to break unless specific
methods are used.
Ventilation. Vertical ventilation in multistory build-
ings can be demanding unless the fire is on the Identification. Type I buildings can be a benefit
top f loor. Horizontal ventilation, however, can to fireground personnel due to the fire resis-
be simplified in multistory buildings by using tive properties that are inherent to this type of
windows. In older buildings, windows are often building. However, unless responding personnel
openable and made with plate or annealed glass, are familiar with a particular building, it will be
which can be easily broken. In newer buildings, virtually impossible to determine from the street if
often referred to as sealed buildings, windows are a building that appears to be a Type I or II incorpo-
not openable (natural ventilation is replaced by rates protection for its structural members.

Due to the radiated heat and lack of sufficient ventilation within the building, temperatures were
estimated to have exceeded 2,000F. This resulted in lengthy and cumbersome attack operations and
also required the replacement of attack crews every 15 minutes for rehab considerations.
As there were few windows in the building, vertical ventilation consisted of using jackhammers to
open holes in the concrete roof. This was a slow and arduous process but was somewhat successful.
A fire that should have been extinguished in 2 to 3 hours took over 7 hours and required a consider-
able amount of resources!

Railroad Freight WarehouseFort Worth, TX

On April 14, 1992, resources from the Forth Worth Fire Department responded to a structure fire in the
vacant Texas & Pacific Railroad freight warehouse that resulted in five alarms being utilized to extinguish
the fire. The eight-story building with a basement covered over three city blocks, was constructed in 1905,
and was constructed of reinforced slab floors supported by concrete columns and masonry nonbearing
exterior walls. The following is a summary of the lessons learned or reinforced:

The large fire was primarily a result of burning debris that had accumulated in the building. This fire
never posed a significant risk of structural collapse despite the heavy fire conditions on arrival. The
greater danger to firefighters came from spalling concrete and radiated heat.
When buildings become unsecured, all floors must be searched during a fi re for possible trapped
occupants. Search and rescue operations were time consuming due to the size of the structure.
Open elevator doors on different floors posed a severe threat to fi refighting and rescue operations,
particularly in minimal visibility.
This fire clearly demonstrated the importance of protecting vertical openings in a multistory building.
On the sixth floor and especially on the eighth floor, where elevator doors were open, heavy smoke
quickly entered these floors and made conditions untenable for any occupants. Also, on the eighth
floor, an open door to a stairwell allowed smoke to enter the stairwell and make conditions in the upper
portions of the stairwell untenable.

57
The Art of Reading Buildings

construction, where protected steel can be a benefit

Quick summary during a fire, unprotected steel in Type II build-
ings can be a significant detriment during a fire, as
Firefighters must be familiar with the buildings in unprotected steel that is exposed to heat can soften,
their area of responsibility in order to achieve a expand, and fail even though the steel members can
relevant building size-up at structural incidents. be quite large. From a structural perspective, this
The ability to read a building can be enhanced by correlates to faster failure rates for unprotected
a working knowledge of NFPA 220 and the era/ structural components when they are exposed to fire
use/size/type classification methods. and/or heat as compared to protected steel components.
In this chapter, the five building classifications of Typically, these buildings are characterized by
NFPA 220 that are summarized are Type I, II, III, (1) concrete tilt-up slabs or concrete block walls
IV, and V. Era, use, type, and size are covered in that support an unprotected metal roof structure,
chapter 5. (2) unprotected steel frame components that are
Type I construction is defined as fire resistive enclosed by concrete tilt-up slabs or block walls,
construction and is the most fire resistive type (3) an unprotected steel frame that is enclosed or
of construction. surrounded by metal exterior walls, and (4) other
similar variations. The steel structural components
Type I consists of protected steel frame and
are characterized by unprotected steel beams and
noncombustible walls, floors, and roof struc-
girders that also typically support unprotected open
tural members.
web bar joists that are covered by an unprotected
The primary hazard is the interior contents. metal deck built-up roof (fig. 47). The roof may be
Common hazards are open areas, spalling of covered with combustible materials such as tar and
concrete, HVAC systems, interstitial areas, center felt/tar paper. Although the unprotected steel struc-
core/center hallway floor plans, interior shafts, tural components are a significant hazard during
and curtain wall construction. a fire, the combustible materials that comprise the
roof in combination with the contents within the
Similar to Type II buildings, it can be difficult building are the principal hazards.
to identify the presence of protected struc-
tural members in a Type I building.

Type II (222, 111, or 000):

Noncombustible construction
Shall be those types in which the fire walls,
structural elements, walls, arches, f loors,
and roofs are of approved noncombustible or
limited-combustible materials.

As a starting point for this classification, notice

this NFPA definition is the same as the Type I
NFPA definition except the fire resistance require-
ments are far less stringent as evidenced by the
Fig. 47. Type II construction is characterized by unprotected
lower numbers highlighting the definition. This
steel beams and girders supporting an unprotected metal
is a direct result of the steel structural compo- deck built-up roof.
nents being unprotected. As opposed to Type I

58
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

As Type I and Type II buildings can be very tilt-up or precast configuration, it can present a
similar except for the presence or absence of considerable barrier to expanding steel struc-
protection for primary steel structural members tural members. Therefore, when steel structural
and roof systems, the previous hazards delineated members are embedded into the concrete and
under Type I buildings can also apply to Type II are exposed to heat from a fire, they expand
buildings. However, there are several noteworthy outward, forcing the concrete slab(s) outward.
hazards that should be considered when confronted Although collapse of concrete tilt-up/precast
by Type II buildings. wall construction is not a common occurrence,
it has happened as discussed in the following
Steel. Although unprotected steel is a strong case studies.
structural material that has widespread use by the
building industry for its ability to support a signifi- Contents. The primary hazard to the unprotected
cant amount of weight, it also has a consistently steel in these buildings is the contents within the
poor record in fires as it can twist, sag, and/or building and their proximity to the steel structural
collapse when exposed to heat. members (fig. 48). It is no great revelation to
modern firefighters that the contents within modern
Wall collapse. Typically, exterior walls fall into buildings normally consist of synthetic materials
three general classifications: unreinforced masonry, (petrochemical-based compounds) that burn
reinforced masonry, and tilt-up or precast. hotter and faster than the conventional materials
of yesterday (cellulose-based materials). An initial
Unreinforced masonry (URM) construction
concern should be the type of occupancy and/or the
that is comprised only of bricks and lime and
type of content it houses.
sand mortar is not a sound structural type
of construction. As delineated in following
chapters, this type of construction is no longer
used and for good reason, as it is prone to
collapse in a fire. Of the three types of exterior
walls in this discussion, URM construction is
the most susceptible to collapse from expanding
and failing steel structural members, and can
easily collapse outward twice its height.
Modern masonry construction is not as willing
a candidate for inward or outward collapse as
URM. Modern masonry is comprised of either
concrete cinder block (reinforced and with cells
filled with concrete) construction or post-1935
brick construction that utilizes rebar, steel, and
Portland cement as mortar. Fig. 48. Building contents that are in close proximity to
Tilt-up concrete slab or precast wall construc- steel structural members can create a significant hazard to
tion that is comprised of solid concrete slabs can unprotected structural members.
present an interesting dilemma and is summa-
rized by two perspectives. The first perspec-
tive is that concrete is strong and can resist the
effects of fire longer than most other building
materials, and therefore is used in exterior
walls for its strength and durability. The second
perspective is that when concrete is used in a

59
The Art of Reading Buildings

Case Studies: Type II Buildings

Hydra-Matic FireLivonia, MI
Although there have been many fi res in Type II buildings that have been primarily lost as a result of
a rapidly extending overhead fi re in a metal deck built-up roof, the most noteworthy is the legendary
Hydra-Matic fi re in Livonia, Michigan that completely destroyed the plant that produced Hydra-Matic
transmissions for General Motors. To this day, the fire is still characterized as the worst industrial fire
in American history, and the worst dollar loss in the history of the auto industry. In 1953, a small fi re
started outside the plant in a flammable rust inhibitor that quickly spread to the interior and the roof with
devastating speed and disastrous results. Once the fire extended to the combustible roof, it quickly traveled
across the roof in all directions and also enhanced the interior fire, engulfing the entire 1.5 million sq ft
plant in minutes. Numerous fire departments were called to the fire, but to no avail as the combination of
the interior and exterior fire were too much for resources. The primary hazards with this type of roof are
the ability of fire to travel and the possibility of collapse. Fire can readily extend between the corrugated
metal decking and the insulation/tar paper layers, and the metal bar joist roof is susceptible to weakening
and collapse from the roof fire.

MGM Grand FireLas Vegas Strip, NV

In 1980, a fire at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, a 26-story luxury resort, was respon-
sible for the deaths of 85 people, primarily from smoke inhalation. An electrical fire in a restaurant on
the second floor started at 7 a.m. and quickly spread throughout the second floor. However, the primary
hazard was the extension of smoke to upper floors. Shafts such as elevators, stairwells, seismic joints,
and faulty smoke dampers within the HVAC system and associated ducting allowed the smoke to rapidly
extend to the top floor of the building. Interestingly, only one person died from burns from the fire, the rest

A residential or commercial residential occu- Extension of fire and its by-products. Although
pancy will have a reduced fire load and more the extension of fi re and its by-products is always
compartmentalization as compared to a commercial a consideration in single-story buildings, it should
business type occupancy that will likely have more be a primary consideration in multistory buildings,
open spaces and a higher fire load. Remember that particularly residential and commercial residential
the name on the exterior of a commercial building buildings. Although fire and heat can weaken and
is a great indicator of the contents within a build- cause collapse of unprotected structural members,
ing. Moreover, always try to visualize the distance it is smoke that is predominantly responsible for
from the grade floor to the ceiling of the building, the deaths of occupants within these buildings.
as higher ceilings/roofs will be farther away from Remember from the previous discussion in Type
the burnable contents (also consider the increase of I buildings that extension of smoke is enhanced by
contents during special holidays such as Christmas, poke-through construction, vertical shafts, curtain
etc.). Lastly, remember that the type of contents, wall construction, and HVAC systems. Some
their flammability, and their distance from the steel examples of this dilemma are the fi res that have
structural components and supports also applies to occurred in the numerous high-rise hotels in Las
racked or tiered storage, which can be a significant Vegas and are detailed in these case studies.
hazard to attack personnel and overhaul operations!

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Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

were from smoke inhalation, many of them in their sleep. There have been other similar fires in Las Vegas
hotels (e.g., Sahara fire1964, Caesars Palace fire1981, Hilton fire1981, and Bellagio fire2008) that
were also complicated by the vertical extension of smoke. This illustrates the importance of evaluating
the upward extension of smoke and the status of HVAC systems.

Vacant Warehouse FireClark County, NV

In 2007, the Clark County Fire Department (NV) responded to smoke showing from a large vacant
warehouse building. While initial resources were involved in forcible entry operations, the fire quickly
accelerated to the point that fire was now showing from the roof. About this time, a firefighter noticed
a bow in the north wall that resulted in an immediate withdrawal of personnel away from the building.
Within seconds the roof collapsed, pulling the north wall into the building (this collapse happened less
than 15 minutes from the time of the alarm). Seconds later, part of the west wall collapsed outward.

The following is an overview of lessons learned as reported by the Clark County Fire Department.

Tilt-slab construction is dangerous in our view, because it relies on intact building components
for stability. Generally speaking, wall sections that are attached to the roofing systems usually fall
inward as the roof system fails and the trusses pull the sections in. Walls that run parallel or are
not attached to the roofing system are a 50/50 guess at best. Never expect these wall panels to fall
inward! Three connector plates, all of which failed, attached each of this structures parallel wall
sections to the slab. Three similar connector plates on each side connected each wall section to its
adjoining sections. Several of these connections were pulled completely from the point in which they
were embedded in the wall system. Any fire in a tilt-up building presents a collapse potential from
the onset. This building collapsed in less than 15 minutes, and it involved minimal live-fire loading.
The fuel was primarily the building structure in the form of the roofing system, which consisted of
wood composite I-beams, sheathing, and general roof-finishing materials.

Quick summary
Type II construction is defined as noncombustible construction and is a
direct result of the steel structural components being unprotected.
The fire resistance requirements for Type II construction are far less
stringent than Type I construction.
Type I hazards also apply to Type II construction, except this construction
will collapse at a faster rate due to unprotected structural members.
The primary hazards are the presence of unprotected steel structural
components and the interior contents.
Similar to Type I buildings, it can be difficult to determine the presence of
protected or unprotected structural members from the exterior.

61
The Art of Reading Buildings

Type III (211 or 200): However, Type III buildings are also being
constructed today, such as the modern strip mall
Ordinary construction or mini-mall. Although these buildings typically
have concrete floors, they also can have concrete
Shall be that type in which exterior walls
block exterior walls (noncombustible) and interior
and structural elements that are portions of
wood walls (combustible), and trussed roof assem-
exterior walls are of approved noncombus-
blies that also act as ceiling structural members
tible or limited-combustible materials, and in
(combustible). Because there are a wide variety of
which fire walls, interior structural elements,
buildings that can fall into this classification, lets
walls, arches, floors, and roofs are entirely
consider some structural considerations that are
or partially of wood of smaller dimensions
common in Type III buildings.
than required for Type IV construction or
are of approved noncombustible, limited- Construction. When considering the numerous
combustible, or other approved combus- types and methods of construction that have been
tible materials. utilized in these buildings, it must be remembered
that they have been built from the 1800s to the
Type III buildings typically consist of exterior
present day. Therefore, the era of a building can
walls (load-bearing) that are constructed of noncom-
often give important clues to the type of inte-
bustible materials such as concrete block, brick, or
rior construction. From a simplistic perspective,
a combination of steel studs with an exterior brick
construction methods that were employed up until
veneer. The interior is constructed from combus-
the 1940s often used solid concrete exterior walls
tible wood components (i.e., walls, floors, ceilings)
and a heavy and/or substantial size and grade of
and supporting structural members. A common
lumber for the interior of the building. Exceptions
reference to this type of construction is Main Street
to this generalization are the URM that was used
USA and brick and joist construction, which tends
for exterior walls until the mid-1930s and renova-
to denote a wide variety of older construction such
tions that typically used lightweight components to
as taxpayer type buildings (fig. 49) and multistory
alter interior floor plans.
residential (hotel) buildings.
Type III buildings constructed after the 1940s
and 1950s typically used cinderblock walls,
brick masonry that is not classified as URM, and
other forms of substantial masonry construction.
However, as the age of these buildings decrease
(closer to modern times), so does the size and
the length of time the interior structural compo-
nents will last when exposed to fire. In summary,
geometry and glue has often replaced size and
nails/bolts/steel plates and conventional lumber.

Vertical extension. Although horizontal extension

is a real concern in any type of structure, particu-
Fig. 49. Taxpayer type buildings are representative of Type
larly structures with minimal compartmentaliza-
III construction.
tion, vertical extension of fire and its by-products
is a primary problem in multistory buildings,
especially Type III commercial residential build-
ings (fig. 410). Vertical extension has proven to
be a major contributor to the loss of life that has

62
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

typically been remote from the point of origin of The hotel suffered a fire which started on
a fire. the sixth floor and spread rapidly through the
hallways and staircases, killing 28 people.
Although the hotel was supposed to be fireproof,
synthetic carpeting, painted doors and frames
and open stairways fueled the spread of fire.
Pioneer International Hotel
In these multistory buildings (most of which
were Type III buildings), fires were escalated by
vertical extension via shafts, which can be summa-
rized as follows:

Stairways
Elevator shafts

Fig. 410. Vertical extension can be a significant problem in Pipe chases and dumbwaiters
multistory commercial residential buildings. Light shafts
Seismic joints
As an example, the National Fire Protection
Cocklofts, attics, truss lofts. These three terms
Association (NFPA) has documented several dozen
are also defined in chapter 8, but we introduce their
hotel fires that date from the 1930s to the 1980s
definitions here for clarity.
that have been responsible for over 10 deaths per
incident. Hotel fires such as the Kerns Hotel (32 Cockloft. A small space that is created when
deaths), La Salle Hotel (61), Canfield Hotel (19), a roof is raised above the level of ceiling joists
Winecoff Hotel (119), Hotel Roosevelt (22), Ozark and rafters to provide a pitch for drainage.
Hotel (20), the Ponet Hotel (19), and others have Cocklofts are common in older buildings (1800s
clearly demonstrated the dangers of vertical exten- and early 1900s) and are normally of conven-
sion via open stairways to upper floors in these tional construction.
buildings. The same is true in other types of build-
Attic. A large space that is created by a steep
ings that incorporate open stairways. This is best
pitched roof (arch, gable, etc.) for drainage
illustrated by the following summaries:
and/or appearance. Depending on the type of
The fire quickly spread through the highly construction, attics are normally large enough
varnished wood paneling in the lounge and for storage, can be modified for additional living
mezzanine balcony before ascending stairwells space, and can contain HVAC equipment.
and shafts. La Salle Hotel Truss loft. An attic space created by the open
Contributing factors that added to the severity web nature of trusses. The voids that are located
of this incident were delayed alarms, open between roof rafters and ceiling joists are noth-
stairwells, and the presence of combustible ing more than an open area that can allow fire to
materials. Canfield Hotel easily extend in numerous directions.
The fire started in the lobby and spread An advantage of attics and cocklofts that are of
through two stairways and all the halls, killing older conventional construction is that the size
20 people. The cause of death was smoke inhala- of the structural members (rafters and joists)
tion. Ozark Hotel will resist the effects of fire for longer periods
of time as compared to newer lightweight truss

63
The Art of Reading Buildings

construction. Conversely, when truss lofts are Remember that alterations typically result in
created by modern lightweight construction that voids and concealed spaces that were not a part of
is either secured by gang-nail plates or glue, rapid the original building and design criteria. Voids can
collapse can be expected when these structural be created by the following examples:
members are exposed to fire and/or sufficient heat.
In either case, the presence of division walls can Construction designs such as knee walls, like
effectively compartmentalize these areas if they those created when an attic is framed for a room
have not been breached. It should be noted that (see fig. 928)
older division walls stand a greater chance of not Suspended/dropped ceilings that create a void
being secure due to renovations or modifications (often quite large) between the ceiling and the
made by plumbers, electricians, or other trades- floor/roof above
people. However, newer division walls can also be
Voids created by pipe chases
unsecured for the same reasons.
Zero-clearance fireplaces
The preceding three voids can also present a
Soffits
noteworthy concern when they are common to
multiple occupancies such as mini-malls, row A good example of a pipe chase is one created by
houses, and so on. Fire that extends into a common stacked kitchens and baths. (In multistory build-
attic can easily run the entire attic and expose ings, these areas are commonly stacked on top of
other occupancies (that are common to the attic) each other to minimize plumbing considerations.)
unless fireground personnel pull ceilings ahead of
Parapet walls. A parapet wall is nothing more than
an extending fire and extinguish the fire back to its
a continuation of a wall above a roofline, and can
source point of origin.
extend from 1 ft to 8 ft, depending on the occupancy
Alterations and concealed spaces/voids. and type of wall. Hazards associated with these
Alterations are commonly used to change and/ type of walls include the following examples.
or improve the appearance of the exterior of a
Buildings constructed with concrete tilt-up slabs,
building and/or the existing floor plan, particularly
which are normally higher than the roofline.
in older buildings. However, these modernization
Although stability of the parapet wall is not a
techniques can increase the potential of concealed
concern, these parapet walls normally encircle
spacesvoids that were not originally present
the entire building. This is capable of hiding the
and can also significantly weaken a portion of the
roofline below the parapet wall (which is neces-
original design of a particular building. Examples
sary to know if personnel are going to the roof)
of alterations include the following:
and hiding the type of roof (flat, arch, etc.). In
If the exterior appearance has been changed this case, the presence of scuppers will indicate
(i.e., updated), assume the interior has also the hidden roofline (see fig. 921).
been modified. Modern masonry walls can be constructed
If the type of occupancy has been changed (e.g., from cinderblock/concrete block construction
a commercial warehouse converted into condo- or modern brick construction that incorpo-
miniums), expect the interior to be dramatically rates similar concerns as concrete tilt-up slabs.
different and will likely employ lightweight Stability of this type of construction is normally
construction. not a concern.
If an older building has been enlarged/added on Unreinforced masonry construction is markedly
to, expect the use of lightweight construction different from the two previous examples and
and nonstandard floor plans. can present a noteworthy hazard to fireground
personnel. The lack of sufficient Portland cement

64
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

and rebar plus the deterioration of mortar due cover the underside of the roof boards for a finished
to age combine to result in a weak freestanding appearance.
wall above the roofline that is either an exten-
sion of the wall it is on, or is supported by a
steel I-beam that is embedded in the wall below
the parapet wall. Depending on the age of the
building, this type of wall is often capped by
coping stones that have lost their adhesive
connection through age and weather and are
only attached by gravity (see fig. 920). These
conditions present an extension of an exterior
wall (normally the front and side walls) that can
readily collapse during fire conditions and/or
when struck by heavy streams.
Cornices. Cornices can be categorized by old and
new construction (cornices are also described
in chapter 9). In new construction, cornices are Fig. 411. Many cornices are not of substantial construction
often nothing more than rigid foam that is glued and can create a collapse hazard to fireground personnel.
to a building and plastered over to give an accept-
ably pleasing appearance at a moderate cost (see
Age and weather is an enemy to both stone and
fig. 919). However, two major problems should
wood/metal cornices in that it can loosen the stone
be considered:
and degrade the wood or metal. Additionally, the
They will not support the weight of personnel wood cornice can conceal a void area behind or
and aerial devices. above it that allows the extension of fire to other
areas, either on the exterior or to the interior of the
They can be flammable, as graphically demon-
building. Any type of cornice should be considered
strated in the Monte Carlo Hotel fire in Las
an unstable component of a building and should not
Vegas in 2008. At this incident, a fire started
be used to support the weight of an aerial device
on the roof and quickly extended to the foam
or personnel.
cornice around the top of the hotel. Due to its
flammability, the fire quickly grew in intensity Previous fires. A subtle but not a readily visible
and then extended into the top floor, creating a consideration is the possible damage done by
major fire. previous fires, particularly in older buildings,
Cornices constructed on older buildings are that resulted in repairs of less integrity than the
dramatically different in that they are often an original construction. Although this consideration
integral part of the construction and made from also applies to floors and walls, roofs are a common
substantial materials. For example, some cornices example where a fire has destroyed conventional
made from stone (also known as stone corbel- roof rafters of 2 6 in. or larger and then the
ling) rest atop the load-bearing wall or parapet burned area has been replaced by smaller members
using mortar for a solid connection. Some wood or lightweight construction.
or metal cornices were made by creating lets As an example, look at figures 412 and 413. In
in the exterior wall, inserting short but visible figure 412, the older unreinforced masonry build-
supports for the cornice, and extending roof boards ings on the left and right originally had bowstring
over the exterior wall and false visible supports roofs and looked virtually identical from Side A.
(fig. 411). This type of cornice often used tin to However, a fire in the left building that destroyed the

65
The Art of Reading Buildings

original arched roof resulted in a replacement roof of

lightweight panelized construction. The lightweight
construction on the left looks quite different from
the arched roof on the right building. In figure 413,
notice the different patches of composition roofing
that cover lightweight construction used to replace
the older conventional construction. Fireground
personnel should always be on the lookout for
similar examples that have reduced the integrity of
the original construction and, when visible, notify
appropriate personnel in a timely manner.

Fig. 413. Visible modifications to a roof are an indicator of

repairs that may not be to the same standard or strength of
the original roof.

Facades. Like cornices, facades may conceal voids

that can easily allow the extension of fire. For
detailed information about facades, see chapter 9.
Fig. 412. A style of roof that is not appropriate for the age
of a building can be an indicator of a replacement roof.

Case Study: Type III Building

Cugees Restaurant Los Angeles, CA
On January 28, 1981, at 3:33 a.m., the Los Angeles Fire Department responded to Cugees restaurant
with smoke and fire visible in the interior of the building. The building was constructed in 1935, and
had an unreinforced masonry exterior with a conventional wood roof covered with multiple layers of
composition roofing. Attack crews entered the building and a four-person roof ventilation team began to
vent the roof. While roof ventilation operations were underway, the roof began to collapse and resulted
in injury to three firefighters and the death of one firefighter. The cause of the collapsing roof was attrib-
uted to the roof construction, which was comprised of wooden beams nailed to wooden shingles that
were wedged into cavities (lets) in the masonry walls. This type of construction was further compro-
mised by numerous layers of composition on the roof that was estimated to have provided a significant
amount of weight that the original roof was not designed for and was instrumental in an early collapse
of the roof. Following the collapse of the roof, the masonry walls of the building also collapsed.

66
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

Quick summary
Type III construction is defined as ordinary
construction.
In this type of construction, buildings have
noncombustible exterior walls and the interior is
constructed from combustible wood components.
Taxpayer and mini-mall buildings are common
examples of Type III construction.
The primary hazard is the combustible interior
structural components and contents. Fig. 414. Type IV construction is no longer viable due to the
Common hazards associated with these buildings scarcity and cost of lumber required for manufacture.
are a combination of old and/or new construc-
tion, vertical extension, cocklofts/attics/truss The American Institute of Timber Construction
lofts/common attics, alterations and resultant defines heavy timber construction as a type of
voids, parapet walls, cornices, facades, and construction from which fire resistance is attained
remodels after previous fires. by placing limitations on the minimum size of
all load-carrying wood members, by avoiding
concealed spaces under f loors or roofs, and by
Type IV (2HH): applying the required degree of fire resistance in
exterior and interior walls. These requirements are
Heavy timber/mill construction summarized as follows:
Shall be that type in which fire walls, exterior Wood columns shall be not less than 8 in. thick
walls, and interior bearing walls and structural in any dimension when supporting floor loads.
elements that are portions of such walls are of
Wood columns shall be not less than 6 in.
approved noncombustible or limited-combustible
wide and 8 in. deep when supporting roof and
materials. Other interior structural elements,
ceiling loads.
arches, floors and roofs shall be of solid or
laminated wood without concealed spaces. Floor beams and girders shall not be less than
6 in. wide and not less than 10 in. deep.
Type IV buildings normally consist of exterior
masonry walls that surround the heavy wood Floors shall be of tongue-and-groove (T&G)
timbers and construction materials that comprise planks not less than 3 in. thick and covered by
the interior. From another perspectivea masonry 1 in. T&G flooring.
exterior that encloses an interior lumber yard. This Roof decks shall be no less than 2 in. T&G planks.
is a type of construction that was popular in the late
Load-bearing exterior and interior walls shall
1800s and early 1900s and primarily used for large
have a fire resistance rating of not less than
factories, warehouses (fig. 414), churches, lodges,
2 hours.
and other similar buildings. These buildings are no
longer being built, but can be found in communi- Floors and decks shall be without concealed
ties large and small. What sets these buildings apart spaces, except that building service equipment
from other types of large buildings is the size of the may be enclosed provided the spaces between
interior wooden structural members, which is no the equipment and enclosures are fire-stopped or
longer cost effective. protected by other acceptable means.

67
The Art of Reading Buildings

One historical noteheavy timber and mill (condos, apartments, etc.), offices, self-storage
buildings are often classified together. A true mill units, and even schools an ideal method to trans-
building may not meet the requirements above, form yesterdays buildings to modern buildings
mainly because it was constructed prior to the that are not only attractive but an integral part
establishment of the aforementioned standard. of a communitys economy. A good example
Granted, mill buildings typically used heavy of a practical renovation of a heavy timber
timbers to form a post and beam interior surrounded building is the conversion to condominiums
by exterior load-bearing masonry or stacked stone. when these buildings are located in downtown
The difference is in the dimensional requirements areas. This affords occupants of these build-
that may or may not be met. With the preceding ings the opportunity to be closer to areas of
overview of the minimum standards for this type employment in the downtown area instead of
of construction, it is obvious that these standards living outside a city and having to commute to
are significantly different from modern lightweight work. Another example is the Ford building in
construction with gang-nail and/or glued connec- downtown Portland, Oregon (fig. 415), built
tion points. However, as heavy as the requirement in 1915 and used to assemble Model T automo-
for the structural members in Type IV buildings biles, which has been converted to contain small,
are and their resultant record of excellent fire upscale businesses.
resistance, these buildings are capable of multiple
significant hazards, which are summarized below.

Renovations. Because of the size of these build-

ings, their condition, in some cases their location
(downtown areas), and heavy construction, they
have in many cases become either a candidate
for a vacant building (fig. 414) that is slowly
succumbing to the elements, or a prime candi-
date for renovations that go beyond their original
design criteria. Although a vacant building will
have its own set of hazards (see the railroad freight
warehouse in the case studies of Type I buildings),
renovations present a new set of concerns and
Fig. 415. This older heavy timber/mill building has been
hazards as follows: renovated into an upscale office building. (Photo by Jim Forquer.)
Remember that one of the criteria for Type IV
buildings is a lack of concealed spaces. With Openings, shafts, and doors. Because these build-
renovations, numerous types of concealed ings were originally constructed and used for
spaces are a result of a modification of the manufacturing purposes, they typically have large
original building. As an example, HVAC open areas with minimal compartmentalization.
systems, suspended ceilings, soffits that conceal Although they were constructed with a lack of
plumbing/electrical considerations, and zero- concealed spaces, openings between the floors for
clearance fireplaces for residential units are just conveyor belts, freight elevator shafts, and to move
a sampling of the construction variations that product are common and available to enhance the
can conceal and enhance the extension of fire spread of fire and its by-products. In some cases,
and its by-products. division walls were utilized to separate portions of
The size, inherent structural stability, and often the open areas and are fitted with fire doors that
the location of these buildings make conversions are activated by fusible links. However, the age and
to a modern factory, multifamily residential units atmospheric contamination of these links has in

68
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

most cases rendered them ineffective, which leaves of floor planks that are soaked with petroleum-
openings in division walls. As a result, extension based compounds from past manufacturing opera-
avenues in these buildings can be numerous. It tions. Additionally, many floor beams are designed
should also be noted that most of these buildings with fire cuts that allow the beams to pull out of the
were constructed prior to sprinkler requirements, walls if compromised by fire. In this case, the floors
so unless sprinklers have been retrofitted, this will collapse and leave the walls freestanding,
protection is absent. which is also a recipe for collapse. If a fire becomes
well advanced, it is difficult to extinguish and
Size of fire and collapse areas. Due to the size of normally destroys the entire building, resulting in
the wooden timber construction, a large fire load is a massive fire that is hot enough to keep resources
present. Although there is a large surface mass for away from the building in a defensive mode. In
heat to ignite, which does take a noteworthy amount most cases, defensive operations will result in a
of time (particularly compared to modern construc- collapse of the entire building and radiated heat
tion), these components will burn and create a that can project hundreds of feet. It is important
large hot fi re that requires large-bore streams to that incident commanders position apparatus well
extinguish. An additional factor that enhances the away from the potential collapse zone and consider
ignition and spread of fire is the common presence exposure protection if necessary.

Case Studies: Type IV Buildings

Latter-day Saints Tabernacle Provo, UT
In December 2010, resources responded to a major fire in Provo, Utah, in the Latter-day Saints
Tabernacle. The large tabernacle was constructed in the 1880s and utilized URM exterior walls with
rough-cut heavy timber construction of up to 10 in. and rough-cut 2 12 in. planks held together with
iron bolts. The roof decking was comprised of 1 8 in. planking, and the floor was 1 in. T&G planks
supported by 2 12 in. rough-cut floor joists. Numerous renovations were completed between the 1980s
and 1990s. At 2:44 a.m., initial companies found visible smoke extending from the structure and soon
determined an interior fire had made considerable progress. Interior operations were initiated but it was
soon evident that a defensive operation was required as interior operations were unsuccessful. At 3:28
a.m., despite a 4,000 gpm water flow, the roof structure began to collapse, and by 6 a.m., the entire roof
had collapsed into the building. The fire was finally declared out at 5:30 p.m.

Woonsocket MillWoonsocket, RI
On June 7, 2011, resources responded to the Woonsocket mill in Woonsocket, Rhode Island. The four-
story, 122-year-old building of heavy mill-timber construction had been vacant since 2009 and was
formerly used as a factory to produce rubber products and, later, Keds sneakers. The mill was built in
1889 and was more than 217,000 sq ft in size, and was also classified as a historic Woonsocket landmark.
Initial companies found a small fire in the mill, but the fire quickly spread to engulf the entire structure,
resulting in a tremendous blaze that was responsible for eight alarms and 10 to 15 departments from
Rhode Island and Massachusetts being called in to help fight the fire. As the mill was located in an area
with no exposure considerations, the size of the fire resulted in a defensive strategy and the ultimate
loss of the mill. The cause of the fire was determined to be a welding torch.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Incident scope. As some of these buildings can

cover an entire block or can be interconnected
Type V (111 or 000):
to other similar large buildings (for example, by Wood frame construction
overhead walkways, etc.), the potential of a large
Shall be that type in which structural elements,
conf lagration that is capable of exceeding the
walls, arches, floors, and roofs are entirely or
resources of most fire departments is a reality.
partially of wood or other approved material.
Therefore, incident commanders (ICs) must
think outside the box and consider such extreme Of all of the preceding building classifications
considerations as mutual aid contingencies, water that we have been considering, Type V buildings
supplies, collapse zones, protection of exposures are those most responsible for the majority of death
when radiated heat can make this consideration and injuries to firefighters and civilians alike in
complex, incident duration, rehabilitation of this country, and for good reason. The primary
resources, the possibility of medical challenges, components in these buildings, whether it be the
and other similar considerations. Remember that walls, floors, or roof, are constructed of flammable
municipalities with these types of structures are wood, plus there are more single-family dwellings
candidates for an incident that have the potential than any other type of building. Unfortunately,
to tax even those departments with significant this dilemma is further complicated by the fact
resources. Additionally, just because a building that these buildings (residential and moderate size
is over 100 years old and has never suffered a fire commercial buildings) have been constructed all
does not mean that it should ever be considered the way from the late 1700s up to the present, with
impervious or ignored. a wide variety of construction styles and methods
(fig. 416).

Quick summary
Type IV construction generally consists of older
buildings made with exterior masonry walls that
surround the heavy wood timbers and construc-
tion materials that comprise the interior.
Heavy timber and mill buildings are normally
classified together due to their similarities.
Although these types of buildings have an excel-
lent record of fire resistance, they are capable of
large conflagration type fires (depending on the
size of a building). Fig. 416. Wood frame buildings have been constructed from
the 1700s to the present and are the most prevalent type of
Common hazards are renovations, openings/ building in this country.
shafts/doors, size of fire and resultant exposures,
collapse areas, and the scope of the incident
involving this type of fire. Renovations and various materials that have
been used over the years can be a challenge to
any firefighter who attempts to read these build-
ings from the exterior in a minimal amount of
time. Additionally, remember that the longer
these buildings burn, the weaker they become and
thus succumb to gravity. Although the preceding
sentence applies to all buildings, it particularly

70
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

applies to Type V buildings because all structural As the log building evolved, builders started to
components will burnadding to fire spread plane the top and bottom radius of the round log
severity and collapse potential. so that horizontally laid logs would sit flat atop
the others and eliminate the need for chinking.
There are many types of all-wood buildings that The ends are still notched using various types of
may or may not meet the requirements of NFPA cuts so that the intersecting walls still interlock.
220. They include the following: Not surprisingly, due to the size of the logs and
Stacked log construction, they are the strongest wood construc-
tionprimarily due to the fact that a log building
Post and beam with interlocking logs creates a shell that can
Balloon frame support itself and a roof. Although the log walls
will withstand the effects of fire for a significant
Western platform (conventional, legacy, and
time frame and the structural integrity of the roof
engineered wood)
under fire conditions can be quite noteworthy, it
Each of these wood buildings has unique charac- is dependent on the type of construction that has
teristics that ultimately influence fire spread and been used. Older log buildings typically utilized
collapse potentials. Lets briefly describe the differ- large diameter logs or heavy timbers to form the
ences of each and list some tactical considerations roof rafters/ridge beam to support roof decking of
for them. some sort. Like the walls, this is a tough roof that
can resist collapse (the decking is the weak link).
Stacked log buildings are likely the oldest Type
The heavy timber or log rafters typically sag before
V buildings found in America as they date back to
collapse, providing a small window of warning
the early Pilgrim days with the timber-rich forests
to firefighters.
found in the new land. Log buildings use solid logs
of various sizes that are stacked and often inter- Newer log buildings are likely to have an
locked together at their ends, forming a strong bond engineered roof that includes trusses. A true log
(fig. 417). Originally, builders would interlock truss that uses steel plates and bolts for assembly
intersecting wall logs by cutting a notch toward the is still a pretty tough roof. Unfortunately, some
end of the log, then alternate the two wall stacks. log building roofs have the appearance of being
This approach created a very stiff buildingbut a true logs when in fact they are lightweight roofs
drafty one. Chinking (a paste-like filler) is used to (wood or steel truss) that are faced with a fake log
fill the random voids between stacked logs. covering. Unless you were there during construc-
tion, it is difficult to tell the difference. One visual
clue might helpif you see what appear to be log
rafter tails extend past the exterior walls only at
the corners or only on the gable ends, and the eave
soffits are small and finished like a typical wood
frame, treat it as an engineered lightweight roof. A
true log trussed roof should include multiple rafter
tails along the wall length and have tall or deep
finished soffits.

The log exterior is normally stained with a

protective coating, and the interior can also be
stained with a protective coating or covered with
Fig. 417. A log frame building can be a very strong type drywall or wood paneling to produce a smooth
of building. surface. Normally, owner/occupants who want the

71
The Art of Reading Buildings

look of log construction do not want the appear- woodworkers for thousands of years (there is
ance of log walls with visible roof rafters that are evidence of this system back to 2,600 BC) to join
constructed from lightweight construction. Log two pieces of wood, particularly at a 90 angle, and
construction is more commonly utilized for specific without using expensive metal (plates, hangers,
applications such as homes in mountainous areas, nails, etc.).
restaurants, and other structures that are looking for
a unique look, albeit at a high cost in modern times.

Fire spread concerns: Although the exterior

log walls and heavy roof members present a heavy
fire load, they do not ignite easily. Fire spread is
dictated by the interior geometry and content
fire load.

Collapse concerns: Wall failure is rarely a

firefighter risk in stacked log buildings. Likewise,
a solid log roof system (rafters and ridge beams)
will resist collapse over time under fire condi-
tions. Localized collapse and burn through of roof
decking can be a concern. Many log buildings Fig. 418. Here, a mortise and tenon system is used to join
use interior lofts to maximize usable space (for diagonal bracing and a vertical post. (Photo by Jerry Knapp.)
bedrooms, offices, storage, etc.). These lofts (and
most interior partitions) are likely constructed using In figure 418, the mortise and tenon connec-
standard wall and floor framing (2 4 in., 2 8 in., tions can be seen at the junction of the vertical post
or even lightweight wood truss floors). Obviously, and diagonal bracing. The mortise is the cavity
an interior collapse threat lies in these areas. and the tenon is the projection. A cavity is formed
Post and beam. Post and beam (or braced frame) in the corner post and a projection is formed at
construction uses two primary structural compo- each end of a beam. Once the mortise and tenon
nents: posts at the corners of the structure (columns) are joined, several horizontal holes are drilled in
that support horizontal beams (also referred to as the post and through the tenon, and then wooden
girts and ribbon boards) at each floor level, which pegs are inserted to form a secure joint (which is
are used to support the structural floor components visible in the cavity in figure 419). As construc-
and roof. Prior to the use of truss construction, tion methods evolved, the mortise and tenon system
post and beam construction was used to create an was replaced by bolts, plates, and/or hangers to
unobstructed floor space. While interior columns make the column/beam connection.
may be present in larger buildings, the whole The vertical corner posts and the horizontal
purpose of the posts and beams is to maximize beams form the primary structural skeleton of the
uninterrupted interior space. Post and beam building. However, the skeletal frame needs to be
construction is commonly used in barn construction made rigid to withstand wind loads and is achieved
and is sometimes called pole barn construction, but by adding diagonal bracing, exterior wall enclo-
was also used in residential structures in the 1800s. sures, or both. Exterior wall enclosures are created
In classic post and beam construction, the in numerous ways, although furring strips with
connections between the corner posts, horizontal wall clapboarding and partition framing (typically
beams, and diagonal bracing supports are secured 2 4s and sheathing) seem to be the most preva-
by mortises and tenons. The mortise and tenon lent. Roofs are typically formed using rafters and
connection is a system that has been used by ridge beams.

72
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

to sufficient fire, can collapse and also cause a

collapse of the floor joists that are supported by
a collapsing beam post. This is most pronounced
at the lower floors in a multistory building as they
are also supporting the weight of upper floors. Post
and beam buildings with heavy timbers and bolts/
plates collapse differentlyonce fire consumes the
exterior wall and roof partitions/sheathing, rigidity
is lost and the building will start to lean subject to
lateral or eccentric loads (wind, fire streams, and/
or interior content live loads).

Balloon frame. This type of construction, which

was employed from the mid-1800s to the late
1940s, is also known as Chicago construction and
was popular when long lengths of lumber were
available and cost effective. Additionally, it was an
easier method of building without needing highly
skilled carpenters that were often necessary for
dovetail joints and mortises and tenons required for
post and beam construction. In 1832, a Chicagoan
Fig. 419. A mortise (cavity) with a wooden peg inserted built a balloon framed warehouse that employed the
through the mortise now familiar 2 4 in. studs and 16 in. vertical stud
spacing. This system was quickly adopted and used
until it was replaced by modern platform framing.
Fire spread concerns: Anyone who has fought
The defining feature of a balloon frame building is
a wooden barn fire (or post and beam residential
the continuous nature of the exterior wall studs
fire) can speak to the rapid fire spread potential of
the stud extends the full height of the wall from the
the exposed wood. In many ways, the typical post
sill plate to the roof plate.
and beam barn is a wood crib with lots of combus-
tible surface area and very little fire-stopping. The After the foundation was completed, the exterior
interior arrangement, finish, and content fire load walls that were comprised of full-length studs
are all factors in the fire spread potential but struc- would be assembled in a horizontal position and
turally, the post and beam building was built to then tilted up to their vertical position. This process
provide unobstructed space. If the interior space is was completed in a timely manner and with relative
not finished out, the structural elements are exposed simplicity. Floor joists were attached to a ribbon
and the cavernous nature of the interior can create a board (a type of ledger) that was nailed or cut into
true fire storm with tremendous heat release rates. the exterior wall studs and used to support the floor
(and ceiling joists) either for single or multistory
Collapse concerns: Although the primary struc-
buildings, and there was a lack of fire blocking in
tural components are strong, the weak portion of
the exterior wall stud cavities. This resulted in open
this construction is the mortise and tenon joints,
void channels between the stud cavities (founda-
particularly the tenon part. As evidenced in figure
tion to the attic) and access from the stud channels
419, although the mortise cavity reduces the size
to the attic and the floor joists. These combustible
of the vertical post, the tenon significantly reduces
voids create uninterrupted vertical and horizontal
the size of the horizontal beam at the connec-
pathways for a fire (fig. 420).
tion point. This connection, and when exposed

73
The Art of Reading Buildings

throughout an entire building. It is not uncommon

for a simple oil-burner furnace fire in the basement
or cellar to spread up the walls and into adjoining
floors. Next thing you know, fire is blowing out
the eaves, the front and rear porches, and the attic
window or vents while the occupant spaces remain
clear or with light smoke only. This fire spread
potential requires extensive labor to open up each
stud channel to check for and ultimately stop the
spread of fire. Vertical ventilation is almost manda-
tory when fires enter the balloon frame voids.
Fig. 420. Balloon frame construction can readily allow the
vertical extension of fire into an attic.

The exterior wall framing could be completed

with any number of veneers such as brick, wood,
stone, stucco, or shingles. Interior walls were
typically lathe and plasteralthough many have
been rehabbed over time (with new electrical
wiring and plumbing and finished with drywall).
Roof rafters were often constructed from 2 4 in.
lumber, spaced up to 3 ft on center (referred to as
bungalow constructionsee figure 83), and the Fig. 421. Inline windows in older wood frame buildings can
roof has likely been covered multiple times without be an indicator of balloon frame construction.
removing the preceding roofing layers, which can
result in an overloaded roof. From the street, the
following visual clues may help you classify a Collapse concerns: The balloon frame building
building as being balloon frame: is inherently strong given the era that balloon frame
was prevalent. It uses full-dimensional solid lumber
Old wood frame buildings up to about three (material mass), nails and screws (through connec-
stories in height tions), and high compartmentalization. Fires that
capture the wood voids can burn for some time
Older wood shiplap siding or asbestos-type
before strength is lost. Often, the floor and roof
shingles
joists will sag as wood mass burns away, giving
The presence of visible 2 4 in. rough-cut rafter some advance visual warning to firefighters. This
tails that can be spaced wider than 2 ft on center. is not to say that collapse is easy to predict. Aging
Windows in multistory buildings that are narrow and alteration issues can cause a rapid collapse
and line up vertically (fig. 421). of entire wall segments or sudden dropping of
a floor (especially in unfinished basement fires).
Fire spread concerns: This type of construction
Additionally, roof collapse can happen quickly due
is renowned for allowing fire to rapidly travel up the
to increased rafter spacing and the likelihood of
continuous void channels into the attic of a building
additional roof loading due to repairs and mainte-
and also to extend into the voids between the floor
nance. Many believe that the fire spread potential
joists. When confronted with this type of construc-
led to the phasing out of the balloon frame construc-
tion, it is important to remember that the void
tion method. Historically, though, the demise of
spaces in a balloon frame building are intercon-
balloon framing was forced by war effort materials
nected, which can allow fire to extend undetected

74
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

rationing and better efficiencies in the lumber Western platform. The western platform construc-
industry as it became harder and harder to find, tion method was born out of the westward expansion
mill, package, and ship long/straight wall studs. of the United States. Frontiersmen erected tempo-
rary wood buildings literally by building a wood
platform right on the ground that was supported
Quick summary with little or no foundation or wooden posts (fig.
422), adding framed walls atop the platform, and
Type V wood frame buildings are the most capping it off with a roof. They would then cover
predominant type of buildings in this country as the frame with anything suitable (clapboarding,
they have been constructed from the late 1700s animal hides, canvas, etc.). By eastern standards,
to the present. They are also responsible for the these were crude, poorly built, and not suitable for
majority of injuries and deaths to firefighters. long-term use. Rarely was a second floor included.
The primary exterior and interior building compo- The method continued to evolve as mining and
nent is flammable wood, and the overall primary trapper settlements grew (with the addition of
concern is the flammability of the structural foundations, rigid sheathing, utilities, multiple
components. stories, etc.). Jump ahead to the 1940s. World War
II was a defining period in the wood construction
Stacked log buildings are the oldest Type V
industry. Also known as the first industrialized
buildings and commonly use solid logs of various
war, WWII challenged builders to gain efficiencies
sizes. This can result in a strong building unless
in wood harvesting, milling, packaging, shipping,
the roof incorporates lightweight construction.
and rapid building. From this challenge, platform
Fire spread and collapse concerns are often wood frame building supplanted balloon frame and
minimal. The primary concern is the incorporation became the most common type of wood construc-
of lightweight construction in the roof. tion (and continues today).
Post and beam construction uses two primary
structural components: corner posts and
horizontal beams.
Post and beam construction often uses a mortise
and tenon system for connection points.
Although post and beam construction is
flammable, the primary weak portion of this
construction is the mortise and tenon joints.
Balloon frame construction is defined by the
continuous nature of the exterior wall studs that
extend from the foundation to the attic area.
Fig. 422. Western platform construction often includes a
The floor joists of a balloon frame building are minimal type of foundation.
attached to exterior wall studs by a ribbon/
ledger board and there is a lack of fire blocking in
the exterior wall cavities. Platform construction differs significantly from
balloon construction as it uses a building-block
Balloon construction results in open void channels
approach that results in each floor of a building
between the stud cavities from the foundation
being built as a separate unit from the f loors
to the attic, ensuring a rapid vertical fire spread.
below and above it. This also eliminates the void
Therefore, rapid fire spread is a primary concern.
characteristics of balloon construction. After the
foundation is completed, 2 4 in. or 2 6 in. studs

75
The Art of Reading Buildings

are typically used for the exterior and interior

walls and travel from the foundation to a double
plate that is used to support the ceiling joists for
the first floor ceiling. If a multistory building is
being constructed, then each successive floor is
constructed in the same manner. This basic cap
and stack method allowed builders to use pallets
of uniform length/width lumber to build the entire
structure (hence the popularity of the 8 ft stud).
Obviously, some type of roof is needed to finish off
the structure. Well cover that a bit more with the
various forms of platform construction below.

From the firefighting perspective, platform

construction provides intrinsic fire stopping from two
elements: (1) the fire blocking in the exterior walls
between the floor and ceiling joists, and (2) the double
plate at the top of each floor (fig. 423). The double
plate eliminates the void spaces of balloon construc-
tion that allow fire to vertically extend upward into
the voids between the floor joists of multistory
buildings and into an attic. The interior is normally
finished with lath and plaster in older construction,
and sheets of drywall in newer construction. The
exterior can be finished in a wide variety of materials
such as wood lap siding, vinyl siding, plaster, brick
Fig. 423. Platform framing uses fire blocking and double
veneer, and other suitable materials. plates to restrict the vertical extension of fire as well as
provide stronger framing.
The platform wood frame concept allowed
designers to diversify as it became much easier to
create larger open floor spaces, split-level floors, Conventional platform. Conventional platform
integral decks and balconies, and other features. construction was typical from the 1800s through
This diversity (plus modern material engineering roughly the late 1940s (fig. 424). Conventional
and imagination) has created several subcategories platform can be defined as the classic wood frame
of platform wood frame buildings and subsequent building that employs full-dimensional lumber (a
concerns for firefighters. However, universal or 2 6 was really 2 in. deep by 6 in. wide). This
official definitions dont really exist for each of full-dimensional lumber was also rough sawn,
these subcategories. Given that, we know that all meaning the surfaces of the wood were not planed
platform frame buildings are not created equal smooth. This rough finish, when exposed to
(from a fire perspective) and that the fire service flames, quickly chars over and actually slows the
has developed its own slang or jargon to help differ- burn rate of the wood (all other influences being
entiate them. So, weve taken liberties to briefly equal). Conventional platform is also typified by
define each and list some tactical considerations the following:
for them based on research and firefighting experi-
ence. From a firefighters viewpoint, wood platform Through connections using nails and screws
buildings can be subdivided into conventional, Solid wood floor joists and solid wood rafters or
legacy, and engineered (lightweight) wood styles. joists (no trusses)

76
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

Lathe and plaster interior wall covering (adding rot, etc.) can precipitate collapse. Exterior brick
structural rigidity and fire resistance), although veneers can fall off the wood frame sheathing.
gypsum (drywall) became popular in the Decks, balconies, overhangs, and the ever-possible
later years alterations can all add collapse threats. In most
cases, the structural elements will show signs of
Tongue-and-groove wood-plank flooring over
sagging or bowing prior to collapse.
joists
Varied roof coverings such as plywood, OSB, Legacy platform. The term legacy has been made
shingles/shakes, 1 6 in. boards, skip sheathing, popular to describe the accomplishments of the
tile and slate, and built-up tar and gravel generation of Americans who prospered following
World War II. Applied to building construction,
the category of legacy platform is used to define a
cut lumber, solid wood frame building built from
roughly the 1950s to the present day. (Yes, some
builders are resisting the industry trend toward
engineered lightweight wood.) The key character-
istic is the use of solid, milled wood lumber for
the assembly of wall studs, floor joists, roof trusses,
joists, and rafters (as opposed to engineered wood).
A true legacy platform building uses solid wood
floor and roof joists/rafters. For our purposes, a
wood frame building with solid f loor joists but
with a trussed roof can be classified as legacy as
long as the wood roof trusses are assembled using
Fig. 424. Conventional platform construction was typical from
the 1880s to the late 1940s and used full-dimensional lumber. solid wood lumber and nails or steel staples that
penetrate into the centers of the adjoining wood
pieces that form the truss (more on this later).
Fire concerns: Conventional platform buildings
typically confine fires through compartmentaliza- So how is the legacy platform different from the
tion. The mass of the wood will actually resist conventional platform construction? Well, as the
fire spread because of surface charring (initially). greatest generation prospered and built many build-
The greatest fire spread concern in conventional ings, they discovered all kinds of new techniques
platform buildings is driven by contents and interior and profit-enhancing efficiencies. While the
geometry (halls, stairs, etc.). Once a fire takes hold legacy building still uses solid wood for structural
of the structural elements, one can expect prolonged elements, some of the new building techniques
burning as a result of so much wood mass. and materials add significant structural integ-
rity concerns for firefighters. Examples include
Collapse concerns: Compartmentalization and the following:
the basic nature of fire-stopping in the structural
elements make the conventional platform quite The 2 4s were no longer full-dimension
resistive to collapse. These were pretty tough lumber but 1 3 in. (resulting in loss of fire-
buildings considering they were made from wood. resisting mass) (fig. 425).
In many cases, interior fires are extinguished and Rough-sawn lumber gave way to a smooth
a contractor comes in, removes the interior wall planed finish. This sounds good, although
boarding, and re-skins the framing. Collapse from a fire spread perspective, a rough-sawn
threats do exist, however. Well-involved fires with finish actually chars quicker, slowing the wood
long burn times and lack of maintenance (aging, burn rate.

77
The Art of Reading Buildings

exterior elements such as large decks/balconies and

extended eaves.

Fire concerns: As with conventional platform,

interior contents and geometry affect fire spread
most in the legacy wood building. The legacy
platform building is still inherently fire-stopped
from floor to floor in the combustible voids. The
use of drywall helps protect the wooden elements.
Legacy and conventional platforms differ in fire
concerns with the advent of the larger spaces,
split levels, and the use of more soffits. Soffits are
false spaces on the underside of eaves and stair-
ways, the space above cabinets (especially kitchen
cabinets), and used to hide construction features
like plumbing, HVAC, and electrical conveyance
Fig. 425. Modern 2 4s are not full-dimensional lumber. systems. Soffit spaces grew as the legacy platform
building got bigger, with more features, and more
inventive floor plans. Soffit spaces are rarely fire-
Nails and screws were replaced with thin galva- stopped and only a thin sheathing layer or drywall
nized steel hangers (fig. 426) and short nails separates a fire from entering structural spaces.
or staples.
The split-level home design (fig. 427) became
Tongue-and-grove floor decking was replaced
a popular variant for legacy platform homes. The
with plywood sheathing.
staggered arrangement of the split stories means
Solid wood cross bracing for wind loads was that each level is not fully capped from the other,
replaced with plywood sheets, particularly near meaning vertical fire spread is more likely. The
exterior corners. interior wall framing where the split levels inter-
sect may include balloon-like studs that allow
vertical spread. The finished interior space of
a split-level home typically includes wide-open
spaces to accommodate the half stair runs to each
level. Smoke, heat, and fire spread are accelerated
in these areas.

Fig. 426. Nails and screws have commonly been replaced

by thin galvanized hangers.

Legacy differs from conventional in other realms,

namely interior geometry and size. Americans Fig. 427. A split-level structure means that each level is not
wanted bigger rooms, taller ceilings, more storage, fully capped from the others, which can enhance the spread
multiple garages, split flooring levels, and added of fire.

78
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

The capped and stacked nature of legacy Some legacy platform buildings include a trussed
platform construction presents some challenges roof. The truss allows the builder to span larger
for electricians, plumbers, and HVAC installers. spaces than joists or rafters could. Trusses also
To overcome the challenge, the installers simply offer a simple way to create vaulted and coffered
drill through the inherent fire-stopping (wood ceilings. The legacy truss is typically craftsman
plates/sills, studs, and joists). These penetrations builtmeaning that only solid wood is used and
or poke-throughs for utility chases can create fire the connections are driven through the center mass
spread considerations for firefighters. Most codes of adjoining pieces (using screws, nails, or deep-
require the poke-through to be sealed (fig. 428) to pressed staples). As a rule, firefighters should be
minimize the extension of fire and its by-products. concerned regarding the rapid collapse potential of
However, in some cases the sealant has not been trusses. However, a true craftsman-built truss can
properly applied or is nonexistent (common in be just as strong and collapse resistant as a joist or
renovations). Where present, the status of these rafter for a similar span.
areas should be checked (sealed vs. unsealed).
Engineered wood platform (lightweight). Chapter
2 introduced us to the material known as engi-
neered wood. As you recall, engineered wood is
manufactured using various glues to bind wood
chips, slivers, veneers, and pulp to form sheathing
or wood elements that are used for columns, studs,
or beams. The engineered wood lightweight plat-
form building is one that utilizes engineered wood
for structural elements. For brevity, we call these
lightweight wood platform buildings. Although the
concept of platform construction remains the same
for lightweight wood, the size, material, and config-
uration of the wood used is radically different,
creating a new subcategory of construction from
the firefighters perspective.

Fig. 428. Poke-through construction should be sealed to Conventional wood framing typically uses
minimize the extension of fire. dimensional milled wood lumber that is at mini-
mum 2 4 in. or 2 6 in. for the wall studs,
floor joists, ceiling joists, and roof rafters. Legacy
Collapse concerns: We know that increased brought us reduced lumber dimensions (2 4s
material mass helps resist fire. The legacy platform are really 1 3), and the use of roof trusses.
wood building has less structural mass than a like Legacy and conventional wood buildings typical-
conventional one. We are still talking about solid ly use nails or screws for connections. Lightweight
wood, just a higher surface-to-mass ratio. Add to wood construction relies on members of less than
that the switch to joist hangers and connections 2 4 in., elements made from glued wood pieces,
that do not extend through the full dimension of glue used for connection points (fig. 429), geome-
the material and one can surmise that the legacy try in place of mass for structural members, and the
building will collapse sooner than the conventional concept of assembly building techniques to achieve
wood frame. Still, the legacy platform resists fire strength. Further, the lightweight wood building
collapse much better than newer engineered light- employs a variety of glues and surface hangers
weight wood frames. for connections.

79
The Art of Reading Buildings

From a historical perspective, the first use of

engineered wood can be found in the 1960s
typically in the assembly of trusses or for door/
window headers. Lightweight wood construction
gradually became more prevalent as the building
industry continually looked for ways to construct
buildings with a product that was becoming more
expensive (wood) and in less time (reducing labor
costs). The 1980s saw the biggest shift away from
legacy platform to lightweight. Now, lightweight
wood construction has been proven to provide
acceptable strength while using less dimen-
sional lumber and allowing for quicker assembly.
Fig. 429. Glue can be used for structurally bonding pieces of Regrettably, lightweight wood construction has
wood together and for the integrity of connection points. had a momentous negative impact on fi reground
operations from the perspective of fast failure rates
and fi refighter injury and death. As an example,

Case Studies: Type V Buildings

House Fire Minneapolis, MN
On July 3, 2010, resources from the Minneapolis Fire Department responded to a three-story residential
structure of wood frame/balloon frame construction and wood exterior siding that was built in 1897.
Although the structure was licensed as a single-family rental unit, it was actually being used as an
unlicensed lodging/boarding house that contained eight sleeping rooms. Initial companies reported smoke
showing from the eaves and the top end of the peak. While additional companies were arriving, attack
lines were advanced into the structure and up to the third floor. As the knee wall in the third floor was
opened, the room exploded with a flashover, seriously burning two firefighters. The cause of the fire was
believed to be an electrical malfunction.

House Fire Warwick, NY

A structure fi re in 2003 within the village of Warwick, New York, consumed a two-story, 4,000 sq ft
single-family dwelling in a short period of time that can be measured in minutes. At 4 a.m., the Warwick
Fire Department received a call from the occupant of the home with smoke alarms audible in the phone
call. Approximately 6 minutes later, initial resources arrived to find the structure was fully involved in
fire to the point that it was possible to look through the remaining structural skeleton. Due to the immense
amount of radiated heat, initial resources were forced to spot to the exposures on Sides B and D of the
involved structure.

The home was constructed of 2 6 in. lumber for the exterior walls in a platform frame configuration,
and sheathed with OSB that was covered with vinyl siding. The floor and ceiling joists and roof rafters
were lightweight truss construction. The primary cause of this fast moving fi re was the lightweight

80
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

the failure rate of typical conventional/legacy more about lightweight construction (and some
floors averages 1520 minutes when exposed to evolving construction techniques) in chapter 5. For
fire, whereas the catastrophic failure of lightweight now, lets list some tactical considerations for light-
construction averages 57 minutes when exposed weight wood.
to fire.1 Aggravating this problem are the structural
connection points that are now held together by Fire spread concerns: The lightweight wood
gusset plates (see fig. 513) that are surface attached building exacerbates the fire spread concerns listed
and/or glue that can liquefy at relatively low temper- previously for conventional and legacy framed
atures. As a result of lower costs for materials and buildings. The reasons are simple: lower mass,
labor, lightweight trusses and engineered I-joists larger combustible voids (trusses for roofs and
have become the modern standard for wood frame floors), the use of glues, and the rapid failure of
buildings, hence the category of lightweight wood drywall from hotter fi res and greater heat release
frame buildings. This is why it is paramount that rates. Truss spaces are basically like a wood crib
fireground personnel identify the type of construc- lots of exposed surfaces and air space that can
tion they are about to commit to as many wood spread fi re. In many ways, the truss space is like
frame buildings look similar from the exterior but horizontal balloon frame, only worse. Instead of
are dramatically different on the interior. Well talk separate stud and joist channels, the void space is

construction in combination with OSB sheathing and vinyl siding. Interestingly, the exposures on Sides
B and D were 70 ft and 150 ft away from the fi re structure and received considerable damage to their
vinyl siding. As a fi nal note, due to the speed and extent of fi re from the initial call to the fi re depart-
ment, initial resources were forced into a defensive operation with a primary search of the structure not
a possible consideration.

House Fire Green Bay, WI

On August 13, 2006, members of the Green Bay Fire Department responded to a midday basement fire
in a 3,500 sq ft (fi rst floor) lightweight wood frame home built in 1999. The home had a 2,200 sq ft
partially finished basement. The floor system included engineered wood I-beams and parallel chord open
web trusses made from 2 4s and gusset plates. The floor trusses and I-beams were covered with OSB
sheathing and an in-floor radiant heating system within a poured lightweight concrete and tile finish. The
first crew entered the front door of the house and advanced an attack line through to the basement stairway
located near the C/D portion of the first floor.

A second crew entered the front door and started a left-hand primary search. The left-hand search led
them to an office-like room off the entryway. A floor collapse occurred within minutes, sending the search
crew into the flaming basement. A basement partition wall caused the two firefighters to fall in different
directionsseparating the two by the wall, debris, and fire. One firefighter was seriously injured but was
able to declare a Mayday and was rescued through a basement window. Several attempts were made to
rescue the other firefighter but fire intensity, debris, and further collapse thwarted the effort. The line-of-
duty death (LODD) investigation cited lightweight construction, direct fire impingement on unprotected
trusses, and a significant floor dead load as contributing factors.

81
The Art of Reading Buildings

wide open from truss to truss for fire spread (three- lightweight buildings collapse very quickly once
dimensional fire spread). heat and fire starts to degrade structural elements.
Additionally, a recent concern is the impact of
Remember that poke-through construction green technology on building construction, spe-
also applies to the webbing of engineered wooden cifically advanced framing techniques that result in
I-beams that have been breached to allow plumbing, less lumber being used for framing. Obviously, less
electrical, and/or HVAC ducting to travel in a lumber can result in an increased potential of build-
horizontal direction (fig. 430). From this photo it is ing collapse. Remember that tan or brown smoke
obvious that the poke-through openings are signifi- coming from structural areas of lightweight wood
cantly larger than the ducting and will easily allow buildings is a warning that degradation of mass has
the extension of fire and its by-products. Todays begun. (We didnt have much mass to begin with!)
typical interior fire is fueled by synthetic contents
(fire load). Synthetic materials burn hotter and
release heat at an extraordinary rate (megawatts
per second!). Engineered lightweight construction
Quick summary
relies on drywall to protect structural elements. Platform construction has become the most
However, the high heat release rate of plastics common type of wood construction and
accelerates the calcination of drywall, and hence, continues today.
faster access to combustible voids.
If multistory buildings are constructed using
platform methods, double plates between floors
are used in conjunction with fire blocking in the
exterior walls.
Conventional platform, which predominately
uses full-dimensional lumber and conventional
construction procedures, dates from the 1800s to
the late 1940s.
Compartmentalization and dimensional lumber is
an asset to these buildings.
Legacy platform construction started in the
late 1950s and is still used today. The defining
features are the use of milled lumber, a solid
Fig. 430. Wooden I-beams are often breached to allow wood frame building, and nails are often used for
the horizontal travel of plumbing, HVAC ducting, and
connecting points.
other materials.
A primary hazard is the increasing use of
smaller-dimension lumber, metal hangers, and
Collapse concerns: Arguably, lightweight trusses plywood/OSB sheathing. These factors can
have had the greatest negative impact on structural result in the increased spread of fire and reduced
integrity in lightweight wood buildings. Where the collapse times.
conventional/legacy methodology of platform con-
struction used varying sizes of lumber that relied Engineered wood platform construction
on mass and nails/plates/bolts for connection points primarily uses engineered wood products in
with a somewhat predictable burn and collapse combination with adhesives to bond structural
rate, lightweight trusses have introduced a new set connections together.
of concerns and hazards to fireground personnel.
Namely, weve lost interior firefighting time as

82
Chapter 4 Classifying buildingsnfpa 220 system

7. List the four ways that an all-wood building can

Lightweight trusses are the staple of this be constructed.
type of construction as well as OSB that
is used in exterior sheathing and interior 8. Which types of construction include combustible
flooring applications. voids that can spread fire past the point of origin?

The primary hazards with engineered platform

construction are numerous but can be summa-
rized by rapid fire spread due to milled and glued
lumber, open web lightweight trusses, and the
Resources for
use of OSB. These factors are also responsible
for rapid collapse times when this type of
Further Study
construction is exposed to heat and/or fire. Brannigan, Francis L., Glenn P. Corbett,
Brannigans Building Construction for the Fire
Service, 4th ed., Sudbury, MA: National Fire
Protection Association: Jones and Bartlett, 2007.
Cunliffe, Sarah, Sara Hunt, Jean Loussier, Ed.,
Chapter Review Architecture: A Spotters Guide, New York,
Metro Books, 2010.
Exercise Dunn, Vincent, Collapse of Burning Buildings:
Answer the following: A Guide to Fireground Safety, 2nd ed., Tulsa,
OK: PennWell, 2010.
1. List the four inf luences that can be used to
classify a building. http://tiltup.com

2. Match the NFPA 220 building type in the left http://www.toolbase.org/

column with the applicable description in the Morgan, William, The Abrams Guide to
right column. American House Styles, New York: Abrams,
2008.
TYPE I Heavy timber
Fire resistive National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 220:
TYPE II Standard on Types of Building Construction,
Post and beam
TYPE III Wood frame 2012 Edition.
Conventional Thallon, Rob, Graphic Guide to Frame
TYPE IV
Noncombustible Construction, 3rd ed., Newtown, CT: Taunton
TYPE V Ordinary Press, 2008.
3. List the four ways that steel can be protected
from fire and heat.
4. What are the visual clues that can help one
differentiate a Type I and Type II building?
note
5. What type of building features no concealed 1 Taken from the Report on Structural Stability of
spaces and ty pically has large f loor-to- Engineered Lumber in Fire Conditions, Project
floor openings? Number 07CA42520, Underwriters Laboratories Inc.,
Northbrook, IL, 2008. Available at www.ul.com.
6. What materials are used for the load-bearing
walls of a Type III building?

83
CLASSIFYING BUILDINGSHYBRID ERA
USE TYPE AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS 5
Objectives
Define the term hybrid construction.
Explain how the building era can impact firefighters.
List typical building use categories.
Delineate how reading building types can affect size-up considerations.
Understand how building size can be an important factor in reading
a building.

Thinking Beyond the Five Types

hapter 4 brought us an understanding of the five basic types of building

C construction, and hopefully the chapter helped you realize that there are
subsets of each of the five types (e.g., Type V can be log, post and beam,
balloon frame, or platform) and there are even further divisions for the subsets
(a Type V platform can be conventional, legacy, or lightweight). While the basic
five types provide a good starting place to understand (and read) a building, it is
just thata starting place.

As stated in chapter 4, there are buildings that combine multiple NFPA types
in a single building and there are buildings that dont really fall into the classic
five types from the firefighters perspective. We use the term hybrid to label
these buildings. As part of this chapter, we highlight various hybrid construc-
tion methods.

The street-smart fire officer uses an understanding of the five types and
hybrids to form an understanding of the core approach that was used to construct
a building. To truly get a good read on a building however, the officer must
further classify a building not only by the type of building, but by its era of
construction, its intended use or occupancy, and the size of the building. Why?

85
The Art of Reading Buildings

The answer is tied to lessons learned. Rarely is the breakthroughs, material technology advances,
type of building cited as a contributing factor in and sustainable environmental initiatives are
the collapse of a burning building. More likely, combining to rapidly change the building construc-
collapses are manifested by interweaving type with tion industry. Even as this chapter is written, newer
era, and use with size. The oft-cited Hackensack construction methods are being tested and accepted
Ford dealership building collapse is a tragic for buildings. Regardless, we will address the
example: hybrid topic by introducing the concept of NFPA
220 combinations and non-NFPA 220 alternative
Five firefighters died. The fact that the construction methods/types.
building was Type III wasnt the only issue.
The building was built in an era where cold-
rolled steel was replacing heavy timber and Combining NFPA 220
iron for bowstring trusses. The truss space
was being used as parts storage for an auto building types
repair shopit was never intended for that. Earlier we mentioned that codes and standards
The size (and span) of the open floor area are designed to match building use with a
created a weak link. Relative to the building, required type of construction that affords life-
it wasnt one factor, it was the insidious culmi- safety benefits. We know that NFPA 220 outlines
nation of four factors.1 building construction types. NFPA 5000: Building
We know history has a habit of repeating itself Construction and Safety Code 2 is a 55-chapter
firefighters have been injured or killed by haunt- publication that details how a buildings intended
ingly similar situations in buildings. We owe it to use and resulting required construction type are
the profession to learn from these lessons. Here, matched. The International Building Code3 is also
we begin to present some tangible era, use, type, a body of work that matches a buildings intended
and size considerations that have been contributing use (known as occupancy) to a required construc-
factors in the hostile fire spread and collapse of tion classification. Both documents address how
burning buildings. By doing so, it is our hope that multiple construction types can come together in
you will learn those lessons and translate them to one building based on use (occupancy) intentions.
better strategic and tactical decisions at your next In an earlier time, if architects wanted to build
building fire. a mixed-use building, they would have to build the
whole building to the most stringent requirement.
For example, a small retail store by itself might only
be required to be built using Type V methods. A
Hybrid Buildings separate production factory might have to be built
as Type II. However, if you combined the twoa
While there is no official classification known retail storefront with an attached production factory
as hybrid, the term hybrid building is becoming behindthe whole building would have to be
more common. In context here, a hybrid building built as Type II. As can be imagined, this could
refers to a building that combines various NFPA be costly. The concept of occupancy separation
220 types in one structure or a building that is was introduced into code requirements to accom-
constructed in a manner that, from a firefighters modate the desire to build a single structure for
view, doesnt really fit into any of the NFPA 220 multiple uses. Occupancy separation allows more
types. It can also describe alternative construc- architect/builder optionscreating flexible floor
tion. (As a side note, Websters Dictionary defines plans, money savings, and increased profits while
hybrid as anything of mixed origin, which aptly still maintaining some life-safety/fire stop benefits.
defines alternative construction.) Engineering Occupancy separation is usually accomplished

86
Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

using an approved fire barrier that meets a given

time requirement (like a fire door and fire wall) in
order to mix various construction types in the same
building. In some cases, mixed NFPA types are
allowed without separation barriers if an approved
fire protection sprinkler is installed.

An example of a mixed NFPA type hybrid

can be found in one Colorado ski resort structure
that includes a multilevel parking garage, confer-
ence center with hotel space, office/retail space,
and individually-owned condominiums (fig. 51).
The parking garage is built as a Type I monolith
(poured-in-place concrete over steel rebar). Stacked
on that is the conference center/hotel built as a
Type I, using spray-on protection for steel posts
and beams. The office/retail space surrounding
the conference center is built as a Type II steel
building. Individually owned condos are stacked
on the office/retail space and are built as a Type V
engineered (lightweight) wood structure. Visually,
Fig. 52. An example of a combination of Type II and Type V
the whole structure is finished in a similar fashion, construction in a single building
making it difficult for a fire officer to size up the
construction classificationa true hybrid building.

Alternative construction methods

From a firefighting perspective, there are build-
ings that dont fit in any of the NFPA classifications,
combined or otherwise. Sure, these buildings may
be classified as a given NFPA type for code/permit
approval purposes, but they really arent built as the
code-designated type suggests. For discussion sake,
well label these non-NFPA 220 types as alternative
Fig. 51. An example of a mixed NFPA type hybrid building construction methods. For example, a single-family
home can be built using stacked straw bales and
covered with a panelized roof made from expanded
Figure 52 is another example of a hybrid. This
polystyrene and OSB. That home might be classi-
structure is a restaurant that is built as a Type II
fied as Type V wood frame for permit purposes,
steel building with a large Type V wood frame roof
but it really isnt wood frame. A straw bale house
structure that hides rooftop HVACs and cooking
may seem retrolike the sod homes that became
ventilation hoods. The square footage of the Type
prevalent during the great homesteading period of
V roof structure exceeds that of most homes! These
the 1800s. While similar in idea, the new straw
separate types will behave quite differently when
bale house is thoughtfully engineered and is quite
exposed to fire. Good building familiarization tours
simple to build for a long-lasting, environmentally-
and prefire planning can help the local fire depart-
friendly building (see straw bale construction in
ment make better decisions when combating a fire
chapter 6).
in this building.

87
The Art of Reading Buildings

The list of alternative construction methods

that are in use today can be quite lengthy, so we Classifying Buildings
have chosen to dedicate chapter 6 to those (we also
cover evolving methods in chapter 6). Generally by Era, Use, Type,
speaking, though, the fire service has very little
research information on the stability and fire spread and Size
characteristics of alternative buildings during actual
Earlier this chapter we discussed thinking
fires. Sure, there have been numerous laboratory
beyond the five types of buildings as outlined by
tests of assembly components for code purposes,
NFPA 220 as there are an increasing number of
but real-time, full-fuel package fires in hybrid
hybrid buildings being built. Further, the street-
buildings is not well documented. An example of a
smart fire officer realizes that the construction of a
modern hybrid building with a lack of documented
building has been influenced by numerous factors.
fire experience is laminated strand lumber (LST)
These factors need to be considered when making
and cross-laminated timber (CLT), which are being
risk and tactical decisions during suppression
used instead of steel in concert with modular
operations. The factors include:
construction techniques (this methodology is also
described in chapter 6). Given that, the street-smart Erathe historical time period during which
fire officer can look at the low-mass, high surface- the structure was built and/or altered
to-mass, synthetic, glued, and fuel-rich nature
Usewhat the building is being used for
of alternative materials and make a judgment on
(occupancy)
the rapid fire spread and collapse nature of these
buildings. Typeone of the five NFPA types or a hybrid
Sizethe relative footprint and height of the
building
Quick summary Classifying a building is a key step in the initial
There is no official building classification for the and ongoing size-up of a building during fires.
term hybrid. Using the era/use/type/size method of classifying
A hybrid building can be defined as a building any given building is like using radar to see the
that combines various NFPA 220 types into one threats that are loomingyou may not have all the
structure, or a building that does not fit into any details, but you can at least see what is coming.
NFPA classification types. This approach is especially helpful if you know
how to interpret the radar signatures of era/use/
An example of a mixed-use or hybrid building type/size.
would be a building that incorporates NFPA
Type II and Type V methodologies within a
single building. Era considerations
Mixing several construction types in a single Basic human needs have always centered on
building is allowed provided approved occupancy food, water, and shelter. Some may argue that the
separation features are employed. list should include fire and companionship, but we
Buildings that dont really fit into any NFPA 220 all seem to agree that the evolution of humankind
types will be labeled alternative construction has been driven by the needs of the first three. Since
methods in this book. prehistoric times, the need for shelter has, more
than any other basic need, defined progress. The
past 200 years have debatably produced the most
significant changes in the shelters we call buildings.

88
Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

The founding and growth of North America are traps, but by and large, the buildings were high-
most responsible for those changes. Think about it: mass, highly compartmentalized, and tough.
The first settlers couldnt make buildings like the Firefighters were less concerned about the era
ones they sailed fromthey arrived with only hand and more concerned with hidden voids, minimal
tools! It took some time to develop the quarries, access/egress options, alterations, and interior fire
foundries, and mills to process raw materials loads as they performed suppression, search/rescue,
needed to build the classic European building. and ventilation operations. In todays firefighting
In addition to the hand tools, those early settlers world, a firefighter must consider the building era
brought ingenuity, resourcefulness, and a freedom because it directly impacts those operations. Lets
of spirit that forever changed buildings. talk about several prevailing eras and how they
impact firefighters.
As it relates to classifying buildings, we know
that there are certain historic time periods that While no official era separation or title exists,
def ined how a building was built using the we know, mainly through firefighters experiences,
materials, practices, and discoveries that were that some general lines can be drawn that can help
common during that period. We will call the us understand the building we are dealing with.
historic time period during which a building was Predominate eras include the historical (pre-WWI),
constructed the era. Some use building age to say industrial (pre-WWII), legacy (post-WWII), and
the same thing. We feel that building age deals the engineered lightweight buildings.4
with the deterioration of a building over time
rusting, rotting, lack of maintenance, sagging, and Pre-WWI (pre-1914): The historic era. Buildings
other detrimental effects (fig. 53), so we prefer to built before World War I that are still standing are a
use the term era. In context, we look at the major testament to the toughness, ingenuity, and materials
building era shifts that took place as part of North used to create longevity. The earliest settlers built
Americas growth. More importantly, we attempt crude wood buildings that didnt last very long, but
to classify the firefighters perspective of various they served a use until more permanent structures
building eras as it relates to fire spread, structural could be built. Once a proper, permanent wood
integrity, and collapse potential. building was built, founding Americans experi-
enced what so many did before themthe ravages
of fire. It wasnt long before society demanded a
building that would contain an interior fire (like
the ones they had back in Europe). Hence, the cut
stone or load-bearing brick-walled building became
commonplace in the more dense population centers.

From the 1700s up to WWI, building construc-

tion tech niques and in novations g radually
improvedespecially in the area of convenience.
Systems for running water, sanitation, and heating
all matured, and innovations such as piped gas and
electric utilities were incorporated. Larger floor
Fig. 53. The age of a building can refer to deterioration of a spaces and multistory configurations improved.
building over time. Large warehouses, mills, and manufacturing build-
ings were erected (fig. 54). Mass-produced iron
(made from iron ore and carbon) was an affordable
In simpler times, a firefighter didnt really have
building material, although it lacked the strength
to categorize the building era. Sure, there were
and ductility that modern steel has (modern steel
concerns of age deterioration, irregularities, and

89
The Art of Reading Buildings

has alloys that help bind the iron and carbon). We have to remember that fire departments back
Concrete and mortar were improved. The first high- in the day didnt have the capabilities we enjoy
rises were built. Even with this period of change, today. Even though the pre-WWI building was
the buildings shared very similar characteristics high-mass, tough, and mostly compartmentalized
from a firefighters building integrity point of view. (even the all-wood ones), fires could easily spread
That is, they all used the concept of high-mass through open hallways and stairways. Likewise,
materials for walls and solid mass beams to support fires easily captured combustible voids due to
roofs and floors. utility runs, poke-through construction, balloon
frame construction, and the lack of fire stopping.
Fires that captured a building easily spread to other
closely-spaced wood buildings (fig. 55), resulting
in a conf lagration that exceeded firefighters
capabilities. This was dramatically demonstrated
by the St. Louis (1849), Chicago (1871), and San
Francisco (1906) conflagrations.

Fig. 54. An example of a pre-WWI type building.

When fires broke out in pre-WWI buildings,

the high-mass nature of the construction materials
absorbed more heat and offered some resistance
and thus, firefighting time. More often than not, Fig. 55. Closely spaced wooden buildings can dramatically
increase exposure considerations.
pre-WWI buildings showed warning signs that a
collapse was about to occur like sagging roofs,
floors, or cracks. Some reports cited that a building Cities and towns that experienced conflagra-
collapsed without warning, but that was the excep- tions quickly learned that the use of brick and
tion. The whole concept of aggressive interior stone walls helped minimize building-to-building
firefighting evolved from these buildings, mostly spread and rebuilt their Main Street accordingly.
because they offered time to get in, contain, extin- Still, the interiors were primarily wood. From these
guish, and overhaul the fire. The quantity and experiences, weve learned that pre-WWI buildings
composition of smoke was considered a nonissue have some significant fire spread issues. Namely,
during this era. The picture painted of the pre-WWI these buildings use lots of wood, have numerous
building sounds pretty goodand they were tough interconnected combustible voids, balloon frame
buildings. There are some firefighting issues associ- construction, include an interior geometry of
ated with these buildings, however. open hallways/stairwells, and utilize combustible/
flammable finishes for walls and contents.
Fire spread issues. Entire blocks, towns, and
cities have been destroyed by fire spread issues Tactically, firefighters engaged in an interior
that came from the use of wood as a primary suppression effort on a pre-WWI building need
building material found in many pre-WWI build- to prevent fire spread in halls and stairways first
ings. The history of building and fire code devel- (which are typically narrow), and be aggressive
opment is tied directly to these devastating fires. with searching for undetected fires in combustible

90
Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

voids. Closed doors may not prevent fire spread Water-soluble mortar. Sand and lime mortar
into other interior compartments because so many was used for most masonry buildings prior to
pre-WWI buildings used transom features above 1935 and is covered in more detail in chapter 7.
interior doorways to assist in ventilation and light Sand and lime mortar is water soluble and can
distribution. A transom is the beam above a door wash out of the spaces between bricks, and fire
used to support glass (to help spread light) or a streams (particularly straight streams) can accel-
louver (to help improve ventilation) as opposed erate this process. Portland cement (more water
to a mullion, which refers to a vertical structural resistive) was patented in England in 1824 and in
member between panes of glass. (A transom is 1872 began to be used on an increasing scale in
the traditional American term for a transom light, the United States. After the Long Beach earth-
which is the window over this horizontal member.) quake of 1933, it became the mortar of choice.
These features may not be visible due to overhead
Added exterior elements. As described in
smoke. A transom feature will likely fail first,
chapter 4 in the section on NFPA 220 Type III
leading to fire spread into uninvolved rooms and
buildings, the pre-WWI building often includes
hallways. If fire in these buildings has extended
add-ons such as parapets, heavy masonry
to the exterior of a building, then any exposure
cornices, and curtain walls that can fall prior to
considerations must be addressed, particularly
a floor, roof, or wall collapse.
when combustible exposures are in close proximity.
Alterations. As always, this is the wild card for
Collapse issues. The classic collapse warning any given building. Applied to the pre-WWI
signs we teach in basic fire academies are derived building, it is a good assumption that the
from the experiences fire officers had with the building has been altered as improvements in
pre-WWI building, such as sagging floors, cracks plumbing, electrical service, and HVAC evolved.
in mortar, noises, and leaning/bowing walls. It is also important to note that buildings that
In other words, collapse of these buildings was are on the National Registry of Historic Places
typically self-announcing. For a pre-WWI building (NRHP) are legally protected from many altera-
to collapse without warning was rare; it happened, tions. Individual buildings or entire districts of
but it was usually an anomaly. That said, there are buildings can be protected. The premise of this
some building features that should be noted that program is to preserve, as much as safety will
can lead to early collapse: allow, the original building or district. Rehab
and alteration efforts are done so only with
Gravity connections. Wood beams in masonry
research, permitting processes, and close super-
wall pockets are quite prevalent. Fire cut beams
vision to retain the original character of the
(covered in chapters 3 and 8) should be expected.
building(s). For example, cast iron columns and
Sagging f loors that move load-bearing wall
sand and lime mortar are no longer used as they
masonry (bricks pushing out) will likely indicate
are too dangerous, yet the NRHP may require
that there are no fire cutsa catastrophic wall
that damaged/aged sand and lime mortar and
collapse is likely.
cast iron (e.g., columns, etc.) be replaced with
Cast iron columns. Commercial and retail build- the same material.
ings of this era used cast iron columns (often
Aging. Obviously, these buildings have been
decorative) to support curtain walls above
around for a long time. Wear and tear, weather,
storefront window glass. Chapter 2 covered
and the natural degradation of soft bricks and
the dangers of cast iron. Remember, cast iron
wood take their toll. All sorts of remedies exist
becomes very brittle when heated. Sudden
to keep these great old buildings standing and
movement, force of fire streams, and eccentric
operational. One repair remedy that is quite
loads can cause a rapid and significant collapse.
common and easy to spot is the application of

91
The Art of Reading Buildings

ties and anchors on the outside of a building. The presence of spreaders on an outside wall
A spreader, which is an exterior wall plate, can serve as a warning to firefighters. The steel
indicates the use of ties within the building rods inside a building can be easily deformed by
to help keep the walls true and tight to floors. hostile firescausing damage to the wall and/or
Basically, a steel rod has been used to connect rapid sagging of the floor. Either way, catastrophic
opposite load-bearing exterior walls together. collapse can ensue. Anchors are also visible on the
The steel rod spans the distance of the interior exterior of load-bearing walls (fig. 56, bottom
floor from wall to wall. Typically, the rod has photo). Anchors are typically smaller than spreaders
a turnbuckle to make adjustments as the walls and serve a different purpose. Anchors are simply
(and floor beams) sag over time. Spreaders are designed to help hold a wood floor beam in a wall
needed to distribute loads over more surface pocket. Left unchecked, wood f loor beams can
area, and they are either over-sized flat washers shrink over time and slide out of their gravity wall
or more elaborate stars, swirls, and other decora- pocket. Anchors help prevent this. Most anchors
tive shapes (fig. 56, top photo). are nothing more than a lag screw or L-shaped
hook with a flat washer or small square plate. If the
washer or plate has a screw heard only, it is a lag
screw. If the washer or plate has an adjustable nut
(pictured), it is likely to be an L-shaped hook that
is dogged into the wood joist. Anchors are often
called joist or rafter tie plates. Fortunately or unfor-
tunately, anchored floor beams negate the purpose
of fire cut beams. A sagging floor could bring down
the walls (remember the structural hierarchy from
chapter 3).

Quick summary
Historic time periods that define how buildings
were built can be characterized by eras.
A general timeline for building eras is
Pre-World War I: historical
Pre-World War II: industrial
Post-World War II: legacy
Engineered lightweight buildings
Pre-World War I buildings can generally be
characterized by solid mass beams (or large
Fig. 56. (Top photo) The tie-rod and star spreader on this rough-cut lumber) for floors and roofs and high-
building need to be adjustedit clearly shows the tie rod mass materials for the walls, open hallways,
that spans the building depth. (Bottom photo) Anchors are
and stairways.
typically smaller than spreaders and indicate a lag screw or
L-shaped anchor to hold the ends of wood joists or rafters in Significant exposure considerations that could
the gravity wall pocket. lead to fire spread issues were the result of
closely spaced wood buildings.

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

Two other forces came to play in the industrial

Although high-mass materials take longer to fail development era that also changed the way build-
from the effects of fire (as compared to modern ings were built: engineering and standardized
construction), gravity connections, the use of iron building codes. This is not say either didnt exist
structural members, sand and lime mortar, altera- priorthey simply ramped up and became primary
tions, added exterior elements, and age are some influences in how buildings were built. From a code
of the contributing factors that led to collapse of perspective, efforts were made to make building
these buildings. systems more reliable, such as the standards
for plumbing, electrical, and heating. Engineers
Pre-WWII (pre-1939): The industrial era. The designed buildings to be larger with attention to
time period between World War I and World II strength and durability. Fire safety was consid-
(1918 to 1939) was one of incredible achievement ered by both the code developers and engineers,
in spite of the Great Depression and Prohibition. although many lessons were yet to be learned.
The great industrial machine started to crank out
automobiles, airplanes, huge cargo ships, and more Firefighters engaged in suppression efforts of
powerful locomotives. Electrical generation facili- these pre-WWII buildings discovered several issues
ties expanded, water delivery systems improved, that impacted fire spread and collapse potential:
and steel foundries and stamping plants flourished. building size and the use of steel.
Fuel-powered machinery mutated. With all these Fire spread issues: The defining characteristic
improvements came the need for bigger buildings of the industrial-era building was its sheer size. Its
to house assembly lines and massive machinery. almost as if the architect and engineering commu-
The need for larger buildings led to wood, stone, nities were daring each other to design and build
and bricks being replaced with concrete block, bigger buildings. Factories grew from city block
reinforced poured concrete, and alloy-strengthened size to those that covered acres. Apartments went
steel as the primary building materials. Wood was from dozens of units to hundreds, such as tenement
(and still is) the material of choice for most residen- and brownstone type buildings (fig. 58). High-rise
tial properties. The classic Sears Catalog mail- buildings reached new heights. (In 1931, New York
order home was offered by the Sears and Roebuck Citys Empire State Building became the tallest, at
Company between 1908 and 1940 and became 102 floors.) Obviously, fires grew with building size.
commonplace in residential areas that surrounded
industrial complexes (fig. 57). These homes are
often described as story-and-a-half bungalows that
can be closely spaced. They were easy to build,
quite stout, and relatively inexpensive.

Fig. 58. Brownstones were often large enough to contain

many units.
Fig. 57. An example of a Sears Catalog bungalow

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Fire spread issues associated with the industrial

era include the following: Quick summary
Open stairwells and central hallways. Many Pre-World War II buildings began to be
large loss-of-life fires occurred in industrial-era constructed to conform to enhanced engineering
buildings such as Our Lady of Angels, Cocoanut and standardized building codes. As a result,
Grove, and the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory are buildings became bigger and began to use steel
notable examples. Fire and smoke spread was as a replacement for iron and heavy timbers.
virtually unchecked and presented firefighters
The numbers of single-family dwellings dramati-
with serious challenges.
cally increased and were characterized by the
Utility chases. Many historical-era buildings Sears Catalog mail-order homes.
were built with very simple and minimalistic
High-rise buildings were built in greater numbers
utilities. During the industrial era, complex (and
and reached new heights.
modern) utilities were engineered right into the
original construction. Attention was made to Conventional type construction that often used
hide unsightly pipes, wires, and ductwork. This high-mass materials was still the standard
created numerous shafts, chases, and dropped building methodology.
ceilingsand fire spread paths. Insulating Balloon frame construction, open stairwells and
materials for wiring, pipes, and waterproofing central hallways in multistory buildings, utility
were typically flammable in this era. chases, and void spaces are some of the hazards
Void spaces. Engineering advances of this era that can be expected.
lead to larger and tighter void spaces, which Portland cement began to replace sand and lime
increased the incidences of backdrafts and cold- mortar and masonry construction dramatically
smoke explosions. Dropped ceiling voids and improved as a result.
spaces behind knee walls (such as those used in
finished attic spaces) are especially susceptible.
Post-WWII (after 1945): The legacy era. As previ-
Collapse issues: Perhaps the greatest building ously mentioned, the industrial era changed the
achievement of the industrial era was that of roof face of developed countriespeople could travel
engineering. Larger spans between walls and post further, faster, and with more comforts. Our
columns could be achieved using steel and the truss buildings, machines, and supply delivery systems
concept. The truss concept was not new, it was just became huge. Materials used for construction were
that previous trusses (used for railroad bridges, almost limitless. Then World War II hit. Nations
bowstrings roofs, etc.) were self-limiting due to the fought to preserve freedoms by creating and
weight of the wood. The use of steel, rivets, and bolts building more planes, ships, munitions, fuels, and
allowed the truss to achieve strengths and spans supply management systems designed to deploy
that were previously unobtainable. The unusable resources around the world. The war effort chal-
space created by the truss roof structure also led lenged Americans (and others) to ration raw mate-
to poorly planned reuse by building occupants rial, fuel, and food. Manufacturing of wartime
they converted the truss open spaces into storage equipment and materials was left to a labor force
areas, which added dead and live loads that were that included women. The building construction
not designed into the original load capacity of the industry was challenged to create systems that used
roof system. Unsupported masonry (load-bearing minimal materials and quicker/easier construction
brick) was still used extensively in Type II and methods. All of these challenges spawned inno-
III industrial-era buildings, although the concrete vation. What separated the American war effort
masonry unit (CMU) was gaining popularity. from other countries was the attention given to
Portland cement was being used for mortar.

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

engineering, reliability, and durabilityalong with stairwells, HVAC ducting, and electrical and
material efficiency and production speed. Arguably, plumbing features. The exterior was typically fin-
these innovations won the war. ished with glass curtain walls. These steel-web
high-rises used pan floors of sheet steel to support
When the war ended, returning service men and a lightweight concrete floor finish.
women came back to an America that had changed.
That change included a stronger can-do attitude
and a lust for freedom. Prosperity ensued. People
wanted a place of their own and a big familythe
start of the baby boomer generation. To feed this
desire, buildings had to be builtand build they
did. Entire residential subdivisions popped up,
seemingly overnight, along with the supporting
infrastructure. Suburban America was born. To
support the rapidly growing population, hospi-
tals, schools, churches, shopping malls, and huge
stadiums were built. High-rise buildings multiplied.
Aircraft supplanted rail as the long-distance travel Fig. 59. A concrete core enclosure surrounded by steel floor
method of choice, so airport buildings and hangars beams became the construction method of choice for high-
grew in size and numbers. The economy grew and rise and other large buildings in the legacy era.
Americans became materialistic and needed more
space for their possessionsmore furniture, larger Type II legacy: Prior to WWII, buildings used
cars, recreational gear, and collectables. Thus was for manufacturing, warehousing, and institutional-
born the greatest generationthe legacy era like needs (such as schools and hospitals) utilized
and all those buildings that presented firefighters soft brick, cut block, and concrete for load-bearing
new challenges. walls and columns. Beams were either steel or
The legacy-era building obviously includes the heavy timber (Type IV). After WWII, the concrete
legacy platform wood frame building discussed in masonry unit (CMU) was used almost exclusively
chapter 4. Frame buildings of materials other than for load-bearing walls. Floors and roofs were sup-
wood built after WWII also changed. Lessons from ported with steel I-beams or heavy (forged) steel
the war (build fast with less material and more trusses that were bolted or riveted. Many Type
engineering) and lessons learned from tragic fires II legacy buildings used no masonry at allthey
(adequate exiting, sprinkler systems, and more were entirely steel (fig. 510). These all-steel legacy
stringent building codes) became defining features buildings were built in a post and beam fashion and
of the legacy-era building. Lets look at more employed galvanized steel panels or aluminum for
specific details of the legacy-era building. wall and roof sheathing.

Type I legacy: Stadiums, arenas, and other Type III legacy: Like the Type II legacy build-
places of public assembly grew to enormous pro- ing, the post-WWII Type III buildings have CMUs
portions. Fortunate for firefighters, these structures for load-bearing walls. Floors and roofs utilize solid
were built following the most restrictive codes to wood joists nailed or screwed into ledger boards
date and employed lots of steel-reinforced con- attached to the CMUs. The classic suburban strip
crete. High-rise buildings changed significantly, mall is an example of a Type III legacy building
as concrete core with steel web and glass curtain (fig. 511).
walls became the construction method of choice
(fig. 59). The concrete core contained elevators,

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The Art of Reading Buildings

occupant alerting devices, standpipes, victim

refuge areas, well-defined exit/egress paths, and
smoke control systems. The real issue was having a
water delivery system that could meet the demands
of fires in large and/or numerous interior spaces,
and having enough firefighters to move that system
into the building.

Granted, not all legacy buildings had all these

features, but codes required their inclusion where
history showed they could prevent disaster. Overall,
we paint a pretty rosy picture of minimal fire spread
issues in the legacy-era building. However, there
are some serious issues that should be considered:

Fig. 510. A Type II legacy all-steel building Modern contents. The legacy building was built
in the era of hardwood and steel furniture/appli-
ances, typewriters, cotton and wool fabrics,
and paper communications. Todays typical fire
loading includes an abundance of synthetics,
electronics, and interconnected communications
systems. Explosive smoke environments are
created when these materials pyrolize. Protective
systems and devices that were built into the
legacy building can be simply overwhelmed by
Fig. 511. A classic Type III legacy building
todays fire load.
Glass. The use of more windows and steel/
Type IV legacy: There is no such thing! All hu- glass curtain walls allow faster floor-to-floor
mor aside, the use of heavy timbers for floor and fire spread in the legacy building as compared
roof beams had all but disappeared after WWII. to previous building eras. Additionally, with
Still, some legacy-era buildings are built as Type the influx of tempered and double-pane glass,
IV for those who can afford itmost notably, windows are more difficult to break for ventila-
churches and resorts. As can be imagined, the tion operations. They are also capable of lasting
fire spread and collapse concerns with each of an additional amount of time when exposed to
the legacy types above can be varied and numer- heat/fire, which can easily increase the potential
ous. Generally speaking, however, some collective of an interior flashover prior to their failure.
issues can apply to the legacy-era building.
Technology updates. Most legacy buildings had
Fire spread issues: The application of complex simple electrical and telephone communication
building, fire, and life-safety codes actually helps systems built into the walls (and protected chase-
the firefighter in legacy-era buildings. The tenet of ways). The digital age brought the need for more
aggressive interior firefighting became common- electrical power capability, data transmission
place in America because of the inherent strength systems, and backup storage and power centers.
and protections built into a code-compliant legacy The legacy building had to be rewired for all
building. The legacy era brought fire protection this. Tearing into walls to rewire a building is
systems that were very helpful to firefighters: better quite costly, so to update the legacy building for
automated suppression systems, detection systems, modern data and communication systems, many

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

use cable trays attached to the interior finish side Although firefighter-friendly, the legacy building
of walls, floors, and ceilings. The addition of still has some collapse issues due to a number of
exposed power and data trays can be found in factors. We can summarize these as follows:
all manner of legacy buildings. A simple data
cable tray fire can cause fire spread from room Open spans. The use of steel really opened up
to room and f loor to f loor. The smoke from interior spaces. Open or wide beam spans are
heated or burning cables can be very poisonous always a collapse issue for any building.
and flammable. Uninterruptable power supply Occupancy shift. The original legacy building
equipment and battery rooms (and their associ- was built for a specific use/purpose, following a
ated fire issues) may also have been added to the prescribed code. As these buildings were bought
legacy building. and sold, areas redeveloped and demographic
Collapse issues: The legacy building is arguably shifting took place, and the original legacy
the most firefighter-friendly building from a collapse building may now be used in a manner that
potential perspective. Lessons learned from fires was never intended. The classic example is the
and earthquakes, material ingenuity, engineering, suburban retail strip mall that is now being used
code development, and durability demands seemed as a church or community center. All manner
to all come together for the legacy building. Having of alterations to fit the new occupancy can alter
said that, it is also important to note that all build- the collapse resistance that was found in the
ings will eventually fail/fall during uncontrolled original building.
fires. (Gravity is always present!) Overloading. The legacy era also brought the
materialistic society. Likewise, memories of
Likewise, the legacy era also saw the gradual
rationing during war and the Great Depression
shift to truss roof construction. Firefighters should
were still present, which led to overstocking,
be well warned of the dangers of the truss. Looking
hoarding, collecting, and storing of tremendous
back, however, the legacy truss was a higher
volumes of goods. This added weight may not
mass (and well-connected) structural element
have been designed into the engineering of the
compared to the modern lightweight truss. There
building, and thus accelerating collapse poten-
are many examples of legacy trusses still intact
tial. Air conditioning was still considered a
after fire has totally consumed roof sheathing
luxury in the legacy era. Many of these build-
(fig. 512). Interestingly, the conventional flat roof
ings have since added A/C units as society has
on the right side of the building in the photo has
come to expect greater comfort. The added
totally collapsed.
weight of rooftop A/C units may have fit into
the design strength of a roof, but it does subtract
integrity time during fires. Overloading can
also come through the cumulative nature of
building improvements. For example, a new A/C
unit plus a new roof plus a new facade plus a
new elevator and ramps to meet the Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) require-
ments plus high-rack storage for archives plus
a data/server room for computers and backup
plus enhanced lighting fixtures plus new solar
panels plus . . . well, you get the picture. Some
of these additions may have been installed with
Fig. 512. Trusses in a legacy type building can still be intact
after a major fire. thoughtful engineering, while some may have
been added in dubious fashion. The catastrophic

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The Art of Reading Buildings

collapse occurs when the cumulative dead load is

Interior contents were typically comprised
suddenly stressed. For example, when the building
of conventional materials instead of
catches fire or is subjected to the extreme weight
synthetic materials.
of a 100-year rain or snowstorm event!
Many legacy buildings have been modified to
Aging. Steel rusts, wood decays, mortar cracks,
incorporate the requirements for modern communi-
and roofs leak. The legacy building is getting old
cations technology.
and does require maintenance to keep it sound.
If the legacy has an Achilles heel, it would Although these types of buildings are more resis-
have to be the roof. Many legacy-era buildings tant to fire and collapse than modern buildings,
have had to have their roofs repaired, altered, or they are being replaced (in increasing frequency)
replaced. In most cases, the various types of roof by lightweight construction/trusses.
repairs work against firefighters. Examples are Due to the availability of these buildings, many
multiple roofing layers, addition of weight (tile, have been converted into an occupancy that is
HVAC, etc.), the use of lightweight construction significantly different from the original intent of
to replace aging structural members, and so on. the construction.
Aging (especially roofs) may be the principal detri-
Quick summary ment found in the legacy buildings.

Innovation highlighted the era that followed

Engineered lightweight era. There is no clear
World War II and was heightened by the baby
dividing line between the legacy-era building and
boomer generation.
the engineered lightweight-era buildingthat is,
This era was instrumental in the implementation of there is no event (like a world war) that triggered
what is now referred to as the legacy generation. the era shift. Some may point to the energy crisis of
The legacy era can be characterized by Type I, II, the 1970s as the trigger to maximize raw building
III, and IV buildings as follows: materials through engineering innovation. Actually,
Type I: Much larger buildings, increased regulations fire officers started to see a shift toward lower mass
from restrictive building codes, high-rise build- building materials (and faster collapse during fires)
ings used steel-reinforced masonry and concrete, starting in the 1960s, as the use of wood trusses
elevators and stairwells, increased use of HVAC held by gusset plates first appeared at that time.
systems, lightweight concrete for floors, and Some of the first composite trusses (stamped, cold-
exterior glass curtain walls. rolled steel and wood) were also being used in
Type II: The use of reinforced concrete masonry the 1960s. It can be said, though, that engineered
units (concrete cinder blocks) for load-bearing lightweight components were slowly being added to
walls and the use of steel for primary structural what was otherwise a legacy building through the
members and trusses. The all-steel building was 1960s and 1970s (mostly in roof assemblies).
also introduced.
One reason the engineered lightweight build-
Type III: Utilized reinforced concrete masonry
units for bearing walls and solid wood floor and ing (ELB) was slow to evolve had to do with the
roof joists were nailed into ledger boards that language that was used to write codesthey
were attached to the CMUs. Rigid wood trusses specified exact methods to create something. For
became prevalent. instance, to meet code, a given size solid wood
Type IV: The use of heavy timbers for floor and beam had to be nailed to a given size load-bearing
roof construction was diminishing. New Type IV wall using a specific size nail with a specific nail-
buildings were limited to expensive examples like ing pattern. Trusses had to be nailed or screwed
churches and resorts. together following a prescribed schedule. Through

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

the 1980s, the building industry made the case Unfortunately for firefighters, the assembly-built
that codes should allow more innovation because ELB comes up short on duration and structural
there was more than one way to build the same integrity when attacked by fire.
thing. Thus began the engineered lightweight era
in earnest. Chapter 4 discusses the fire and collapse issues
associated with Type V lightweight buildings,
Using the short history lesson above, a fire and chapter 6 covers some of the fire and collapse
officer may conclude that most anything built issues that can be expected in other types of ELB
after 1990 is likely to be an ELB. This is a safe buildings. For now, though, we can summarize the
conclusion, although it is important to note that ELB fire and collapse issues by saying that we have
there are still some architects/builders who insist hotter fires in lower mass buildingsa dangerous
on using methods that include quality high-mass combination for firefighters. Interior firefighting
materials, solid connections, fire resistance, and time has been lost in the ELB.
over-built strength.

The defining descriptor for the engineered light-

weight era is lightweight. The use of low-mass or
Quick summary
high surface-to-mass materials, glues, staples, In the engineered lightweight era, conventional
engineered shapes, and assembly-built systems all framing techniques and full-dimensional lumber
combine to form the ELB (fig. 513). Of particular were replaced by truss and lightweight construc-
note is the concept of assembly-built. As mentioned tion that could be comprised of wood, metal, or a
in chapter 3, the assembly-built concept relies on combination of both.
each and every component to interact with others to
Lightweight and/or truss construction has proven
form a structurally sound building. The assembly-
to fail at a significantly faster rate than conven-
built approach accounts for redundancies and safe
tional full-dimensional lumber construction.
tolerances for durability and strength for extremes
such as earthquakes, winds, snow, and realistic live The recent implementation of adhesives to
loads. Engineers have shown that this approach replace rivets, bolts, and gang-nail plates for
yields a stronger building that uses less material. connection points has further resulted in faster
collapse time frames!
In some cases, interior firefighting time in this
type of construction has been degraded to the
point that it is considered unsafe and high-risk.

Use considerations
The first sections in chapter 4 made the case that
firefighters need to classify buildings by era/use/
type/size. We also make the point that the various
codes used for the design and construction of build-
ings are written to weave together the intended
Fig. 513. An example of a modern engineered lightweight building use with construction type requirements.
building that uses low-mass materials. In this section, we begin to discuss the building
use categories that help define how a building is
supposed to be built.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Even though use is listed second in the building

classification consideration, it is the first consider-
ation made when someone wants to build a struc-
ture. The intended use or purpose of a building
is called the occupancy. Once the occupancy is
determined, architects factor in the size that the
building needs to be for the desired number of
people, equipment, storage, and/or processes that
will be hosted by the building. These determina-
tions then get referenced to an applicable code that
directs the type of construction (and mandatory
features) that must be incorporated in the construc- Fig. 514. A single-family home that has been converted into
tion of the building. Obviously, these requirements a law office.
have evolved over time, leading to the various eras
we covered earlier. The evolution of the occupancy
construction method requirements have been To combat this very real concern, many local
modified/updated by many factors, but none as jurisdictions adopt laws or ordinances that require
influencing as the killing power of fire. occupancy changes to follow a permit system to
ensure that a building is fit to meet the fire and
Occupancy requirements are designed to give dead/live load concerns for the new occupancy use.
building occupants a reasonable chance to escape Unfortunately, building owners and occupants make
a building when a fire breaks out. Notice that we undocumented changes to buildings that impact the
didnt say that code requirements were written life-safety and structural integrity characteristics of
to give firefighters a reasonable chance to enter a their building. Following are some common traps
building and fight a fire. As a rule, newer buildings that can be expected to be encountered:
have more life-safety design features than older
ones for a given occupancy use. This rule assumes Changing the occupancy use
that the building is being used for the occupancy Changing the building size (fig. 515)
that was intended when it was first built. Life
Adding square footage, subdividing existing
happens. Buildings are commodities that get bought
space, and altering floor plans
and sold, swapped, altered, razed, renovated, and
revitalized based on economics, demographics, Lightweight construction that has replaced
and/or owner desires and needs. conventional construction

The reality is that firefighters fight fires in

buildings that were built for one use, but, for many
reasons, are now serving another purpose. You can
imagine the fire and collapse issues that are created
when a building built as a simple retail shoe store is
now being used as an auto body shop. Or the classic
occupancy switch of a single-family home that is
now a law office (fig. 514). The home-turned-
office will likely have walls removed, data systems
installed, tremendous weight of books/files added, Fig. 515. Changing the size of a building can alter the
and commercial-sized HVAC systems incorporated. physical dimensions as well as the interior floor plan consid-
erations. This is a single dwelling that is comprised of five
separate additions that are all interconnected!

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

Defining occupancy uses. Most fire departments subgroups, and tables that more specifically define
require first-due officers to give a brief building occupancy uses.
description as part of their on-scene radio report
(in addition to smoke/fire conditions, actions being Assembly. Buildings used for the assembly of
taken, and command declarations). Because this people for civic, social, religious, recreational, food
radio report needs to be brief, we tend to oversim- or drink consumption, or awaiting transportation.
plify the building occupancy use portion of the Business. Buildings used for offices, professional
report. As an example, residential or commercial or service transactions, storage of records, or
seems to be the most common. This approach ambulatory health care.
may be fine for a rapid radio report, but for truly
reading a building, it is woefully inadequate. The Day care. Buildings used for the supervised care of
great fire officer realizes that there are many types children with no overnight care. (NFPA recognizes
of occupancy classifications that are tied to certain day care facilities separate from educational.)
features that can help them better understand the
Educational. Buildings used for educational
fire spread, collapse, and hazardous tactical issues
purposes of six or more people (at any one time)
that might be expected for a given building. As an
through the 12th grade and some day care facilities.
example, there is a significant difference between
(ICB puts day cares in an E classification.)
a small commercial building that houses a barber-
shop and a large commercial warehouse building. Factory. Buildings used for assembling, disas-
sembling, fabricating, finishing, manufacturing,
As a starting place, there are several code-devel-
packaging, or repairing operations that are not
oping entities that have defined occupancy uses for
classified as Group H (hazardous) or Group S
their various audiences. Namely, the NFPA 5000:
(storage).
Building Construction and Safety Code developed
by the National Fire Protection Association and the Hazardous. Buildings used for the manufacturing,
International Building Code (IBC) developed by processing, generation, or storage of materials that
the International Code Council. These codes are constitute a physical or health hazard in quantities
very similar in the groupings of occupancy uses. in excess of allowed control areas.
The two diverge a bit in the subgroupings that are
found in each. The point here is not to memorize Institutional. Buildings where people are cared
the code groupings, but to be aware of these codes for or live in a supervised environment because of
and differentiate the occupancy uses. health, age, medical treatment, or those detained for
penal or correctional purposes.
Note: Be aware the previous IBC and NFPA codes
refer to occupancy use as types. However, we feel Mercantile. Buildings used for the display and sale
that the term use is a better representation in of merchandise and involving the stocking of goods
the era/use/type/size building size-up model that we that are accessible to the public.
present in this chapter and throughout the balance
Residential. Buildings used for sleeping purposes
of this book.
when not classified as Group I.
The following descriptions are the primary
Storage. Buildings used for storage that is not
groupings that are paraphrased (for simplicity) from
classified as hazardous.
NFPA 5000 and the IBC. (The following groupings
are expanded into more common and definitive Utility and miscellaneous. Buildings, and build-
fireground buildings in chapter 10.) Just know that ings of an accessory character, that are not classi-
the codes have very specific wording, examples, fied by any other occupancy use. This group

101
The Art of Reading Buildings

includes structures such as agriculture buildings, been a detriment to the fire service, and if history is
carports, sheds, tanks, and towers. an indicator of what can be expected in the future,
this trend is certain to continue. This is a main
Fire and collapse issues for each of the occupancy reason why a primary element of a size-up should
groups above are numerous, yet somehow obvious. focus on the type of building construction, as all
Specifically, fire spread issues are closely related to buildings are not identically constructed, nor will
the contents that can be found in a given building. all buildings react the same and in a similar amount
The building occupancy grouping can help clue the of time when exposed to heat and/or fire.
firefighter into the potential fire load. Likewise,
the arrangement and quantity of the fire load (as Without a doubt, the ability to determine the
suggested by the occupancy group) may help a fire type of construction will aid in determining
officer envision collapse potential. the following three primary building attributes
(fig. 516):

Quick summary The relevant strength of a building

The amount of time available for interior
Occupancy use is a primary consideration operations
when designing a building. However, when
the occupancy use is changed after a building The length of time a building will resist the
is constructed, the inherent hazards will effects of heat and fire prior to collapse
also change.
Building code requirements are normally not
written for the benefit of fire service personnel.
In some cases, a brief occupancy use description
should be included in an initial size-up report.
NFPA 5000 and the International Building Code
provide a primary basis for the grouping of
occupancy uses.
The occupancy classification of a building can
help fire officers envision the potential fire load
of a building, which in turn helps them determine
fire spread and collapse potentials.
Fig. 516. Determining the type of construction can help to
identify building strengths/weaknesses and how a building
will resist the effects of heat and fire.

Type considerations
In chapter 4 we discuss NFPA 220, which
Determining the type (construction) of a building provides a starting point in being able to rapidly
from the street can often be a challenging adventure, classify building construction types into five classi-
as buildings in this country have used various types fications. Even though we make the point that era
of construction materials and techniques over time, and use considerations are important to classifying
and those materials and techniques are continuing a building, the five classifications approach provides
to change as technology continues to evolve in the a quick and widely accepted way to understand and
building industry. Unfortunately, most firefighters communicate the underpinnings of a building. A
will readily agree that past and present changes that brief review follows.
have affected building construction have typically

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

Type I: Fire resistive. This construction consists of one of the five classic types) or if engineered wood
monolith (poured concrete on rebar), concrete and products have been incorporated into the building.
coated steel, and protected steel. Modern multistory Again, the era, use, and size considerations must be
buildings are common examples that use this type factored in to ultimately classify a building.
of construction.

Type II: Noncombustible. This construction is

similar to Type I construction except steel struc-
Quick summary
tural members are unprotected. Modern multistory Determining the type of construction is an essen-
buildings with unprotected steel components are a tial element of the era/use/type/size method of
common example of buildings that use this type building size-up.
of construction.
NFPA 220 provides a simple and widely-accepted
Type III: Ordinary. This type of construction tool for rapidly understanding and communi-
consists of exterior load-bearing walls of noncom- cating the basic construction underpinnings of a
bustible materials such as concrete block or brick building.
and an interior of combustible wood components. Evaluating the type of construction can enhance
Common buildings are older taxpayer and multi- ones ability to determine the relevant strength
story residential (hotel) buildings, and modern strip (and weakness) of a building and how long a
mall buildings with concrete block walls and light- building will resist the effects of heat and fire
weight wood truss roof assemblies. prior to collapse.
Type IV: Heavy timber/mill. True mill construc- Ultimately, the construction type of building must
tion consists of brick and timber, block and timber, be further defined by era, use, and size factors.
and block and glulam. Common buildings are older
large factories, warehouses, and churches. Some
newer applications can be found in buildings that
use glulams for primary structural members, such Size considerations
as newer churches.
The last (or fourth) element of the era/use/
Type V: Wood frame. The primary building com- type/size method of classifying buildings is that
ponent for walls, floors, and roofs is combustible of building size. The size element can present an
wood and/or wood products (engineered wood). interesting dichotomy of simplicity and poten-
The predominant example of this construction tial frustrations. The simplicity comes from the
type is residential homesthe most common type common fire service terms that are typically used
of building in this country. to describe building size: small, medium, large,
big-box, mega-box, and high-rise. The frustra-
Although the preceding five construction tion comes from the interpretation of these terms.
classifications can be helpful in prefire planning Granted, descriptions like big-box, mega-box, and
a building, it does not address some aspects of high-rise may seem obvious. The same cannot
buildings that can become crucial factors when be said for small, medium, and large. There is a
a building is under demolition by heat, fire, and key difference between an 1,800 sq ft single-
gravity. As an example, it is difficult to discern the story prairie-style home without a basement and
difference (from the exterior) between protected and a 5,000 sq ft Victorian-type three-story residen-
unprotected steel structural components. Likewise, tial home with a basement. Other than square
it can be difficult to determine if a building falls footage, what is the primary difference between
under the classification of a hybrid (a nontradi- these two examples? The answer lies in the poten-
tional building or one that doesnt readily fit into tial and quantity of materials available to burn and

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The Art of Reading Buildings

the amount of resources and time it will take to Two = small. A small building is one that
complete all suppression operations. Although both is two stories or less (or a single story with
of the examples above are residential homes, giving basement);
the size of a building during a size-up can make a
noticeable difference in a perceived assessment to is two thousand square feet or less;
incoming companies. requires two hundred feet or less of hand line
to reach any part of the building from the main
In many ways, small, moderate, and large are
access door;
relative terms that can mean different things based
on six considerations: needs two hand lines or less to handle an offen-
sive operation (1 in., 2 in., or 2 in.).
The perception of the individual making the
judgment Four = medium. A medium building is one that
The footprint or single floor square footage of a is four stories or less (or three stories with
building (width length) basement);
The interior arrangement of walls and contents is four thousand square feet or less;
The number of floors above ground and levels requires four hundred feet or less of hand line
below to reach any part of the building from the main
The amount of available resources (apparatus access point;
and staff ing) and the capability of those needs four hand lines or less to handle an offen-
resources sive operation (1 in., 2 in., or 2 in.).
Size of the fire
Six = large. A large building is one that
So, in your mental evaluation of a building and/
or what is expressed on a radio size-up, what do the is six stories or less (taller is a high-rise by most
terms small, medium, and large mean? definitions);
is six thousand square feet or more (dubious, but
From a street perspective, judging the size of
it fits the theme);
a building is really an impression, like Whoa,
that is a really big house! Those impressions are requires hose lengths greater than six hundred
usually formed relative to the typical buildings that feet to reach portions of the building;
are found in your response areas and the capabili- needs six hand lines or more for offensive opera-
ties you typically bring to a fire event. So again, tions (1 in., 2 in., or 2 in.).
the question arises, how do we define the differ-
ences in building sizes? In an attempt to attach It is important to remember that this is only a
a general definition to the terms small, medium, rapid size-up tool for making an initial judgment
large, consider using a rule of thumb we call the of building size. It should be used in a conserva-
two-four-six method. tive fashion that leans toward the bigger size. For
example, a building may be less than 2,000 sq
The two-four-six method takes into account the ft and two storiesa small building. But if the
aforementioned six relative considerations used arrangement of that building looks like there will
in making building size judgments and can serve be hose stretches of more than 200 ft, it is prudent
as an easy-to-remember communication tool for to call it a medium-sized building.
defining small, medium, and large. Lets show how
this can work. Applied, figure 517 appears as a single-story
dwelling that is roughly 30 ft by 35 ft or 1,050 sq ft,
and is well within the reach of a 200 ft preconnect.

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

Two lines could easily drown this house. Obviously, The 6,000 sq ft and restricted access would require
we should call this a small building. multiple lengthy hose lines (most likely 2 in.
handlines) for an interior attack on a working fire.

The previous example brings up a good point

size classifications can be skewed based on the
intended use of the building: residential or commer-
cial. Later in this chapter, we look at bridging the
size/use issue with some tangible influences. Before
we do, lets finish defining the more obvious size
classifications of big-box, mega-box, and high-rise.

Fig. 517. This dwelling would be considered small using the

two-four-six rule of thumb for communicating size.

Figure 518 is a little trickier. Granted, it is a

single-story commercial building that initially
appears decent sized. A closer examination would
reveal dimensions of 45 ft by 90 ft. That would fit
the medium category using the two-four-six rule of Fig. 518. A common single-story commercial building of
thumb. Actually, if the building was a bit larger or about 4,000 sq ft.
had a second floor or basement, it could weigh in
as a large building. We know that some firefighters
would scoff at the notion that this building could be
classified as largepoint taken. But for most fire
departments, this could be a large building because
of its volume and content potential. The conserva-
tive fire officer will plan for worse case. The fire
load potential of this building and unknown interior
arrangement could require more than four hand
lines. Granted, you could open up the boarded-up
windows and door and find a wide open and empty
space. That makes this a medium buildingwed
rather judge bigger and be wrong.

Figure 519 is a good example of a large build-

ing. It is a two-story URM-constructed building Fig. 519. An example of a large building that has the
potential of presenting a formidable challenge to most
with a basement. The building appears vacant
fire departments.
and has only one visible entry. It also appears to
be an industrial era manufacturing type building
that would present wide-open and/or intercon-
nected interior spaces that will enhance fire spread.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Big-box. Big-box buildings are large box-type the aforementioned big-box and mega-box build-
buildings with noteworthy fire loads that can ings refer mostly to the horizontal footprint of
easily exhaust the resources of many fire depart- the buildingthey are horizontal high-rises that
ments. Common examples are Lowes, Home should also be guided by protocol.
Depot, Wal-Mart, Costco, and the anchor stores
of large open-air malls. By code, these buildings As promised, we now cover some tangible influ-
typically require the installation of fire suppres- ences that help bridge the size/use issue.
sion sprinkler systems. Fires that exceed the Residential. Although residential buildings are the
capability of the sprinkler system (or an older most common type of building, do not overlook the
big-box that is not protected by a system) present fact that these common buildings are responsible
major challenges. Other buildings may fit into for the greatest number of civilian and firefighter
the big-box category, such as aircraft hangers, deaths. Additionally, a residential building is not
warehouses, multiplex theaters, and assembly-line necessarily a typical single-family dwelling. As an
manufacturing buildings. These buildings can example, there is a substantial difference between
require resources (depending on the size of the fire) a two-and-a-half-story craftsman-type home, a
that most fire departments cannot supply without three-story hotel, a 1,600 sq ft single-story home,
outside assistance. and an older large residential home that has been
Mega-box. Mega-box buildings can be defined as converted into a church (fig. 520). As a result,
buildings with mammoth proportions. As a result, when observing and/or giving a size-up regarding
this definition would refer to those few buildings a residential structure, it can often be advantageous
that are significantly larger than big-box buildings. to delineate the size and the use. Lets consider
Some of the largest examples include the MGM some of the more common factors that can influ-
Grand and Caesars Palace hotels in Las Vegas as ence the size evaluation of residential buildings.
well as the Boeing 747/777/787 assembly plant
near Everett, Washington (Payne Field). Although
smaller (pun intended), the mega-box size category
can be applied to buildings like large commercial
airport terminals and mega-malls that have multiple
anchor stores plus enclosed concourses and shops
(each anchor store is likely to be a big-box unto
itself). Like the big-box, mega-box buildings can
require resources (depending on the size of the fire)
that most fire departments cannot supply without a
significant amount of mutual/automatic aid.
Fig. 5 20. A large residential home that has been converted
High-rise. The previous size categories are basi- into a church.
cally street slang and defined based on a fire-
fighters perspective. High-rise buildings are a bit External size is one of the first factors that is
different as there are several nationally-recognized viewed and is comprised of length, width, and
definitions for them. While these definitions vary heightthe combined total of the portions of a
(minimally), most categorize a building as a high- building above and below grade (i.e., multistory
rise when the vertical height of the building exceeds and/or basement). Fortunately, the external size
75 ft and/or seven to eight floors. The challenges of most residential buildings can be one of the
of high-rise fires are well documented and subse- most visible factors in evaluating a residential
quently, fire departments have developed high- building (and other types of buildings also).
rise protocols for their occurrence. Interestingly,

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

The presence of below grade features may not to three primary factors that are not often inherent
be so visible. As an example, in some areas of to common residential-type buildings. These
this country, cellars and basements are common factors are size (exterior and interior), contents (fire
below the grade level. load), and a potential lack of people after business
hours (search considerations). The factors can have
Daylight and walk-out basements are very
a major impact on the time and resource commit-
common to residential-type buildings. It is
ment that is necessary to safely mitigate a struc-
important to size up the perimeter (do a 360
tural incident that involves commercial buildings.
size-up) to ensure the entire dimension of a
However, as commercial-type buildings come in a
building is viewed.
vast variety of sizes, the visible size of these build-
Some residential buildings are actually commer- ings may often be one of the most simplistic factors
cial-residential. The local Holiday Inn, apart- that can be quickly verified.
ment complex, and tenement can fall into this
commercial-residential mix. If the building is a
commercial-residential building, it is not only
a larger type of building but also has a higher
occupant load than common residential dwell-
ings (and at all hours of the day).
Is there a possibility of a multistory residen-
tial home (e.g., Victorian, colonial, etc.) being
converted into an illegal multifamily residen-
tial building?
Has the building been converted into a commer-
cial-only building? Doing so often includes the
removal of interior walls, which is a double- Fig. 521. Commercial buildings are not always large
edged sword. This changes the compartmen- buildings.
talized areas within the building and may help
with fire stream penetration, but it increases heat
As an example, there is a vast difference between
release rates and accelerates collapse potential.
a 30 ft by 50 ft single-story Type III building that
Some residential homes (typically of custom is being used as a party supply outlet (fig. 521)
construction) will have large attic areas that and a 100 ft by 250 ft single-story concrete tilt-up
have been primarily constructed to adhere to a Type III building that is being used as a warehouse/
particular style. The inherent size of these attics distribution center for electrical supplies. As you
can easily offer the same or greater volume as can see, there is a vast difference between these
an additional floor. illustrations, yet they are both examples of a
Consideration must be given to the possibility of commercial building. As a result, this is a primary
shared or common attic or cockloft spaces that reason why the size of a building should be consid-
span several dwelling units. ered, and in many cases included in a verbal initial
size-up. Lets consider some of the more common
Additions that significantly expand the original factors that can influence the size evaluation of
residential building are rarely visible from the commercial buildings:
street side. Accuracy in judging building size
may require a 360 look at the building. The external size is one of the first factors that
is viewed, and includes the length, width, and
Commercial. The ability to conduct a rapid size-up
heighta combined total of portions above and
of a commercial building can be more difficult due
below grade (i.e., multistory and/or basement).

107
The Art of Reading Buildings

As an example, many high-rise buildings can

have multiple floors below grade that consist Quick summary
of parking, equipment/machinery areas, and
other spaces. The physical size of a building is often easy to
determine and should be included in an initial
If a basement is present, does it extend to size-up.
adjacent buildings and/or building(s) across the
streeta feature that is common in some older Typical building size descriptors include small,
areas? As an example, several of the buildings medium, large, big-box, mega-box, and high-rise.
on either side of the street in figure 522 share a The two-four-six rule of thumb can help define
common basement that travels under the street. the differences between small, medium, and
large buildings for rapid size-up reports.
Cellars, basements, and underground parking
are less easy to determine and can dramatically
affect the size of a building.
The size and contents (use) of a building can
significantly modify the perception of the amount
of time and resources that are required to
mitigate a structural incident.
Residential buildings include not only single-
family dwellings but can also be commercial-
residential buildings of noteworthy size.
Add-ons and remodels can significantly change
Fig. 522. The commercial buildings on either side of this the size of any building.
street share a common basement that runs under the street.
Consider the potential of shared basements as
well as common attics.
Is the building a warehouse that is primarily
Although the external size of a residential-type
comprised of open areas or an office-type build-
building can be similar to the external size of a
ing that is principally comprised of partitioned
warehouse-type building, the interior floor plans
rooms?
of these buildings will be vastly different.
Are there multiple occupancy types in one
building?
The name on the exterior of a building can be a
great indicator of what can be expected inside a
building (contents and floor plan).
In some cases, a cockloft/attic area can be large
and/or extensive. As an example, cocklofts
over tenements can extend over numerous
occupancies.
What is the ratio of doors and windows to the
size of a building (ingress, egress, interior illu-
mination, and ventilation considerations)? As an
example, concrete tilt-up commercial buildings
typically have few windows.

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

Chapter Review Exercise

Picture drill
Look at the following building pictures and provide a brief description of each using the era/use/type/size
method for classifying buildings. Once classified, forecast several fire spread and collapse issues that may
be associated with that classification of building.

Photo exercise 51

Era:

Use:

Type:

Size:

Potential fire spread and collapse issues:

109
The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 52

Era:

Use:

Type:

Size:

Potential fire spread and collapse issues:

110
Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

Photo exercise 53

Era:

Use:

Type:

Size:

Potential fire spread and collapse issues:

111
The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 54

Era:

Use:

Type:

Size:

Potential fire spread and collapse issues:

112
Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

Photo exercise 55

Era:

Use:

Type:

Size:

Potential fire spread and collapse issues:

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 56

Era:

Use:

Type:

Size:

Potential fire spread and collapse issues:

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Chapter 5 CLASSIFYING BUILDINGS HYBRID, ERA, USE, TYPE, AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS

Resources for
Further Study
International Building Code, 2012 Edition,
Washington D.C.: International Code Council,
2012.
Mintz, S., & McNeil, S. (2013), Digital
History, retrieved March 5, 2014, from http://
www.digitalhistory.uh.edu.
Morgan, William, American House Styles, New
York, NY: Henry H. Abrams, Inc., 2008.
NFPA 5000: Building Construction and Safety
Code, 2012 Edition, Quincy, MA: National Fire
Protection Association, 2012.

notes
1 Taken from Dave Dodsons Incident Safety Officer
Academy lecture series.

2 NFPA 5000: Building Construction and Safety

Code, 2012 Edition, National Fire Protection
Association, Quincy, MA.

3 International Building Code, 2012 Edition,

International Code Council, Washington D.C.

4 The authors have taken liberty to create these era

categories. We feel it is important to teach firefighters
how to read a building and understand that era
considerations are an important part of that skill.
We also know that there are buildings that can defy
or negate the era descriptions. Nothing replaces
the importance of walking through buildings and
becoming familiar with the traps, fire spread,
collapse, and tactical issues associated with the
buildings in ones jurisdiction. We welcome input
to better communicate the concept of era.

115
ALTERNATIVE AND EVOLVING
CONSTRUCTION TRENDS 6
Objectives
Describe the difference between prescriptive design and performance design.
List four common alternative building construction methods.
Define the term green construction.
Explain what is meant by advanced framing methods and list several features
of AFM.

Performance Design Has Nothing

to Do with Firefighters
Chapters 4 and 5 outlined common construction methods and classifica-
tions as well as their associated fire and collapse issues. We also introduced the
concept of performance-based design construction methods that are found in
engineered lightweight construction. In this chapter, we look at alternative and
evolving building construction methods. Before we dive in, it is important for
firefighters to understand the trends and influences that are changing the way
buildings are now being built.

The building construction industry is being tasked to produce buildings that

are economically and environmentally friendly. More specifically, the industry
must consider the following criteria:

Building energy use

Indoor environmental qualities such as light, air, and noise
Water management
Waste and pollution reduction

117
The Art of Reading Buildings

Material sustainability and durability The performance design approach to building is

more concerned with what a building is required
Protection of the surrounding environment
to do and not necessarily with how it is to be
during construction and subsequent occupancy
constructed. Simply stated, it is an approach that
To achieve positive outcomes for these consid- concentrates on the ends and not the means to the
erations, the building industry (designers, builders, end. To make this work, some changes had to take
and suppliers) has had to change its general place in the codes/regulations/standards world.
approach to building. Previously, buildings were Instead of telling someone how something needs
built using a prescriptive approach. To achieve to be assembled, the codes had to be reworded to
economic and environmental friendliness, the tell someone how something needs to perform.
industry has changed to a performance design Practically applied, instead of telling builders they
approach. Lets look at the difference. must use 2 4 wood studs with in. drywall
on both sides to build a fire separation wall, they
now say that a fire separation wall must not lose
Prescriptive building approach integrity in a given time frame with a given fire.
The prescriptive approach basically means that This performance design approach allows material
a designer (architect and engineer) draws up a plan suppliers to diversify and innovate, and allows
for how a building is to be built. That design then building designers to consider alternative materials
goes to a contractor to bid the job. The contractor and methods.
then finds suppliers to deliver materials needed
This general switch in building construction
for the project. This approach emphasizes how a
approach sets the stage for a whole new set of
building needs to be constructed and is less focused
building construction considerations for firefighters.
on the end performance of the building. Often, it is
It is interesting to note that during the research for
strict codes, regulations, and standards that drive
this chapter, it was never mentioned that a building
the prescriptive approach. This approach places the
needs to perform better for firefighters. In todays
contractor in a position to make many workaround-
world, designers, contractors, and material suppliers
type decisions when things dont exactly fit or
have a moral (and legal) responsibility to create a
material requirements are not specified or available.
building that notifies occupants of a fire and gives
This is not to say that the prescriptive approach
them a reasonable time to exit. Firefighting time is
is bad, most industrial- and legacy-era buildings
not part of the equation. As youll see, alternative,
were built prescriptively. Unfortunately, some of
performance designed buildings utilize lots of low
the prescriptive methods stifle innovation toward
mass (and high surface-to-mass) materials as well
environmental friendliness.
as an assembly-built approach that can lead to rapid
structural failure during fires.
Performance design
building approach Quick summary
The origins of performance design construction The prescriptive building approach focuses on how
began in pre-biblical timesthe architecture code a building needs to be constructed and not the end
was basically a performance criteria to build a house performance of the building.
that would not collapse and kill anybody. Through
The performance design building approach focuses
trial and error, newer performance design alterna-
on what a building is required to do (end perfor-
tive building methods began to emerge in the 1980s,
mance) rather than how it needs to be built.
although examples were few. The 1990s brought a
period of great change in code allowances and the Firefighting time is not part of the equation for
subsequent increase in alternative building methods. performance design buildings.
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Chapter 6 Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends

also accept that the rate of change has reached

Alternative lightning speeds. That is, the building construc-
tion trade has always been evolving, but the rate
Building Methods of evolution was such that the fire service had time
to digest the changes and develop training, code
When applied to the fire service and building language arguments, and/or tactical procedures
construction, alternative building methods can be to deal with the evolution. In todays world, a new
defined as building construction materials, assem- construction method or material can be devel-
blies, and systems that are nontraditional, unusually oped, tested, produced, marketed, and applied
innovative, or dont readily fit into the five classic to a building in less time than it takes to send a
types. Most firefighters would agree that alterna- firefighter through academy (thanks to performance
tive building methods equates to buildings that are design codes). This rate of change underscores
less substantial than their predecessors, which can why it so important for firefighters to be constantly
result in rapid degradation of structural integrity aware of the changes that are occurring in the
during fires. On the surface, we agree that alterna- buildings within their response areas, and how any
tive building methods should be viewed cautiously notable changes can impact applicable structural
from a firefighters perspective even though some fire suppression operationseither from a positive
alternative building methods are very resistive or negative viewpoint. Nothing can replace prior
to collapse under fire conditions (e.g., insulated familiarity with a particular building as compared
concrete form f lat panel, covered later in this to being surprised, caught unaware, or paying the
chapter). ultimate price from an unknown hazard that should
In the previous sections on prescriptive and not have been a surprise.
performance design building approaches, we
discussed the primary differences between these
two methodologies that have resulted in buildings
that could best be described as using a standard
or conventional approach toward constructing a
building. However, the current and future trend to
build buildings faster, higher, and more economi-
cally (in many cases, economical can be defined by
the fire service as dangerous) has led to alternative
and evolving construction methods. These build-
ings can either incorporate a mix of standard and
alternative methods and materials, or methods and/ Fig. 6-1. A simple single-family dwelling that incorporates
or materials that could best be described as leading many modern, environmentally-friendly features.
edge, innovative, or in some cases, substandard as
compared to the conventional construction methods A simple example of being aware of building
and materials of yesterday. construction changes in your response area is illus-
As we have described in other portions of this trated in figure 61. Although this modest single-
book, a classic example of an alternative construc- story, single-family dwelling appears to be newly
tion method is the substitution of lightweight constructed and typical of many new homes, it is
materials for conventional materials. The substi- far from typical. This home incorporates many
tution and resulting negative impact on the fire of the latest green characteristics: solar energy,
service is no stranger to firefighters. Accepting the energy-efficient double-pane windows, walls
reality that new buildings are likely to be light- constructed from straw mixed with light clay, and
weight is only a starting place. Firefighters must the exterior finished with stucco-type materials

119
The Art of Reading Buildings

(the same dwelling before the stucco was applied

is shown in figure 610). Additionally, the roof is Quick summary
constructed from lightweight wood trusses that use
glue at their connection points. So, even though Alternative building methods can be defined
this is not a large building, how will it perform as building construction materials, assemblies,
during a structure fire? Think about the following and systems that are nontraditional, unusu-
considerations: ally innovative, or dont readily fit into the five
classic types.
When exposed to heat and fire, the roof can
Most alternative construction buildings include
catastrophically collapse in a short period of
lightweight/engineered elements, which equates
time from failure of glued connection points.
to reduced integrity and firefighting time under
The solar panels are imposing an added dead fire conditions.
load on the roof, in addition to the electrical
The rate of construction evolution is such that
considerations that are associated with the
firefighters must invest more time exploring new
solar panels.
or renovated buildings in their response area.
The energy-efficient windows will take longer
to fail than standard windows, allowing the
interior temperature to more easily reach flash-
over conditions in a shorter period of time. Lightweight steel
Similar to the energy-efficient windows, the In spite of the advancements in the use of wood
enhanced insulation qualities of the light clay in building construction, the current advantages
and straw walls will also accelerate f lash- of using lightweight steel as compared to wood
over potential. are numerous:
Although the walls are a combination of clay Reduced cost
and straw, the clay will not burn but the straw
Significant weight reduction
will. This does not present a notable hazard
during suppression operations, but it can entail Ease of installation
a laborious overhaul operation. Resistant to termites and mold
The balance of this chapter explores some alter- Noncombustible material to help satisfy code
native construction methods and materials that requirements for certain occupancies
seem to be catching on. You may note that light-
weight or engineered wood buildings are missing Buildings that use lightweight steel can be a
from this chapterwe believe that we covered them true steel framed style (studs, sills, headers, and
adequately in chapter 5 (in many ways, the light- joists) or they may be a post and beam style with
weight wood building is now commonplace). We lightweight steel C-channel studs to help parti-
have also omitted some of the bizarre, demonstra- tion the structure. In both cases, OSB sheathing is
tive, or one-off methods that are out there. And, in added as an exterior wall covering that stiffens the
full disclosure, there are likely alternative methods structure and adds shear strength for wind loads.
that weve never heard of and new methods and Floors can be either metal pan with lightweight
materials that will come out before this book can go concrete or lightweight engineered wood (trusses
through its first printing. For those that are listed, or I-joists with OSB floor sheathing). Roofs are
we give a brief description of the building elements typically engineered wood trusses or lightweight
and include some fire behavior and collapse issues formed steel trusses (fig. 62) with lightweight steel
that may present challenges to firefighters. purlins for spacing and sheathing attachment. New
lightweight steel buildings resemble wood frame

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Chapter 6 Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends

types when finished. Drywall protects the steel and

engineered wood structural elements from interior
compartment fires.

Fig. 63. This residential building uses lightweight steel for

all framing members. (Photo by Rick A. Haas, Jr.)

Fig. 62. Lightweight steel trusses are used for roof struc-
tural members. (Photo by Rick A. Haas, Jr.)

For the true lightweight steel framed building,

C-channel and H-channel shaped studs, sills,
headers, and joists are used, as in the residential
building in figure 63. These light steel components
are only in. thick, making them very flexible.
Strength is achieved by the shape of the components
rather than the mass, and the OSB sheathing that
makes it stiff. For the post and beam, lightweight
steel style, lighter I-beams and H-columns are used
Fig. 64. Lightweight steel is used to provide decora-
to form the external skeleton of the building (often
tive enhancements to the exterior of a concrete masonry
called red-iron because of a red oxide coating) and unit building.
lightweight C-channel steel studs are used to fill
exterior and internal wall sections. Lightweight
steel ( in.) is commonly used in truss configura- Fire spread issues: The interior finish of light-
tions (open-web bar joist) for structural members in weight steel construction uses drywall, which
many types of roofs (see fig. 817). An additional allows fire spread like most other new Type V
popular use of lightweight steel is on the exterior buildings. Building features like facades, large
of structures built of concrete masonry units to truss spaces, and open interior geometry can make
provide decorative enhancements to an otherwise smoke-induced fire spread a serious concern for
simplistic appearing building (fig. 64). Remember firefighters. An additional hazard associated with
that these enhancements will create numerous lightweight steel, particularly C-channel steel
voids between the steel members and concrete studs, is that heat can cause the studs to warp/twist,
masonry units. pulling the attaching screws out of the drywall.
This can result in drywall detaching from the steel
studs and allow a fire to more easily extend in a
horizontal direction. This has been noted in some

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The Art of Reading Buildings

office buildings and strip malls where the use of

steel studs is commonplace. Similar to open-web Quick summary
wood trusses used for roof structural members,
lightweight steel open-web bar joists and similar Lightweight steel framing has numerous benefits
configurations used for roof structural members over lightweight wood construction.
also allow the rapid horizontal spread of fire Lightweight steel buildings can be constructed
between adjacent trusses. Lastly, remember that as a true frame style (load-bearing studs) or as a
steel decorative enhancements on the exterior of post and beam style.
concrete masonry unit buildings will conceal voids
Lightweight steel is being used for the makeup
behind the steel facing.
of trusses, facades, and other structural and
Collapse issues: High fire loading from contents nonstructural additions in block (CMU) buildings.
is a real fire spread threat in almost all new build- Steel studs (and other structural or framing
ings and can deteriorate drywall in rapid fashion. members) can warp/twist when subjected
The drywall is an essential part of the collapse- to heat, causing attached drywall to fail and
prevention system during fires in lightweight steel allowing the horizontal extension of fire.
buildings. Once fire or hot smoke enters structural
Sagging of lightweight steel elements is a proac-
element spaces, the lightweight steel will rapidly
tive warning sign of collapse.
lose its integrity and start to soften and elongate or
buckle, losing the shape that is essential to handle
imposed loads. The biggest collapse threat of
these buildings comes with a fire in an unfinished Insulated concrete form (ICF)
basement. Expect a rapid and general collapse of
flooring due to the low heat resistance of light- Insulated concrete form (ICF) is a newer con-
weight steel. struction method that was initially developed
in Europe after World War II as a cost-effective
Roof structural elements of lightweight steel method to replace/rebuild damaged buildings. ICF
typically use pinned truss shapes that are spaced buildings are those that use permanent expanded
using crosswise steel purlins that support OSB polystyrene (EPS) forms for poured concrete and
sheathing (refer back to fig. 62). This assembly come as panels, planks, or blocks (fig. 65). EPS is
arrangement suggests that the roof will sag before the most common material for ICF forms, although
it collapsesproviding a slight, but not foolproof they can be manufactured from cellular concrete,
warning sign. Additionally, lightweight steel bar cement-bonded polystyrene beads, cement-bonded
joist roof structural members can readily sag and/ wood fiber (composed of 15% cement and 85%
or collapse when exposed to heat and/or fire. Roofs recycled expanded polystyrene), and a combination
that use engineered wood trusses and I-joists of approximately 15% cement and 85% mineralized
(in combination with lightweight steel framing wood chips. The forms are left in place after the
members) will collapse quickly after glue break- concrete cures and serve as a backing skin for inte-
down or loss of gusset plates due to heat or fire rior drywall and exterior stucco, siding, or brick
involvement (look for tan or brownish smoke veneer. Obviously, the EPS also provides increased
leaving eaves and roof space vents). Sagging of an insulation for the wall. As early as the 1960s, ICFs
engineered wood roof assembly is a late signthe were used as basement foundation walls. In the
roof assembly can collapse well before sagging 1990s, builders started to use the ICF concept to
occurs. Firefighters walking on a heat-weakened form all exterior wallsas high as three stories.
engineered wood roof can cause the collapse. ICF buildings over three stories are likely to be
more like a reinforced concrete building with sub-
stantial use of steel.

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Chapter 6 Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends

Flat panel. This system uses interlocking flat

panels of EPS to form a mold wherein a solid
mass of concrete is poured. The voids between
the EPS panels (for the concrete) are spaced
using plastic or coated metal plates, which help
ensure a uniform thickness of concrete. The
plates are also used to support window frames,
conduit, and piping runs that are installed prior
to the concrete pour. The flat panel system yields
a continuous mass of concrete like a convention-
ally-poured foundation wall. The concrete used
to fill the forms can be low-slump (thick) with
a high aggregate contentproviding a fairly
resistive mass for prolonged integrity under
fire conditions. The finished flat panel ICF wall
is approximately 80% concrete and 20% EPS
and steel.
Post and beam. The post and beam ICF system
creates just thata concrete post and beam skel-
eton (typically with steel rebar). The system is
formed by using a combination of EPS planks
and panels to form the hollow molds for the
concrete posts and beams. The molds are
interconnected to solid EPS blocks that create
the wall infill (which uses minimal concrete)
Fig. 65. Insulated concrete forms
and serve as the mounting surface for interior
drywall and exterior finish. The finished post
ICF buildings are becoming quite popular and beam ICF wall can range from 40% to
in areas where outside temperature extremes 60% concrete.
are common, due to their outstanding R-values. Grid block. An ICF grid block system is one
Additionally, ICF decking is gaining in popularity where thick EPS blocks are stacked and inter-
as it weighs about 40% less than conventional locked (like LEGO blocks) to create a wall. The
concrete flooring and also provides good insulation EPS blocks are designed with internal cavities
properties. ICF decking can be designed with ICF that create continuous vertical and horizontal
walls to form a monolithic structure that is joined channels for the concrete. Once poured, the
by rebar. Most ICF buildings utilize engineered concrete forms a lattice or waffle pattern that is
wood floors and roof assemblies, although some encapsulated by the EPS. Steel rebar is typically
cases of lightweight steel exist. When finished, the added to some of the cavities (prior to pour) to
ICF building looks like any other building, although give strength in areas around doors, windows,
the walls are typically thicker than traditional and corners. The concrete used to fill the
framed ones. Identifying these buildings is best cavities has to be a high slump (free-flowing)
accomplished during construction and appropriate with minimal (or small) aggregate content.
notations need to be filed in accessible preplan When finished, the grid block wall is primarily
systems. As mentioned previously, there are three EPS or form material with as little as 20% to
principal methods to build an ICF wall: flat panel, 30% concrete.
post and beam, and grid block.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

While all three form styles are categorized as

ICF buildings, each reacts differently under fire Quick summary
conditions. The ICF panel system is a friend to
firefighters (high-mass walls) although the inclusion Insulated concrete form (ICF) uses expanded
of lightweight floors and roofs minimize the gain. polystyrene (EPS) molds for concrete, which are
The ICF post and beam system has some benefits left in place after the concrete cures.
(protected steel encased in concrete) but not like The three primary configurations of ICF are flat
panel ICF. The grid block form should cause panel (mostly concrete), post and beam (half
firefighters concern. Additional issues regarding concrete), and grid block (minimal concrete).
fire spread and collapse are outlined next.
The ICF EPS includes a fire resistive additive.
Fire spread issues: The EPS used for ICFs con- Pyrolysis breaks down the additive, making the
tains a fire-resistive additive that is not supposed smoke produced from EPS explosive (and toxic).
to support flaming. Manufacturers of ICF products If polystyrene forms are weakened or removed
often cite this feature when questions are asked by fire, the integrity of the concrete is minimized
about fire spread potential. As most firefighters and/or lost.
know, flames from other burning materials will
cause the EPS to melt and produce additional
smoke (pyrolysis). As the EPS smoke becomes
airborne and heated, the additive breaks down and Structural insulated panels (SIPs)
the smoke becomes flammable (remember, EPS is a The SIPs building is constructed using panels
petroleum product). The surface of EPS may resist to form load-bearing walls and the roof. Each
flaming, but the emitted smoke eventually burns. panel consists of two outer skins of OSB with an
Expect greater volumes of explosive smoke when insulating core made from expanded or extruded
the EPS pyrolizes. polystyrene (EPS or XPS, EPS is most common).
Collapse issues: With flat panel ICFs, the fire- Panels can range from a common 4 8 ft to panels
fighters collapse concerns are mostly tied to the as large as 8 28 ft and even 10 36 ft. Thickness
lightweight floors and roof: Once the EPS melts can range from 4 in. to 12 in. The thickness
away, there is a huge solid mass of concrete. This includes the OSB and EPS. Most SIPs use 7/16
is not true with grid block and post and beam in. thick OSB for the skins, although 5/16 in. can
ICFs. Expect minimal interior firefighting time be specified. Individually, OSB and EPS lack the
and rapid collapse of ICF grid block and post and strength to form a load-bearing element. When
beam systems. The integrity of the concrete within pressure laminated together, a synergy is created
these two systems is absolutely dependent on the that forms a strong panel.
EPS being intact. Once the EPS melts, the concrete SIPs panels are prefabricated in a factory and
becomes unsupported. Even though steel rebar is then shipped to the job site. There, a small crane
included in some critical areas, the concrete/steel is used to assemble the house like the house of
was never intended (or tested) to be self-supporting. playing cards you built as a child (fig. 66). Panels
This is another example of the concept of assembly- are joined using glued OSB splines that fit into
built. The entire assemblyEPS, concrete, steel, slots formed in the EPS (fig. 67). The wall panels
shape, and coveringworks together to prevent are topped with a solid wood plate to serve as a
collapse. The waffle or lattice concrete found in receiver for panel screws that secure roof SIPs.
grid block ICF should be especially concerning to Multistory SIPs buildings are typically platform-
firefighters because it is especially fragile without built using engineered wooden I-beams or wood
the EPS. trusses for f loors. SIP f loor panels are rare but

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Chapter 6 Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends

exist. SIPs can be built up to three stories without addition. Regardless, the SIPs building, roof, or
a substructure. Buildings taller than three floors addition is amazingly strong, energy efficient, and
use a steel post and beam skeleton with SIPs infill. economical. Thats assuming there is no fire.
Drywall can be screwed right into the OSB skin
to create the interior finish. The exterior finish can Two variants of the SIP concept have evolved
be myriad: stucco, cement board, lapped wood or in recent years. For those concerned about using
cement-fiber siding, and/or stone/brick veneers. plastic foam, the EPS core is replaced with a
proprietary fill made from compressed wheat straw
or other cellulose material. The second variant
replaces the OSB skins with thin steel panels that
help provide more impact resistance for buildings
in hurricane-prone areas.

Fire spread issues: The finish material applied

to the panels OSB skin is a critical barrier for SIPs
fire protection. Once that finish is compromised,
the OSB will burn and contribute to rapid fire
spread. (Remember that OSB glues are petroleum-
based.) Heat alone can cause OSB glues to degrade.
Likewise, heat can enter the panel insulation core
through utility chase conduits that are formed or
Fig. 66. Installing structural insulated panels (SIPs) is fast cut into the panels (fig. 68). The heat will cause
and easy.
EPS to melt, leaving large combustible voids
between the OSB skin. Smoke production will
be significant. The smoke from OSB and EPS is
extraordinarily toxic. Remember also that the OSB
lacks the strength to be load bearing without the
bond to EPS.

Fig. 67. SIP spline connections

Fig. 68. Heat and/or fire can enter utility chase conduits in
panel cores and compromise the insulation core.
Conventional Type III and Type V buildings
may be roofed with SIPs. In fact, the original SIPs Because SIPs buildings have high insulating
concept was designed just as a replacement roof values and few exterior wall voids, smoke and
for buildings in cold regions to help eliminate heat heat will initially be trapped in the building. Be
loss. Likewise, existing structures may have a SIPs

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The Art of Reading Buildings

cautious of light-smoke showing at SIPs build- buildings. One clarification: These newer straw
ings. Interior fires can easily become ventilation- homes are made with strawnot hay. Whats the
limited. Opening doors and windows can cause the difference? Hay refers to grasses like alfalfa. Straw
fire to take off, including full smoke ignition. is the stalk and inedible parts of wheat, rye, rice,
or oat grain plants. Straw is much more dense and
Collapse issues: We do not have much docu- stiff. Modern straw bale construction can be of
mented collapse experience with SIPs buildings. two forms: load-bearing (also called the Nebraska
Anecdotally, one western Idaho fire department style) or non-load-bearing. The non-load-bearing
experienced a SIPs house fire where they witnessed straw bale house uses a wood or steel post and
unusual smoke volumes and colors followed by beam skeleton and the straw bales are used for wall
rapid fire spread and a rapid collapse. To use their infillthe straw doesnt carry the structural load
words, it just started falling apart. Simple of floors or roofs.
analysis of the materials and manner in which the
structure is built should lead a firefighter to expect For this discussion, well focus more on the
rapid structural failure of the SIPs building. load-bearing straw bale building (SBB). The SBB
typically consists of walls formed by stacking rows
of bales on a raised toe-up. The toe-up is a wood
Quick summary or block platform, attached to the foundation, that
serves as an anchor point for the bales and helps
A SIPs building is constructed using panels to keep the bales off grade for protection from flood
form load-bearing walls and the roof. Each panel and rot. The bales are pinned together using various
consists of two outer skins of OSB with an techniques including wire ties, wood (bamboo)
insulating core made from EPS. The panels are sticks, or rebar. Door and window openings are
typically held together using glued OSB splines. formed using bucks. Bucks are typically wooden
Remember that the interior and exterior finish brackets that sleeve the bales in order to form the
materials that are applied to SIPs construction opening. Once the wall is formed, the bales need to
are a critical barrier to heat and fire. Once these be compressed.
finishes are compromised, rapid fire spread will
There are two methods of compressing the bales.
be enhanced.
The more simple method is achieved by merely
Smoke from heated/burning OSB and EPS is adding the weight of the roof. To attach the roof, a
extremely toxic. wooden box beam is laid on top of the bales to serve
Firefighters can expect rapid fire spread and as an anchor point. The box beam is anchored to the
collapse of SIPs buildings. bales using a threaded rod that runs down through
the bales to the toe-up (fig. 69A). The second
method involves compression straps (attached to
the toe-up) that help squeeze down the bales to add
Straw bale buildings strength and prevent shifting and settling issues
(fig. 69B). The roof for an SBB is most commonly
The use of straw bales to build shelters has
an engineered wood truss assembly, although it
existed since prehistoric times. More recently (if
can be SIPs or solid wood joists or rafters. Those
the 1800s is considered recent!), the straw bale
true to the 1800s straw house build a wood roof
house became the building of choice during the
support system with an earthen, live roof cover
westward expansion of North America through
that grows vegetation (also known as a sod roof).
the Homestead Act. Today, the straw bale house
has returned as a simple, earth-friendly, easy-to- The most popular exterior wall finish for straw
build alternative for homes and small commercial bale construction is wire mesh and stucco or

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Chapter 6 Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends

other mud-type mixture. Interior finish may also The compressed nature of the bales in the SSB
be stucco, although a drywall system using wood helps minimize rapid burning, but overhaul will
furring strips attached to the toe-up and box beam be difficult. Fires that originate within the wall (or
may be used. High-tech SBB walls are wrapped in spread into the wall through utility paths) can cause
a vapor and moisture barrier to preserve the straw. a deep-pocket smoldering fire. A deep-pocket fire
Some preservation systems include bales that are will cause a cavity to form within the wall that is
nitrogen (an inert gas) charged, compressed, and often invisible from the outside surface.
sealed with the barrier prior to the finish application.
Collapse issues: The real collapse threat with
the SBB is found with the roof. Lightweight wood
roofs are collapse threats on any building. Live
roofs create an unusually heavy dead load, which
can cause a more rapid collapse. Firefighting water
absorbed into live roofs will accelerate the collapse.
The actual walls of a load-bearing SBB resist
collapse and are quite stable as long as the compres-
sive load is present ( through the weight of the roof
or the compression straps). Collapse of the roof
can easily cause movement of the wall. Likewise,
loss of straw mass due to burning can cause a wall
to lean, although this is a long process (look for
out-of-plumb walls and sagging). Following the
concept of structural hierarchy, movement of the
wall will cause the roof to move and likely collapse
if it hasnt already.

Straw clay buildings

In straw clay buildings, straw clayalso known
as light clay, light straw clay, light clay straw, and
slipstraw and primarily comprised of a mixture of
straw and clayis used to infill between a wooden
frame in a wood framed building (fig. 610).
This material has been used as an infill for walls,
ceilings, and roofs from at least the 12th century
in European countries and has been used in this
country from the 1980s. Although a rather old
Fig. 69. Straw bales are compressed two ways: using the
weight of the roof on a box beam (A) or through the use of method of construction, the recent earth-friendly
compression straps (B). building trend has reintroduced the straw clay
building as an alternative method. The process is
based on environmentally friendly materials that
Fire spread issues: Anyone who has fought a consist of unprocessed earth and waste agricul-
straw or hay bale fire knows how stubborn they tural fibrous materials (straw). Straw clay build-
can be. The interior and exterior finishes of the ings have a history of durability, cost effectiveness,
SBB will initially protect the bales, but once the and can provide an effective barrier against the
fire attacks the bale, the stubbornness will prevail. elements. Further, the straw clay building does not

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The Art of Reading Buildings

require specialized equipment and/or tools, has the straw can smolder and will likely present the
good insulating properties, and is resistant against greatest hazard during overhaul operations.
vermin, rot, and fire.
Collapse issues: Structural collapse is not a pri-
mary concern from clay straw materials, but is
more a concern for the wood framing that supports
and/or encloses clay straw materials. It is easy to
see that collapse will be more of a consideration
for clay straw used in ceilings and roofs (suspended
weight) than walls (supported weight).

Quick summary
Straw bale buildings use straw and not hay type
products as straw is much stronger than hay.
Straw bale walls can be either load-bearing
Fig. 610. A straw clay building or non-load-bearing. Load-bearing walls rely
on compression of the straw for strength
and stability.
The building process consists of the following
The two methods of compressing load-bearing
steps:
straw bale walls is through the weight of the roof
Constr uct the wooden framework of the on a box beam or through compression strapping.
building. Overhaul operations in straw bale construction
Prepare the clay (earth loam with high clay will be complicated as it is necessary to ensure
content) by mixing with water to form slip. all fire has been eradicated (similar to cellu-
lose insulation).
Mix with dry straw until the straw has a light
coating of slip. Collapse considerations are more prevalent
with the roof construction than with the straw
Pack the straw/slip combination into forms that
bale walls.
are located in the walls/ceilings and between the
wooden framework of the building. Straw clay construction is comprised of a mixture
of earth (clay) and straw.
Remove forms to allow drying that can take one
to two months. Straw clay used for ceilings and roofs presents
more of a collapse hazard than straw clay walls.
Finish exterior and/or interior with plaster,
stucco, applicable sidings, masonry, or other Straw clay materials can present challenging
suitable materials. considerations during overhaul operations as
straw can smolder and spread fire.
Fire spread issues: The spread of fire in these
types of buildings will primarily come from
f lammable materials within the interior of a
building (e.g., furniture, carpets, clothing, etc.) as
the interior contents and floor plans are similar
to common residential buildings. Other than the
wood framing, clay straw used for walls, ceilings,
and roofs is basically not f lammable. However,

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the growing number of agencies providing oversight

Evolving Building in this area are the Green Building Certification
Institute, National Association of Home Builders
Methods/Materials (Green Approved Products Program), and National
Green Building Standards (ICC 700). As a result,
The alternative construction methods listed the perspective of eco-friendly has gained a signifi-
above are far from completethey just tend to cant amount of popularity both in this country and
be ones that are more prevalent. As this chapter globally and has the potential of not only impacting
is written, innovation is taking place. One thing how people live their lives but also changing size-up
is certain: New materials and methods are being and operational perspectives for structure fires.
tested, marketed, and incorporated into build-
ingsold and new. Some of these innovations One of the many challenges of green construc-
will work well to make a strong, economically- tion the fire service will encounter is how to classify
sound, and energy-efficient building. Others will a green building or a building that incorporates a
take a few years to be weeded out. Regardless, notable amount of green attributes. As an example,
firefighters have to deal with them. To finish this a Type III building is still a Type III building, but
chapter, we briefly explore some evolving concepts may be built as green using the aforementioned
and materials that could influence fire and collapse features. As it relates to firefighting, green build-
concerns for firefighters. ings may bring challenges such as alternative power
sources, unusual or increased dead and live loads,
low-mass synthetics, and recycled or repurposed
Green construction materials. Alternative power sources are covered
The green movement is alive and well in all parts in chapter 9, Building Features and Concerns.
of the world. In context here, green construction is Unusual or increased live and dead loads could
not a construction type. It is instead an approach to include items like a rainwater collection system or
construction with features that include the following: a live roof load that is actually a garden with living
plants/grasses and an irrigation system. Low-mass
Earth-friendly or sustainable materials synthetics can be petroleum- or cellulosic-based
and off-gas flammables with minimal heat applica-
Energy-saving design
tion. Recycled or repurposed materials can add a
Alternative power sources like solar, geothermal, degree of uncertainty to engineering and therefore
or wind dubious integrity.
Recycled or repurposed materials
The language used to describe a green building
Health-conscious methods and finish can create some confusion. For example, lets say
Reduction in waste and pollution a new two-and-a-half story, 6,000 sq ft house is
being built in your jurisdiction. The house is
Optimization of building operations and being constructed using grid-block insulated
maintenance concrete forms, engineered wooden I-beam floors,
Building life cycle considerations, including a structural insulated panel live roof, and includes
renovations and demolition numerous solar panels. The contractors sign calls it
green construction. The building permit will call it
In the United States, the American Recovery and
a Type V, residential occupancy. Following the era/
Reinvestment Act (ARRA) has allocated more than
use/type/size formula (from chapter 5), the street
$80 billion dollars to clean energy and/or green
firefighter should mentally classify it as a new,
technology that is viewed as a resource that has the
single-family, hybrid, and large building that just
potential of replacing nonrenewable resources. In
so happens to have a significant distributed roof
partnership with the ARRA, several examples of

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The Art of Reading Buildings

dead load. Again, it is not suggested that all of this A new approach to high-performance wall
information would be used for an on-scene radio systems that are capable of providing increased
report. However, all of your strategic and tactical insulation values is known as the pressure-
decisions should be based on your understanding of equalized rain screen insulated structure tech-
the visible and perceived attributes of that building. nique (PERSIST) that has been developed
by the National Research Council in Canada.
Because there are numerous green consider- The method consists of 2 4 in. framing,
ations that can affect fireground operations, lets OSB sheathing covered with a peel-and-stick
look (in no particular order) at a summary of membrane (rubberized asphalt adhesive backed
applicable considerations. (Solar considerations are by a layer of high-density cross-laminated poly-
covered in chapter 9.) ethylene), and single or multiple layers of rigid
There are many variations of construction that extruded polystyrene (XPS) foam insulation.
are different from the traditional wood frame Finally, the building is finished with any type
structure. Several examples are rammed earth of preferred siding. This combination of mate-
brick, straw bale, and light clay straw construc- rials provides an increased barrier to air and
tion. These buildings stay cool in the summer, vapor migration. The additional use of synthetic
warm in the winter, and are not overly combus- foams and rubberized asphalt adhesives will
tible. However, these materials will confine enhance a fire, provide additional toxic gases
more heat within a structure fire and enhance when exposed to fire and/or heat, and allow a
the potential of a flashover. faster heat buildup within the interior of a build-
ing that can lead to a more rapid flashover as
Advanced framing methods (AFM) or opti- well as increased levels that will be encountered
mum value engineering (OVE) is a wood by firefighters.
framing technique that is designed to use less
lumber, minimize waste that is generated in the Radiant barrier sheathing (RBS) is a product
construction of wood framed structures, and that has been around for several years but is
improve the energy efficiency of a structure. gaining popularity due to its energy-efficient
This framing method is discussed in more depth properties, particularly in energy-efficient build-
later in this chapter. ings, both residential and commercial. Simplistic
in design but effective in operation, RBS is
Double-stud wall construction is not a new nothing more than plywood or OSB with an
framing technique (it can be used in a similar aluminum type foil affixed to one side that is
configuration known as offset studs between designed to reflect radiant heat away from the
adjoining occupancies such as condos, etc.) but foil. RBS comes in the common sizes of 4 8 ft
is beginning to be used to provide an energy- and 4 10 ft panels and can be used for wall or
efficient envelope for exterior walls. Two parallel roof sheathing.
walls are framed with dimensional lumber
(2 4 in. is common) and configured with When installed as wall sheathing, the foil must be
either opposing (aligned) or offset (staggered) facing outward. When installed as roof sheathing,
studs. Only one set of studs is load bearing, the foil must be facing inward (toward the attic).
and the parallel studs are placed about 3 in. For proper operation, a in. airspace should be
apart. This allows the gap and interior wall to be maintained in front of the foil, which means that
completely filled with insulation and can result exterior siding needs to be spaced in. away from
in an R-value of 40 or more. Unfortunately, the the RBS (this can be achieved by furring strips).
gap also provides an opening that can allow the When properly installed, RBS will lower interior
horizontal extension of fire between the studs. temperatures (summer) and reduce radiant heat
loss (winter), thus lowering heating and cooling

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Chapter 6 Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends

costs. However, RBS is capable of enhancing of plants that require regular maintenance.
flashover conditions by reducing radiant heat loss These roof gardens also require substan-
from the interior of a building. Additionally, the tial structural enhancements to support the
reflective nature of the RBS will greatly diminish additional weight.
the effectiveness of thermal imaging cameras
A live green roof (or vegetated roof) consists of
(TICs) used to find hot spots.
four basic elements (fig. 611) as follows:
Green insulation uses recycled materials such
A building with a roof and supporting mem-
as cotton and denim in place of fiberglass for
bers that are capable of supporting the addi-
insulation. Another common example is cellu-
tional weight of the materials above it
lose insulation that consists of 80% recycled
newspaper, which is superior at preventing Multiple membrane layers to protect the
airf low as compared to fiberglass. Cellulose structure from water, a drainage layer (e.g.,
insulation is well known for its use in attic drainage mat) that will allow water to prop-
insulation and its ability to hide a smoldering erly drain from the roof without eroding the
fire for hours and making detection of fire diffi- soil layer, and a barrier to keep plant roots
cult and time consuming. from penetrating the roof

Cool roofs are designed to reflect more of the A layer of soil for the vegetation that is com-
suns rays than common roofs, such as compo- prised of specialized materials such as a
sition and shingled roofs. Typical construction mixture of vermiculite, lightweight soils, and
methods use an increased depth of insulation other appropriate materials
that is covered with special reflective paints and Planted vegetation
roof tiles or shingles. Not only do these roofs
reflect heat, they also prevent cool or warm air
inside a structure from escaping through the
roof membrane. Obviously, this same trait will
also trap more heat inside a structure from a fire
and increase the potential of a flashover.
Live green roofs are often categorized with cool
roofs. Although they can also lower the interior
temperature of a structure by insulating it from
the suns heat, the actual roof is more compli- Fig. 611. Live green roofs are comprised of four basic
cated than a specific type of paint or roofing elements: supporting members, membrane layers, a layer of
shingle. Live roofs can be found on some resi- soil, and vegetation.
dential structures, but are primarily found on
commercial structures and provide the advan-
Electrochromic smart glass windows (also
tages of lowering heating and cooling costs while
known as suspended particle display windows)
maximizing the attractiveness of urban struc-
are primarily designed to allow an occupant to
tures. There are two basic types of live roofs:
change the amount of light a window reflects.
Extensive live green roofs typically have a This is accomplished by using tiny transparent
soil depth of 2 in. to 4 in. and are planted electrodes sandwiched between two panes of
with hearty type vegetation that requires glass. A small burst of electricity (approximately
minimal maintenance. 1 volt) is used to change the glass from clear
Intensive live green roofs typically have a soil to opaque. Interestingly, no electricity is needed
depth of over 1 ft and support a wide range to maintain a particular shade once it has been
selected. This process is very adept at reducing

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The Art of Reading Buildings

the solar radiation passing through windows and Butted single 2 4 top plates use a metal
can lower the internal temperature of a struc- connector plate, and one or more of the studs
ture. However, it will be more difficult to break are placed only to provide a nailing surface for
these windows for access and egress and/or drywall. This configuration can be replaced
ventilation due to their complexity and double by metal clips to receive the drywall sheets
panes of glass. (fig. 613A).
A header placed over a window opening that is
Advanced framing methods (AFM) typically supported by jack studs (double studs)
is replaced by single studs, one of which has
Advanced framing methods refers to a variety a backing support for gypsum board/drywall
of wood framing techniques that reduce the sheets (fig. 613B).
amount of lumber (and waste) used to construct
a wood frame building. AFM is also known as
optimal value engineering (OVE) and is the result
of a partnership between the U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development and the National
Association of Home Builders Research Center.
The basic premise of AFM is to reduce the amount
of thermal bridging (the movement of heat through
framing members) and the amount of lumber used
to construct a wood frame building.

For example, the corner where two wood frame

walls intersect is often built using three or four
studs. The AFM replaces this with two studs per
corner. Other AFM features could include (subject
to local code) the following:

Stud spacing is increased from 16 in. on center

to 19.5 in. or 24 in. on center, and the walls use
a single 2 4 for a top plate (fig. 612).

Fig. 613. AFM top plate and corner (A) and window header
(B) features

Nailing boards for external siding are 2 2 in.

instead of 2 4 in.
Metal T-bracing or strapping is used for wind
load requirements rather than OSB or plywood
Fig. 612. Advanced framing method features stiffeners.

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Chapter 6 Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends

The AFM framing technique is environmentally special adhesives. Steel rebar is formed within
friendly, uses 10% to 30% less lumber, has a faster the block for key structural areas (corners, door
implementation time, saves energy, and reduces and window frames, etc.). Using your firefighter
the framing factor from 15% to 25%. It is easy to knowledge, imagine what a concrete block filled
see, however, that this new version of in-line or with millions of air bubbles will do in a hostile
stack framing results in a structure that has less fire environment.
structural components and can burn at a faster rate
than a standard framed structure, resulting in faster
collapse times when exposed to fire. Engineered wood systems
We presented many different engineered wood
Modular panel systems products in chapter 2, yet innovation continues.
For this discussion, the term engineered wood
Like a SIPs building, the concept of factory- systems does not specifically refer to lightweight
created panels assembled on a job site to form truss construction as one might imagine. Instead,
load-bearing walls is evolving. The ThermaSteel it refers to a wide range of derivative engineered
system uses a galvanized steel frame with carbon- wood products (EWPs) and how they can be used
fiber reinforced EPS for panel fill. The Insteel in building construction, particularly when used to
3-D Panel System is EPS sandwiched between replace steel and/or concrete materials. Debatably,
steel wire mesh and sprayed with shotcrete at the the evolving concept of EWP has the potential to
building site. Shotcrete is a nozzle-sprayed concrete overshadow other building construction materials,
mortar mix (the water is either premixed or mixed the way they are used, and the resultant type of
at the nozzle) that is applied on a surface using an buildings that can be constructed from this evolving
air compressor. technology. As wood has been the staple of the
building construction industry, it is easy to envision
how a dramatic change to this product will affect
Building block systems the ways and types of buildings that can and will
Much like CMUs, various alternative materials be constructed. With these thoughts in mind, lets
have been introduced to form a stacked wall. For take a summary look at the concept of engineered
example, mortarless blocks are like CMUs but wood systems in the building construction industry.
have unique engineered internal shapes filled with Engineered wood can also be referred to as man-
expanded polystyrene (EPS). The blocks contain ufactured board, man-made wood, and composite
perhaps half the concrete as a common CMU. The wood, which includes a diverse range of EWPs
blocks include tabs and recesses that lock joining that are primarily manufactured by binding fibers,
blocks together, eliminating the need for mortar. strands, particles, or veneers of wood together with
Obviously, the reduced concrete content means adhesives. These form a variety of composite wood
faster degradation under fire conditions. based materials that can be used in a variety of resi-
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) blocks are dential and commercial applications. Interestingly,
building blocks made from a mixture of sand, EWP can be made from the same softwoods and
Portland cement, gypsum, water, expansion agents, hardwoods that are used to manufacture dimen-
and air that forms a solid block that is one fifth the sional lumber. Sawmill scraps and other types of
weight of a similar size concrete block. While the wood waste can also be used for EWP, as well
blocks are considered solid, in reality the block is as some cellulosic products that are derived from
mostly air. These blocks can be formed in unique vegetable fibers. Most firefighters are aware of the
shapes for almost any architectural wall need. The previously mentioned types of EWP such as OSB,
blocks can be mortared together or glued with LVL, PSL, glue-laminated timber, I-joists, and

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The Art of Reading Buildings

finger-jointed lumber. However, the growing variety

of new EWPs such as cross-laminated timber and Quick summary
fiber-reinforced products adds a new dimension to
the term engineered wood products, as well as Green construction is not a construction type but
an increased list of hazards that a firefighter will rather an approach to building that is earth-
encounter from these products. Lets look again at friendly, energy saving, and health conscious (as
a few of these new products. well as other like attributes).
The various types of green framing techniques
Cross-laminated timber (CLT). A CLT is a
will result in different considerations for an
panel of wood formed by first gluing together
incident commander, and are dependent on the
planks of timber to form a thin sheet ( in.
type of construction. Due to enhanced insulating
thick and 4 8 in. or larger). The thin sheets are
qualities, it can be anticipated that interior
then cross laminated with other sheets, usually
temperatures will rise at a faster rate, thereby
rotated 90. In many ways, this is similar to
enhancing the potential of flashovers, and will
plywood except true timbers are used instead of
also negatively impact overhaul considerations.
native wood veneers. Sounds strong, right? Well
it is. Now for the alternative spin: These panels Advanced framing techniques or optimum value
can be used to form the load-bearing walls for engineering is designed to use less lumber and
a high-rise! The surprising capability of CLT therefore results in faster collapse times when
in combination with advancing technology is exposed to fire.
allowing the building industry to begin building The advantages of a live green roof are dimin-
multistory buildings out of wood instead of ished from a firefighters perspective; the
concrete and steel. Several examples are a multiple layers of membranes, earth, and vegeta-
9-story apartment building (timber tower) built tion make vertical ventilation operations difficult
of wood in nine weeks by four workers in the if not impossible in an acceptable time frame.
United Kingdom, a 78 ft bell tower in North The additional roof load can cause a more rapid
Carolina, a multistory commercial building failure under fire conditions.
in Montana, a 10-story high-rise building in
Electrochromic smart glass has the potential to
Australia, and the granddaddy of all wood
hold more heat within a structure, and can be
buildings is the proposed Big Wood project
more difficult to break for access, egress, and
in Chicago which will be a mixed-use univer-
ventilation operations.
sity complex that will include an all-wood
high-rise building! Although the aforemen- Engineered wood products have begun to
tioned buildings/projects are currently referred provide a new perspective on the use of wood,
to as plyscrapers, it is easy to see that building especially when used in place of concrete or
construction is not static but dynamic in its steel materials. Although EWP offers many
potential impact on the fire service. advantages over conventional materials,
remember they universally use adhesives of
Fiber-reinforced product (FiRP). A FiRP
various compounds, many of which are capable
(pronounced furp) is a wood beam that has
of readily softening when exposed to heat and
layers of high-strength synthetic fiber material
fire and emitting toxic gases that are detrimental
sandwiched and bonded to layers of cut timber
to fireground personnel.
or laminated strand lumber (LSL). Carbon
graphite strands can also be sandwiched in place
of the synthetic fiber material. FiRP beams can
carry twice the load of a similar dimension solid
wood beam.

134
Chapter 6 Alternative and Evolving Construction Trends

Case Study: The Foam Home

The Tamarisk House in northwest Scottsdale, Arizona was built using lightweight, sustainable
materials consisting mainly of expanded polystyrene coated with a concrete composite skin. This type
of construction is officially called the Saebi alternative building system (SABS). The walls are formed
in a factory that uses a robot to carve a set of building blocks that may be curved, arched, squared, or
angled for a given portion of the home. The exterior wall blocks are 8 in. to 10 in. thick and up to 8
ft in length. Interior walls are closer to 4 in. thick. The building blocks are then shipped to the home
site and assembled much like building a childs lock-block toy. The roof and roofing beams are made
from the same materials, with beams approaching 30 in. thick to help create large open spans for the
interior geometry. A hot-wire foam cutter tool is used to make window, door, or utility openings. Once
the blocks are in place, they are shot with the concrete composite.

The SABS technology has undergone years of computer-aided testing and independent laboratory
testing to prove its durability. Myriad tests evaluate fire, seismic, aging, water absorption/penetration,
and freeze/thaw durability, to name a few. Most tests show that the system is extremely strong and
durable. In many ways, the finished SABS product is like a car with unibody construction.

Of interest to fi refighters is the fi re test. A fi re was built in an interior room corner and allowed
to develop to 2,000F in 15 minutes. In that time, the interior concrete skin contributed no smoke
or flame spread characteristics, nor did it transfer any heat to the outside wall surface. Obviously,
firefighters want to see the performance of the system in an actual, full-fuel load interior fire like the
ones firefighters face in homes and businesses. While fire service logic suggests an early failure, it
is important to note that builders have a moral and code required obligation to notify occupants of a
fire (detectors and alarms) and build the building in such a way that occupants have time to leave (the
15 minute test). There is no obligation to build a building in such a way that firefighters can perform
interior fights with relative structural safety.

The only way an arriving fire company would know that a home is built using the SABS technology
is if they documented it in preplans. The homes using this system look like typical stucco, Pueblo-
styled structures.

Tactical points for foam home discussion:

1. What fi re behavior issues do you think the SABS home presentsgiven a typical household fi re
load (contents)?
2. Compare and contrast the collapse resistance of a SABS home to a new wood frame home (light-
weight, engineered).
3. What forcible entry and ventilation issues does the SABS structure bring? What tools do you think
are well suited for SABS penetration?
4. What system does your fire department have to help identify unusual or advanced technology
constructed buildings?

135
The Art of Reading Buildings

The list of evolving materials and methods 7. List three features that might be found in
could go on. Weve just included some of the more a building built using advanced framing
popular ones here. Buildings constructed with methods.
alternative methods and materials may easily pass a
series of test lab fires or satisfy the requirements for
building codes, regulations, and standards. But how
will these buildings react under real-world, full-
fuel fire loading, and actual firefighting circum-
Resources for
stances? As stated earlier, the fire service has little
documentation on the fire spread and collapse
Further Study
issues associated with alternative construction APAThe Engineered Wood Association,
and evolving methods and materials. We must use www.apawood.org.
our collective wisdom to figure out some tactical Engi neered Wood Products Association
solutions to these buildings. (Try to answer the (EWPA), www.ewpa.com/.
tactical discussion questions in the case study on
the previous page.) The bottom line is these build- Frechette, Leon A., Build Smarter with Alternative
ings are being built and they already may exist in Materials, Carlsbad, CA: Craftsman Book
your jurisdiction. Get out of the fire house and find Company, 1999.
thembe curious. If you have a fire in an alter- Gibson, Scott, High-Performance Walls for
natively constructed home, be sure to document Energy-Eff icient Building, Home Power,
your experiences and share them on our social and April-May 2013.
technical networks!
Morley, Michael, Building with Structural
Insulated Panels (SIPs): Strength and Energy
Efficiency Through Structural Panel Construction,
Chapter Review Newtown, CT: Taunton Press, 2000.
National Association of Home Builders (www.
Exercise nahb.org), Green Certified Product program,
http://www.homeinnovation.com/greenproducts.
Answer the following:
Spence, William P. and Eva Kulter mann,
1. How does a performance design building Construction Materials, Methods and Techniques,
approach differ from prescriptive design Building for a Sustainable Future, 3rd ed., Clifton
approach? Park, NY: Cengage Learning, 2010.
2. What are the collapse issues associated with U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC),
lightweight steel construction? www.usgbc.org.
3. What is ICF and what are three general types www.BuildItGreen.org, Advanced Framing,
of ICF? California Public Utilities Commission, 2008.
4. How can structural integrity be obtained using
the SIPs method of construction?
5. What is the purpose of a toe-up and box-beam
in a load-bearing straw bale building?
6. What is green constr uction and what
features might you find in a building built
green?

136
Section 2
Building Components and
Firefighters Practical Lessons
FOUNDATIONS FLOORS
CEILINGS AND WALLS 7
Objectives
Define the basic types of foundations.
Identify the fundamental types of floors.
Describe the various types of ceilings.
List the different types of walls.

The Box That Surrounds You

n this chapter, we look at the components that surround you when you engage

I in interior firefighting operations: the foundation, floors, walls, and ceiling

(roofs are covered in the next chapter). In chapter 3, we gave a brief introduc-
tion to foundations and walls as part of the discussion on structural elements
and the structural hierarchy. This chapter provides more definition and depth to
that introduction.

Quite often, when resources arrive on the scene of a structure fire, it is easy to
focus on the excitement of the actual fire and perhaps the possibility of trapped
occupants within a structure. This situation can also be exaggerated by hyster-
ical occupants/civilians who want the fire put out in the least amount of time and
are more than willing to voice their recommendations.

With these thoughts in mind, it is easy to overlook and/or minimize the

importance of the very box that will be surrounding you when you enter. From a
simplistic perspective, the foundation, floors, walls, and ceiling are cooperatively
responsible for contributing to either a partial or total collapse of a structure,
or not providing sufficient time and structural integrity to allow the safe and
effective extinguishment of a fire in a timely manner. Therefore, it is impera-
tive that fireground personnel take the necessary time to quickly evaluate the
primary attributes of a structure that are, in many cases, visibly perceptible if

139
The Art of Reading Buildings

proper emphasis is placed on their importance for but they can also give some immediate clues about
fireground operations. First, lets review the defini- the era of construction and areas within or under
tions that are used in this chapter. a building that interior personnel should be aware
of before entering a building. Although we briefly
discussed foundations in chapter 3, lets look a little
Definitions: closer at the common foundation and see why it can
be important as a structural size-up consideration
Base of operations. Concept of ensuring the plat- regarding the era and type.
form you are working on (roof or floor) will safely
support you for the duration of your operations.
Era
Foundation. The buildings anchor to earth and
base for all elements built above that anchor. In some cases, the general era of building
construction can be appraised by looking at the
Floor. The platform and substructure that serves visible foundation. In older residential struc-
as a base for accommodating people movement, tures that were built in the 1800s and early 1900s
furnishings, and fixtures within a building. (historic era), field stones or blocks of granite were
often used for the foundation. Field stones are
Ceiling. An interior surface (lining) that covers the
defined as easily accessed stones that are common
top of a room and is not considered a structural
to the area of construction. In some areas of the
element such as walls, floors, and foundations.
country, granite is readily available and became the
Wall. A vertical or upright surface designed to field stone of choice because of its dense, durable
enclose or divide a compartment. Walls can be nature. Quartz, limestone, and various forms of
load-bearing (a wall column structural element river rock are other examples of field stones. All of
that supports f loor or roof beams) or non-load- these materials typically predate concrete founda-
bearing (supports its own weight plus anything tions and can generally be used to date a structure
attached to it). as follows:

Roof. The top portion of a structure that shelters Field stones were used in the 1800s and up
interior spaces and includes structural supports and until about the 1930s. Unfortunately, the sand-
coverings (covered in the next chapter). based mortar that was used has often deterio-
rated over the years, resulting in a substandard
bonding agent. In some cases, field stones were
also used to form the foundation and walls of
a basement or cellar. This type of construc-
tion can be considered a forerunner to formed
Foundations concrete foundations.
Clay bricks were also used as a foundation
The foundation of a structure may be the most material in areas where clay was readily avail-
obscure portion of a structural size-up, but in many able or other options were not plentiful or cost
cases its importance cannot be overstated from the effective. Obviously, clay bricks and substan-
perspective of providing and/or clarifying impor- dard mortar will degrade when exposed to harsh
tant nuances of a structure. Although foundations weather conditions and time.
do not burn and rarely collapse, they are not only
responsible for supporting a building and keeping Granite (and in some cases limestone) used for
the wooden parts of a structure above the ground, foundations was cut into blocks and then stacked
to form a solid foundation. In some areas,

140
Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

granite blocks can indicate a general time frame slab that is poured over a suitable rock base on the
of construction. As an example, in Syracuse, ground, and then the walls, floor(s), and roof are
New York, rough-cut blocks were used in the erected on top of the slab foundation. Although this
early 1800s, and blocks that were more finely is a simplistic approach from a construction and
cut (using superior quarrying techniques) were size-up perspective, it is used on a wide variety of
used after the 1840s. Additionally, rough-cut buildings ranging from single-family dwellings up
blocks can also denote post and beam residential to large commercial buildings for big-box stores
structures in this area. In figure 71, notice the such as WalMart and Costco. There are several
structures appear to be newer, while the founda- characteristics of this system that can be beneficial
tion blocks are rough-cut. to fireground operations:

In this configuration, concrete can be considered

a substantial building component when exposed
to heat and/or fire.
Interior personnel do not have to be concerned
with a floor collapse. Their base of operations
from this type of grade floor is secure.
The overall building height will be lower than a
similar structure that is constructed on a raised
foundation (this is dependent on the height of the
slab vs. a raised foundation). This can simplify
roof operations with shorter ladders, and can
also simplify emergency forcible entry/exit
Fig. 71. Foundations can be a visual clue to help determine
the era of original construction.
considerations as doors and windows are closer
to the ground. From a simplistic viewpoint, one
of the most common and basic residential struc-
Concrete gradually became the foundation tures is a single-story ranch structure with 8 ft
material of choice during the industrial era. The walls/ceilings that is built on a concrete slab and
typical concrete foundation uses a low-slump, lacks a basement.
high-aggregate blend (less water, more Portland
The possibility of basement fires with their
cement and gravel). Steel-reinforced concrete
associated hazards is eliminated.
is especially common in foundations used
for larger buildings and almost all founda- Structures that are constructed on slab founda-
tions used to form a basement. More recently, tions are relatively easy to identify.
foundation concrete is made using blends that The presence of slabs eliminates the need to
include fibrous filler like fiberglass, plastic, and consider voids under the grade floor.
carbon fiber.
Slabs will not have crawl space vents.
Perimeter (deep foundation). Perimeter founda-
Foundation types tions can be found in many types of climates and
There are three common types of foundations are typically constructed from concrete, concrete
in this country, slab-on-grade, perimeter, and block, field stone, or clay brick. This configura-
basement/cellar: tion will transfer a load through the weak layer of
topsoil to the stronger layer of subsoil below and
Slab-on-grade foundation. In some climates, can be used to provide a level floor surface over
the ground floor commonly consists of a concrete sloping ground. This type of foundation is found in

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The Art of Reading Buildings

two configurations: with a slab poured within the will typically result in either a combustible
perimeter foundation and with a floor constructed (wood) or noncombustible (metal or concrete)
atop the perimeter foundation. The slab-on-grade floor system, both of which can be hazardous
poured within a perimeter foundation presents when exposed to sufficient heat and/or fire.
minimal hazards to fireground personnel. A floor
There may be sufficient area in a crawl space
constructed on top of and supported by a perimeter
for storage that, if ignited, could either weaken
foundation places the insulated ground floor of a
the floor structural members and/or provide a
structure above the ground. This results in a crawl
dangerous condition to firefighters who might
space, which can be of various heights, between the
drop into a fire area with a collapsing floor.
ground and floor joists. This crawl space is used
for electrical, plumbing, ductwork, insulation, and A foundation that is constructed on sloping
other similar considerations. ground will result in the area under the grade
floor increasing toward the back of the downward
Perimeter foundations will normally have vents portion of a slope. As an example, in figure 73
in the crawl space that allow air to circulate from a commercial building is constructed on ground
the space beneath a building to the exterior to that is sloping left to right. The foundation on
minimize dry rot and other considerations that the left side has two visible crawl space vents
can be harmful to a building, and also provide a that indicate a perimeter type of foundation
level floor over sloping ground. This is illustrated with the grade floor level just above the vents
in figure 72 by a perimeter foundation on sloping and below the windows. However, as the ground
ground and crawl space vents that are visible on the slopes away from the front of the building, the
rear left side of the foundation. perimeter foundation follows the contour of
the downward sloping ground until it changes
to level ground and becomes a slab founda-
tion that supports a walkout type basement.
Therefore, the front portion of this building
offers a stronger and safer base of operations for
personnel as compared to the back of the struc-
ture, which has a significant distance between
the upper grade floor and the slab below.

Fig. 72. Perimeter foundations can provide level flooring on

sloping ground and will result in a crawl space between the
ground and floor above.

From a fireground perspective, there are several

disadvantages to this system:

Interior personnel need to be concerned with

a floor collapse if a floor is exposed to heat/
fire. The base of operations on a floor over this
type of foundation is dependent on the type of Fig. 73. This commercial building has two different
construction that was utilized for the floor and types of foundations, which can present different
the distance from the floor to the ground (which fireground considerations.
can be noteworthy in some cases). This system

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

When conducting a structural size-up, con-

sider the following items that can add to your
size-up perspective:

Look for the presence of crawl space vents.

These vents are designed to minimize the
buildup of moisture under a structure and can
also give a clear indication of fire within a crawl
space under a grade floor.
If the height of a foundation is visible, it can
often indicate the distance between the ground
and the grade floor, indicating the volume of Fig. 74. Daylight basements allow occupants to exit the
basement on a lower grade level through a doorway to
space under the grade floor.
the outside.
While a perimeter foundation may be covered
with stone, masonry, and various types of siding
for decorative considerations, the crawl space Look-out basements have walls that extend
vents still need to be operational and are usually above the grade level so that some of the
fairly visible (although you may have to look a windows are above grade (fig. 75).
little closer to find them, particularly in decora-
tive stone).
Basement/cellar foundations. Basements and
cellars are most often found in cold portions of the
country where frost lines mandate the use of deep
footings to keep the buildings from shifting during
the freeze-thaw cycle. They are also common
where property is a premium and multiple stories
and square footage are desired with a minimal
footprint. When considering basements/cellars,
there are five definitions to consider as follows:

Basements (or cellars) are habitable spaces

that are either completely or partially below the
Fig. 75. Lookout basements have large windows above
ground floor. For this text, basement and cellar grade level.
are interchangeable terms. (See the following
historical perspective on basement/cellar termi-
nology.) Basements may be unfinished, finished, Walk-up basements are characterized by an
or partially finished. exterior stairway entrance. The exterior entrance
may be unprotected, partially covered, or
Daylight basements (or walkout basements)
fully enclosed.
are found in buildings built on slopes and are
under the grade floor (or main entrance), which Crawl space is the unfinished space below a
allows occupants to walk out of the basement on ground floor that allows access to under-floor
the lower grade level through a doorway to the utilities (pipes, ducts, etc.). Crawl spaces are of
outside (fig. 74). limited height and typically have a soil surface.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Historical Perspective on Basements and Cellars

Terminology can be a confusing (and occasionally humorous) topic in the fire service. Basement and
cellar are two notable examples. Some fire departments have very distinct definitions for each and
others use the terms interchangeably.

As we conducted research for this book, we wanted to acknowledge the various interpretations for
various terms, yet provide a historically accurate portrayal of those used.

The term cellar predates basement and was typically used to describe a below-grade space (typically
under a building) that was used for the storage of coal, wine, and other items. The depth (or height)
of the cellar was usually determined by the frost or freeze line that was common in the geographical
area of the buildingsome were pretty short (duck your head!) and some were tall enough for most
people to stand erect.

Originally, cellars were rarely finishedthe building foundation and overhead floor beams were visible
and the bottom surface was earthen. This environment provided a constant, cool temperature space
that was ideal for preserving whatever was stored thereit didnt get too warm and it rarely froze
thanks to the earthen insulation.

In rural areas, farmers used cellars for the preservations of roots and seeds (hence the term root cellar)
to keep them protected from frost and freeze and allow them to be used as plantings for the next years
crop. This also became a great place to store preserved goods such as canned fruits and vegetables
and jerked meats. In some cases, these cellars were dug separately from the farmers home yet close
enough to retrieve the preserved goods. These below-ground cellars became a perfect refuge location
from tornadoes and other threatsthus the term storm cellar.

The origin of the term basement is more elusive, although most believe it derived from the fact that
builders began digging deeper into the earth for building foundations/footers to help prevent founda-
tion shifting from freeze/thaw cyclesthe base was deeper. Obviously, deeper (higher) spaces were
attractive as spaces for habitation (as opposed to merely storage). If nothing else, the base space was
perfect for the placement of modern appliances and features such as boilers, furnaces, water heaters,
ducting, plumbing, and electrical distribution equipment within the building. These appliances used
up some space but the remainder of the basement could easily be finished into dwelling, storage, or
other occupancy need spaces.

Several fire departments and noted fire service authors have defined a cellar as those levels that have
more than 50% of their height below grade and a basement as those that have more than 50% above
ground. For most, those descriptors seem dubious (and not really reflective of the definitions used in
their area). The 50%/50% definition is, however, found in laws that have been promulgated in several
cities. For example, the New York City Building Code (2008) defines a basement using the 50%/50%
rule. The reasons for this are not entirely clear but is likely to do with taxable commercial space
(revenue) or for the sake of counting floors (if the basement gets counted) for life-safety or height
restriction requirements or inclusions.

Given all of that, we choose to use basement and cellar synonymously.

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

Basements are customarily constructed from As basements are below grade, they have
formed concrete walls or concrete block walls (field minimal ingress/egress avenues and they can be
stones and some other forms of masonry have been difficult to ventilate for suppression operations.
selectively used in older buildings) and are normally
A f ire in a basement can easily extend
one story in height for residential structures. Where
upward, and can often be enhanced by the
present, basements typically contain various utili-
type of construction (e.g., balloon frame, pipe
ties (electrical, water, etc.) and heating systems,
chases, etc.).
although this can also be geographically specific.
The presence of basements can also present an When some levels can only be viewed from the
interesting dichotomy of rescue and access/egress front or rear of a multistory building, confusion
considerations. Obviously, these considerations are can be caused unless proper floor designation is
simplified by the presence of a daylight basement. communicated in a timely manner.
Buildings that have multiple below-grade
Depending on a floor plan, egress from a front
levels are known to have sublevels (fig. 77).
basement unit (also referred to as a dungeon unit)
For example, if a building has three levels
may need to be accomplished by an escape window,
below grade, the first level just under the first
as illustrated in figure 76. This area, which must
f loor is labeled basement. The next lower
be checked for the presence of occupants, is often
level is sub-basement 1, and the lowest one is
hidden by landscaping.
sub-basement 2. This approach is merely a
guidelocal standard operating guidelines/
standard operating procedures (SOGs/SOPs)
should dictate the labeling of floors.

Fig. 76. Escape windows can provide egress from below- BASEMENT/CELLAR
GRADE GRADE
grade occupancies.

SUB-BASEMENT/CELLAR
Basements are renowned for multiple fireground
disadvantages, such as the following:

Occupants use them for storage that can consist Fig. 77. Where more than one basement level exists, the
lower levels are labeled sub-basement 1, 2, and so on.
of flammable materials of all descriptions.
In some cases, the grade f loor structural
members over basements are exposed and are Although basements and cellars can often be
vulnerable to fire. If the exposed joists are light- identified by their windows, there may be a lack
weight construction such as I-joists, this can of crawl space vents. However, it is possible for
present a noteworthy hazard (rapid collapse). crawl space vents to be between a basement
or sub-basement and the grade f loor of a

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The Art of Reading Buildings

structurethis denotes an open space between

these areas. Slab foundations are the most beneficial to struc-
tural suppression operations, while basements/
A floor over a basement is in reality a roof over cellars can be the most dangerous.
the area. Therefore, when personnel enter a
structure with a fire in a basement/cellar, they Perimeter foundations are often used on sloping
are in effect standing on a roof over a fire. ground to provide level flooring.

Basement fires can be notoriously difficult Always include the potential of a walkout/
to extinguish due to their location, minimal daylight basement and/or escape window for
access/egress routes, and challenging ventilation buildings on sloping ground.
considerations. In many cases, the floor construction over
It is imperative to check for vertical exten- a basement/cellar is unprotected and may
sion above a basement, especially in balloon consist of lightweight constructiona rapid
frame str uctures, pipe chases, and other collapse potential.
vertical avenues.
In some older areas, basements extend under a
street to connect buildings on either side of a
street (see fig. 522). As these basements can Floors
be over 100 years old, they will likely contain a
noteworthy amount of storage that is flammable. Floors are that part of a building that fireground
A fire that is encountered in these types of personnel depend on for entering a building,
basements will be difficult to access, ventilate, conducting interior operations on, and use to exit
and extinguish. Main Street-type buildings that a building. Floors assist in supporting interior dead
share a central steam plant are likely to be inter- and live loads, act as a diaphragm to transfer lateral
connected by basements or tunnels. loads (soil movements, earthquake vibrations,
wind, etc.) to the walls of a structure, and separate
the area above a floor from the area beneath a floor
Quick summary that includes the ground, utilities, and other similar
considerations. Floors consist of four primary parts:
For this chapter, the four essential components of supports, joists, subflooring, and floor covering.
a structure are foundations, floors, ceilings, and
walls. Floor supports. Structural elements responsible
for carrying the load of a floor. Supports may be
The general construction era of a building can
foundation walls, structural beams, or stud load-
often be appraised by the appearance of its
bearing walls.
foundation (field stones, clay bricks, smooth or
rough-cut granite, etc.). Joist. A wood or steel beam used to create a
Field stones, granite, limestone, and brick floor or roof assembly that supports sheathing or
foundations typically denote an old building decking. Joists span between primary supporting
that used older building techniques (dimensional members such as foundations, load-bearing walls,
lumber, balloon frame construction, knob and or structural beams.
tube wiring, etc.).
Subflooring. The construction industry defines a
The three most common types of foundations are subfloor as the horizontal platform material that is
slab-on-grade, perimeter, and basement/cellar. attached to the top of floor joists and can be made
from tongue-and-groove (T&G) planking, plywood,
OSB, or even lightweight concrete.

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

Floor covering. The covering that serves as a durable

(and attractive) surface to protect the subfloor.

Although the floors of a building can provide a

strong surface for conducting interior operations,
they can have numerous fireground disadvantages:

A primary disadvantage of floors is that they

can be constructed from either conventional or
lightweight materials. Subfloors are typically
made from either 1 6 in. sheathing (older
construction) or plywood/OSB of in. thick-
ness or greater (newer construction) for stability Fig. 78. Joists can be supported at their ends by thin
and a secure feeling when walking on the metal hangers.
floor. However, the same cannot be said for the
structural members (floor joists) that support
the subfloor. Buildings with multiple f loors can present a
significant problem, particularly if a building is
Older floor joist construction used dimensional on sloped ground that results in the appearance
sawn lumber (minimum of 2 6 in.) or larger, of different f loor levels depending on which
depending on the age of the building and struc- side the building is viewed. Depending on the
tural constraints. This provided a degree of layout of a building, it is possible to view a
resistance to fire before failure. However, in building from the front and quickly determine
newer construction, the dimensional lumber of the number of floors, and then view the same
yesterday has been replaced by lightweight joists building from the side and/or back and see
that typically consist of the venerable I-joists additional floors that were not visible from the
that will quickly fail when exposed to heat and/ front of the building. This is one reason why it
or fire. is important to view a building from as many
The method used to connect floors to walls has sides as possible.
varied widely over the years. Prior to the 1940s, Although this can be easily solved during a 180
dimensional joists were anchored by inserting or 360 size-up, the important consideration is that
their ends into pockets or cavities (see fig. 313) all fireground personnel are aware of any variance
in unreinforced masonry construction or resting within a particular structure, the designations(s)
on ribbon boards in balloon frame construction. that are used for varying floor levels, and that
After this time frame, joists were normally all personnel are aware of the terminology for
supported by resting on the top of plates in varying floor levels. If not, then it is possible for
platform construction. More recently, joists are interior personnel to be on a different floor than
often supported by resting in metal hangers was originally designated for their assignment.
(fig. 78). These metal hangers are (depending As an example, the older apartment building in
on the structural load) typically about 18 gauge figure 79 is on a corner of sloping ground. From
(approximately 0.05 in. or 1.27 mm for galva- the front of the building there are two stories,
nized steel) and can be inferior to the previous and from the back of the building there are three
mentioned methods. stories. In this case, if an incident commander
was in the front of this building and wanted a
company that was responding from the rear to
enter the building on the second floor (as viewed
from the front), the responding resources would

147
The Art of Reading Buildings

need to know the difference between the number

of floors from the front as opposed to the number
of floors as viewed from the rear.

Fig. 710. Wooden I-beams offer little resistance to fire and

can easily collapse. (Photo by Bill Gustin.)

Fig. 79. This old apartment building has different floor levels
If personnel need to operate above a fire, they
depending on the side viewed. need to know the type of construction that is
supporting them and if it is exposed to heat/
fire. As an example, lets assume a fire is on
When considering the perspective of structural the first f loor and personnel are directed to
integrity, it is necessary to determine if light- conduct a search on the second floor above a
weight construction has been utilized in the fire. Additionally, also assume the second floor
building. Chances are, if the roof is lightweight joists are I-joists and the walls and ceilings are
construction (which is often easily discern- covered with in. drywall. If a fire is able to
able from the exterior of a building), so are the expose the I-joists, the floor being supported
floor joists. This is why an early size-up from by these weakened I-joists may not support the
fireground personnel is imperative in helping weight of firefighters conducting a search. Fires
to determine the type of construction that in lightweight construction are a prime reason
resources will be committed to (or have been why personnel should sound their intended
committed to) and the amount of time available path of travel when searching directly above a
for suppression operations (particularly interior fire. Additionally, remember that lightweight
suppression operations). construction exposed to fire will likely not give
Exposed floor joists that are subjected to suffi- any advance warning prior to collapse.
cient heat/fire can be a serious detriment to safe Most floor coverings are not considered struc-
interior operations, and are capable of collapsing turalthey are merely there to add aesthetics
in a short time frame. The burned I-beam floor or provide a uniform and protective covering
joists in figure 710 would not be capable of for the subfloor. A notable exception is light-
supporting the weight of firefighters, yet the weight concrete used on metal pan subfloors.
floor they support could appear normal. Flooring such as carpeting can add fire load and
flammable/toxic gases to smoke. Tiles, terrazzo,
and in. to in. finished wood floors can add
significant dead load to the floor substructure
and supportsleading to accelerated collapse
(especially in lightweight construction).

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

Quick summary Directly fastened ceilings

Directly fastened ceilings are most commonly
Floors consist of four primary parts: supports, characterized by lath and plaster materials, metal
joists, subflooring, and floor covering. wire mesh, decorative tin, and drywall.
A primary disadvantage of floor joists is their
Lath and plaster. Lath and plaster ceilings (which
potential diversity that is not readily apparent.
are also known as plastering) were commonly
They may be heavy timber, sawn lumber,
used on older buildings, and drywall ceilings
lightweight truss construction, or engineered
are typically used on more modern buildings.
wood products.
Historically, plaster was used on the interior of a
Floor joists can be supported by joist pockets, building and stucco was used on the exterior, but
a ledger/ribbon board, a top plate, or both were typically made from lime and sand.
metal hangers. In the latter part of the 19th century, Portland
When buildings are constructed on sloping cement was added to the lime and sand mixture to
ground, they can present dissimilar floor level improve durability.
designations from different sides of a building.
To construct a lath and plaster ceiling (which is
It is imperative to identify buildings on sloping the same process as used on interior walls), wooden
ground that present dissimilar floor levels slat laths are nailed to ceiling joists with a slight
from different sides of a building and ensure gap between the laths. These materials are then
that appropriate resources are aware of the covered with three layers of plaster: a rough base
dissimilar levels. coat known as a scratch coat, then a brown coat,
Most floor coverings are not considered and finally a finish coat. Although this process
structural, although they can add hazards results in ceilings that are relatively strong, durable,
like additional dead load and flammability/ and have a better fire resistance than many modern
toxicity issues. materials, the costs associated with installation
and labor when compared to modern methods
ultimately caused them to be replaced by sheets
of drywall.

A lath and plaster ceiling can be considered a

Ceilings relatively strong ceiling as compared to modern
drywall ceilings and has a better fire resistive rating
Ceilings are interior overhead surfaces that are than drywall (particularly in.). As an example,
not normally structural components of a building, the ceiling in figure 711 was subjected to heavy
but primarily provide a finished look to a room fire and is still somewhat intact. Lath and plaster
and also to hide the area underneath a f loor or ceilings can absorb more water before collapsing
the roof above. From an architectural viewpoint, than drywall ceilings and they will typically
ceilings are classified by their construction and/ collapse in smaller sections than drywall ceilings.
or visible attributes such as cove ceilings, coffered However, lath and plaster ceilings are a bit more
ceilings, flat ceilings, and so on. However, from a difficult to pull with a pike pole, hook, or other
fire service perspective, ceilings are either directly similar tool as compared to drywall ceilings.
fastened to overhead floor or ceiling joists or are
suspended and supported by overhead floor or roof
structural members.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

and then nailing interlocking preformed tin panels

(a common size is 24 24 in.) to the furring strips.
This produces a relatively strong surface that can
be as ornate as desired and also dictated by the
resultant cost of the tin panels. The finished ceiling
provides a measure of resistance to fire but conducts
heat through the metal to the wood backing. Tin
ceilings are not prone to a rapid collapse but are
similar to metal wire mesh and plaster in that they
can be challenging to pull with pike poles or hooks.
(Some departments have developed specialized
tools to pull these types of ceilings.) Additionally,
tin ceilings do not readily collapse unless the wood
Fig. 711. Lath and plaster can offer more resistance to fire
furring strips have been weakened by fire.
than modern drywall.
Decorative wood ceilings are another type of
directly fastened ceilings, but due to their diversity
Metal wire mesh and plaster. A variation of lath
of construction, their strengths and weaknesses are
and plaster that can also be found in older buildings
dependent on their construction and the materials
is directly nailing a metal wire mesh (also known
that have been used. These ceilings range from
as netting or expanded metal mesh) to ceiling joists
simple wood paneling to wood paneling finished
and then covering the mesh with a rough base coat
with solid wood coffers. These ceilings are found
of plaster, then completing with several coats of
in more expensive applications and can be signifi-
smooth plaster for a finished appearance. In some
cantly more substantial than drywall ceilings.
commercial construction, a wire mesh lath with a
However, if it is necessary to pull these types of
paper backing is similarly attached to ceiling joists
ceilings, remember that large sections of wood
and then finished as previously mentioned. This
of significant weight can suddenly collapse as
method results in a strong surface that is also more
newer versions are likely held in place by modern
durable than drywall ceilings, but is significantly
adhesives that can soften when exposed to heat.
more difficult to pull with a pike pole, hook, or
other similar tool than drywall as the metal wire Drywall. Drywallalso known as plasterboard,
mesh is more substantial than lath and plaster and/ wallboard, or gypsum boardis a panel that is
or drywall ceilings due to its inherent strength. usually 4 8 ft by in. thick and consists of a
This is the same material that is often used in gypsum plaster layered between two sheets of
soffits under facades that are located over public paper (other sizes such as 4 10 ft panels and
walkways (and is also difficult to pull with pike 5/8 in. thickness can also be used). When used on
poles or hooks). ceilings (and walls), the drywall is nailed and/or
screwed into studs/joists, and then the adjoining
Tin ceilings and decorative wood. In the 19th and
ends are covered with a joint compound, as are the
20th centuries, decorative tin ceilings were used
indentations left by the screws or nails. The joint
as a cost-effective alternative to the attractive and
compound is sanded to a smooth finish and the
expensive plasterwork that was found in European
finished drywall is then painted or textured with
homes and American mansions. In the 1930s, tin
various finishes. The drywall process is cheaper
ceilings began to lose their popularity but can
and significantly faster than the installation of
still be found in many older commercial buildings
lath and plaster, metal wire mesh and plaster, tin
(and some expensive residential structures) across
ceilings, and decorative wood ceilings. Drywall
this country. Tin ceilings are constructed by first
will provide a degree of fire resistance but not to
nailing wood furring strips onto the ceiling joists

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

the same degree as lath and plaster, metal wire above a suspended ceiling is often known as an
mesh and plaster, or tin/wood ceilings, and will interstitial space and is typically used to conceal
not retain and radiate heat like the aforementioned ducting, wires, plumbing, sprinkler supply lines,
ceilings after suppression operations are completed. and other similar considerations. A plenum space
However, drywall ceilings are prone to collapse in is an interstitial space used as an air return for
large sections when wet and/or are pulled by pike HVAC systems. In this configuration, air is drawn
poles or other similar tools. (This can also be an through grilles that are mounted in the ceiling and
advantage during overhaul operations.) returned to the HVAC system via the plenum space.
Additionally, electrical wires within a plenum space
Concrete. Occasionally, it is possible to encounter (and not within conduit) should use low-toxicity
either aggregate or lightweight concrete ceilings and low-smoke insulation on the exposed wires
(as well as walls and floors). Although strength and to minimize these hazards within return plenum
rapid collapse of these materials should not be an airspaces.
initial concern, their ability to absorb and radiate
heat can be a significant disadvantage to these
materials, particularly aggregate concrete. This
can be a severe limiting factor in suppression and
overhaul operations (see the Central Library fire in
chapter 4).

Suspended ceilings
Suspended ceilingsalso known as dropped
ceilings, false ceilings, and grid ceilingsare
commonly utilized in modern construction for their
relative ease of installation, cost effectiveness (as
compared to older alternatives), and their attractive
Fig. 712. Suspended ceilings can result in a noteworthy void
appearance. A typical suspended ceiling consists
above a ceiling.
of wires that are hung from overhead structural
members and used to support a framework of metal
channels that form a grid of 2 2 ft or 2 4 ft cells. The design of suspended ceilings and plenum
Tiles made from various materials are then placed spaces presents several noteworthy benefits and
into the cells to complete the ceiling assembly. An hazards. A benefit of suspended ceilings is they are
older and less common version of the suspended easily installed, can easily change the ceiling height
ceiling is the concealed grid system, which utilizes of a room, tiles are easily replaced to change color
interlocking panels that are secured to the grid and design, and the tiles in a common suspended
system by the use of splines. This system makes ceiling can be easily removed by fireground
the removal of the panels difficult and was used personnel to check the area above the ceiling for
in installations where access to the area above the extension of fire, heat, and/or smoke.
ceiling was deemed unnecessary.
Disadvantages of a suspended ceiling include
As these ceilings are hung from overhead the following:
structural members, the area above the suspended
ceiling can be of various sizes and can vary from 1 Firefighting personnel do not know what is above
ft to over 10 ft, as illustrated in figure 712. (Also a ceiling until they remove some of the tiles.
notice the close proximity of stock and storage Suspended ceilings can hide other ceiling levels
in relation to the suspended ceiling.) The area above a suspended ceiling.

151
The Art of Reading Buildings

If fire/heat/smoke extends into a plenum area, it

will be drawn into the buildings HVAC system. Walls
It is important to turn off the HVAC system
when plenum spaces are known or detected. The walls of a structure have numerous impor-
tant functions such as serving as the vertical struc-
Suspended ceiling spaces can accumulate smoke tural supports for the floor(s) and roof, a passageway
and create a smoke explosion potential. for utilities, a barrier against weather, a division or
Suspended ceilings can be used to hide substan- separation between rooms within a building, and
dard construction. to enhance the aesthetic appearance of the exterior
of a building. For the purposes of this chapter, lets
If the suspended ceiling collapses during
first look at interior walls and then exterior walls.
fireground operations, firefighters can become
entangled in the suspension wires and delay
their exit from the building. (This is why
some depar t ments issue wire cut ters to
Interior walls
fireground personnel.) A knowledge of walls is necessary to determine
potential areas or pathways of extension of fire.
Four types of walls in the interior of a building are
Quick summary typically used in building construction, as shown
in figure 713.
Ceilings are often encountered in interior opera-
tions and are capable of collapsing and causing
death and/or injury to personnel.
Lath and plaster, decorative tin, metal wire
mesh and plaster, and decorative wood ceilings
typically present an overhead surface with more
permanence than modern drywall materials,
but are more difficult to pull and open than
drywall materials.
Drywall is the modern substitute for the older
ceiling materials and is capable of failing in fire
conditions in large sections and less time than
older ceilings.
When they collapse, the wires used for suspended
ceilings can easily entangle firefighters.
Individual tiles in a typical suspended ceiling can
be easily removed if necessary.
Spaces above a suspended ceiling can accumu-
late smoke and/or spread fire undetected.
If the area above a suspended ceiling is used as
a plenum, the HVAC system should be turned off
as soon as possible.

Fig. 713. Four different types of walls can be found

inside buildings.

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

Division walls. In the building construction indus-

try, there are two types of division walls. Occupancy
division walls are used to provide major subdivi-
sions within a building for tenant needs, and fire
division walls are used to subdivide a building to
restrict the spread of fire. Often, occupancy and fire
division walls are served using the same wall. For
this chapter, lets focus on the fire division wall.
Fire division walls typically travel from the grade
floor/foundation through the ceiling and project
above a roof at least 18 in. This type of wall is of
heavier construction than a party or partition wall
and is often made from masonry materials for their
Fig. 714. Division separation walls can be used in an attic to
ability to provide a barrier to the horizontal exten- minimize the horizontal extension of fire and smoke.
sion of fire, particularly in an attic. This remains
true as long as the wall has not been breached by
incomplete repairs, openings made for utilities and/ Partition walls. Partition wallsused to divide
or cable considerations, an open fire door, or the areas or rooms into smaller areas or to separate
like. Although division walls are easily identified one portion of an area from anotherare usually
by viewing the roof of a building (as they project not load bearing. Normally they travel between the
above the roof at least 18 in.), it is important to floor and ceiling only. Common examples are walls
confirm they have not been breached, particularly that separate interior rooms in single-family dwell-
if it is important that a wall should be restricting ings. These walls will not restrict the horizontal
the horizontal spread of fire. This confirmation extension of fire through an attic or other open
can be obtained by personnel on a roof by cutting space above this type of wall.
a small opening in the roof on the uninvolved side
Party walls. Walls shared by two buildings or two
of the wall.
occupancies within the same building. If the party
In addition to the aforementioned masonry fire wall carries beams or structural assemblies, it is
division walls, there are two other types of fire a structural element. Party walls are common in
division wall construction that should be briefly townhouses, condominiums, motels, and commer-
mentioned. First, brick noggin (infill brick panels cial structures. These walls normally connect the
in timber frame buildings), which was used in some floor and ceiling only. Of these, there are two basic
older buildings, is often degraded from age and the varieties: adjoining and offset.
use of sand mortar. Brick noggin can also present a
Two common walls that are joined together are
noteworthy dead load. Second, drywall is a current
known as adjoining walls because the adjoining
material that is often used as a type of fire wall in
studs are placed together. Although this config-
attics and can perform admirably if it has not been
uration will tend to confine a fire between the
breached. As an example, figure 714 illustrates
studs, thus limiting horizontal and vertical
drywall that has been used between the ceiling
extension, it will also allow sound to pass
joists, roof rafters, and ridge board.
through the stud members more easily. Although
adjoining walls typically connect the floor and
ceiling only, they may project through a roof
similar to a division wall.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Offset walls are those where two common buildings, and there is a lack of fire blocking
walls are separated by several inches and the in the exterior wall stud cavities (which can
studs are also staggered. The resulting air space be seen in fig. 420). This results in open void
separation of several inches is for insulation and channels between the stud cavities (foundation
sound-deadening purposes. However, fire can to the attic) and also access from the stud chan-
easily travel horizontally and vertically between nels to the floor joists. The exterior wall is com-
the offset studs and the gap of several inches pleted with any number of configurations such
between the upper and lower plates. as brick, wood, stone, stucco, shingles, or other
materials. When confronted with this type of
If personnel open a common wall and see
construction, it is important to remember that
adjoining studs, this configuration should minimize
the void spaces in a balloon frame building pro-
the extension of fire unless it is balloon frame
vide vertical fire spread paths from the founda-
construction. However, if offset studs are found,
tion to the roof. Additionally, fire can spread
it is important to place emphasis on checking for
from vertical stud spaces into floor joist voids
horizontal and vertical extension (keep checking
due to ribbon board.
until there is a lack of char).
External features that can assist in the identifi-
cation of balloon frame construction include
Exterior walls the following:
Exterior walls comprise the outer shells of struc- Old wood frame buildings up to about three
tures and are constructed of numerous materials. stories in height
Exterior walls are likely to serve as the principal
Wood shiplap siding and asbestos or asphalt-
support (wall column) for roof assemblies (post and
type shingles
beam is a notable exception). The extension of fire
through an exterior wall depends on the type of The presence of visible 2 4 in. rafter tails
construction, such as wood balloon and platform that are spaced wider than 2 ft on center (see
construction, masonry construction, and so on. fig. 83)
Lets consider the various types of construction that Windows in multistory buildings that line
are used for exterior walls and how they can affect up vertically
stability, the potential for collapse, and extension
Platform framing. After a foundation is com-
of fire.
pleted, 2 6 in. studs are typically used for the
Wood framing. Note: The following information exterior walls and travel from the foundation to
on balloon/platform framing and advanced framing a double plate that is used to support the ceiling
techniques is detailed in chapters 4 and 6, but joists for a first floor ceiling and roof rafters for
summarized here for easy reference. a single-story structure.

Balloon framing. After a foundation is com- If a multistory building is being constructed, then
pleted, the exterior walls (that are comprised each successive floor is constructed in the same
of full-length studs) are constructed in a hori- manner. Additionally, fire blocking is used in
zontal position and then raised to their vertical the exterior walls (as illustrated in figure 423).
configuration. This process results in the exte- This method provides intrinsic fire stopping from
rior wall studs traveling uninterrupted from the two perspectives: the fire blocking in the exterior
foundation to the attic. In addition, a ledger (or walls between the floor and ceiling joists, and the
ribbon board) is nailed or cut into the exterior double plate at the top of each floor. Fire blocking
wall studs and used to support the f loor and minimizes vertical extension of fire, and the
ceiling joists either for single or multiple story double plate eliminates the void spaces of balloon
construction that allow fire to extend upward into

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

the voids between the floor joists of multistory siding that is being exposed, such as asphalt and
buildings and into an attic. The exterior can be felt, vinyl, and wood.
finished in a wide variety of materials such as
wood lap siding, vinyl siding, plaster, brick, and
other suitable materials.
Advanced framing techniques. This framing
method uses techniques that are different
from platform framing and are summarized
as follows:
Walls are framed on 24 in. centers (instead of
16 in. centers).
Corners are made from two studs (instead of
three or four).
Roofs use trusses instead of conventional
framing and f loors use I-joists instead of Fig. 715. Buildings in close proximity can present serious
dimensional lumber. exposure considerations.

A single top plate is used instead of two

overlapping plates. Lets consider the more common sidings that are
Although this framing technique uses 10% to used on the exterior of wood framed buildings:
30% less lumber, it is easy to see that this new Asbestos shingles. Although asbestos shingles
version of in-line or stack framing results in a are no longer used due to their significant health
structure that has less structural components, considerations, they can still be found on the
potentially resulting in faster collapse times when exterior of older wood frame structures and are
exposed to fire. normally identifiable by their striated appear-
Exterior sidings for wood framing. Once a struc- ance. The fact that they are no longer used is a
ture has been rough framed, structural sheathing good reason to consider your involvement with
is attached to the exterior of the framing for two them in fireground operations, particularly in
purposes: it provides lateral bracing and strength overhaul operations. Asbestos shingles can
for the structure, and it also provides a backing also be identified by their gray- or silver-tone
for exterior siding materials. In older structures, 1 internal composition. Firefighters who encounter
6 in. sheathing was used on the exterior and/or asbestos-containing materials during fires
interior. Later on, in. plywood replaced the 1 6 should use SCBA and full protective clothing
in. sheathing and was used on the exterior with for suppression and overhaul activities. Minute
in. sheetrock on the interior. More recently, in. asbestos particles are a known carcinogen.
OSB is used on the exterior with in. sheetrock/ Exposure to the particles should trigger appro-
gypsum board on the interior. priate decontamination measures. Likewise,
incidents where asbestos has been disturbed
Once one of the previously mentioned struc- warrants the notification of local health or
tural sidings is completed, a finished siding is then building code officials.
applied for not only a finished appearance but also
for protection. Additionally, and of great impor- Wood shiplap or shingles. Various types of
tance, structures in close proximity to each other wood (pine, cedar, etc.) can be used for exterior
(fig. 715) can present a severe exposure hazard shiplap sidings or shingle sidings. Wood
that can be significantly accelerated by the type of shingles are easily identifiable by their rough

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The Art of Reading Buildings

appearance that is somewhat similar to wood

roof shingles. However, they will all contribute
to the combustible materials in a structure fire
(as they are all flammable) and they can ignite
from exposure fires.
Fiber cement siding. Fiber cement siding is pop-
ular due to its long life, low maintenance, and
the fact that it is noncombustible. It is a com-
posite material made from sand, cement, and
cellulose fibers, and is made in sheets that can
be easily installed. Other types of similar mate-
rials can be made in planks that resemble wood
shiplap sidings. These sidings are fire resistive Fig. 716. Asphalt-felt siding is a highly flammable material
and will not add to the burnable materials in a that can imitate the look of brick.
structure fire.
Plywood materials. Plywood materials such as Masonry veneers. Masonry veneers are non-
T-11 are popular as they are cost efficient and structural and are primarily used for their
easily installed. However, they will easily burn appearance. Unless a fire is sufficiently capable
and rapidly disintegrate during fire conditions. of weakening the structural wall that the veneer
Part of this problem is the flammable glue that is attached to and causing a collapse of the wall
is used to secure their laminations; the other and veneer, there is little danger from masonry
problem is their minimal thickness (likely in.). veneer materials during a structure fire.
Vinyl siding. Vinyl siding has become popular Plaster or stucco. Plaster and stucco materials
as a replacement for wood siding as it requires are normally nonflammable and do not pose a
less maintenance and lasts longer. However, significant hazard during a structure fire.
it is made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) that
will easily melt when exposed to heat and give Corrugated. Corrugated sidings can be com-
off noxious fumes that are toxic to fireground prised of metal (lightweight steel or aluminum)
personnel. Vinyl siding is easily identified, as or fiberglass. When exposed to heat and/or fire,
it usually has a narrower width than wood/fiber fiberglass will quickly fail; aluminum and light-
cement sidings and has a hollow, plastic feel and weight steel do not last much longer.
sound when you tap on the surface.
Asphalt-felt siding. Asphalt-felt siding is a high- Quick summary
ly dangerous type of petroleum-based siding
that was popular post-WWII and consists of a Balloon frame construction is renowned for
fiberboard coated with tar that holds a granular allowing fire to rapidly travel up the continuous
material. It can either look like a plain felt-type void channels into the attic of a building and also
siding or the more popular embossed type that into the voids between the floor joists.
imitates the look of brick (fig. 716). This sid- Fire walls and separations can be advantageous
ing will rapidly burn and is often referred to as as long as they are not breached.
gasoline siding as it has absolutely no fire-retar-
Brick noggin (brick wall infill) can present
dant properties. Not only is this siding highly
a noteworthy hazard due to its weight and
f lammable from autoexposure from the host
possible deterioration.
building, but also from exposure from buildings
that are in close proximity.

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

Lightweight joists and roof systems are

commonly used in platform framing.
Advanced framing techniques have minimized
the amount of structural material/members that
are used to hold up a structure. This will result in
faster collapse times in fire scenarios.
Exterior sidings vary in the materials that have
been used but wood, asbestos shingles, and
asphalt siding can be the most hazardous.
Buildings in close proximity with flammable
sidings can be a significant exposure hazard.

Masonry walls
Masonry wallscommonly utilized for their
reduced maintenance, heat resistance, and their
Fig. 717. Concrete infill is concrete and pieces of brick
admirable characteristics of compressive and tensile between parallel courses of masonry.
strengthsare made from common materials such
as clay brick, concrete brick, stone, marble, granite,
and limestone, with clay brick and concrete block Wythe. A wythe is a continuous vertical section
being the most common. Key words that are used of masonry, one unit in thickness. A single wythe
in this section are as follows: can be separate from or interconnected with an
adjoining wall. In a multiple-wythe wall, the
Unreinforced masonry. A wall construction meth- wythes are interconnected for additional strength
od using stacked brick or block and mortar without and stability, and are often used for a structural
Portland cement, steel rebar, or strapping. Also, a load-bearing wall. It is common for multiple-
modern masonry wall that is not designed for load- wythe exterior walls to use an economical block/
bearing structural applications. brick on the inside of the wall and/or for structural
Concrete infill. This type of construction consists purposes, and a more expensive block/brick on the
of gaps between parallel courses of masonry units outer portion that is visible. This was common on
that are filled with concrete and pieces of brick older brick masonry buildings.
(upper open wall in fig. 717), or concrete with Veneer. A veneer is a decorative-only wall covering
vertical and/or horizontal runs of rebar. added to help improve the buildings appearance.
Reinforced masonry construction. A wall con- Masonry veneers are usually a single wythe of
struction method using stacked brick or block and brick/stone that is nonstructural and is commonly
mortar with steel rebar reinforcement placed in built on the side of a structurally independent,
open cells and then filled with concrete, or steel load-bearing wall. Veneers are usually attached
embedded in the mortar joints. to the load-bearing wall using small metal tabs.
In figure 718, the front wall is a decorative brick
Rebar. Rebar (short for reinforcing bar) is a veneer on an unreinforced masonry wall (notice the
steel bar that is used as a tensioning material in inset windows), and the side wall is wood frame
reinforced concrete and masonry to increase with a plaster exterior (notice the small window is
stability and strength. The rough surfaces on the not inset). In this configuration, the veneer wall is
rebar aid in bonding the rebar to the concrete. predominantly decorative and not structural.
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The Art of Reading Buildings

Because of the inherent dangers these buildings

pose, they have undergone multiple retroactive
modifications and can be summarized as pre-1933,
post-1933, post-1959, and post-1971.

Pre-1933:
The mortar consists of lime and sand only, with
no Portland cement.
The masonry lacks steel reinforcing rods (rebar).
Brick exterior walls are about 13 in. thick.
Fig. 718. A decorative type of brick is often used as a single
wythe veneer for ornamental purposes. Parapet walls are found around the perimeter
of a roof. Parapet walls can be 3 ft above the
roofline and 5 ft or more if used as a facade on
The focus of the balance of this chapter is the front of a building.
brick and concrete block. Masonry walls can be
The floor and roof joists are let (resting in a
constructed in four configurations: unreinforced
cavity) into the inside of the exterior walls.
brick, reinforced brick, weight bearing, and veneer.
The roof and floor joists are often fire cut (the
Unreinforced brick. Brick buildings that were ends are cut with an angle, as illustrated in
constructed prior to the mid-1930s are significantly figure 313) so they can pull loose from the
different, both in appearance and structural integ- exterior walls during a fire and collapse into
rity, from brick buildings built today and there are the interior of the building without pushing the
literally thousands and thousands of these build- exterior walls outward.
ings across the country (fig. 719). It is safe to
assume that the masonry exterior portions of brick Post-1933:
buildings constructed before 1935 are an accident After the disastrous Long Beach (California)
looking for a place to happen when exposed to heat/ earthquake of 1933, building codes were revised to
fire, and can present extreme hazards to firefighting provide better earthquake safety for new masonry
personnel under fire or earthquake conditions due buildings. The following revisions characterize
to the water-soluble mortar and lack of rebar. masonry buildings that were built after 1933:

Portland cement is utilized in the mortar.

Masonry walls are required to be reinforced
with steel rebar.
Exterior walls are required to be at least 9 in.
thick.
All joists and rafters are required to be anchored
to exterior walls. This is usually accomplished
by bolting a ledger board to a masonry wall
and attaching the joists and rafters to the ledger
board with metal hangers.

Fig. 719. Unreinforced masonry construction can be recog-

nized by inherent characteristics that are typically visible.
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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

Post-1959: Post-1971:
After the Tehachapi (California) earthquake of The Sylmar (California) earthquake of 1971
1959, many building codes (particularly on the provided the impetus to further modify existing
West Coast and other earthquake-prone areas) buildings of unreinforced masonry construction.
were modified to require the following retroactive A review by a blue ribbon committee was instru-
corrections on existing buildings of unreinforced mental in additional retroactive corrections (the
masonry construction: earthquake ordinance) that were also partially or
completely adopted by states outside of California.
A 4 in. to 6 in. concrete bond beam cap must be The retroactive corrections were designed to
laid on top of lowered parapet walls along public prevent exterior walls from collapsing outward by
ways and exits. stabilizing a building as follows:
A parapet wall should not be higher than 16 in.
The walls are anchored to floor and roof systems
including the bond beam cap.
(with additional tie plates).
Exterior walls are drilled at the roof rafter level
The roof construction is strengthened (plywood
and a steel anchor bar or rod is installed every 4
on top of roofs with 1 6 in. straight sheathing
ft and attached to the existing roof rafter. This
and metal straps across the roof (fig. 721).
modification rendered the fire cut of the roof
rafter ineffective. The steel anchor bars or rods
are secured to the exterior of the building by a
plate and nut, some of which are decorative, that
are known as rafter tie plates.
Rafter tie plates are common in virtually every
state and can be seen on the front of the old
theater shown in figure 720. Additionally,
the pattern indicates a gable roof is behind the
parapet wall and also shows the different heights
of the roof behind the parapet wall.

Fig. 721. In some cases, metal straps have been used as

a retrofit to strengthen unreinforced masonry buildings and
can be detrimental to power saws used for roof ventila-
tion operations.

Depending on a particular area, unreinforced

masonry buildings will share all or a portion of
the following trademarks and should be familiar
to firefighting personnel who are responsible for
responding to these buildings:

Fig. 720. Rafter tie plates are readily visible on the front of Rafter tie plates are on the exterior of a building.
this old theater and indicate the location of the roof behind (Rafter tie plates can be found on old and remod-
the parapet wall. eled buildings that appear to be new.) Exterior
plates on a masonry building indicate that floor
joists and rafters of the building are anchored to
the exterior walls.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

A bond beam cap of concrete is on top of

parapet walls. Concrete bond beams may also
have been added for strength over the windows
and between the floors of multistory buildings.
This is a common technique used for additional
strength for these exterior walls.
Deeply recessed window frames are used.
Window frames are set to the inside of a wall,
thereby exposing about 8 in. of brick return
on the exterior of a building. Remember,
these walls can be 13 in. thick and this is a
common indicator.
Fig. 722. Potential collapse areas associated with unrein-
Windows will have arched or straight lintels. forced masonry buildings

The lime mortar between the bricks is white,

porous, sandy, and can often be easily rubbed Reinforced brick. Brick masonry buildings con-
away by a fingernail or knife. In some cases, structed after the mid-1930s are fundamentally dif-
the bricks have not been uniformly laid and the ferent from unreinforced brick masonry buildings
workmanship appears sloppy. constructed before 1933 and are not willing can-
In every fourth to seventh row of bricks, one row didates for collapse. They also have the following
will have been laid on end. This row of bricks is characteristics that are not shared by unreinforced
referred to as the king row and is for additional brick buildings:
strength. The king row is a visual clue that the The mortar is comprised of Portland cement.
wall is a multiple wythe.
Rebar is utilized for vertical and/or lateral
Personnel and apparatus placement in respect to strength.
unreinforced masonry buildings should always
be considered as exterior walls may suddenly They use a better quality of brick than unrein-
collapse (during fire conditions) outward a forced brick masonry. In figure 723, notice the
distance that is at least equal to the height of the difference in the quality of brick and different
wall (fig. 722) and can often be twice the height characteristics from unreinforced brick.
of a wall. The primary collapse dangers are the
front and rear walls. The secondary collapse
dangers are the side walls.
The safe areas are as follows:

The corners of a building are more safe, as

buildings normally collapse outward (with
the exterior walls) and not in the corners.
Keep a distance at least equal and up to twice
the height of the walls away from a building.
Placement of personnel and apparatus should
be a primary concern when confronted with
this type of construction.
Fig. 723. Reinforced masonry brick has different visible
characteristics and strength as compared to unreinforced
masonry construction.

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Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

Although reinforced brick masonry buildings instances of these walls collapsing when the roof
can be identified by visible characteristics that they support collapses in fire conditions.
are not common to unreinforced brick masonry
buildings, it is important to remember that some Veneer. A single wythe of masonry that is normally
unreinforced characteristics can be incorporated constructed on a weight-bearing structural wall
into reinforced brick construction to simulate an of masonry or wood (refer back to fig. 718). In
old appearance, such as a king row of brick. this configuration, the veneer wall is predomi-
nantly decorative and not structural. The veneer is
Weight bearing. A multiple-wythe brick wall is connected to the structural wall by brick ties that
commonly found in weight-bearing applications are attached to the structural wall and are placed in
and was commonly used in unreinforced masonry the mortar joints between the brick veneer. (Brick
construction. Their use in modern applications has ties can be seen on the rough CMU wall in figure
virtually been replaced by concrete cinder blocks 39.) This can result in a slight gap between the
filled with concrete and strengthened with rebar. structural wall and the veneer wall that can increase
The older multiple-wythe walls were constructed by over time due to soil movement, expansion/contrac-
laying two parallel courses of clay brick separated tion, and other circumstances. Although this type of
by an infill of concrete and often pieces of brick. construction is considered a nonstructural type of
Remember that this type of construction typically wall, it is often used for its appearance, longevity,
used a mortar that did not include Portland cement and minimal maintenance requirements.
or rebar, so the inherent strength was a result of
the wall thickness. Although these walls are classi- However, because a veneer wall is basically
fied as weight bearing, they are prone to collapse attached to a structural wall by brick ties, its
in fire conditions, particularly when the roof they collapse potential is dependent upon the type of
support collapses. wall it is attached to. Therefore, CMUs provide a
superior backing while wood framed walls do not
Modern single wythe walls have replaced older and are subject to collapse along with the exterior
multiple-wythe walls by using concrete masonry brick veneer wall. An additional type of veneer that
units (CMUs) for their ability to support weight, is similar to the preceding single wythe of masonry
longevity, reduced maintenance, heat resistance, is the popular manufactured stone that is bonded to
and the ability to provide good protection in a structure with adhesives as shown in figure 724.
tornadoes and hurricanes. CMUs are used alone, This presents an attractive surface that can also be
for a structural core for brick veneered masonry, fire resistive but can conduct heat to its backing.
or plastered over for decoration. A key structural
advantage of this configuration as compared to clay
bricks in a multiple wythe configuration is that a
single CMU can be used for a weight-bearing/
structural wall when the block voids are filled with
concrete and tied together with or without rebar
(depending on the application).

A common example of this type of construc-

tion is the big-box or warehouse-type store such
as WalMart, Home Depot, Lowes, and many other
commercial buildings. This type of masonry wall
provides a strong, fire resistive type of construction
that is not a willing candidate for collapse when
Fig. 724. Decorative stone is bonded to an exterior surface
exposed to fire. Additionally, there are not many
with adhesives and can be fire resistive.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Concrete walls Other architectural items of interest that can be

associated with formed concrete walls (and masonry
Concrete walls can be placed into two catego- walls) are buttresses and pilasters. Buttresses
ries: formed walls and tilt-up walls/panels. (also known as counterforts) are used to provide
support against the lateral forces created where roof
Formed walls. In older commercial buildings of structural members rest on a wall. Buttresses are
large and small sizes, it was common to begin commonly associated with Gothic church archi-
forming the exterior walls of a building with tecture (also see fig. 35) but can be found in this
1 6 in. or 1 8 in. sheathing and then fill the ver- country with specific applications such as lamella
tical forms with concrete that was reinforced with and tied arch roofs that do not have adequate
rebar. This made a very substantial wall that is eas- bracing due to the lack of a bottom chord. When
ily identifiable in its raw form (if not covered over a pure arch is placed on two walls, it will tend to
with plaster, brick, etc.) by the impressions left in push the walls outward, resulting in a collapse of
the concrete by the 1 6 in. or 1 8 in. wooden the building. To counteract this force, buttresses are
forms. These types of buildings can be found in placed on the exterior walls that support an arched
various heights from one story (fig. 725) to over roof. As an example, the commercial building in
six stories and are typically associated with an inte- figure 726 required buttresses on the two opposing
rior of older full-dimensional lumber and conven- walls that support a tied truss roof. Advantageously
tional construction of a heavy grade. (As a side for firefighters, buttresses can be an indicator of
note, notice the brick veneer on the front portion an arched roof that is lacking sufficient internal
of the building that is specifically used for decora- support without the buttresses.
tive purposes.) Although it is possible for the inte-
rior of these buildings to collapse when exposed to
heavy fire for long durations, these types of walls
are not prone to collapse except in very extreme
conditions. This construction process is no longer
used as there are more cost efficient methods (tilt-
up walls) and due to the high cost of lumber that
was used for the forms and then often discarded.

Fig. 726. Buttresses are used to support exterior walls and

interior roof structural members.

Tilt-up walls/panels. Tilt-up concrete panels (or

tilt-wall construction) have become a very popular
type of construction for various types of buildings
such as retail centers, manufacturing facilities,
warehouses, office buildings, and so on. There are
two basic ways these concrete panels are manu-
factured. In tilt-up construction, the walls for a
Fig. 725. Older formed concrete walls can be identified by building are poured and cured at the job site and
the impressions left by the wooden forms. then raised into position around the perimeter of the

162
Chapter 7 Foundations , floors , ceilings , and walls

building. Precast concrete panels (or prefabricated and can be found on the interior or exterior of a
wall panels) are formed at a remote facility and building. This can be a benefit if a tilt-up wall
then trucked to the job site and raised into position, has pilasters on two sides only, as they indicate
similar to tilt-up panel construction. Although both where the primary roof structural members are
construction techniques have many advantages, being supported. This can benefit roof ventila-
such as a rapid installation time frames, longevity, tion operations as personnel can know where
low maintenance requirements, resistive to heat/ the strong portions of the wall are for lad-
fire, they also have several notable considerations dering operations and where to walk on a roof.
as follows: However, as common as pilasters are on two
walls, they are also common on four walls for
When the panels are erected into a vertical perimeter strengthening purposes, and therefore
position, the base of the panels can be lowered cannot be used to conclusively determine where
into a trough next to the slab and then reinforced the primary roof structural members tie into an
by rebar and grout, which helps to bond the exterior wall.
tilt-up panels to the slab. However, the tilt-up
panels can also rest on a concrete slab. This
connection is then strengthened by using metal
brackets to attach the tilt-up panels to the slab.
Wall-to-wall and wall-to-roof connections are
most commonly achieved by tack-welding
adjoining metal plates that are preformed into
the wall panels. Support jacks (rakers) are also
used to stabilize the wall (fig. 727) until the roof
structural members are attached to the tilt-up
panels and the panels are connected to each
other via metal brackets that are attached to the
concrete panels. In both cases, the roof (which
is typically a panelized type roof or metal bar
Fig. 727. Support jacks (rakers) are normally used to stabi-
joist roof) is attached to the tilt-up panels. As lize tilt-up panels until a roof is attached to the panels.
a result, the tilt-up panels are supported by the
concrete slab and the roof structural members.
Although the first method of tilt-up construction
does not have a history of collapse in fire condi-
tions, the method of construction that incorpo-
Quick summary
rates securing the tilt-up panels to the concrete Some sidings not only contribute to the overall
slab with metal brackets can collapse when the fire load of a building (wood and petroleum-
roof structure collapses. This is evidenced by based sidings) but can also be dangerous when
the incident in Clark County, near Las Vegas, the perspective of noxious gases (vinyl sidings)
Nevada, as presented in chapter 4. is considered. This should mandate the use of
SCBA be evaluated.
Pilasters are upright vertical architectural mem-
bers that can be considered structural piers and Unreinforced masonry construction that is held
can be found on masonry walls (see the front of together with lime and sand mortar creates a
the masonry building in figure 720), concrete weak wall, particularly when subjected to heat
formed walls, and concrete tilt-up panels. They from a fire. Consider the numerous hazards of
are used on concrete walls to strengthen a wall unreinforced masonry construction, particularly
and/or support a major roof structural member, wall, roof, and floor collapse.

163
The Art of Reading Buildings

A potential collapse hazard from older arched

type roofs (bowstring, tied truss, and lamella)
Chapter Review
on unreinforced masonry construction is the
possibility of end hip rafters pushing the
Exercise
corresponding wall outward if the attached Answer the following:
truss collapses.
1. List the three primary types of foundations.
Earthquake retrofit modifications in unreinforced
masonry buildings can result in metal straps 2. List four hazards that are associated with
that can extend across the width of a roof or 3 basement fires.
ft to 4 ft from exterior walls and strengthened 3. List the four parts of a floor.
roof decking comprised of sheathing, plywood,
4. List four ways that floors can be connected
and composition.
to supports.
Some unreinforced masonry buildings have a
5. List two ways that ceilings can be fastened to
higher quality brick on the front of the building
an overhead component.
to improve the appearance. Look for recessed
windows, bond beams over the windows, and 6. What is a plenum space?
rafter tie plates. 7. What is the difference between a partition
The primary advantages of reinforced brick wall and a party wall?
masonry construction are strength and 8. List five ways that a wood wall can be covered.
collapse resistance.
9. What is meant by a multiple-wythe wall?
Although concrete masonry blocks are generally
10. List three potential safe zones to be consid-
not a problem, the roofs they support can be.
ered for unsupported masonry walls.
Brick masonry veneer walls do not often pose a
11. How are tilt-up wall panels connected wall-to-
collapse hazard unless a fire is attacking a wood
wall and wall-to-roof?
frame wall the veneer is attached to.
Concrete formed walls are generally considered
strong exterior walls that support older conven-
tional full-dimensional lumber inside a building.
Resources for
Buttresses and pilasters can be used as an
indicator of the location of the primary structural Further Study
members for a roof unless there are pilasters on
all four walls. http://Tiltup.com.

Tilt-up concrete panels that use metal brackets to MacDonald, Mary Lee, Preservation Brief
attach to the slab foundation have been known 21: Repairing Historic Flat Plaster Walls and
to collapse when the roof assembly collapses. Ceilings, Technical Preservation Services,
National Park Service, 1989.
Depending on the type of fire, consider placing
resources away from potential collapse zones. Thallon, Rob, Graphic Guide to Frame
Construction, 3rd ed., Newtown, CT: Taunton
Press, 2009.

164
READING ROOFS 8
Objectives
List relevant roof definitions.
Describe the eight most common roof styles, strengths, and hazards.
Identify the most common roof coverings.
List the various types of roof appendages.

The Importance of Reading Roofs

ortunately, determining building strengths and weaknesses is often enhanced

F by reading one of the most important aspects of a building and often one of
the most visibleits roof! The importance of roofs in building construc-
tion and fireground operations cannot be understated as the roof of a building is
normally one-fifth of the primary components of a building (which consists of
the foundation, walls, floor, ceiling, and roof). As fireground suppression opera-
tions are normally conducted below and/or above a roof, knowing the type of
roof and its potential structural integrity can directly affect fireground efficiency
and safety. Additionally, the type of roof can frequently help to identify the era of
construction, which can be advantageous.

In many cases, identifying a roof can be an easy task as most roofs are visible
from the street and can easily be identified by their age and/or characteristic
shapes. Obviously, some factors will be dependent on the type of roof construc-
tion in a particular area. However, this perspective is enhanced by the fact that
East coast, West coast, and no coast roofs have a lot in common in construction
methods and styles. The primary difference is the age of a roof. As an example,
a gable roof on the East coast is basically the same as a gable roof on the West
coast with the possible exception that the East coast roof is likely to have more
layers of roofing material (dead load) that have been installed due to its age. In
some cases, the edges of a roof (along the fascia boards) can reveal the number

165
The Art of Reading Buildings

of layers of roofing materials. Additionally, there is that replace sawn lumber, sheathing, and other
also a greater potential degradation of the wood due str uctural materials. Common examples are
to termites, wood rot, weather extremes, and other glulams, I-beams, and OSB.
deterioration factors that come with older roofs.
Jack rafter. Roof rafter used in hips or valleys to
span between ridge boards or wall plates.

Definitions Lightweight construction. Solid or engineered

products used to form assembly-built structural
Attic. An attic is a large space that is created by a elements that are lower in mass than previous
steep pitched roof (arched, gable, etc.) for drainage construction methods.
and/or appearance. Depending on the type of
construction, attics are normally large enough Lightweight trusses. Trusses that are comprised
for storage, can be modified for additional living of members of less than 2 4 in. (or smaller) and
space, and can contain HVAC and other mechan- are often made from engineered lumber (or metal).
ical equipment.
Live load. Any load applied to a building other
Component connections. Also known as framing than dead loads. Live loads are typically transient,
junctions, where two or more structural members moving, impacting, or static (like furniture).
are joined and, for this chapter, how they are Examples include people, snow, and wind. These
joined. As an example, a connection can be secured loads add to the existing dead load of a building but
by nails, bolts, steel plates and bolts, mitered finger are not a permanent part of a structure.
joints, gusset plates, and other means. The way
Roof slope/pitch. This refers to the degree of slope
structural members are joined can determine how
or pitch for a roof and is expressed as a ratio. For
long the connection will last under fire conditions.
example, a 4:12 pitch means that the roof rises 4 in.
Conventional construction. Solid lumber of 2 6 vertically for every 12 in. of horizontal distance.
in. or larger used in a standard framing configuration.
Sheathing. All manner of material used to cover or
Cockloft. A cockloft is defined as a small space encase walls, ceilings, and roofs of framed struc-
that is created when a roof is raised above the level tures. For a roof, it is the first layer of covering
of ceiling joists and rafters to provide a pitch for for joists, trusses, structural beams, or rafters
drainage. Cocklofts are common in older build- and is found in solid or open sheathing arrange-
ings (1800s and early 1900s) and are normally of ments. Solid sheathing arrangements include OSB,
conventional construction. plywood, or other panels as well as solid boards
(like tongue and grove or 1 6 in. lumber) that
Dead load. The weight of the building itself and are butted tightly together. Open sheathing (often
anything permanently attached to the building. called skip sheathing) is formed when boards
Diagonal sheathing. A series of 1 6 in. boards (usually 1 4 in. or 1 6 in.) are laid on the roof
that run at a 45 angle from the exterior walls to the with 4 to 6 in. gaps between each. In most cases,
primary structural members and provide increased sheathing increases the stability of a building/roof.
structural stability (compared to straight sheathing) Straight sheathing. A series of 1 6 in. boards that
as they cross more roof structural members. This run at a 90 angle to supporting structural members.
style of sheathing was favored after the 1930s.
Timber truss. Large dimension lumber used to
Engineered wood. Wood products made from a form a truss. Commonly found in older roofs,
composite of glue, veneers (layers), and/or wood this type of construction is normally made from
chips that are pressed together to form components

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

full-dimensional lumber, and is often comprised

of multiple members bolted together to form one
structural member.

Truss. An engineered structural element that uses

groups of rigid triangles to distribute and transfer
loads. The triangles create an open web space.
Trusses are used in lieu of solid beams in many
buildings. A typical truss is comprised of one or
more triangular units constructed with straight
members whose ends are connected at joints
referred to as nodes. A triangle is the simplest
geometric figure that will not change shape when
the sides are fixed.

Truss loft. An attic space created by the open web

nature of trusses.

The definitions presented in the above feature

block will help communicate more specif ic
hazards when youre engaged in a roof operation.
Additionally, you will see the terms repeatedly as
you navigate through the eight types of roof styles, Fig. 81. The eight most common roof styles
various roof coverings, and the roof appendages
that are covered in this chapter.

Gable roof
A gable roof is perhaps the most popular style
Eight Most Common of roof in the United States as there are literally
millions of residential single-family occupancies
Roof Styles with this simple to construct and attractive roof.
The term gable is derived from an A-frame config-
The eight most common roof styles (in no uration: two sloped or angled surfaces between
particular order) in the United States are gable, hip, two flat ends (gable ends). The two most common
gambrel, monitor, sawtooth, flat, bridge truss, and methods of construction are conventional (as shown
arched (fig. 81). Below, well dissect each of these in figure 82) and lightweight or truss construc-
styles and provide some strength and hazard issues tion. Conventional construction is often referred to
associated with them. as stick frame construction as this name is derived
from the fact that each member is literally built
stick by stick.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

found in semi-flat to steep pitch configurations and

covered by various materials such as tile, compo-
sition shingles, shakes, and so on. Metal is being
used more often to replace wood ridge beams or
rafters in frame construction (see figs. 62 and
63).

Lightweight gable roof construction uses 2 3

in. or 2 4 in. wood trusses (sometimes metal),
normally held together by metal gusset plate
connectors (see fig. 513) or glue. Trusses share
common features such as top chords, bottom
chords, and webbing (supports between the top
Fig. 82. The A-frame configuration of a gable roof and bottom chords depending on the style of
truss). Metal gusset plate connectors may vary in
size, thickness, and depth of penetration; however,
When applied to a gable roof, a ridge board is
18-gauge steel plates with prongs of 3/8 in. penetra-
first erected and then each rafter is attached to the
tion are common. More recently, glue has replaced
ridge board and the appropriate exterior wall. The
gusset plates in both residential and commercial
ridge board and rafters are typically 2 6 in. or
truss applications. To achieve structural integrity
larger. Rafters are usually spaced 16 in. to 24 in. on
with glue, the mating ends of structural members
center. A variation of this roof that can be found in
are first mitered in a finger-joint configuration,
older wood frame roofs is bungalow construction,
and then glue is applied before pressing the ends
which uses rough-sawn 2 3 in. or 2 4 in. rafters
together. Random tests (nonscientific) by some
spaced up to 36 in. on center, are butted together
fire departments have indicated the glue will
at the ridge without a ridge board, and typically
soften at approximately 350 to 400F and allow
use 1 4 in. spaced sheathing nailed to the rafters
the mitered ends to separate. Another variation of
(fig. 83).
truss construction is trusses made from metal. This
change is gaining popularity due to the increasing
cost of wood and the resistance to degradation from
weather and termites.

The 2 4 in. bottom chord of the truss has

replaced the 2 6 in. or larger ceiling joists found
in conventional construction, and truss systems are
also enjoying widespread use in floor and rough
window and door openings. The common spacing
for trussed rafters is 2 ft (24 in.), but this distance
will vary depending on specific applications.
Lightweight 2 4 lumber trusses with 2 ft spacing
Fig. 83. Bungalow construction uses 2 4 in. rafters typically require OSB sheathing that is glued
commonly spaced up to 36 in. on center with no ridge board. and nailed to each truss in order to meet strength
requirements (assembly-built concept).
Additional support for gable roof framing is Conventional and lightweight gable roof sheath-
provided by collar beams (a horizontal beam ing will then be covered by a variety of materi-
connecting two opposing rafters in the top third of als such as wood shakes, tile, rock, composition,
the A shape) and ceiling joists. The gable roof is

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

corrugated metal, and so on. Older roofs are likely 84, notice the lightweight truss construction in the
to have multiple layers of roof coverings. In some attic and to the left side of the header beam, while
cases, the edges of a roof (near the fascia/trim the exposed 2 4 in. rafter tails are visible on the
boards) can reveal the number of layers. exterior of the building. However, if the eaves are
covered with a soffit, the rafter tails will not be
Note: Heavy truss gable roofs are covered in the visible. Be aware that trusses may be modified on
section titled Older timber truss roofs, later in commercial buildings to look like 2 6 in. rafters
this chapter. on the front or sides of a building but in the rear
Strengths. The inherent strength of gable roofs they are normally not modified. In figure 85 the
can be found in conventional construction that I-beams have been altered to look like 2 6 in.
uses ridge boards and rafters of 2 6 in. or larger rafters on the exterior of the building. In many
and nails instead of gusset plates or glue. This cases, the rear of a building can often allow you to
type of construction can last approximately four see the real size of rafters used in a building.
times longer than 2 4 in. trusses when exposed
to fire. The strong areas of this roof are the ridge,
valleys, and the area where the rafters cross the
outside walls.

Hazards. The use of lightweight 2 4 in. trusses

(wood or metal) with no ridge board is similar in
external appearance and size to 2 6 in. or larger
conventional construction. This similarity can
easily mislead unsuspecting fire personnel. The
presence of 2 3 in. or 2 4 in. trusses with metal
gusset plate connectors or glue equals a short
burning time and early failure rate (one-fourth
the time of conventional as a rule of thumb). The
trusses are under compression and tension, and Fig. 84. Exposed rafter tails can indicate lightweight
construction on the interior of a building.
when the bottom chord or webbing fails due to fire
damage (connector plates that become heated and
pull out of the wood, or melting glue), the exposed
trusses will fail. Therefore, expect collapse of
exposed portions of the roof or total collapse of
the entire roof (when involved) in a short period of
time. Newer roofs use 7/16 in. or 1/2 in. plywood
or 7/16 in. OSB as sheathing instead of 1 4 in. or
1 6 in. spaced sheathing. Plywood and OSB will
burn and fail at a faster rate than spaced sheathing,
and offers minimal resistance to fire.

An important additional hazard is possible

misidentification of lightweight construction.
Identification can be enhanced by an intimate
knowledge of a district and prefire planning.
Fig. 85. Truss-type structural members can be modified to
Additionally, the presence of 2 4 in. rafter tails look different from their original design/size.
under the eaves is an excellent indicator of light-
weight truss construction. As an example, in figure

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Hip roof similar to those of lightweight trusses in gable

roofs when exposed to fire. Although the spacing
The hip roof is similar to the gable roof, but the of the trusses may be reduced for trussed gable
flat sides (gable ends) of the A-frame are replaced and hip roofs covered with tile or other such heavy
with sloped roofs (fig. 86). The hip roof appears materials, the collapse potential will be enhanced
more like an irregular pyramid. Similar to the due to the increased dead load on the roof. Similar
gable, conventional (or stick frame) hip roofs to gable roofs, reading the rafter tails (if exposed)
consist of a ridge pole (that is constructed first) and can be an excellent indicator of the size and spacing
then hip rafters are installed from the ridge pole of the rafters.
down to and across the corners at the outside walls.

Quick summary
Gable roofs have flat, A-frame style ends (gable
ends).
Hip roofs are similar to gable roofs although
there are no gable ends. The roof shape is more
like a pyramid.
When the eaves are not soffitted, 2 4 in. rafter
tails can indicate truss construction.
Fig. 86. The hip roof resembles the gable roof but lacks the Rough 2 4 in. rafter tails spaced farther apart
A-frame end configuration (note that the primary roof is hip-styled likely indicate bungalow construction.
whereas the secondary roof on the right side is a gable).
Lightweight wood (or metal) trusses will collapse
in one-quarter the time that a conventionally
Valley rafters are used where two roof lines join. constructed ridge board and rafter roof!
Jack and common rafters complete the structural It should be anticipated that older roofs can
members. The ridge pole and rafters are typically have additional roofing materials. In some cases,
2 6 in. or larger with rafters 16 in. to 24 in. on the edges of a roof (near the fascia boards) can
center. Rough-sawn 2 3 in. or 2 4 in. rafters, 36 reveal the number of layers of roofing materials.
in. on center were also used in older wood frame
structures (bungalow construction), although not as
common as its use in gable roofs. In lightweight
construction, the construction materialsboth Gambrel roof
wood and metalare similar to those used for
gable roofs. Various degrees of pitch and roof A gambrel roof (the name is derived from the
coverings are characteristic of this style of roof. Latin word gamba, which means a horses hock or
leg) is an attractive design that is very identifiable
Strengths: In conventional construction, the due to its unique shape. As you can see in figure
ridges and rafters are 2 6 in. or larger. The ridge 87, the gambrel roof is two sided, with each sides
pole, valley rafters, hip rafters, and the areas where slope broken by an obtuse angle so that the lower
the rafters cross the outside walls are the areas slope is steeper than the upper slope. This design is
of strength. popular due to its ability to provide the advantage
of a sloped roof for rain and snow runoff while also
Hazards: The hazards of hip roofs are similar providing maximum headroom in the area below
to those of gable roofs. The presence of 2 3 in. the roof. The most popular use of this roof design
or 2 4 in. trusses for rafters will produce results

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

is found on barns on many farms in this country, Hazards: Although this roof is popular for its
but it is also used on some residential and commer- ability to optimize useable interior space below a
cial buildings. Although a gambrel roof can be roof, it also provides an opportunity for the storage
constructed from either conventional or lightweight of considerable amounts of content. This content
construction methods, most of these roofs have stored in the loft area can create two distinct
been constructed from conventional construction. hazards: the fire load that would be generated by
combustible materials, and the weight of large
amounts of materials on the floor (or the ceiling
over the grade floor). Roof ventilation operations
would be extremely difficult due to the design of
a gambrel roof (unless attempted from an aerial
device). Additionally, some gambrel roofs are
constructed of lightweight trusses that will fail in
less time than a conventionally constructed roof.

Monitor roof
Monitor roofs have customarily been used on
barns and some commercial buildings, but their
design affords many advantages for a wide variety
Fig. 87. The gambrel roof is a two-sided roof with two of buildings such as garages, dwellings, and some
slopes on each side of varying angles. other buildings, hence their developing popularity.
A monitor roof (which is sometimes referred to as
A variation of the gambrel roof is the mansard- a lantern roof) is basically comprised of two shed-
style roof. The difference in the two is that all sides type roofs that are separated by a center section
of the mansard roof share a hip-style slope. Much that is raised above the shed roofs and supports a
like the difference between gable and hip roofs, gable roof. The raised center section is custom-
the gambrel roof has flat walls that rise to the peak arily flanked by windows or eave lights along the
on opposite ends, whereas the mansard has hipped sides for daylight and/or ventilation (fig. 88). The
slopes on all sides that rise to the secondary (upper- advantages of lighting and ventilation can not only
most) slopes that form the ridge top. A mansard be a benefit for commercial buildings but can also
roof is often characterized by dormer windows that be used for offices, storage, or extra sleeping areas.
protrude from the steep slopes of the lower pitches. A side benefit is the center section can provide the
necessary height for RV storage.
Strengths: The strengths of this roof are
primarily dependent on the type of construction.
Barns are normally of a heavier grade of conven-
tional construction than typical buildings, so these
types of buildings should be well built and more
resistant to fire due to the size and configuration
of their construction. Gambrel roofs on typical
residential and commercial buildings that are of
conventional construction of 2 6 in. or larger can
be expected to resist fire for longer periods of time Fig. 88. Monitor roofs can be identified by their character-
as compared to modern lightweight construction istic shape that can provide headroom, light, and ventilation
that can be used in some cases. to the interior of a structure.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Construction can vary but is typically dependent

on the era of construction. Older buildings used
Sawtooth roof
conventional construction of 2 6 in. (or larger) Sawtooth roofs date back to the late 19th cen-
structural members and were often integrated with tury and were typically used in manufacturing
pole barn type construction. Older buildings also and industrial buildings as a primary light source
typically used conventional type construction and (referred to as daylighting) before daylight was
materials to finish the interior. While newer monitor replaced with electric light sources. The roof
buildings can still use conventional construction, remained popular through the 20th century and
lightweight construction is increasingly used as a began to disappear in the 1940s. The sawtooth roof
cost reducing measure to construct these buildings is a roof system that is unique in that it is com-
with the same external characteristics. This consid- prised of a number of triangular and parallel roof
eration can include veneer wood-based materials surfaces (hence the sawtooth design as in figure
and corrugated-type materials, including corru- 89) with the glass side often facing away from the
gated metal or fiberglass exterior panels. In some equator side of the building to capture a diffused
cases, it is not unusual to find the lower portion light source.
(underneath the shed roofs) constructed of substan-
tial structural members and the raised center
section constructed of lightweight materials. The
shed and gable roofs can be either conventional or
lightweight construction.

Strengths: Older monitor buildings are gener-

ally well constructed as they are an older design
and primarily built with conventional methods and
materials. This will afford more time before collapse
when exposed to fire as compared to lightweight
Fig. 89. Sawtooth roofs can provide light and ventilation to
construction. The strong portions of these buildings the interior of a structure.
are the perimeter of the building and the corners,
particularly if pole barn configurations have been
employed. An additional strength of this design is Additionally, as warm interior air rises, the
the ability to initiate vertical ventilation through the windows can be used for interior ventilation if they
upper windows/eave lights (if the roof construction can be opened. This roof is commonly constructed
will support the weight of ventilation personnel). with rafters of 2 8 in. or larger, and can use wood
and/or metal supports for bracing. The sloping
Hazards: Characteristically, the hazards are portion is characteristically covered with 1 6
dependent on the type of construction, specifi- in. sheathing and composition roofing material.
cally lightweight construction that can readily fail This type of roof is constructed basically the
when exposed to fire. This applies to the exterior same today as it was during the 1930s and 1940s,
walls, f loors, and roof. Additionally, there will with the exception of the sheathing. Numerous
be an additional dead load imposed on the lower supporting posts are required with the sawtooth
structural members from the raised center portion designincreasing the strength of this roof as
of these buildings that will not only consist of the compared with a comparable flat roof with large
structural elements but also any interior storage or open areas. If this roof is constructed today with
furniture. An additional hazard is the large open modern materials (which is not common), expect
design of this type of building that will enhance lightweight construction that is covered with in.
the horizontal and vertical extension of fire, heat, plywood or OSB.
and smoke.

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

Strengths: Sawtooth roofs are generally well

constructed as they are an old design and primarily A diverse interior fire load can be expected in
built in the 19th and late 20th century. The strong monitor roof buildings and can vary widely from
portions are at the perimeter of the building and the farm animals, hay, and RV storage to offices and
areas near the glass panels. multiple commercial occupancies.
The upper portion of a monitor building may be
Hazards: Consider the undersides of these roofs
occupied and needs to be searched.
to be open or exposed to the interior of the struc-
ture. Newer sawtooth roofs may use lightweight If vertical roof ventilation is necessary, the
construction and can be expected to be covered monitor shed roofs will be easier to ventilate
with in. plywood or OSB sheathing, which have than the upper gable roof, which will likely
little resistance to fire. require the use of an aerial device.
Sawtooth roofs are normally of older design
and construction.
Quick summary Early collapse of main structural members of
Older gambrel roofs are likely conventional conventional construction for sawtooth roofs
construction and newer gambrels may use should not be a primary concern.
lightweight construction. Typically, the complete underside area of a
If the presence of lightweight construction is sawtooth roof is exposed to the building contents.
apparent in a roof, it was also likely used in the Numerous supporting posts required with the
construction of the floors. sawtooth design can increase the strength of
If there is a noteworthy amount of storage in a this roof as compared to a similar size flat roof
gambrel loft area, this could be a significant hazard with large open areas.
for personnel working below the loft area. The sawtooth is very stout and can usually
Determine the extent of fire (if any) in a gambrel support the weight of ventilation operations.
attic. It is easy to visualize what an involved Removing the numerous windows (if possible)
heavy load of storage would do to supporting can achieve desirable results.
lightweight structural members.
Roof ventilation operations would be extremely
difficult due to the design of a gambrel roof
(unless attempted from an aerial device).
Flat roofsgeneral
The simplistic flat roof has developed into a very
Corrugated metal/fiberglass exterior sidings will
popular style of roof for a wide variety of struc-
readily fail when exposed to heat and/or fire, as
tures. Instead of constructing a gable, hip, gambrel,
will veneer wood products.
monitor, sawtooth, or arched roof, just erect four
The large open areas in monitor buildings will walls and cover them with a flat roof. This is a cost-
enhance the horizontal and vertical extension of effective design when considering labor constraints
fire and smoke. and even more cost effective when lightweight
Consider the feasibility of using the upper materials are used. Although simple in appearance,
windows/eave lights in monitor buildings for flat roofs can also be deceiving as they can vary
vertical ventilation. in construction methods and can hide modifica-
tions to the basic roof components, often making it
difficult to determine which type and/or method of
construction has been used.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

A variation of a flat roof is a shed roof (fig. 810), Conventional flat roof. A true flat roof has a pitch
which is nothing more than a flat roof that has been angle between 0 and 10 with a minimum of 6
constructed with a pitch that exceeds 10. (A shed recommended for drainage. Wood rafters or joists
roof may also be considered half of a gabled roof.) of various sizes (2 6 in. and larger) are usually
A low pitch is defined as a 10 to 20 angle (pitch) laid across the outside walls (fig. 811); however,
and most shed roofs are constructed with a pitch in some cases, rafters may also be suspended by
exceeding 20. Shed roofs are common on sheds metal hangers. Rafters/joists in conventional flat
of various sizes, but are also constructed on some roof configurations may or may not have internal
residential and commercial buildings for a specific horizontal and/or vertical support. The primary
architectural appearance that requires the walls to method for connecting structural members is metal
increase in slope from the short end to the high end plates and bolts and/or nails. Some older roofs have
and the ability to place windows for daylighting on bridging or scissor bracing between the joists to
the wall at the high end of the slope. increase lateral stability.

Fig. 810. A shed roof is a sloped variation of a flat roof. Fig. 811. Conventional flat roof

The focus on the fireground is to try to identify On-center spacing for rafters is typically 2 ft.
the type of f lat roof encountered based on a The rafters are covered with 1 6 in. sheathing,
prior knowledge of a particular roof, the style of plywood, or OSB (in newer applications) and use
building, the era of construction, and any additional composition roofing material, rock, or other similar
information from interior/exterior personnel. The materials. Older conventional flat roofs on masonry
wide variety of flat roof construction types can be construction commonly used lets (pockets) in the
categorized as follows: walls to support the rafters/joists. This is an old
method (pre-WWII) that is no longer used. Newer
Conventional buildings use a ledger board that is connected to the
Wooden I-joists load-bearing wall.

Open web construction Strengths: Susceptibility of these roofs to fire is

totally dependent on the size of the rafters, their
Metal gusset plate construction or glue
method of connection to other members, their
Panelized (all-wood or hybrid) method of support/suspension, their on-center
Open web bar joist spacing, and the type of decking. Older roofs
use rough-sawn lumber with numerous bridging
Nonstructural lightweight concrete
supports and 1 6 in. sheathing as decking, which

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

offers good resistance to fire. The area of strength due to horizontal (longitudinal) laminations. For
for this roof is at the perimeter of a building. example, a trade lamination process (referred to as
micro-lam or LVL) enables a cheap grade of lumber
Hazards: The degree of hazard is determined to be used for structural members. The stem is
by the span of the rafters, their size and on-center joined to the top and bottom chords by a continuous
spacing, and the presence of metal hangers used to glued edge joint and is typically constructed from
suspend them. Roofs covered with plywood or OSB in. OSB.
instead of board-type sheathing present a signifi-
cant problem. Plywood and other like materials,
typically of in. to in. thicknesses, offer
minimal structural integrity under fire conditions.

Quick summary
All of the strengths, hazards, and summary
considerations for flat roofs are the same as for
shed roofs.
An older conventional flat roof can be considered
substantial compared to modern roofs.
Unreinforced masonry buildings commonly used
Fig. 812. Wooden I-beam members consist of a top chord
lets (pockets) in the walls to support rafters and and a bottom chord that are separated and joined by a stem.
joists for flat type roofs.
The older a building, the greater the possibility
This construction is very unstable until ade-
of multiple layers of roofing material (dead load)
quately braced with 2 4 in. nailing blocks that
that the roof was likely not designed to hold.
run perpendicular to the tops of the chords and
In some cases, roof ventilation operations might 4 8 ft sheets of plywood/OSB sheathing (usually
be able to be conducted within close proximity to in.) nailed to the I-beams. When 4 8 ft sheets
fire on conventional construction. used for sheathing are nailed to structural mem-
Flat and shed roofs can be covered with a wide bers (truss or conventional construction), a method
range of materials such as composition, metal, called diaphragm nailing is used. Prior to nailing,
rock, slate, tile, membrane, and many others. the 4 8 ft sheets are placed so that the 8 ft dimen-
sion crosses the roof structural members and the
4 ft dimension parallels them. The sheets are then
Flat roof with wooden I-joists. Wooden I-joists, staggered every 4 ft like bricks in a masonry wall.
also known as engineered wooden I-beams, were Wooden I-beams are either hung from bearing
developed over 40 years ago and their dimensional walls by metal hangers (see fig. 78) or placed on
stability assists in helping them to resist warping, top of the bearing walls. The common on-center
shrinking, and twisting. Additionally, they are spacing is 2 ft.
lightweight and come in long lengths. These
traits have made them very popular in both floor Strengths: The strong area of this roof is at the
(fig. 812) and roof construction. I-joists consist of perimeter where the roof ties into the building.
three main components: top chord, bottom chord,
and stem or closed web. Most commonly seen Hazards: The principal hazards are threefold.
are top and bottom chords that measure 2 4 in. One, the 3/8 in. stems and the 2 3 in. or 2 4
or 2 3 in. Some chords may resemble plywood in. chords will take little time to burn, weaken,

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The Art of Reading Buildings

and cause the rapid collapse of any chords and roof 2 in. cold-rolled steel tubing. The ends are pressed
sufficiently undermined by fire. Unfortunately, flat into a semicircular shape with a hole punched
many buildings can be found with unprotected through them. These flattened ends are inserted into
chords (they are often painted a dark color to slots in the chords and steel pins are then driven
minimize their presence). Two, the glue used to through, completing the assembly. Advertised
form OSB and also used for webs can degrade spans of 70 ft are possible using a single 2 4 or
with convection heat. The glue is hydrated (chemi- two 2 3s as top and bottom chord members. A
cally wet) and once the moisture is steamed off, single 2 4 up to 70 ft is made possible by joining
the glue turns to dust. Three, a common practice different lengths in glued, mitered finger joints.
is to run heating and air conditioning ducts of The normal on-center spacing is 2 ft.
various sizes through the web (as in fig. 430).
This practice removes a significant portion of the Strengths: The strong area of this roof is the
stem and gives fire horizontal access to adjacent perimeter of the building where the roof ties into
I-beams, enhancing extension and weakening of the exterior walls.
exposed materials. Hazards: As with most lightweight construc-
Flat roof with open web construction. Open web tion, the hazards of this roof are numerous. It is
construction (OWC) consists of top and bottom basically constructed of 2 3s or 2 4s under
parallel wooden chords cross-connected by steel compression and tension with sheathing of in.
tube web members (fig. 813). Another version plywood or OSB. These components offer minimal
of this construction is constructed of all metal resistance to fire. The chord members are exposed
in the same configuration and is referred to as in the interiors of some structures, increasing the
open web steel (OWS) joists. In both versions, the exposure hazard to the roof. Unlike conventional
top chord (supported) that is under load offers a construction, the open space between the top and
bridging effect, causing it to be in compression bottom chords will promote the lateral extension
and the bottom chord member (unsupported) to be of fire, resulting in early collapse of the roof (this
in tension. is actually horizontal balloon frame construction).
Expect rapid failure when exposed to fire due to
the size of the lumber and its chord members in
compression and tension.

Quick summary
Wood I-beams will readily fail when exposed
to fire or sufficient heat. (See the Las Vegas
incident in chapter 1.)
Wooden I-joists consist of top and bottom chords
separated by a stem (or closed web).
Fig. 813. The top and bottom chords in open web construc- If fire or sufficient heat is exposing I-joists, safe
tion are connected by steel tube web members. roof ventilation operations are not an option in an
exposed area of roof.

OWC is prefabricated at the factory before If fire has involved I-joists, consider extinguish-
installation and is constructed either with parallel ment from safe areas that are not directly
chords laid on-edge or flat laid chords. The steel underneath involved areas.
tube web members are prefabricated from 1 in. to

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

Currently, trusses are being manufactured that

Regardless of the configuration of wood, metal, utilize glue (fig. 815) instead of metal gusset plate
or wood and metal, open web construction connectors! As this is relatively new, there seems to
(OWC) still incorporates all of the attributes of be some disagreement regarding the temperature at
truss construction, including rapid failure rates which the glue will melt. However, several nonsci-
when exposed to fire and/or sufficient heat. entific tests have indicated that the glue will melt
OWC consists of wood top and bottom chords at around 350F to 400F! These types of trusses
connected by steel tube members. consist of top chords, bottom chords, and webbing
(supports between the top and bottom chords).
The openness between OWC chords will readily
allow extension in any direction.
If OWC truss construction is exposed to fire or
sufficient heat, safe roof ventilation operations
are not an option in an involved area.

Flat roof with metal gusset plate construction

or glue. This type of truss is the most common
type of lightweight truss as it is a favorite method
of roof construction for both residential and
commercial structures large and small across
this country. Trusses for roofs are constructed
in a wide variety of styles but all of them share
common features. Lightweight wood trusses are Fig. 815. Newer trusses may use glue for connection points.
predominantly comprised of 2 4s held together
by metal gusset plate (MGP) connectors that are
Strengths: The strong part of this roof is the area
typically 18-gauge steel plates with prongs of in.
where the trusses terminate on the outside bearing
penetration (fig. 814) and used in a wide variety of
walls or cross them in cantilever applications.
wood truss applications. One note: While MGPs are
often called gang nails, we avoid the term because Hazards: Extensive use of 2 4 in. trusses
it grants the connection too much integrity! You with MGPs equals short burning time and early
may encounter 2 4s in spans of up to 80 ft. The failure of a roof as the truss members are under
sheathing is usually in. plywood or OSB. compression and tension. When the bottom chord
or webbing fails (whether from connector plates
that have pulled out or from deep char), one or
more trusses can also give way. Rapid collapse is
common to lightweight truss members, MGPs, or
glued joists when exposed to fire or high heat. In
addition to the MGPs, it is easy to visualize that
if trusses are encountered that are glued together
and the glue melts at a moderate temperature,
collapse will occur relatively quickly, depending
on the amount and extension of fire. Sheathing
comprised of in., 7/16 in., or in. plywood or OSB
Fig. 814. Metal gusset plates are used in a wide variety of is common. Plywood and OSB will burn and fail at
wood truss applications with a typical penetration of in. a fast rate and offer little resistance to fire.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Fat roofpanelized. This roof is only found west 2 4 in. wood joists (which are part of the
of the Mississippi and is most predominant on the panelized sections) spaced 2 ft apart, and roof
West coastwhere wood was plentifuland is sheathing. Vertical steel posts provide support
commonly found on wood, masonry, or concrete for the primary steel trusses. To reduce the time
tilt-up slab buildings. However, due to the rising required for construction, preframed panelized
cost of wood, this roof is being replaced with steel roof sections 8 ft wide and up to 72 ft in length
open web bar joist roofs. There are two panelized are assembled on the ground, lifted into place,
roof systems: all-wood and hybrid wood and steel. and secured to the steel bar joists that are bolted
or welded to the steel trusses 8 ft on center. The
Wood panelized roof system. As the name roof is then covered with composition or other
implies, this system consists of wood and appropriate materials.
four primary components: beams (normally
laminated wood), purlins, 2 4 in. joists, and
in. plywood or OSB sheathing. After the
walls have been erected, the roof is typically
begun with laminated beams spanning the
length or width of a building. These beams vary
in size, but 6 36 in. are common. They are
supported at their ends by pilasters or saddles
and may be bolted together to provide lengths
well in excess of 100 ft. Wood or steel posts
may provide additional support along the span.
These beams are spaced from 12 ft to about 40
Fig. 816. Metal gusset plate trusses can be substituted for
ft apart. Supported by these beams, wooden
solid beam purlins.
purlins are then installed with metal hangers on
8 ft centers. A common size for a purlin is 4
12 in., with the length depending on the spacing Strengths: The strengths of the wood roof are
of the beams. its beams, the purlins, and the regions along the
MGP trusses can be substituted for conventional buildings perimeter. The strengths of the hybrid
purlins (fig. 816), resulting in substantial cost roof are the girders/primary steel trusses and the
savings. Joists measuring 2 4 in. by 8 ft are regions along the buildings perimeter.
then installed with metal hangers on 2 ft centers Hazards: Hollow steel pipe of 4 in. diameter can
between the purlins, parallel to the beams. be found supporting the span of the wood beams
Sheets of in. plywood or OSB are nailed over or girders/primary steel trusses. Expect weakening
this framework. Composition roofing material or collapse of these supports with subsequent
covers the plywood or OSB sheathing. An failure of large portions of the roof under heavy
insulation paper is often stapled to the underside fire conditions. Moderate to heavy fire intensities
of the roof, between the beams and the purlins, will quickly burn through the 2 4 in. joists and
and consists of a tar-impregnated kraft paper in. plywood or OSB sheathing, which can result
covered on either side by aluminum foil. in vertical fire travel and a reduction in horizontal
Hybrid panelized roof system. The hybrid fire spread. Additionally, when the kraft paper
roof system combines panelized wood compo- insulation is subjected to fire or sufficient heat, the
nents that are placed on top of open web steel foil covering will peel away from the upper layer
joists. Although similar to the wood system, it of tar-impregnated paper. The paper will give off
consists of girders/primary steel trusses 12 ft to flammable gases that rise and build up between
40 ft apart, smaller steel trusses on 8 ft centers, the insulation paper and the decking. When the

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

ignition temperature of these gases is reached, they states due to lower costs and an increasing scarcity
can flash, igniting the insulation paper and charring of wood. The top and bottom chords are usually
the surrounding structural members. The burning made from in. steel, and the web supports are
insulation will fall away, contributing to horizontal solid in. steel bar. Large buildings may have bar
extension within a structure. In this case, fire is then joists for girders spaced up to 45 ft apart. The joists
able to expose the overhead structural members and are spaced at 8 ft intervals with corrugated metal
in. plywood or OSB sheathing, which offer little decking covered by melted asphalt, then some type
resistance. If lightweight trusses are used for the of insulation board, and then alternating layers of
purlins, expect additional and rapid roof failure if melted asphalt and composition.
exposed to fire.

Quick summary
Metal gusset plate (MGP) connector trusses
have been used in residential and commercial
applications for over 50 years, yet firefighters are
still injured or killed every year due to the rapid
collapse of these trusses.
MGPs are not gang nailsthe plate perforations
penetrate the wood by only in.
Identification of MGP construction is simplified Fig. 817. The open web bar joist roof is common in central
if fireground personnel are alert and look for and eastern states, and is gaining popularity in western
exposed rafter tails and/or pull interior ceilings in states due to the scarcity and price of wood.
a timely manner.
As MGP trusses can collapse in a short period of Strengths: The strong area of this roof is at the
time, allowances must be made for glued trusses perimeter of the building.
that will likely fail in a shorter period of time.
Hazards: Metal exposed to fire or sufficient heat
If fire or sufficient heat is exposing MGP trusses, (800F to 1,000F for steel) will expand, twist, and
safe interior and/or roof ventilation operations likely fail. The time necessary for roof collapse is
are not an option in an involved area. of major concern when the entire roof is comprised
Incident commanders east of the Mississippi are of metal. An additional hazard is travel of fire
rarely confronted with panelized roof systems. between the multiple layers of tar paper, insula-
tion materials, and the corrugated metal decking,
Laminated wood beams will last longer than the
making extinguishment difficult. This horizon-
girders/primary steel trusses.
tally extending fire is supplied by gases from the
Kraft insulation paper can enhance horizontal hot metal melting the asphalt coating on the deck,
extension of fire within a building. giving off flammable vapors that ignite and propa-
gate flame between the metal decking and insula-
Flat roofopen web bar joist. Open web bar joist tion board (known as a metal deck fire).
roof construction is found in a wide variety of A more recent version of this roof uses a layer of
buildings, large and small (fig. 817). It is predom- ethylene synthetic rubber membrane to seal the roof
inately common in the central and eastern states, from the elements. However, this roof performs in
however it is replacing panelized roofs in western a similar manner to the older style roof. In some

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The Art of Reading Buildings

cases, an even newer modification uses a noncom- members. Lightweight concrete roofs are difficult
bustible thermal layer between the metal sheets and to penetrate without specific equipment. Masonry
the insulation. Although this modification can have blades are ineffective, so ventilation may require
satisfactory results, it is unlikely that an IC will the use of a rotary saw with a carbide-tipped wood
know what version is present. blade or multi-use blade. A chain saw equipped
with a carbide chain will also work but can be
Flat roofnonstructural lightweight concrete detrimental to the saw.
roof. To construct this flat roof, a steel or wood
substructure is first covered by corrugated metal
(Q or Robertson decking). Then, a specific type
of concrete known as nonstructural lightweight
Quick summary
concrete is pumped on top of the metal decking Fires in bar joist roofs have a collapse history of
to a thickness of about 3 in. to 4 in. To provide large portions of the roof, or the entire roof.
additional integrity, a 4 4 in. or 6 6 in. wire
A fire between the roof decking and insulation in
mesh is used in the layer of concrete. Composition
bar joist roofs can travel horizontally and spread
roofing material makes up the final layer.
additional fire within the building from dripping/
burning asphalt that can also expose interior
firefighters.
Various layers of insulation and membranes can
be used to finish a bar joist roof.
Large buildings commonly have large spans
of bar joist construction, which increases the
potential of collapse.
Lightweight concrete roofs will likely not be
Fig. 818. Nonstructural lightweight concrete roofs can readily identifiable until viewed after a fire (still
provide soundproofing as well as strength. standing) or roof ventilation personnel find that it
is difficult to penetrate with common ventilation
equipment.
These roofs are commonly used to provide
additional insulation properties for buildings near A lightweight concrete roof is capable of
airports, freeways, expressways, turnpikes, and resisting fire for an acceptable period of time.
other high-noise areas (fig. 818). This material The best roof ventilation tool for a lightweight
is also used for floors in newer multistory build- concrete roof is a rotary saw with a multi-
ings and condos. Lightweight concrete roofs offer use blade.
strong, hard surfaces and they are structurally
sound and resistant to fire.

Strengths: The strong area of this roof is at the

perimeter of the building. The remaining portions
Bridge truss roof
can also be strong, depending on the span of The bridge truss roof is a direct descendant of
the roof. the bridges used to span rivers and gorges for the
railroad industrynamely the Pratt truss and Howe
Hazards: Although the roof is strong, items of truss. The same engineering principles it took to
consideration are the span of the roof and what support a 40-ton locomotive could also be used to
holds the roof up. Common vertical structural span greater distances between walls or columns
members are hollow 4 in. steel pipes and wood in buildings. The bridge truss is characterized by

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

sides that are sloped from the exterior walls to a may present as a mansard roof. As mentioned previ-
f lat roof portion. The sloped sides are derived ously, a true mansard roof is really a gambrel style
from the trapezoidal shape of the truss (unequal with hips. If a mansard-appearing roof with dormer
parallel chords, with the bottom chord longer than windows has a large, flat roof section (no center
the top). These roofs are found on various types peak), it is likely a bridge truss roof that has had
and sizes of commercial buildings constructed its open web space finished into an occupant area.
during the historical and industrial eras (fig. 819).
The wooden truss members are built from rough- Strengths: Bridge truss roofs are well constructed
cut solid mill lumber of 2 12 in. sizes or larger, and are easily identified by their characteristic
depending on the size of a building. This usually sloping sides and ends. When exposed to fire, early
constitutes a heavy grade of construction. Vertical collapse of main structural members should not be
tie-rods between the upper and lower chords may an initial concern. In most cases, the bridge truss
be used for additional support. will sag prior to its collapse (the strength gradually
burns away). In fact, there are many examples of
bridge trusses still standing even though the rafters
and sheathing are totally consumed (see the section
in this chapter titled Unique Roof Construction
Considerations). This type of roof can predictably
fail in sections, depending on the type of fire. The
strong area is at the perimeter of the building.

Hazards: Its strength is dependent on the size of

the lumber and the span of the trusses. The trusses
are in compression and tension and can fail under
severe fire conditions. The underside of this roof is
usually exposed in warehouse-type structures. Due
Fig. 819. Bridge truss roofs can be found on older commer- to their age, roofs are likely to have multiple layers
cial buildings. of composition materials.

The wood roof joists and rafters used between

the trusses are 2 6 in. or larger and are covered Quick summary
by 1 6 in. sheathing (diagonal or straight) and Bridge truss roofs are easily identifiable from the
composition roofing material. Straight sheathing street due to their sloping sides and flat top.
was used prior to the mid-1930s, and diagonal
sheathing was favored after ward. Diagonal Bridge truss chords that have been covered with
sheathing provides increased structural stability a flooring and/or ceiling will hide the attic from
to a roof assembly compared to straight sheathing. interior personnel.
Plywood or replacement OSB sheathing and metal The truss loft space of the bridge truss roof may
straps can be found on top of straight sheathing in have been finished into an occupant space with
earthquake-prone areas. dormer windows. Bridge truss roofs with dormers
appear as mansard roofs from the street level.
The expansive area created between individual
bridge trusses and the enclosure provided by the Bridge truss roofs can be expected to have
rafters and sheathing, viewed as a tempting space multiple layers of roofing materials.
for occupancy needs, led to the addition of dormer
windows to the sloped portion of the roof. Viewed
from the street, a bridge truss roof with dormers

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Arched roof lumber. The strong area of this roof is at the perim-
eter of the building.
Oversimplified fire service texts categorize
all arched roofs as bowstring truss roofs. The
bowstring, however, is one of many methods used
to achieve an arched roof shape. An argument
exists that firefighters should treat all arched roofs
as bowstring due to the well-documented history
of catastrophic collapse involving them. We get
that. We can also argue that the tied arch is more
dangerous than a timber bowstring. The four
arched roof construction methods covered here
have unique characteristics that could influence
firefighting operations. Lets define each.
Fig. 820. Diamond-patterned lamella roof
Lamella roof. Of all of the older arched roofs, a
lamella roof is not considered a true truss roof, but
it is definitely one of the most unique due to its Hazards: Although these roofs can offer some
method of construction and the amount of lumber protection when exposed to fire, total roof collapse
that was utilized for its construction. Interestingly, may occur if fire removes more than 20% of the
this unique design was developed in Germany in roof structure. In this case, total collapse of the roof
the early 1900s and was first utilized in the Los can result from the domino effect. These roofs will
Feliz area of Hollywood, California in 1929 for the likely have multiple layers of composition materials
famous Brown Derby restaurant (frequented by and will be difficult to vertically ventilate unless an
Hollywood stars) which gave it its unique derby aerial device is available.
hat look. Tied arch roof. Note: Chapter 3 featured a brief
A lamella roof (also known as a Summerbell history of the arched truss. Although the tied arch
roof) uses an egg-crate, geometric, or diamond- and bowstring roofs (discussed next) are both
patterned series of structural members that help arched, there has been a difference of opinions
form a higher (or steeper) arch (fig. 820) than the regarding the nomenclature for these two roofs.
common bowstring roof. It is constructed of 2 12 The tied arch roof looks like a bow when viewed
in. wood framing with steel plates and bolts at the from the side, but it is not a true truss as it lacks
framing junctions. The roof uses 1 6 in. straight diagonal webbing.
or diagonal sheathing with composition roofing Although the tied arch roof is similar in external
material. This type of arched roof is supported appearance to bowstring roofs and possibly some
by three methods: (1) the arches terminate on a lamella roofs, it is significantly different internally
foundation on the ground, (2) the roof is supported in that it uses horizontal metal tie-rods to counter
by exterior walls that are supported by exterior the lateral forces that the arched top beam places
buttresses (see fig. 726), and (3) in a few instances, on walls (fig. 821). Tie-rods (usually in.) with
there are internal tie-rods with turnbuckles. It is turnbuckles are used below each arch member to
common on gymnasiums, recreational buildings, help achieve the counter-force. The tie-rods may
large supermarkets, and some buildings that may pass through the exterior walls to outside plates,
be considered medium-size buildings. which can facilitate identification of this roof, or
Strengths: Lamella roofs are solidly built, they can be attached through the end of each arch
possessing good construction techniques and end where it meets the wall. The steel used for the
tie-rod is ductile, meaning that it can flex and move

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

as live loads are gained or lost on the rooftop. For arches (which are in compression) from pushing
this reason, the walls of a tied arch building are the exterior walls outward, thus thwarting collapse.
typically reinforced with pilasters or buttresses Because this roof depends on the strength and
where the arches sit. security of its tie-rods, failure may occur in sections
that are exposed to fire. More likely, failure of any
part of the roof can precipitate a total roof failure,
Tied arch identification tip depending on the type of fire. Compared to other
arched roofs, the tied arch roof can offer signifi-
A tied arch is not a true truss. If diagonal web cantly less structural integrity during fire condi-
members are attached to the arched chord and tions and should be considered a very dangerous
the bottom tie chord, the arched roof is a true roof. Consider also that the age of these roofs leads
bowstring. Some tied arch roofs have vertical to multiple layers of composition roofing materials.
tension rods hanging from the arched top beam
to add tension to the bottom tie-rod or to support Arched truss. Also known as a rib arch truss or
ceiling/utility needs. rigid arch truss, the arched truss is a direct descen-
dant of the bridge truss we covered earlier, except
for its shape (arched rather than trapezoidal). The
first arched truss roofs used for buildings were
all-timber with steel plates and bolts used to
assembled the wood pieces that formed the chords
and web. Usually, large size rough-cut (2 12 in.
to 2 14 in.) wooden members comprise the arch
trusses and related members. The bottom chord sits
upon the load-bearing walls in an axial fashion,
eliminating potential lateral wall forces from the
arch. Arched trusses and bowstring trusses look
very much alikeadding a level of confusion
Fig. 821. The tied arch roof uses metal tie-rods to counter
when conducting preplans. Two clues can help
the lateral force of the arch on load-bearing walls.
differentiate them: (1) a substantial bottom cord
that receives the top chord and web members is
Proper tie-rod tension is maintained by turn- indicative of a rigid arch truss, and (2) the abutment
buckles. The top beams of the arch members may where the truss meets the wall. If the bottom chord
use multiple 2 12 in. or larger members that sits on the wall (the top chord does not touch the
are bolted together, and 2 10 in. rafters that are wall), it is likely a rigid arch truss if no bottom
covered by 1 6 in. sheathing (straight or diagonal) chord tie rod has been added.
and likely multiple layers of composition materials.
The rigid arch truss roof is covered in the same
Metal/glass skylights are often placed in the roof to
manner as the bowstring truss roof, which is
provide light to the interior of the building.
detailed next.
Strengths: This type of roof uses a large size of
Strengths: Like the bowstring, rigid arch trusses
lumber (2 12 in. or larger) and 1 6 in. planks as
using large timber members and bolted connec-
the roof sheathing. The strong area of this roof is at
tions are well constructed. When exposed to fire,
the perimeter of the building.
early structural collapse should not be of primary
Hazards: The primary hazard of this roof is concern. Like the bridge truss roof, it usually fails
early failure of the metal tie-rods and turnbuckles. in sections, depending on the type of fire and the
The tie-rods (which are in tension) provide lateral structural integrity of the roof. The strong area is
support for the exterior walls and prevent the at the perimeter of the building.
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The Art of Reading Buildings

Hazards: While the arched truss has more engineering worldnot the fire service world!).
inherent rigidity and stability than other arched The bowstring truss made from smaller dimen-
roofs, it is still susceptible to collapse. All-steel sion wood, all-steel, or steel/wood combinations
rib arch trusses are much like other steel trusses typically require pilasters or buttresses on exterior
in that theyre prone to rapid heating, especially if walls to help absorb lateral forces.
the bottom chord is exposed to burning contents.
Steel rib arches will try to elongate when heated.
Arches that sit in wall pockets will try to push out
exterior blocks or bricks where they are attached
a collapse warning sign. Likewise, a rib arch that
sits fully upon a wall (no wall pocket) can move
outward and form a warning sign that is visible
from the exterior.

Timber rigid arch trusses can suffer the effects

of aging (like any wood product). The bottom chord
of the truss is especially susceptible. Bottom chords
that show signs of splits or cracks are a collapse Fig. 822. Bowstring truss arches can be constructed from
warning sign. Building owners often remedy wood, iron, steel, or a combination of wood and metal as
shown in this illustration.
cracked or split bottom chords by adding a tension
rod that spans the bottom chord and is affixed to
its ends or to the abutment wall. In these cases, the Rafters of 2 6 in. or larger are covered with
remedy has converted the rigid arch to a bowstring 1 6 in. sheathing, straight or diagonal, and
and should be treated as such. (See bowstring composition roofing material. Diagonal sheathing
hazards below.) provides a stronger bond as each 1 6 crosses
multiple truss members as opposed to straight
Bowstring roof. The original bowstring truss is a
sheathing. In some cases, two buildings (each with
tied arch with diagonal tension rods added to form a
a bowstring roof) are constructed side by side, with
web. All the diagonal web members are in tension,
the arches coming together to create a valley in the
whereas vertical web members are in compression,
middle (fig. 823). To alleviate the problems of
making the bowstring a true truss. (See the feature
water leakage and snow buildup, a rain roof is often
on arched trusses in chapter 3.)
constructed over the valley and joining the tops of
The design for this popular type of roof was the two arches (explained in a following section on
first used for arched bridges and then made its way rain roofs).
into buildings by the thousands from the 1800s to
mid-1900s on both small and large commercial-
type structures. Although the original bowstring
bridge was all-metal (cast and wrought iron),
bowstrings used for roof construction can be
all-iron, all-wood, wood and iron (fig. 822), and,
in later years, all-steel. Early bowstring truss roofs
used large dimension timbers for chords (2 12 or
similar) along with iron plates and bolt fastenersa
substantial roof. Likewise, the Hammond all-iron Fig. 823. Adjoining buildings with bowstring roofs will
riveted bowstring truss is considered the high- create a valley between the roofs that can be covered by a
water mark for bowstring truss strength (in the rain roof.

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

Strengths: Bowstring roofs using large timber the corresponding end wall outward if the end
members and bolted connections are well con- truss fails.
structed. When exposed to fire, early structural
collapse should not be of primary concern. Like
the bridge truss roof, it usually fails in sections, Quick summary
depending on the type of fire and the structural
integrity of the roof. The strong area is at the Four common ways to form an arched roof
perimeter of the building. include lamella, tied arch, rigid arch truss, and
bowstring truss. Heavy/large dimension wood
Hazards: Although most heavy wood roofs of lamella, bowstring, and rigid arch type roofs can
this type can be substantial, the age, size of the be quite durable when exposed to fire. The same
lumber, and the span of the arches determine the cannot be said for the tied arch and those that
hazards. Some bowstring arches are comprised of are primarily steel.
iron, steel, or a combination of steel and wood that
Rigid arch truss and bowstring truss are true
will not offer the same strength as the heavy wood
trusses, lamella and tied arch are not.
versions when exposed to fire, especially from the
underside. These roofs are often found on commer- It is difficult for a lamella roof to have an enclosed
cial/warehouse-type structures, the contents of attic that can hide fire from interior personnel.
which may increase the risk of rapid exposure of If a portion of a lamella roof becomes well
fire to the underside of the roof structural members. involved, the entire roof can collapse from the
Also, the bottom chord of the arch trusses can be domino effect.
modified (by adding f looring) to allow storage
A lamella roof is normally identified by its larger
in the attic area and/or ceilings, which can make
humped shape than other types of arched roofs.
ventilation, fire control, and overhaul difficult (this
Viewed from underneath, the lamella will have a
can also apply to bridge and gable truss roofs). In
diamond or honeycomb grid appearance.
addition to the aforementioned hazards, lath and
plaster (or other cementitious materials) can be If vertical ventilation is necessary on a lamella
attached to the bottom chords of the trusses, further roof, it should only be attempted from an
increasing the weight they must carry (and were aerial device.
not designed for). As bowstring trusses are heated Key to the structural integrity of a tied arch
they can move and place additional lateral forces roof are the metal tie-rods, which can easily fail
on load-bearing walls to which the top chord is when exposed to sufficient heat/fire. This will
affixed. Often, it is a simultaneous failure of the cause a rapid collapse of the roof and likely the
bowstring truss and load-bearing wallhence the exterior walls.
extreme caution and attention given to these types
of roofs during fires. Look for tie plates on the exterior of the long side
of an arched roof building. This can denote the
If two bowstring roofs (or other similar roofs) presence of tie-rods within the building.
are connected together as in figure 823, there is
Due to the presence of the metal tie-rods, do not
a strong possibility of large open doorways that
expect to see an enclosed attic space in a tied
allow access between the adjoining buildings. This
arch roof.
can allow the rapid extension of fire between the
buildings. Lastly, remember that the ends of build- Large timber, rigid arch trusses resist the effects
ings with this roof can present a primary collapse of fire better than other arched roofs.
hazard. If jack rafters have been used to slope the An aged timber arched truss may have been
roof downward from the last truss to an exterior repaired using an added tension tie-rod, making
end wall, the end jack rafters will forcibly push it a bowstring truss.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

The bottom chord of a rigid arch truss transfers Older timber truss roofs
loads to a wall, whereas the top chord serves The previously discussed bridge truss, wooden
that purpose for bowstring trusses. bowstring truss, and wooden rigid arch truss are
If bottom chords in a bowstring roof have been examples of older timber truss roofs. In context
covered to provide an enclosed attic area, expect here, there are two other older truss examples
a higher dead load on the truss members and found in flat and gable roofs: parallel chord and
always verify for extension of fire. gable truss.
Bowstring roof arches can be constructed from Older parallel chord truss roof and gable truss
heavy wood members, iron, steel, or a combi- roof. The characteristic shape of an older parallel
nation of wood and metal. The metal/wood chord truss flat roof and the older gable truss roof
versions will provide less integrity than the heavy has not changed since the 1800s. Unfortunately, the
wood versions when exposed to fire. current shortage of lumber and the rising cost of
Movement of the all-steel or steel/wood labor have rendered the construction of these older
bowstring truss during fires can cause a roofs obsolete. The parallel chord truss (fig. 824)
simultaneous collapse of the roof and load- and gable truss (fig. 825) are similar with the
bearing walls. primary difference being their characteristic shape.
Both of these roofs were used on commercial build-
ings of moderate size and were constructed from
the late 1800s to mid-1900s (historic and industrial
eras). Both of these roofs were constructed from a
Unique Roof heavy grade of lumber (usually rough-cut) and have
durable characteristics.
Construction Strengths: These roofs are well constructed and
are a good example of older construction that was
Considerations used when lumber was plentiful. These roofs can
predictably fail in sections that are exposed to fire,
As you can see, all roofs are not created equal.
while uninvolved sections remain intact. The gable
Each of the eight primary styles have substyles
truss is easily identified by its A-frame shape, and
and variations of materials used to construct and
the parallel chord truss is common on older build-
finish the roof. We hope to have clarified some
ings with flat roofs. The strength of these roofs is
of the differences that exist. In addition, we hope
the perimeter of the roof.
that the details we have provided will help correct
the oversimplification that can be found in other Hazards: The main hazard of these roofs is
fire service resources. With that said, there are twofold. First, although they are constructed of
some unique roof construction considerations that lumber that is significantly larger than modern
deserve attention if we are to better understand trusses, they can last longer than modern trusses,
them when making strategic and tactical decisions thereby allowing interior personnel to overcommit
at building fires. in suppression operations. Secondly, the underside
of the gable truss is often exposed and vulnerable
In this section we discuss some special issues
to fire. The parallel chord truss is normally not
associated with older timber truss, corrugated
exposed to fire due to ceiling type materials on
metal, and inverted roof construction techniques,
the underside of the truss; however, it is capable
and roofs that are added to help redirect rainwater.
of concealing fire within the trusses. Additionally,
these roofs can have numerous layers of composi-
tion materials.
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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

directly affect the amount of time available

before collapse. Compare the size of structural
members in older heavy-timber trusses and
modern 2 4 in. trusses. Although the dead load
(roofing materials, HVAC equipment, etc.) on the
older trusses can be greater, fireground experi-
ence has proven that timber trusses can offer
significantly more time before failure than light-
weight trusses. Also, the older truss roofs used
steel plates and bolts at component connection
points instead of gusset plates that only penetrate
Fig. 824. The parallel chord truss is a flat appearing varia-
tion of an older truss roof. wood members 3/8 in., or that use glue. These
factors can affect the amount of time available to
initiate or terminate appropriate operations.
Visual identifiers. Although the perception
that older trussed roofs are easy to identify
by their characteristic arched shape applies to
arch truss roofs, it doesnt apply to all timber
truss roofs. Although all trusses are constructed
according to the same principles, remember that
timber trussed roof shapesbowstring (arch),
rigid arch truss (arch), gable truss (triangular),
bridge truss (trapezoidal), and parallel chord
Fig. 825. The gable truss is a variation of older truss roofs truss (flat)are quite different. Therefore, not
and is easily identified by its characteristic A-frame shape. all timber truss roofs exhibit the characteristic
exterior hump or arch shape. Additionally,
consider that the timber truss roof is not limited
Older timber truss roof issues. Lets examine to long, unsupported spans on particular types of
the older timber truss roofs from several different buildings. The timber truss roof was one of the
viewpoints. In recent years, attention has been most popular roofs constructed until the 1950s
appropriately focused on timber truss roofs, partic- and was used on a wide variety of commercial
ularly as a result of the fire in a building with a and industrial buildings. These include large
bowstring truss roof located in Hackensack, New warehouses, two-story office buildings, and
Jersey that resulted in five firefighter fatalities. even simple 20 40 ft commercial occupancies.
This incident focused on three principal hazards Expect to encounter these roofs on many older
that are often ascribed to these types of roofs: commercial and industrial buildings, and know
truss construction, visual identifiers, and early the different types of truss roofs in your area.
failure potential. Although most of these hazards Early failure potential. The amount of time
can apply to any roof that is subjected to fire, lets for failure cannot be reliably predicted for a
consider three perceptions regarding older timber roof. As a result, any roof can be dangerous and
truss roofs: may collapse during the early stages of a fire.
Truss dimensional size and component connec- Interestingly, history does not support the percep-
tion. Roof configurations that are comprised of a tion that timber truss roofs generally fail during
top and bottom chord and separated by webbing the early stages of a fire. Although the definition
are normally referred to as truss construction. of early is debatable, lets consider the following
However, this viewpoint often does not take case studies of two well-known and noteworthy
into account the size of the truss, which can fires involving timber truss construction.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Case Study: Waldbaums Supermarket

In 1978, resources responded to a fire at a supermarket in Brooklyn at 8:39 a.m. and found a
120 120 ft building that had been built in 1952 and was undergoing extensive renovations. The
roof construction consisted of seven bowstring roof trusses with a 100 ft span, rain roof alterations,
and a tin ceiling attached to the bottom chord of the truss system in addition to a suspended acoustic
ceiling system. As resources were battling heavy fire in the two-story mezzanine area with additional
resources on the roof conducting ventilation operations, the center portion of the roof (trusses 4, 5,
and 6) collapsed, plunging 12 firefighters into the flames with a resultant loss of 6 firefighters. Three
factors contributed to the collapse of this bowstring arch roof:
The double roof (rain roof) alteration
The extent/severity of fire in concealed spaces (double concealed ceiling system)
Failure of personnel to recognize the signs of a growing concealed fire that was weakening critical
structural assembly connections
The roof collapsed 32 minutes after the initial units arrived
arrived.

Case Study: Hackensack Ford Dealership

In July of 1988, resources responded to a fire in a Ford dealership in Hackensack, New Jersey, and
found heavy smoke conditions from the attic area of the building. The building had a bowstring truss
wood roof. Resources were initially assigned suppression operations on the interior and roof of the
building. However, after 20 minutes, operations began to concentrate on a defensive operation. While
this change was underway, a portion of the roof collapsed, killing five firefighters. Later it was deter-
mined the fire had burned for a significant length of time and was well advanced prior to detection.

Three factors contributed to the collapse of this bowstring arch roof:

Alterations that consisted of a heavy ceiling of cementitious material on wire lath
Auto parts storage in the attic
The burn time before extinguishment
The roof collapsed 35 minutes after the initial units arrived.

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

Neither of the preceding two incidents supports western and eastern states. Although these roofs
the view that timber truss roofs fail in the early can be constructed similarly, the timber truss
stages of a fire and fail completely, even when they roofs on the East Coast can be significantly older
have been significantly altered from their original and have been subjected to harsh weather condi-
design. Fireground experience indicates that timber tions, likely have higher roof dead loads, wood
truss roofs (except the tied arch) can last over 30 rot, termites, renovations, and other detrimental
minutes under heavy fire conditions. The major circumstances for a longer period of time than
hazard attributable to timber truss construction their west coast counterparts. Not surprisingly,
may not be the construction itself but a combination the majority of timber truss roof failures that
of the following factors: alterations, mass, location, have injured or killed firefighters have occurred
and size. in the eastern states.

Alterations. The dead and live loads created by Size. Depending on the size of the tr uss
later alterations to a roof often exceed the design members, timber trusses can possess more
criteria of the original roof. Unfortunately, these strength than they are given credit for. The
roofs are easily altered for numerous purposes. timber trusses in figure 826 span more than 70
As previously mentioned, it is common practice ft with a significant portion of the truss members
to cover the top of the bottom chords with and all of the roof sheathing removed by fire, yet
f looring, which creates a significant storage the trusses are still standing.
space within the trusses. Additionally, it is also
common to cover the underside of the bottom
chords with materials to create a ceiling, partic-
ularly cementitious materials in older applica-
tions. Consider the following three hazards
when confronted by timber trusses with ceiling
materials on the bottom chords of the truss
members: the added weight of the ceiling
itself, the difficulty of access, and the weight of
additional materials that may be stored there.
Ceilings add additional weight that the trusses Fig. 826. These timber trusses are still standing after
significant portions have burned away.
may not have been designed to support. They
will also hamper access and suppression efforts
in the attic area and can hide a well involved fire Using the preceding timber truss roof informa-
in the attic that may not be visible to interior tion as a baseline, lets address the perception of
personnel located below the ceiling. The ceilings offensive operations as applied to these roofs and
can be indicative of storage, translating into how an aggressive attack on fires in timber truss
additional weight on the truss assemblies. roofs can be successful in some instances. The
Mass. The dimensional mass and inherent following factors are suggested considerations for
strength of this construction can allow a fire to suppression operations in timber truss roofs:
burn for a period of time in the upper portion
First, and if possible, determine if a fire is below
of the trusses while personnel initiate extended
the trusses only and not within the trusses, or in
interior attack and/or roof ventilation opera-
the truss attic area and involving the trusses. If
tions. This hazard and others were present at the
a fire is within the building but not involving the
Hackensack and Waldbaums collapses.
trusses, then the collapse potential of the trusses
Location. There can be a significant differ- is minimal.
ence between timber truss roofs located in the

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Second, if the extent of fire is unknown, and/or suppression efforts should begin to control a fire.
the underside of the trusses have been covered If a fire is not controlled in an acceptable period
by materials to form a ceiling and are obscuring of time and actually appears to be increasing,
the truss attic area, these considerations should discontinue offensive suppression efforts.
require the first company to briefly enter the
Timely and accurate communications are neces-
structure, pull the ceiling, and evaluate the attic/
sary at any fire, particularly at one involving a
trusses (make an inspection hole just inside the
timber truss roof and aggressive suppression
access point). If a fire is in the attic area and well
operations. All personnel must be aware of
involved, plan for a defensive operation. If a fire
the type of construction and the intended plan
is in the attic area and not well advanced or can
of operation. Interior and roof personnel must
be extinguished in an acceptable time period,
continually communicate their progress or
then an aggressive attack should be successful.
problems to the IC.
If a fire is not in the attic area, then an aggres-
sive interior attack should also be successful.
Third, the presence of flammable stock in close
Corrugated roofs
proximity to trusses will dramatically enhance Corrugated roofs (fig. 828) are inexpensive
the extension of fire into a truss area, particu- and easy to erect, whether used in large or small
larly if the trusses are exposed, as in figure 827. applications. They consist of steel, aluminum, or
fiberglass over a wood or metal substructure.

Fig. 8-28. Although corrugated roofs arent a specific style of

roof, consider them to be extremely dangerous when exposed
to fire.
Fig. 827. Flammable materials in close proximity to trusses
will enhance the extension of fire into the trusses and
increase the potential of early collapse.
Corrugated steel is usually of 18- to 20-gauge
thickness, and the aluminum and fiberglass is
An incident commander (IC) must carefully also relatively thin and not generally considered a
evaluate the type of construction, the degree of substantial material, particularly when exposed to
fire involvement, the approximate time the fire fire. These roofs are normally found in flat (with
has been burning, and the resources available. varying pitches), gable, or hip configurations and
As with other types of construction, having a are easy to identify. These types of roofs can also
working knowledge of these variables can help use fiberglass panels imbedded in the roof to allow
in deciding whether to initiate an offensive or light into the structure (daylighting).
defensive attack.
Strengths: The strong areas of this roof are
Avoid conducting an interior attack of long the ridge and those portions that cross the outside
duration. If interior attack operations are initiated, bearing walls.

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

Hazards: The corrugated panels may be fiber- rain roofs are popular on manufactured housing
glass, aluminum, or lightweight steel. Fiberglass (mobile home) structures.
light panels are common. Expect rapid failure
of these materials, especially of the light panels, Personnel may only realize they are on a rain
when they are exposed to heat or fire. Personnel roof while performing suppression operations.
must consider corrugated materials to be extremely For example, after a hole is made they discover a
hazardous for above-ground operations. large void and no pressurized smoke emits, or after
making the hole they attempt to punch through the
ceiling and are met with a resounding thud (the
Rain roofs original roof).

A rain roof is a type of roof that has been added Strengths: In reality, this type of roof is a retrofit
onto an existing roof to change the appearance for constructed over an existing roof; therefore, the
aesthetic reasons, or to change the pitch of an existing strengths are dependent on the type of construc-
roof so drainage from the roof will be improved. As tion that has been used and how it is supported. In
an example, the two dwellings in figure 829 were any case, the strongest areas are the perimeter of
identical two-story residential structures with flat the roof.
roofs. A rain roof (hip design) was constructed on
Hazards: The hazards of this construction are
the left structure for appearance and/or to improve
numerous and dependent on three basic factors.
the drainage from the original flat roof.
One, a rain roof is likely not detectable, thereby
leading fireground personnel to assume there is
one roof instead of two. Two, it is obvious a rain
roof will significantly increase the weight (dead
load) on an existing roof that may not have been
designed for the added weight. Third, when roof
personnel cut ventilation openings, unless it is
obvious there is another roof below the rain roof,
they may not observe any smoke/fire/heat from
the opening. This can lead to a false opinion of
actual conditions below the rain roofobviously,
Fig. 829. Rain roofs are normally a retrofit to an existing
a dangerous situation.
roof (shown on the left building) to enhance the drainage of
water from an existing roof or to improve the appearance.

Inverted roof (raised roof)

Another example of a rain roof addition is used
On most roof structures, the top structural
when a double arched roof is constructed. Where
members carry the load (and roof covering) and
the two arches meet results in a significant low
lighter elements are found on the bottom to carry
point or bowl in the middle of a building (see
a ceiling. The inverted roof is the opposite: The
fig. 823). The low point will collect snow and
bottom structural elements carry the load and the
rainwater, which can impose significant loads that
top elements are lighter to attach the roof covering.
can be detrimental. To correct this problem, a rain
roof can be constructed over the bowl or valley An inverted roof is typically constructed as a
between the existing roofs. Be aware that the added complete assembly, not a retrofit like a rain roof.
rain roof will give the building a new look that can A typical conventional roof is normally comprised
hide original roof features. The space created by ( from bottom to top) of ceiling materials (plaster-
a rain roof can hide HVAC equipment (within the board, etc.), ceiling joists, rafters of 2 6 in. or
new attic) on the original roof. Also remember that larger, roof sheathing, and roofing materials. An
191
The Art of Reading Buildings

inverted roof is comprised of (again, from bottom

to top) ceiling materials, rafters of 2 6 in. or Fiberglass, aluminum, and steel roof corrugated
larger, 2 4s to support the roof sheathing, and panels can look the same from the street, but
roofing materials. This configuration uses the 2 they will react differently when exposed to heat/
4s (or other similar members) to slope the roof for fire.
drainage and places the 2 4s directly underneath Use a roof ladder or aerial device to distribute
the roof sheathing. the weight load if it is necessary for personnel to
be on a corrugated roof.
Strengths: As opposed to a rain roof, this roof
is constructed as an integral unit, so the dead loads If a corrugated roof has fiberglass daylight panels,
should be accounted for, as opposed to a retrofit they will quickly fail if exposed to heat/fire.
type of construction. The strongest area is the One of the first indicators of a rain roof is roof
perimeter of the roof. ventilation personnel opening a roof and finding
an abnormally large attic when one should not
Hazards: Compared to the rain roof, the hazards
be present.
are somewhat simplified. However, as the roof
is inverted, if fire is able to reach the cockloft The presence of a rain roof can give a false
space, it will not take long to weaken the top indication of a lack of heat/fire in the attic below
members (2 4s or similar members) as they are the rain roof.
much smaller than the ceiling joists supporting In some cases, the appearance at the eave line
the ceiling. This can be a dangerous situation for can indicate the presence of a rain roof. Look for
roof personnel. double converging rooflines.
A rain roof can add an unwanted dead load to an
Quick summary existing roof that can lead to an earlier collapse
of the entire roof assembly.
Older parallel chord flat roofs look like other flat
Rain roofs are popular on mobile home
roofs except they are more substantially built.
type structures.
The gable truss can be readily identified by its
Inverted roofs will always have a cockloft and
characteristic trapezoidal shape and the fact that
necessitates evaluating for the presence of fire.
it will be found on older buildings.
Due to the design of an inverted roof, the
The bottom chords of older parallel chord and
smaller members (rafters) are underneath the
gable trusses can be covered to give a finished
roof sheathing and can be easily weakened
appearance to the interior.
by fire, which presents a notable hazard to
The older flat roofs typically have an enclosed roof personnel.
attic/cockloft and the gable roof does not unless
As inverted roofs are generally older, expect
it has been modified.
multiple layers of roofing materials on the roof.
Older timber trussed roofs are not always arch
shaped. They can also be flat or gabled.
Timber trussed roofs offer significantly more
durability during fires than lightweight trusses.
Factors such as aging, multiple roofing layers,
alterations, higher fire loads, and longer burn
times are more responsible for timber truss
collapses than the actual truss design.

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

roofing material with an increased dead load can

Roof Coverings be expected.

In the preceding portion of this chapter, we

discuss the primary styles of roofs, how they Wood shake shingle
are constructed, their inherent strengths and
weaknesses, and how they can be readily recog- Wood shingles and shakes (they differ in thick-
nized from the street. Now, lets look at the most ness) offer a unique look to a roof but will not last
common types of roof coverings and how they can as long as most other types of roof coverings (in
also affect a roof size-up, particularly for personnel some cases, less than 15 years). Wood shingles and
on a roof. shakes are not allowed in some areas of the country
due to their high flammability, although there are
pressure-treated shakes that can offer a degree of
Hot mop fire resistance. An additional significant hazard
is their ability to extend fire from flying brands
Hot mop roofs are very common in flat or semi- (particularly in wind) and they have been known
flat commercial applications. The primary advan- to cause exposure problems multiple blocks away
tage is their low cost of materials (compared to from the original fire.
other types of roof coverings), which consists of
felt paper that is covered and secured with melted
asphalt. Although this roof covering is not known Clay tile
for its attractive appearance, it can be covered with
small stone/rocks to improve its look (also known Clay tiles are very popular in some areas of the
as a tar and gravel roof). The stone covering also country for their Spanish-style appearance, long
helps prevent damage to the asphalt from foot lifespan, ability to reduce the interior temperature
traffic, hail, and ultraviolet rays. This roof is very of a structure by 5F to 10F, and their noncom-
flammable in fire scenarios, and if stones/rocks bustible nature. The most significant drawback is
have been added, this will significantly increase the their weight, which can be significant depending
difficulty of vertical ventilation operations. on the type of tile that is used. Obviously this can
add a significant dead load to a roofing system,
particularly lightweight truss systems even when
Composition shingle the trusses have been engineered for the weight of
tile. Additionally, their removal for roof ventilation
Composition shingles are the most popular type operations can be time consuming and dangerous
of roof covering and are used on residential and to personnel on the ground (falling tiles).
commercial buildings with pitched roofs. They
usually do not have the dimensional look of shakes
or tiles, although some high-end, 30- to 50-year Slate
varieties have a more structured appearance.
Although they are combustible, the primary hazard Slate tiles are normally found on more expen-
comes from multiple layers that are built up over sive structures and offer many of the benefits of
the years (composition roofs typically last about 15 clay tile roofing materials, including their noncom-
to 20 years). The original roofing layer is supposed bustibility. Similar to clay tile, slate can also be
to be removed before a new layer is installed, but heavy, which increases the dead load on a roof and
this is often not the case and can significantly requires the removal of the slate before roof ventila-
increase the dead load on a roof. Therefore, the tion operations can be completed.
older a building, the more likely multiple layers of

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Concrete tile roofing. An example of this is the stone-coated

steel roof, which can look like tile or a traditional
Concrete tiles are relatively new and are wood shake roof. This type roof is best identified
constantly evolving with various styles and lighter by being familiar with their use within a particular
weight materials. Generally, concrete tiles are area and/or by a 4 in. to 6 in. oversized metal trim
formed from fiber-reinforced cement products used on the fascia board.
and feature long life, minimal maintenance, lower
On newer installations, the metal panels are
weight than clay tile or slate, and are noncombus-
installed on 2 2 in. battens (fig. 831). For
tible. Similar to clay tile and slate, they must be
construction over an existing roof, 1 4 in.
removed before roof operations can be completed.
counter battens are installed to provide a nailing
surface for the metal panels. Both of these instal-
Metal roofing lation techniques result in a void area between
the roof decking/materials and the metal panels.
Metal roofing has become more fashionable in If fire extends into this void area, it is difficult to
recent years with the most popular style gener- access from either below or on top. As a result,
ally referred to as standing-seam steel roofing some departments remove the metal at the ridge
for its upturned edge at the junction of the panels area and flow water downward to reach the fire,
(fig. 830). However, metal roofs can also be made although with very limited success. As a side note,
to resemble clay tiles, slate, shingles, shakes, and the edges of these metal panels can be as sharp as
so on. The advantages of metal roofs are longevity, razor blades!
overall appearance considerations including a wide
range of colors, and energy efficiency (they can
save up to about 20% on energy bills). The most
beneficial advantages to the fire service are their
lightweight nature (22- to 26-gauge steel) combined
with noncombustibility.

Fig. 831. Stone-coated steel roofs can be installed over an

existing roof by fastening steel panels to battens that are
attached to an existing roof.

Fig. 830. Standing-seam steel roofing can be identified by Single-ply roofs

its upturned edges at the junction of panels.
Single-ply roofs (or membrane roofs) are basi-
cally comprised of a layer (or layers) of insulation
Although the metal can be cut with a power saw on top of a roof decking that is then covered or
for roof ventilation operations, a significant disad- sealed with a waterproof membrane material.
vantage for the fire service is that metal roofing can The insulation can be comprised of polystyrene,
be installed over existing roofing, which creates a wood fiber materials, or polyisocyanurate foam.
void between the existing roofing and the metal Common materials used to create the waterproof

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

membrane are polyvinyl chloride, bitumen mate-

rials, or vulcanized and nonvulcanized materials. Roof Appendages
Viewed from the top, this type of roof will appear
in different forms, but common appearances are Websters Dictionary defines appendage as
ballasted with a type of loose gravel/small rocks or something connected or joined to a larger or
a white membrane surface that is referred to as an more important thing. When this general defini-
adhered system. tion is applied to building construction and roofs
in particular, we can redefine appendage as items
Although there are multiple variations of this that are added to a specific roof style for an explicit
roofing system, it should be noted they are capable purpose. From a size-up perspective, lets look at
of releasing toxic gases when exposed to heat/fire, some specific items that can be found on or as a
and some are capable of burning underneath the part of various roofs and consider how they can be
top layer of roofing material. Additionally, not only important clues about the interior environment of
can roof ventilation operations on these roofs be an attic and/or interior of a building.
a challenge, but they are also capable of holding
in a higher percentage of heat and smoke within
a building due to their superior sealing character- Live green roofs
istics compared to conventional tar paper and hot
Live green roofs are covered in detail in chapter 6.
mop roofs. The ability to hold a higher percentage
of interior heat can increase the potential of
a flashover. Monitor
A monitor is a roof with a raised extension above
Quick summary the ridge of a roof and is normally found on peaked
or arched roofs. Although it can be used for aesthetic
Hot mop roofs on metal deck, bar joist roofs are purposes, its primarily use is to provide light and
dangerous due to rapid failure and fire spreading ventilation to the area below the monitor. A monitor
between the metal deck and top composi- can also effectively provide a visual confirmation of
tion covering. any smoke and/or fire in the area below the monitor.
Older composition roofs can acquire a higher See figure 88 for an example of a monitor roof that
dead load from additional roofing layers and can shares many of the same features as a monitor that
slow roof ventilation operations. is built on the ridge of a roof.

Not only are wood shingles/shakes flammable,

they can present significant exposure hazards, Division walls
particularly in windy conditions.
Division walls are designed to partition a
Tile and slate roofs will considerably increase building and/or minimize the horizontal extension
the dead load on any roof and can also slow roof of fire and generally project at least 18 in. above a
ventilation operations. roofline. The important consideration to evaluate
Although metal roofing can be beneficial, in fire scenarios is whether a division wall has
remember to check for a void between the roof been breached by renovations, utilities, or for other
sheathing and metal panels. reasons. Division walls are discussed in chapter 7.
Single-ply roofs can be flammable and capable of
releasing toxic gases that are highly hazardous to
fireground personnel.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Chimneys/fireplaces This channel can be common to other areas of

framing adjacent or connected to the fireplace
Although the terms chimney and fireplace are often and can be considered a modern version of
used to denote the same type of construction, their balloon frame construction. As an example, if
definition can vary depending on their specific use. fire has extended into the bottom of the zero-
clearance fireplace in figure 832, it would be
Chimney. A structural component used for the necessary to check for extension all the way up
venting of hot flue gases or smoke from a stove, the vertical channel space and any additional
boiler, furnace, fireplace, or other appliance. common structural framing such as the second
Fireplace. An architectural structure or appliance floor and attic areas!
designed to contain a fire for heating and/or cooking. Masonry fireplaces are constructed on the exte-
rior or interior of a structure and typically use
Although the subject of chimneys and fireplaces
brick, stone, or concrete block. Exterior fire-
(for this discussion, lets use the term fireplace
places do not normally present a fire hazard
to also include chimneys) may seem somewhat
unless they are of unsubstantial construction
simplistic, they can provide some valuable clues
and/or have cracked and allow fire into the
during a size-up process as follows:
adjoining walls or attic.
A zero-clearance fireplace is not a real masonry- Fireplaces that are constructed in the interior
type fireplace but a prefabricated fireplace appli- of a structure can offer two substantial size-up
ance that can be installed almost directly against considerations. One consideration is that roof
combustible surfaces such as walls and floors. ventilation personnel who need to traverse
The portion that is visible outside a structure is the ridge of a roof for ventilation operations
typically constructed from wood framing and on pitched roofs will find traversing around a
can be finished with stucco, wood, or decora- fireplace can be challenging. Second, a masonry
tive stone and includes a vent pipe and deflector. fireplace of older construction that is of unrein-
They can be constr ucted on the exterior forced masonry (fig. 833) and is in the approxi-
(fig. 832) or interior of various occupancies and mate middle of a structure typically denotes an
are easily identified as compared to masonry- older structure of dimensional lumber and may
type fireplaces. The primary hazard is the typical include balloon frame construction. Older homes
lack of fire-stopping in the vertical channel typically have their fireplaces in the middle of
from the bottom to the top of the fireplace. the home for maximum heat transfer throughout

Fig. 832. Zero-clearance fireplaces are often identified by Fig. 833. Older masonry fireplaces in the middle of a struc-
their location and type of construction. ture can denote an early-era structure.

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

the structure. Now that there are vast improve- a horizontal member (such as a roof) where the
ments in heating systems, the central fireplace intersection junction is covered by a roofing
is no longer necessary and interior fireplaces material (fig. 834). Its purpose is to keep water
are constructed in varying locations within a from running into and down the vertical member.
structure. Although this configuration delivers acceptable
sealing, it also provides an excellent avenue for the
extension of fire. When this condition is suspected,
Attic vents the cricket must be opened and exposed.
Attic vents come in a wide variety of shapes
and styles, but they all share a common attribute
of providing proper attic ventilation for residential
and commercial buildings. Sufficient attic ventila-
tion is a necessity for several reasons: to remove or
minimize moisture, to reduce the buildup of heat
in the attic that could increase the interior tempera-
ture of a building, and to increase the longevity of
the exposed roofing materials. Attic ventilation is
typically achieved by introducing intake air at the
soffits and/or exterior walls, and allowing air to
escape through vents that are placed in the upper Fig. 834. Roof crickets provide can provide an excellent
third of the roof. opportunity for extension of fire.

When viewing a roof, it is important to know

what you are looking at and what the particular
vent is responsible for as there are numerous types Air shafts/lightwells
of attic vents, although they all serve the same
Air shafts and lightwells were used in older
purpose. This common purpose can also be used
buildings to provide light and ventilation to interior
to evaluate the interior environment of an attic and
occupancies. Smoke issuing from an air shaft
building. Attic vents are summarized as follows:
can indicate the location of a fire (an adjoining
Turtle vents (look similar to the back of a turtle occupancy) and the shaft can also assist in the exten-
shell and are low-profile) sion of fire to upper occupancies. Also be aware
that some air shafts have been covered over with
Gable attic vents, normally found directly
materials (on a roof) that may not support the weight
underneath the ridge of a gable roof
of a firefighter. Look for square or rectangular areas
Wall attic vents, often found in exterior masonry that do not match surrounding roofing materials. Air
walls shafts are covered in more detail in chapter 9.
Ridge vents, located along the peaks of a roof
and often barely visible from the street
Skylights
Turbine vents (whirlybirds), found on residential
or commercial buildings Skylights are good indicators of building floor
plans. Skylights in habitations are normally located
over hallways. In this instance, if roof personnel
Cricket can see the hallway/carpet below, the hallway is
clear of contaminants. In commercial occupancies,
A cricket is the junction of a vertical member
skylights are often placed over manufacturing areas.
(such as a skylight riser, parapet wall, etc.) and
Again, if the area below a skylight is clear, the area

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The Art of Reading Buildings

below is also clear of contaminants. Depending on open, by varying degrees, to the shafts. Opening
the type of structure, individual skylights may also the door and skylight (if present) can provide
be placed over stairways, light shafts, penthouses, valuable information about the interior of the
and air shafts. If a building has an attic, the area building. Remember there is a shaft/smoke vent
below the skylight is normally boxed off from the in the floor of these structures that likely will be
attic space. Therefore, when the skylight is opened, unable to support the weight of a firefighter.
the interior of the building will be ventilated, but
not the attic space. Skylights are comprised of glass The next five roof appendages refer to figure 836.
panels on older roofs; newer buildings/roofs often
use 4 ft to 8 ft plastic bubble skylights. Tubular
skylights are mirrored pipes capped with a clear
plastic dome that admits sunlight. A special lens on
the bottom diffuses the light into a room through a
ceiling fixture that looks like a regular light fixture.
Skylights are covered in more detail in chapter 9.

Penthouse/bulkhead door Fig. 836. Miscellaneous roof appendages

Penthouses are typically found on f lat roofs

and provide access to a vertical stair shaft that is
common to the interior of a building (fig. 835). A Roof scuttle
good indicator of the status of a stair shaft can be
observed if the penthouse door is opened. A roof scuttle is a small, covered opening
providing access to the roof from the interior of
a building. An opened roof scuttle can be a good
indicator of the location of fire. However, if the
open scuttle will draw fire, replace the cover.

Vent pipes
Plumbing vent pipes extend through a given roof
at various locations and can be made from various
metals or plastics. Plastic pipes can readily burn
and serve as extension avenues wherever the pipe
travels. Smoke issuing from plastic vent pipes is
Fig. 835. Penthouses are constructed over vertical stair- an excellent indicator that the pipe is burning
ways and can be a good indicator of the stairway condition if somewhere within the building. A discolored area
the penthouse door is opened. (Photo by Christopher Flatley.) around a vent pipe is an indicator of the extension
of fire in the pipe chase that serves the vent pipe. If
the roof around any type of vent pipe shows signs
of heat or smoke, it must be opened and checked.
Elevator house Additionally, a vent pipe that appears to be growing
Structures with elevators may have an equip- upward is an excellent indication that the roof is
ment house on the roof. Elevator houses vary in sagging and possibly about to fail.
size according to the number of elevators that they
service. They are above the elevator shafts and

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

Ventilators
Ventilators for attics or top floors usually have
a capped top, an eyebrow type top, or the familiar
turbine (louvered ventilator). An exhaust pipe for
a heat-producing appliance will generally have a
metal cap suspended over the pipe. Smoke or heat
coming from a ventilator indicates that the area it
serves is affected by smoke or fire.

Fan shaft
Fan shafts are easily identifiable by their size
and shape as they typically serve as an exhaust
for cooking appliance hoods that are located in
Fig. 837. Rooftop advertising signs and the supporting roof
kitchens. If smoke is observed in a fan shaft, the
can fail when exposed to fire.
shaft (from the kitchen to the roof) must be checked
for the extension of fire as it is common for these
shafts to acquire a significant buildup of grease
over the years. It is also common for grease to build
up on the roof under the shaft outlet.
Quick summary
Division walls can be effective in restricting
the horizontal spread of fire if they have not
Ducting been breached.
Heating, air conditioning, and other ducts of Zero-clearance fireplaces should be considered
various sizes are often found on flat roofs. Since a modern form of balloon frame construction.
these passageways may lead to the interior of
Older masonry fireplaces in the middle of
a building, they need to be checked for heat and
older homes usually denote an older type
smoke. If heat and smoke are present, open the duct
of construction.
to provide some ventilation to the interior of the
building, as well as to check for extension. Skylights that are clear indicate that the areas
below are also clear.
Skylights in the middle portion of a roof in
Advertising signs habitation occupancies indicate a center
In some cases (particularly on older buildings), hallway configuration.
advertising signs have been mounted on the top Check attic vents for the presence of fire in
of roofs and can provide an acceptable location an attic.
for advertising purposes. However, it must be
considered that roof structural members may not Plastic vent pipes can be a flammable wick
have been adequately engineered for the additional throughout a building.
weight and stress (i.e., wind, etc.). In any case, if When exposed to fire, the full travel of kitchen
fire exposes these types of roof structural members, fan shafts must be checked for fire.
they will likely rapidly fail (fig. 837) due to the
Roof appendages such as advertising signs and
increased dead load on a roof. Additionally, this
cellular equipment can impose a noteworthy
consideration also applies to more modern roof
dead load on roof structural members.
appendages such as cellular equipment.
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The Art of Reading Buildings

Chapter Review Exercise

Answer the following:

1. What is the difference between an attic and a cockloft?

2. Provide the proper name for the following roof styles:

3. What is a defining feature of conventional construction?

4. How do gambrel and true mansard roofs differ?
5. What benefits are provided by a monitor roof?
6. What is a metal deck fire?
7. List the defining features of a bridge truss roof.
8. List four construction methods that can create an arched roof.
9. Which of the four arched roof types is likely to collapse first?
10. What is a rain roof?
11. Name five of the eight common roof coverings.
12. What is a cricket?

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Chapter 8 Reading Roofs

Resources for
Further Study
Ching, Fancis D.K., Building Construction
Illustrated, 5th ed., Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2014.
Haris, C.M., ed., Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill,
2006.
Mittendorf, John, Truck Company Operations,
2nd ed., Tulsa, OK: PennWell, 2010.
Schunk, Eberhard, et al., Roof Construction
Manual: Pitched Roofs, Berlin, Boston:
Birkhuser, 2003.
Thallon, Rob, Graphic G uide to Frame
Construction, 3rd ed., Newtown, CT: Taunton
Press, 2008.

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BUILDING FEATURES AND CONCERNS 9
Objectives
Define the primary types of windows and doors.
Classify cornices and parapet walls, and their related dangers.
Describe the term facade and list the inherent hazards of facades.
Understand the hazards of remodels, renovations, and additions.
Delineate fireground concerns of fire escapes and roof hazards.
Describe the hazards of drug labs, pack rat conditions, and
abandoned buildings.

The 800-Pound Gorilla in the Room

So far, weve introduced the basic building structural elements (foundations,
columns, beams, and connections), discussed the ways to classify a building (era/
use/type/size), and have detailed various building components (walls, floors, and
roofs). Before we can get to the logical conclusionhow to practically size-up
a building at your next firewe need to talk about the 800-pound gorilla that
is sitting in the room. Namely, every building has some very obvious features
that could pose some threat, obstacle, or challenge for firefighters, yet are often
overlooked. Likewise, there are specific features that are hiding and ready to
pounce. The obvious and not-so-obvious features were talking about include:

Windows
Doors
Utility systems
Overhead hazards
Renovations and remodels

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Light wells, skylights, and atriums Sash: The metal, wood, or plastic framework
that sur rounds and suppor ts the glazing
Miscellaneous traps
(window glass).
While most buildings contain the first three
features, some buildings may host all seven.
Regardless, each presents concerns that can impact Types of windows
the safety of firefighters. Therefore, and it warrants There are four basic types of windows: station-
repetition, firefighters need to study the informa- ary, sliding, pivoting, and swinging. Stationary
tion in this chapter and then go out and study the windows are firmly mounted and nonopening, slid-
buildings in their district. Look for these features ing windows are made with two overlapping parts
and concerns and denote them in training activities, (sashes) that move in a horizontal or vertical direc-
surveys, and preplans. That way, the 800-pound tion, pivoting windows pivot in the middle of the
gorilla wont be so surprising. sash placing the glass both inside and outside the
wall plane when opened, and swinging windows
are those where the sash and glass swing inward or
outward. Examples of swinging windows include
Windows casement, awning, hopper, projected, and jalou-
sie types. Because of their simplicity, the most
Windows are a readily visible part of building common types of windows are the vertical (single-
construction, yet they can easily be overlooked or double-hung) and horizontal sliding windows, as
during the formulation of a size-up due to their illustrated in figure 91.
commonality. Nevertheless, windows can provide
a host of valuable clues such as:

Presence of smoke, heat, and/or fire

Potential access and egress routes (or the
lack thereof)
The likely floor plan of a building
Probable era of building construction
Possibility of renovations
Presence of trapped occupants

Window construction Fig. 91. The two most common windows that are encoun-
Although there are numerous types of windows tered in fire scenarios are likely to be the vertical and
that may be encountered, windows are of simple horizontal sliding windows.
constr uction and nor mally consist of three
basic components:

Frame: The structural case or border into which Types of glass

a window is set. Glass is a brittle material that is derived from
Glazing: The glass and/or thermoplastic (usu- silica, soda ash, and lime along with other trace
ally transparent) that is set into a window frame. materials. These materials are heated to a molten
state, formed, and cooled using various methods.

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Different types of glass can be created by adjusting it crumbles into small pieces and collapses either
the basic heat/cool formula or by the addition of when gently pushed inward with an appropriate
specific chemicals or reinforcing materials. Some tool or on its own (fig. 92).
of the more common types glass are listed below.

Plate or annealed glass. Annealed glass is the most

common type and is formed by a slow, controlled
cooling of the silica/soda ash/lime mixture. It
is the least expensive type of glass and is used
where strength is not required (as in most standard
residential windows). In older structures, particu-
larly residential structures, this was the first type
of glass that was used and when looked at from the
side will appear wavy. Modern glass used in newer
structures has a smooth surface. Plate or annealed
glass is easily broken and will do so in large, sharp Fig. 92. Tempered glass breaks into small pieces if struck in
a lower corner with a sharp or pointed forcible entry tool.
shards. It also has poor resistance to heat and,
depending on its thickness, will easily crack with
flame contact or ambient smoke heating (usually Laminated glass (or safety glass). Safety glass
around 600F for newer glass, lower temperatures comes in numerous forms, but most contain a layer
for older/thinner glass). of polyester or polyvinyl film sandwiched between
two layers of standard or tempered glassadding
Heat-strengthened glass. Heat-strengthened glass
strength. Common applications are in glass doors,
is used where greater strength is necessary. It is
which require an extra measure of strength. In
produced by subjecting plate glass to a temperature
addition to providing strength, the laminated film
of 1,150F and then quickly cooling the glass. This
serves to keep broken glass in the sash. The film
makes for a stronger glass, although not as strong
can be torn from the sash with common tools and
as tempered glass. This type of glass is typically
manual effort.
used in modern residential and commercial applica-
tions. Heat-strengthened glass takes more effort to Wired glass. Glass can be embedded with a wire
break than plate glass and breaks in smaller shards grid that significantly increases its strength for
than plate or annealed glass. security and fire resistance purposes. Wired glass
is among the most difficult to break and remove
Tempered glass. Tempered glass is also heat-
from the sash.
treated to increase its strength, and is rapidly
cooled and compressed during formation. It can Thermoplastic compounds. Although the glass-
be five times stronger than annealed glass. It is like properties of these types of glazing materials
commonly used in glass doors and some windows, may imitate glasssuch as Plexiglas and Lexan
and is common in high-rise buildings. Additionally, they are not really glass by composition defini-
most building codes require tempered glass on tion. These plastics can be significantly stronger
either side of an entry door in a commercial than glass of the same thickness. Such compounds
building. Tempered glass can often be identified by are often used to replace glass when security is a
the word tempered etched in one or both of the concern. Since thermoplastic type compounds are
lower corners. Tempered glass is not easily broken 250 times stronger than safety glass, they cannot be
and has good heat resistance compared to other broken in a traditional manner and often require the
glass. Although it is tough to break (best to use use of power tools.
the pointed end of a pick axe or Halligan-like tool),

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Air blast resistant windows. The General Services window assembly. The glass itself can be annealed,
Administration (responsible for managing federal heat-treated, or tempered type that has had special
office buildings, courthouses, and other govern- compounds added to the mixture during produc-
mental buildings) has retrofitted many windows tion. The finished glass can reflect UV rays and
with protection designed to mitigate the danger of minimize heat conductivity. Taking a step toward
flying glass in the event of an explosive terrorist improved insulation capabilities and reducing
attack. There are different methods utilized to exterior sound, energy-efficient windows are
accomplish this degree of protection, but the most becoming more common and in some states are
popular is a mechanically attached security film. required on all new construction. A common
Another method used is a blast-initiated curtain example of an energy-efficient window is one that
made of a mesh of high-strength synthetic fiber that has a sash of wood, metal, or vinyl that supports
deploys over a window before the glass is projected two panes of glass separated by an inert gas such
into a structure. as argon (common terms are double-pane and
triple-pane). Another popular style of this window
Air blast resistant windows can be broken and/ in residential applications uses glazing with heat-
or breached with conventional forcible entry tools, strengthened e-glass in vinyl sashes that are set
although the process will take a little longer than into vinyl frames. Commercial applications can
conventional windows. Also, remember that once use wood or metal frames that support tempered
the glass has been broken in this type of window, glass or polycarbonate materials. The prospect
the security film or mesh covering the window will of breaking these types of windows is dependent
have to be removed before access and egress are on the type of glass that has been used. Also, this
possible, requiring additional time. type of glass can allow the interior temperature to
Hurricane-resistant glass. Often called impact- rise to a higher level before failing as compared to
resistant glass, this type of glass has become the common single-pane glass windows, and can
increasingly popular on the eastern seaboard increase the chance of a flashover as well as subject
after hurricane Andrew. Hurricane-resistant glass interior personnel to higher levels of heat.
can take on several forms but is very difficult to Although not a type of glass, there are numerous
remove. For an expanded overview of this type glass coatings or films that can be added to existing
of glass, see the feature titled Impact-Resistant glass for energy conservation, noise reduction, and
Windows and Doors. protection from falling glass in earthquakes. These
Ballistic-resistant glass. Mistakenly called bullet- films are commonly 4.0 mm thick and are applied
proof, this glass is formed using various polycar- to windows in new and old buildings before or after
bonate layers clad with glass. The thickness varies the glass has been installed. Breaking this glass is
according to the firearm projectile size and velocity similar to breaking laminated glass.
it is designed to stop. That is why they dont call
it bulletproofthe glass can only resist so much,
based on its thickness. The thickness also deter-
Window security bars
mines the difficulty of forcible entry. For the most As a protection against vandalism, security bars
part, power saws are necessary to defeat the glass are often found on windows and doors (fig. 93).
and, even with the proper tools, the progress will Although security is enhanced, they can also
be slow. Tests and experience indicate that a timely present a serious problem since they will prevent
emergency escape is not an option for occupants or occupants and fireground personnel from using
firefighters. a given window as a means of entry or escape.
Security bars can be mounted on exterior walls
Energy-efficient glass. Energy-efficient glass
and over the windows of residential or commercial
(e-glass) is one component of an energy-efficient

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

structures. On some commercial structures, they One type of barricaded window deserves special
are mounted within a wall over inset windows. consideration. If four carriage bolt heads are
observed on the exterior of a barricade covering,
this is an indicator there are two 2 4s on the
interior of the structure that are used to strengthen
and clamp the covering to the structure. This
configuration is commonly known as a Housing
and Urban Development (HUD) window and will
be more difficult to remove than plywood/OSB that
is attached only from the exterior of a building.

Other window considerations

When viewing the exterior of a building, the
Fig. 93. Security bars are commonly used to deter unwanted following window characteristics can assist in
invasion but create rescue issues for occupants and firefighters. evaluating appropriate building features that can
be helpful or detrimental to fireground operations:
Normally, security bars are attached to a ma- Windows that are f lush with exterior walls
sonry structure by lag bolts in lead anchors (creat- typically indicate wood frame construction, as
ing a compression point), or by embedding their the walls are normally about 4 in. to 6 in. thick.
ends directly into the masonry walls. For structures Conversely, windows that are inset in walls
of wood frame and frame stucco construction, lag normally indicate concrete/masonry walls due
bolts are used to attach the horizontal bars to the to the thickness of the wall, and the greater the
interior studs. The presence of security bars adds a inset, the older the masonry wall.
forcible entry and egress challenge for firefighters.
As an example, unreinforced masonry construc-
Some priority should be given to their removal
tion can easily have an inset of 8 in. or more,
if firefighters are actively engaged in interior fire
while newer masonry construction will often
suppression and search operations.
have an inset of about 4 in. or less. In figure
94, the buildings on the left and right rear are
Barricaded windows unreinforced masonry construction while the
building on the front right is frame stucco.
Barricaded windows have been covered (or
boarded over) with various types of materials and
are commonly used for security on vacant struc-
tures and for protection in states that are subjected
to hurricane level winds. Although plywood and
OSB are the most common materials used, a wide
range of substitute materials can be found, particu-
larly in southern and eastern seaboard states. The
obvious concern with this add-on type of construc-
tion is that all exterior openings have been securely
covered, thereby eliminating timely ingress/egress.
Fig. 94. Windows are inset on masonry buildings and flush
with the exterior walls on wood frame construction.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Windows can be an excellent indicator of Large windows (display windows in commer-

the type of room or area behind a window. cial buildings) may be plate or tempered glass
Following are examples: and can provide large openings, but must be
carefully broken.
Small frosted windows indicate a bathroom
area and are normally above a countertop Older structures (particularly residential struc-
or shower/bath. These types of windows tures) used double-hung windows with wooden
are poor entry points for personnel and also frames. Typically, more modern residential
provide minimal ventilation. structures use either stationary windows or
sliding windows with lightweight aluminum or
Unfrosted windows that are higher on a wall
vinyl frames. Older structures with aluminum or
(than normal) indicate a window that is above
vinyl frames can indicate window renovations
a countertop and likely a kitchen.
and may be an indicator of additional interior
Picture type windows indicate family rooms, renovations.
dens, or other similar types of large rooms.
The older style wooden, double-hung windows
These windows can provide large entry, exit,
have 1 4 in. strips of wood trim around the
and ventilation openings.
window on the exterior of a building. These
Smaller windows that are between f loors boards (fig. 96) cover a cavity on either side
indicate a stairway. of the window that is used for lead weights,
Rectangular windows on the side or back of typically connected to the window by cotton
a residence may indicate bedrooms. These sash cords. The sash cords (one on each side)
windows can provide acceptable entry/exit are attached to the upper portion of the window
openings and ventilation for sleeping areas. and travel over a pulley to the hanging lead
weights in the cavities next to the window.
The size of a window near grade level can
These weights minimize the effort necessary to
indicate the presence of a cellar or basement
raise or lower the window. On newer buildings,
(see fig. 75).
the same type of molding is often used but is
The presence of air conditioners (fig. 95), purely decorative.
blinds, shades, or curtains on attic windows
indicate the presence of a living area that can
have minimal ingress/egress considerations
and maximum search implications.

Fig. 96. On older structures, wood trim around the windows

indicates covered cavities on either side of the window
Fig. 95. The presence of air conditioners, curtains, or shades that contains a lead weight that helps in raising or lowering
in attic windows can indicate the presence of a living area. a window.

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Windows on a wall that are a noteworthy dis- needed for fi reground operations. As this glass
tance above the grade level (typical for concrete is a viable option for protection of occupants
tilt-ups, etc.) will not be usable for access and (commercial and high-end residential homes), it
egress and also may not be viable ventilation should be expected that additional money would
openings. Quite often, these types of windows be spent to guarantee the same level of protec-
were primarily installed for daylighting and are tion for exterior doors. Secondly, if this type of
not operable. protection is encountered at a structure fire, the
Ballistic-resistant glass should immediately incident commander should be made aware that
raise two noteworthy concerns: other security the windows (and likely exterior doors) cannot
features in exterior doors and increased time be opened in an acceptable period of time.

Impact-Resistant Windows and Doors

The history of impact-resistant products can be traced back to 1974, but it was not until 1992, when Hurricane
Andrew ripped through South Florida, that impact-resistant products began gaining widespread popularity.
This single event became the catalyst for sweeping changes in impact-resistant building requirements. The
state of Florida and individual Florida cities have promulgated numerous changes to building codes that
require impact-resistant features for new buildings as well as those that are being significantly repaired or
rehabbed. Public schools in Florida are now built with impact-resistant coverings on all of the openings
(windows and doors). Many hurricane-prone coastal states have followed suit.

The scope of impact-resistant construction isnt limited to hurricane-prone areas, though. The influ-
ence of the September 11, 2001 attacks has also put many government and public buildings (including
public schools) in the scope of impact-resistance standards. The apparent increase in tornado severity
throughout the central and southern states will certainly lead to increased impact-resistance requirements
for buildings.

Constructing an impact-resistant building includes attention to more details than doors and windows. The
impact-resistant building has numerous features:
Wind uplift protection for roofs Garage door strengthening
Increased strapping and anchoring for walls Improved protection from horizontal, wind-
and floors driven rain
Wall and roof sheathing penetration resistance Blast resistance (for explosive devices) in
certain buildings
Most of these features help add strength and collapse resistance during structure fi res, although they
may limit traditional ventilation options. Forcible entry and emergency escape challenges create the
greatest concern for firefighters when handling an incident in an impact-resistant building. For this reason,
we focus on windows and doors. To better understand these challenges, we fi rst discuss some of the
testing processes that impact-resistant products must withstand. Following that, we discuss some of the
design characteristics that can be found in impact-resistant windows and doors. Lastly, we provide some
firefighter considerations that you may find useful.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Impact-resistant window testing

There are many types of tests that are used by third-party entities that are tasked with certifying that a
given window assembly can withstand an impact event. While varied, the most common form includes a
progressive series of performance tests such as the following:
Large missile (up to three stories). This test mimics a 2 4 in. wood stud projectile in a storm with 110
mph winds. To achieve this, a 9 lb 2 4 in. 6 ft Douglas fir or white pine stud is shot into the window
from an air cannon at 35 mph.
Small missile (greater than three stories). This test mimics rooftop gravel that is being propelled by a 110
mph wind. Here, a 2 gram steel ball bearing, 5/16 in. in diameter, is fired at a window at 55 mph (130 fps).
In both tests, the window glass may shatter but the impact membrane must not rip or tear. The missile-
damaged window then moves to the next test:
Rain test (also known as a water infiltration test). The damaged window is now mounted in a wall
assembly as recommended by the manufacturer. A 2,800 hp radial engine, with propeller mounted in
place, is then positioned in front of the window. This propeller creates winds of 110 to 120 mph. Water
is injected into the prop wash, which mimics 8 in. of water an hour. There is a provision for some water
leakage, but it must stay in the weep track of the window frame.
If the window passes the test above, it moves to the next test:
Air leak test. The window is then clamped into a machine that creates pressure changes similar to
those caused by wind during severe storms. The applied pressure pushes and pulls the membrane of
the fractured window over a period of 5 hours.
The window that passes the above tests will likely receive approval to be marketed as impact-resistant
for hurricane zones. Door assemblies follow similar testing patterns, although the criteria are adjusted
accordingly. There are also specialized tests that may be required for other applications, such as the fire,
bomb, and hurricane (FBH) test and military specification testing that may be done to assess the protection
against different caliber projectiles.

Window characteristics
The design of the window is determined by the
types of testing that it must undergo. For example,
if a window is to withstand the impact/rain/pressure
test demanded by the State of Florida, it cannot be
a jalousie or louver style window. These windows
will not withstand the testing. Most impact-resis-
tant windows are of the fi xed, single- or double-
hung, horizontal rolling, and/or casement types.
The glazing part of the impact-resistant window
usually consists of an impact-absorbing material
(membrane) that is sandwiched between and
laminated to two sheets of common glass (fig. 97). Fig. 97. Impact-resistant glass includes a membrane
The membrane is typically polyvinyl butyral (PVB) sandwiched between two sheets of common glass.

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

or polycarbonate. The PVB membrane is flexible and similar to that used in car windshields (although
thicker and tougher than the car application) and seems to be the most common type of membrane found.

Polycarbonate is an extremely rigid and dense plastic that is very difficult to breach with hand tools
(imagine Lexan between two sheets of glass). Polycarbonate membranes vary in thickness and typically
provide greater impact resistance than PVB.

The window sash holding the glass to the frame is well bonded and not removable like a typical window.
Window locking hardware has also been strengthened (fig. 98).

Door characteristics
Most impact-resistant doors resemble typical
standard doors when closed. Open the door and
you will see the difference. The doors are typically
hinged, but the hinges are considerably more
formidable in size and strength and they do not
have removable pins. You will also see reinforced
steel on the doors and door bucks (frames). The
screws attaching the door to the jamb are more
stout, beginning at a length of in. and diameter
of in. and going up from there. The technique of
using the Halligan claw to remove the hinge will
not work with these doors.

The locking mechanism on these doors is also

beefed up. While it is difficult to keep up with the
changes in this technology as it occurs at a rapid
rate, as of this writing the impact-rated doors have
an internal wind bracing mechanism similar to a
dead bolt lock. By turning this lock, a 1 in. stain-
less steel pin is thrown at the top and bottom of
these doors. There are other doors that throw these
pins into the jamb in six to eight different locations
on the door (similar to a bank vault door).

Door and window mounting frames are secured

to walls using high-performance screws that are
Fig. 98. A window sash that holds impact-resistant glass
3 in. long and in. diameter. These screws have
is well bonded and not removable like a typical window.
Locking hardware is also strongerusually secured at roughly 1,000 lb of sheer strength, and they can be
multiple points. found spaced at 8 in. to 10 in. intervals along the
frames of all windows and doors.

The only real way to determine if you have these products in your area is by preplanning. There is no
tip or trick to determining if they are impact-resistant without up-close inspection. Some of the window
glass will appear to have a light green hue, some will have stamps/stickers or information etched on the

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The Art of Reading Buildings

glass identifying it as impact tested, some will have nothing. The easiest way to tell is to simply walk up
to it and tap on it. Impact glass has a distinct thunk sound to ityou can tell it is not your average glass
when you tap on it. That would be a good time to notify the IC.

Firefighter considerations
Impact-resistant building features create a significant forcible entry challenge for firefighters because at
some point it becomes an act of futility to breach their windows and doors. Some buildings to keep in
mind when thinking of difficult entry would be:
Military facilities CDC (Centers for Disease Control) test labs
Courthouses Embassies
Detention centers (jails) Public buildings (libraries, schools, city halls)
Preplanning forcible entry options for these buildings is essential, and should not be just one option
come up with two or three! Forcible entry is but one challenge. Forcible exiting (evacuation or firefighter
emergency) will also be challenged. Additionally, the impact features will affect fire behavior within the
building: the box is tighter, flow paths (air in, heat out) are more restrictive, and tactical ventilation options
are limited. The potential for flashover and explosive smoke ignition increases dramatically as the building
retains more heat.

Tactical tips
Through actual training using donated impact-resistant products, weve tried numerous techniques to not
only enter impact-resistant windows, but egress as well. Some ideas worked, others didnt. We encourage
you to do the same and share your findings in trade magazines, blogs, and firefighter social networks. The
following is a list of tips I would like to share.

Saws: The quickest way into these windows is with a powered rotary saw (K-Saw) using the maximum
size blade it will hold. As there are numerous types of blades that can be used, we recommend that you
test and determine which ones work for you. I have found that the diamond blade, the composite blade,
and the wood blade (aggressive teeth) all work well depending on the technique you are using. Keep in
mind the sash is no longer removable with hand tools, so you will need to use the saw to clean the window.

The chain saw is also another option that works well. There are some considerations to keep in mind when
using a chain saw:
Thoroughly shatter the glass in the path the saw will travel. Glass is a notoriously hard surfaceit will
dull a chain quickly if you do not first shatter the glass.
Be careful how deep you plunge the bar into a window. If the chain gets bound up on a window treat-
ment (drapes or blinds), the saw will be rendered useless.
Dont use the chain saw to cut through the sashes.

Hand tools: There are a number of tools that can be used for breaching the glass from the inside. They
include the axe, Halligan bar, sledgehammer, and splitting maul. These are the more common tools that
can normally be found on a fi re apparatus. There are numerous other tools, such as the GlasMaster

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

and collapsible pruning shears, that would

work great if you get a purchase point and
have shattered the path of travel. The reality is,
breaching impact-resistant glass with a hand tool
entails effort and technique. If you need to make
an exit through an impact-resistant window, you
had better be acquainted with proper technique
using the tools you would commonly have with
you. Training will help.

The technique for breaching these windows is

relatively universal: You start chopping near the
edge of the frame where the glass inserts into
the frame. This technique causes the glass to
begin to pull away from inside the frame. As you
continue on, the rest of the glass follows suit. (In
figure 99, notice the glass is pulling out of the
frame on the left side of the door.) We like to
create a three-sided cut, a shape like a doggy
door. This does two things: First, it eliminates
one cut, making for a quicker exit. Secondly, it
leaves us some control of the opening for venti-
lation purposes.

We have found in large storefronts that to cut

this pattern is not realistic and would make
it difficult to get in and out of a building. We
generally cut an upside-down doggy door shape
and flap the window to the ground if ventila- Fig. 99. Force by hand tools allows you to pull impact-resis-
tant glass away from a door frame.
tion permits.

Final thoughts
Material technologies and impact-resistant engineering are rapidly changingthey have changed
dramatically in the last 10 years that I have been teaching. By the time this book is released, there
will undoubtedly be more changes. Site visits, web searching, preplanning, and hands-on training
with donated materials is your best strategy to stay abreast of the rapid changes.

The impact-resistive building is here to stay and will continue to gain popularity due to the number
of storms that have recently ravaged the Northeast. The rest of the country will experience a surge
in these products as communities prepare for and recover from tornadoes and security threats.

Contributed by Ric Jorge, firefighter, Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue, FL.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Doors Types of doors

There are four basic types of doors: swinging,
Similar to windows, doors are also easy to sliding, overhead, and rotating.
overlook in conducting an initial size-up as all
buildings have them. However, doors can offer Swinging doors are hinged on one side and
some advantages over windows. Doors are usually either swing to the left or right and inward or
the largest openings, which enhances deploying outward.
resources through them. Doors are the normal Sliding doors move horizontally (either left or
point of access into a structure (and they open to right) to open or close an opening.
the normally traveled routes), and in some commer-
cial structures (e.g., most concrete tilt-ups), access Overhead doors are mounted above an opening
can only be gained through doors due to a lack of and travel vertically or swing upward.
windows. Lastly, doors allow personnel to enter Revolving doors consist of multiple panels that
a structure at a lower level (closer to the f loor) revolve around a center hub. They are almost
than will a window, and that is important if heat exclusively glass with a metal frame and are
and smoke are present. Lets briefly summarize found in high-traffic applications (like hotels,
common construction considerations when consid- airports, and department stores) to help conserve
ering doors. energy by minimizing the transfer of heat and
cold air.

Door assembly
The major portions of a door assembly are best
Door construction
summarized by the following four components: Basic door construction involves three basic
materials: wood, metal, and/or glass.
Door. A moving panel or other cover used to
close an opening in a wall. Doors can be com- Wooden doors. May be hollow core, panel, or solid
prised of a single material (e.g., wood, metal, core as follows:
glass), or a frame that supports various materials
A hollow-core door consists of a solid wood
(as in a metal frame that surrounds glass).
frame surrounding a core of wood strips or
Jamb. The structural case, border, or track into cardboard covered with a wood veneer. This is
which a door is set. A jamb supports and may a cheap, lightweight door.
contain the stop for a door. Jambs are normally
Wood panel doors use a solid wood frame inset
constructed of wood or metal. The jamb is also
with panels. The panels are the weakest portion
the mounting location for some sort of hinge on
of a door.
swinging doors.
A solid core door is a strong type of door,
Strike. A receptacle that receives a dead bolt or
compared to the previous three types of doors,
latch from a locking mechanism. A protrusion
and made of solid lumber or an engineered wood
that stops a door and keeps it from swinging
product (such as glulam).
past the jamb.
Metal doors. May be Kalamine (solid wood cov-
Lock. Various types of locking devices used
ered in sheet steel) or hollow, and are normally
to provide security. Common examples are
stronger than wood doors.
key-and-knob locksets, tubular dead bolts, rim
locks, mortise locks, exit locks, and auxil- Overhead doors. Include rolling, sheet curtain,
iary locks. sectional, and tilt-up. Descriptions of each are
as follows:
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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Rolling steel doors are characterized by inter- metal and have substantial locking mechanisms,
locking steel slats that are manually or mechani- and can be a formidable opponent against being
cally raised or lowered by cables winding on or forced in a timely manner.
off a drum at the top of the door. This is a strong
type of door, but it can be cut with power tools.
Sheet curtain doors are solid doors made of thin
Door security bars
corrugated metal, are manually operated by Doors equipped with security bars fall into two
cables winding on or off a drum at the top of categories: interior and exterior.
the door, and are similar in appearance to rolling
steel doors. These doors are not as substantial Interior. Wood or metal outward-swinging
as rolling steel doors and can be easily cut with doors may have a bar of wood or metal for
power tools. additional security. The bar is placed horizon-
tally across the interior side and is supported by
Sectional doors have sections made of thin two brackets attached to the door. Since the bar
metal interconnected by steel hinges, or wood extends past the door jamb on both sides, the
sections made from a frame surrounding solid door cannot be opened outward unless the bar
wood panels. The sections are interconnected by is removed. The presence of a security bar can
metal hinges. These types of doors can be easily often be recognized by a pair of bolt heads on
forced/cut with power tools. the exterior of the door (very common on the
Tilt-up doors are solid doors made of thin rear doors of strip malls).
metal or wood that tilt with the use of spring- Exterior. Security bars over the exterior of
loaded hinges. Power tools can be used to cut doors are somewhat different from security bars
these doors but must be able to cut the interior over windows in that they are not solid to the
strengthening members. structure but must swing outward (normally)
Glass doors. There are two basic types of glass to allow passage through the door opening. It
doors: frameless and aluminum framed. is usually necessary to remove or open them to
allow initial access to the standard door into a
Frameless glass doors use tempered glass of structure. These types of security bars usually
about in. thickness, with an aluminum cross consist of two parts: a metal jamb that is secured
member (stile) at the top and bottom to support to the doorway opening, and a metal frame that
appropriate locking mechanisms. This door can swings outward and is connected to the jamb by
be categorized as a substantial door. hinges. The frame supports the horizontal and
Aluminum frame doors employ an aluminum vertical security bars to complete the assembly.
frame around heat-treated, tempered, or These types of security bars can be removed by
laminated glass. This door can be found on manual means or power tools.
commercial buildings of all types and can also
be a substantial door.
Other door considerations
Bulkhead doors. Although bulkhead doors (i.e.,
Does a door swing inward, outward, move verti-
Bilco doors) cover stairs that allow access to or
cally, move horizontally, or rotate? For example,
egress from a basement or cellar, they are not often
a swinging door swings outward (toward
considered true doors. However, they are a type of
exterior personnel) if the door is flush with the
door that opens outward and is normally securely
exterior of a wall and the hinges are visible (fig.
locked. From an intruders viewpoint, access to a
910, right), and swings inward (toward interior
cellar/basement is a potential opportunity to be able
personnel) if it is recessed into the wall and the
to gain easy access to the interior of a structure.
hinges are not visible (fig. 910, left).
Therefore, bulkhead doors are normally made of
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The Art of Reading Buildings

Fig. 910. Outward and inward swing doors can be identified

by their placement in a wall and the location of hinges. Fig. 912. Multiple doors on the front of structures can
indicate multiple interior occupancies.

Always evaluate the type of door and frame

The presence of fire escapes or exterior stair-
construction and what kind of lock or locks
ways on single-family type dwellings from floors
provide security.
above grade level indicate numerous living/
A single door in the center of an apartment/motel sleeping areas (boarding home, quadplex, etc.).
building (fig. 911) indicates a center hallway
Doors with visible multiple locks are an
apartment building (apartments on either side
indicator of a common passageway in addition
of a hallway and open to the hallway). A lack of
to items of value behind the door.
these doors on apartment/motel buildings can
indicate garden apartment buildings (no center
hallway and apartments open to the exterior of
a building).
Quick summary
There are three parts to a window: frame, sash,
and glazing (the glass).
Windows can be swinging, sliding, stationary, or
pivoting.
There are multiple types of glass. Tempered glass
and those with polycarbonate layers are the
toughest to break.
Impact-resistant glass is being used more
frequently and presents forcible entry and egress
challenges to firefighters.
Security bars should be removed in a timely
Fig. 911. A single door in the center of an apartment/motel
building indicates a center hallway type building. manner when these openings are used (or may
be used) for access/egress.
Newer vinyl windows in older buildings can be an
Multiple doors on the front of a dwelling
indicator that there have been other renovations.
occupancy indicate multiple or separate living
areas. In figure 912, there are two doors and The presence of air conditioners, blinds, shades,
six mailboxes on the porch. This is an indicator or curtains on attic windows can indicate the
of three separate units on each floor. presence of a converted living area in an attic.

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Newer double-pane windows can allow interior Electrical utilities

heat to build to a higher level (than conventional Electrical system integrity is based on proper
windows) before failing. grounding, insulation, and circuit protection.
Doors have numerous parts including the door Numerous codes, standards, and regulations
panel, jamb, strike, and lock. require builders to install electrical systems that
provide that integrity. Unfortunate for firefighters
Door types include swinging, sliding, overhead,
is the reality that not all building electrical systems
and rotating.
are up to date or compliant with the requirements.
Doors typically offer the largest and most obvious Likewise, the destructive force of fire can thwart the
option for enhanced deployment of resources and protections that create integrity. Given that, most
the timely emergency exit of personnel. fire departments default to killing electrical power
Multiple entry doors (and mailboxes) can indicate at the exterior box (where available) or calling the
multiple units or divided occupancy spaces within power company to disconnect the power feed to
a single building. the building. In most cases, killing power is appro-
priate. Again, unfortunate for firefighters is the
fact that an increasing number of building owners
and occupants are installing sustained electricity
systems to ensure power even when the juice is
Utility Systems unavailable from the grid. Generators, uninterrupt-
able power supplies (UPS), solar power systems,
The modern, technologically-advanced, and fuel cell systems, and battery rooms are becoming
materialistic society requires powerlots of itto more common. One disturbing trend is the illegal
run all the equipment, appliances, chargers, and bypass (passing the meter) using a parallel circuit.
devices we seemingly take for granted. Electricity Building electrical systems can be configured in
is the power source and utility that is most in numerous ways, ranging from simple to incredibly
demand in buildings. Those that travel often have sophisticated. Residential properties lean toward
seen the evidence: The never-ending search for an simple, whereas mega-box and high-rise systems
open electrical outlet to charge the dying battery of are more complex. Regardless, most systems share
a cell phone, tablet, or laptop (or all three). similar components.
From a firefighters perspective, electrical power Supply feed. Power from the grid can come into
systems in buildings typically get immediate atten- a building through overhead power lines (drip
tion during fire incidents (shut off at the breaker). line) or from underground conduit.
Utility gas follows next. These are but two of the
utility systems that are found in most buildings. Main shutoff. For most residential buildings,
Less obvious, and often a lesser priority, are the the main shutoff is exterior mounted. The main
HVAC, communications/data lines, fresh water, shutoff for commercial buildings can be exterior
waste water, and alternative energy systems that or interior. An electrical meter is generally
exist within buildings. To adequately cover the colocated by the main shutoff. Where present,
details and hazards associated with each utility multiple meters can indicate the number of
system would take a chapter each. In this section separate units or tenant spaces within a building
we hope to outline some basic features of each (fig. 913).
and point out some hazards that firefighters
should consider.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Distribution wires. Knob and tube wiring

(K&T) was a common, ungrounded wiring
system used from the late 1800s through the
1930s (historical and industrial eras). The K&T
system is easy to spot as it includes single,
minimally-insulated wires supported by ceramic
knobs used as spacers/supports between the
wire runs. The hot wire and neutral typically
run parallel to each other, separated by the
ceramic knobs. A grounding wire is not present.
Porcelain or cloth tubes were used wherever a
wire passed through a wall stud, floor, or junc-
tion box. A cloth tube or loom was used where
two wires crossed or where a wire entered a
junction or outlet box. From the exterior, K&T
wiring can be identified by a two-wire service
feed to the building. The K&T method presents
several hazardsmainly heat, age deterioration,
and lack of grounding.
Fig. 913. The main shutoff, multiple meters, transformer, and
cable/phone boxes are colocated on this multifamily dwelling. Most modern electrical runs within a building
are accomplished using wires that are dual-
insulted, multiwire (hot and neutral), and
Power distribution circuit protection. The ground wire, all wrapped in a single, nonme-
breaker box may be colocated with the main tallic sheath (often called Romex, although that
shutoff. Firefighters can expect multiple breaker is a trademarked name). Wire runs are typically
boxes in larger buildings. located behind interior walls, below floors, and
Transformer(s). Buildings that require higher above ceiling coverings. Permanent wire runs
voltage (220 V, 480 V, or higher) and/or multi- that are exposed are required to be within a
phase electric supplies will also have trans- protective conduit.
formers to help regulate the voltage needs of Outlets/switches/junction boxes. Individual
various equipment, appliances, and general equipment, appliances, devices, switches, and
use (120 V). Transformer boxes are often light fixtures access electricity by plugging into
located externally (pad mount, underground, or outlets or are hard-wired into junction boxes.
rooftop), although they can be found internally Common outlets include the familiar duplex
in older buildings. Hazard note: Older, inter- outlet (120 V) and larger 220 V type (for elec-
nally-located transformers present a significant tric clothes dryers, some air conditioners, etc.).
smoke, fire, and shock potential for firefighters. Modern electrical codes require a ground fault
Transformers manufactured from 1920 to 1977 interruption (GFI) for an outlet circuit located
may contain polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), a near a water source (faucet, bathtub, pool, etc.).
very toxic carcinogen. Significant efforts have A GFI outlet typically includes a reset button
been made to replace all PCB transformers, as part of the outlet. The purpose of the GFI
although they remain in many buildings. is to disconnect the electrical current and help
Suppression efforts involving PCB transformers prevent electrocution when the current finds an
should trigger appropriate hazmat decontami- open ground (water and electricity dont mix!).
nation procedures.

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Outlets and switches located on the exterior of the building engineer or mechanical technician who
a building or potentially wet areas (such as a represents the property.
wash bay) should have some kind of cover or
cap to protect them from elements. Wires and The main hazard of electricity is obvious
appliances in these areas should be utilizing a shock. Electrons are constantly looking for a
marine-type plugs that form a water seal when return to zero potential (seeking ground). Damaged
connected to the outlet. electrical systems create the potential for electrons
to seek ground through unintended conductive
Hazards associated with outlets are typically materials. Most metals and water (that is, the
tied to the device that is plugged in. Wires going minerals that are suspended in water) are excel-
from the outlet to the device create trip hazards lent conductors of electricity. Firefighters need to
and those that are damaged from trauma or fire be ever mindful of the shock hazardawareness is
present an electrocution hazard. Outlets, wires, the key. Short of an obvious electrical arc (electrons
and devices that become wet from fire suppres- flashing through air to a ground), there are few
sion operations present similar hazardsthe warning signs. Some warnings of electrical shock
best policy is to shut off electrical service at potential include:
the breaker.
Burning odors from electrical equipment
The most common form of electricity used in
buildings is alternating current (AC). AC is a form Wires, connections, and outlets that buzz
of electricity in which electrons move back and forth Tingling sensations through boots and gloves
within a material (wire). The other form that can
be used is direct current (DC), in which electrons Metallic materials that are discolored, glowing,
move steadily in a single direction. Batteries and or have paint that is blistering
solar cells supply DC power. Buildings that have Ground gradient is a term used to describe
incorporated batteries and solar cells for power electricity that is returning to zero potential
augmentation require an AC/DC inverter to through nonconductive surfaces like soil, concrete,
make the DC useful in an otherwise AC system. and masonry. Downed wires can create a ground
Important to note is that DC power is always trying gradient in concentric waves from their contact
move forward from its source. Simply stated, you on those materials and travel for several yards.
cant shut off a battery. Large battery backup rooms Firefighters who feel tingling through their boots
may have a disconnect switch between the batteries should shuffle-step away from the gradient and
and the inverter, but the batteries remain live. notify others.

Buildings with automatic backup genera- Electrical utilities that are visible on the exterior
tors typically use batteries for uninterruptible of a building, and particularly in the area of a
power supply (UPS) purposes. When power from roof, can present a formidable hazard to personnel
the grid is lost (or when firefighters shut off the using ladders for roof access and egress, especially
feed), a series of relays trip, which starts battery at night. Transformers that are mounted on or in
draw until the generator can start, warm up, and close proximity can present a significant hazard
accept the load. Once generator power comes to personnel considering roof access. Specifically,
online, the batteries get recharged through other transformers that are mounted on a roof (fig. 914)
relays. Shutting down this backup power system is will not only increase the dead load on that portion
often beyond the technical abilities of firefighters. of a roof, but will also place a notable electrical
Closing individual circuit breakers can help isolate hazard in close proximity to personnel on that
a damaged portion of the building if interior opera- roof. Transformers mounted on racks or poles
tions are underway. Otherwise, its best to consult close to a roof can also result in charged wires
that can be hazardous to ground ladders/aerial

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The Art of Reading Buildings

device placement. These hazards can be magnified

during nighttime hours when visibility is reduced Knob and tube (K&T) wiring is an outdated wiring
or minimal. method, although many historic- and industrial-
era buildings may still use it. This wiring is easy
to spot because of the single-wire parallel runs
and ceramic or porcelain insulators and tubes,
and a two-wire service feed on the exterior of
the building.
Modern wiring, often referred to as Romex,
combines three or more wires that are insulated
in a single nonmetallic sheath.
AC is the most common form of electrical
current. DC current, created by batteries and
solar cells, needs to inverted to AC.

Fig. 914. Electrical utilities can pose significant hazards DC power sources cannot be shut off, although
on roofs. they may be isolated.
The key to safety from electrical shock is aware-
An additional electrical hazard to roof personnel ness. Warning signs include burning smells,
is visible wires that run along the inside of arcing, ground gradient (tingling), and metallic
parapet walls and mounted on ceramic insulators distortion (glowing, discoloration, peeling paint).
for security. This condition can occasionally be Roof-mounted and overhead transformers and
found on older buildings of unreinforced masonry electrical distribution equipment present multiple
construction, where it was necessary to bring the firefighter hazards, especially at night.
wires from a pole to one side of a building and run
the wires to another portion of a building where
they then enter the building to an electrical panel.
This hazard is worsened by brittle and deteriorated Utility gas systems
or missing insulation on the wires. Propane and natural gas (methane) are the two
most common utility gases used in buildings for the
Solar electrical generation equipment can present
firing of various appliances. Both can be stored in
unique hazards to firefighters also. We detail those
a liquid form (propane as liquefied petroleum gas
later in this chapter in the section titled Alternative
[LPG] and liquefied natural gas [LNG]). Propane is
Energy Systems.
heavier than air, while natural gas is lighter. Both
gases have low f lashpoints, narrow f lammable

Quick summary ranges, and high Btu potential. Both gases are used
as fuel for flame-producing appliances that include:
Electrical system components for buildings
Heating furnaces
include a supply feed, main shutoff, circuit
protection, transformers, distribution wires, Radiant space heaters
and outlets. Cooking appliances
Older, interior located transformers can include Dryers
PCBs. Leaking PCBs and smoke from PCB-laden
transformers are extremely toxic. Manufacturing equipment

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Most developed towns and cities rely on a natural pipe is being used for natural gas. Piping that is run
gas supply and distribution system that is piped within a wall or floor will likely have an appliance
underground to individual buildings. The gas can shutoff valve where it leaves the wall or floor and
be delivered at various pressures that are reduced at feeds the desired appliance. Most appliances use
individual buildings. The individual buildings will low-pressure gas, although some industrial-sized
have an outside gas meter and shutoff that is either equipment can require high-pressure feeds.
attached to an exterior wall or in very close proximity
to a wall. Multifamily dwellings and multiple-tenant
commercial buildings can have numerous meters HVAC systems
and shutoffs feeding a single building. Shutting off Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
a simple residential system is accomplished using a systems (HVAC) can take on many forms that have
wrench or spanner and turning the inline valve 90 evolved over time, creating a potpourri of possible
degrees (perpendicular to the pipe). Commercial gas combinations. In all forms, HVAC systems contain
shutoffs may be of the Nordstrom type that requires a the following components:
simple quarter-turn. It is important to not attempt to
turn the Nordstrom valve a full half-turn, as damage Heating or cooling appliance(s)
may result. Likewise, commercial facilities that use
Energy generation source (oil, steam, utility gas,
large quantities of gas will likely have a rotary vane
and/or electricity)
meter. These can be spotted by the single or twin
circular casting of the meter. Firefighters can use this Conveyance system (ducting, fans, pipes, etc.)
clue to indicate that the occupancy contains larger Temperature regulation system (thermostat,
gas-fired equipment, requiring higher gas pressures relays, switches, etc.)
and larger diameter supply pipe.
Table 91 provides a brief overview of the more
Buildings using propane are most likely to have common HVAC systems and appliances that can
an external propane tank on site or in the complex. be found in buildings. Noteworthy is the reality
Shutoff is usually accomplished at the storage tank that buildings can rely on a single central system to
by opening the top cap and spinning a hand valve provide all the HVAC needs (like a single-family
until it is fully closed. In both cases, the shutoff valve dwelling), or may include dozens of HVAC systems
or cover may be locked (especially on commercial to maintain climate control in large spaces or highly-
buildings or in areas prone to vandalism). Propane compartmentalized buildings. Hotels and multifamily
(and, rarely, natural gas) stored in tanks outside of a dwellings are interesting in that they are likely to
building contain product in liquid form (LPG/LNG). have a central HVAC system for common areas and
When exposed to flame, they present a significant individual HVAC appliances for each room or unit.
boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) HVAC systems that use ductwork to distribute heated
hazard. Cooling with judicious gpm is essential to and cooled air add challenges for firefightersthose
help prevent the BLEVE. ducts are also fire and smoke conveyance systems!
While high-rise, large, and mega-box buildings are
Tank storage of LNG is not common but likely to include automatic dampers or shutoffs to
increasing. Where found, it may indicate that the minimize smoke spread in ducting, most buildings
building contains motorized equipment (forklift, dont benefit from that protection.
pallet tractors, etc.) that are powered by the cleaner-
burning natural gas. HVAC systems can be mounted on the ground,
in the interior, and/or on the roof of buildings.
Within a building, the gas distribution is Roof-mounted HVAC units are a concern to
achieved by various types of pipesblack iron firefighters for several reasons:
pipe is the most common. More recently, plastic

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Dependent on the size of a system, a signifi- Associated with roof HVAC units are various
cant dead load can be imposed on the roof. ducts that can be mounted on and travel across
Although the supporting structural members a roof from the unit(s) to respective areas within
are normally engineered to carry the weight a building. Depending on the amount and size
(some retrofitted modifications may not have of ducting, they can hamper or negate vertical
been properly engineered), supporting structural ventilation operations. In all cases, HVAC
members attacked by fire will collapse faster ducting can provide channels for the rapid exten-
due to the imposed additional weight. This can sion of heat/fire/smoke and must be checked if
be a dangerous condition to roof and interior this is a possibility.
personnel as evidenced by two firefighter deaths
Rooftop HVACs typically have utility gas
on February 14, 2000, in a fast-food restaurant
and higher voltage (220 V) power supplied to
in Houston, Texas. A fire that originated in
themadding more hazards for the firefighter.
the kitchen spread into the structural elements
of the open-span roof, causing the HVAC unit Roof mounted HVAC units are also capable
to drop. A similar event took place in 2007 in of providing a source of fire from overheated
Boston. Two firefighter LODDs occurred when electric motors and/or drive belts.
an HVAC unit dropped during a restaurant fire.

Table 9-1. Common HVAC systems and appliances

Appliance Type Use Power Source Conveyance Notes
Boiler Heating Oil, steam, Rigid piping to radiator- The boiler heats water used in radiators
or utility gas like devices
Forced hot air Heating Utility gas Air ducting and fan Most common form of heating. Is often
a central unit in homes and multiple
roof-top units in large+ commercials
Electric Heating Electric Metallic heat exchanger Usually individual units in each room
baseboard (and perhaps a small fan)
Radiant space Heating Utility gas Metallic radiant tubes Ceiling-mounted with a reflector to
radiate heat downward
Radiant in-floor Heating Utility gas Tubing grid embedded A small boiler heats water pumped
within or below a floor through the tubing
covering like tile, wood,
or poured concrete
Water heater Hot water for Utility gas Copper or plastic piping Heats fresh water to 100130F for
faucets, etc. or electric most applications
Central air Cooling Electric Air ducting Consists of a condenser, fluid, and heat
conditioner exchanger. Can be a separate unit or
combined with a forced hot-air system
Evaporative Cooling Electric Air ducting and a fan Water is circulated over heat
chiller exchanging fins that cools ambient air
Individual room Heating and Electric Small fan Typical for individual hotel roomswall
combination units Cooling or window mounted
Ventilators Air exchange, Electric, Large fan Typically roof or wall mounted, used
heat removal mechanical to remove accumulated heat or to
exchange air within a space

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Other building utilities for this venting provide a ready conduit for fire
extension (especially plastic types). Smoke emitting
As mentioned earlier, buildings contain many from these stacks, as viewed from the building
utility systems that may not be easily recognized exterior, are cause to investigate fire spread poten-
by firefighters. They are highlighted here. tial in walls and the attic/truss loft.

Communication/data systems. The digital era has Buildings not served by a wastewater treatment
created more hazards for firefighters. In a simpler plant or connection to a municipal sewer system
time, a building had a few low-voltage phone lines will have a septic system. The septic system
and perhaps a cable TV feed that presented very usually includes a holding tank and/or leaching
minimal hazards. Now, the communication systems field that are outside, but in close proximity to
within buildings can include morphed phone lines, the building. The primary hazard of these is the
digital cabling, routers, wireless receivers/trans- potential of sinkholes and collapse from apparatus
mitters, cellular repeaters, data storage computers, impact loads.
cameras/displays, and high-tech entry/security
features. We highlight cellular repeaters and
antennas in the last section of this chapter. Quick summary
The features themselves add fire load to the Propane and natural gas are the two most
building. Additionally, many buildings had to be common utility gases. Propane is heavier than air,
retrofitted for these features, leading to exposed and natural gas is lighter.
cable trays, wall/floor/ceiling poke-throughs, and Utility gases stored in tanks outside a building
higher electrical demands. are usually in liquid form (LPG and LNG). Fire
Freshwater systems. Many fire departments re- impingement on these tanks can lead to a BLEVE.
spond to water problems in buildingsand those Gas shutoffs are typically located outside.
firefighters can attest to the damage that can occur. Natural gas is shut off at the meter with a half
Buildings have been condemned from the struc- turn of an inline valve. Nordstrom valves are
tural damage incurred by a failed water system. For quarter-turn.
this reason, firefighters are encouraged to denote
Propane is shut off with a twist valve located
water shutoff options when conducting building
under a protective cover atop the tank.
surveys and prefire plans. Important clarification:
Firefighters need to differentiate freshwater and HVAC systems include a heating/cooling appli-
fire sprinkler system shutoffs. Most commercial ance, power or fuel source, conveyance system,
fire protection systems require a separate supply and temperature regulation system.
feed for fire protection. Newer residential sprinkler Rooftop HVAC systems create significant
systems may combine freshwater and fire sprinkler firefighter risksnamely a concentrated dead
supplies. The rapidly-expanding use of plastic wa- load that can cause rapid collapse during fires.
ter pipes increases the chances that a building fire
will also become a water problem (flooded base- HVAC air ducting can also be considered smoke
ments, electrical equipment saturation, degradation and fire ducting.
of engineered lightweight wood products, etc.). Communication/data systems have expanded
in modern times and now present more hazards
Wastewater (sewer) systems. Unlike freshwater
to firefighters.
systems, the sewer system cant be shut off.
Wastewater systems are considered open systems in Flooding from failed freshwater systems can
that they are vented to the outside, which assists in cause structural and electrical system damage.
gravitational draining. The vent stacks (pipes) used Knowing shutoff locations is imperative.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Solar energy that is collected by roof-mounted

Firefighters should differentiate freshwater panels can be used for heating water or for creating
shutoffs and fire protection water shutoffs. electricity. Each is described in more detail below.
Vent stacks used for wastewater (sewer
Solar water heating panels. Solar water heating
systems) are often plastic and can spread fire
(SWH) panels or solar hot water (SHW) systems
and smoke to upper portions of a building
are familiar to most people and are easily identi-
fied by their common placement on the roof of a
structure to collect the most solar radiation during
daylight hours and by their typical character-
Alternative istic black rectangular shape, with PVC pipes to
transfer water (or other fluids) from the panels to
Energy Systems lower levels of a structure. These panels can use
collected energy to heat domestic fresh water, heat
The previous section on utilities briefly mentions water used in radiators for general space heating,
solar panels in the discussion of electrical systems. and/or circulate hot water through swimming pools
The evolving (and rapidly expanding) use of alter- to increase their ambient temperature.
native energy systems warrants a separate section.
Alternative energy sources are not limited to In a close-coupled system, a storage tank is
electric solar panels. Solar energy is also being used mounted above the panels on a roof (fig. 915) and
for hot water and heating. Other alternative energy heated water naturally rises into the tank.
sources include the use of wind, geothermic, and
fuel-cell energy for building systems. While wind
and geothermic are evolving, their use in individual
buildings is quite limited and not covered here.

Solar energy
Solar energy can be harnessed in multiple ways,
although most associate the rooftop solar panels
as the primary method. Before we discuss those
panels, some mention is warranted for passive solar
energy. Buildings can harness the suns energy for
heating purposes through the use of large collector
windows that heat an interior air space. The heated
air is then circulated through the building using
a series of ducts and shutters (a passive system).
Some passive solar systems have fans and high-tech Fig. 915. In a close-coupled system, a storage tank is
mounted above the panels on a roof.
dampers that help distribute heat. During building
fires, the passive solar system can accelerate fire
and smoke spread throughout the building given In a pump-circulated system, the tank is
the open-f low nature of the system. Buildings mounted below the level of the panels and a pump
with passive solar features are easy to spot as they moves the water between the tank and the panels.
will typically have an entire exterior wall (usually Although both of these systems are relatively
multiple stories) that is glass (or high-density simple, they can add additional complexity to a
acrylic). Often, the passive solar collection room roof and possibly negate roof ventilation in some
appears as an addition to the building.
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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

cases. Most solar water heating systems dont circu- Solar cells can be found either mounted on fixed
late the actual freshwater through the panels. They racks on the ground (tilted to correspond to a
use a more viscous fluid (e.g., mineral-, silica-, or locations latitude) or, of more interest to fireground
glycol-based) that absorbs and releases heat more personnel, mounted by frames to supports on a roof
efficiently than water. This fluid passes through a (fig. 916). Rooftop PVs can also be integrated into
marine or immersion type heat exchanger located the roof covering in the form of shinglesthey
within the building to heat the freshwater. In all appear as tile shingles that are flush with the other
cases, the panels, piping, and fluids add a signifi- shingles but have a glass-like finish. Electrical
cant amount of weight (depending on the size of the power is always being generated by the PV cells if
system) to a roof that may or may not be designed light is present (even on a cloudy day). Therefore,
for the additional weight. Additionally, solar fluid they should be treated as a live electrical utility.
panels are hot to the touch during daylight hours. Some PVs may have a disconnect on the PV unit,
Solar water heating panels are typically larger although most feed wires (within conduit) that lead
and weigh much more than the solar photovoltaic to an inverter junction box near the main electrical
(PV) panels. panel (exterior wall). Power can be shut off at the
main electrical panel or the inverter. Be warned
Solar PV panels. Solar cells (or solar panels, that DC power will remain in the PV panels and
solar modules, photovoltaic modules, or photo- wires up to the shutoff.
voltaic panels) are normally a collection or array
of interconnected photovoltaic cells (commonly
referred to as PVs). The name photovoltaic comes
from photo, which means light, and voltaic, which
means electricity. Unlike solar water heating panels
that are used to heat fluids, these panels are used to
generate and supply electricity in residential and
commercial applications. PVs are visually different
from fluid panelsthey are thinner and have a grid
of cells (silicon wafers and contact grids) below the
glass, whereas fluid panels are thicker and have
tubes below the glass.

The PV cells convert sunlight into electricity as

the light strikes semiconductors within the cells. Fig. 916. Solar cells can be mounted on frames and
supports on a roof.
Although various materials can be used for the
semiconductors, the most common is silicon and
micro-thin reflective metal compounds. Solar cells There are two basic types of solar cell systems:
are normally comprised of an array of various sizes
of solar panels (depending on the desired output), Bat ter y back up system. In this system,
an inverter (DC to AC), the necessary wiring, electricity created by the PV panels is fed into
and quite often a battery complex for storage batteries. When lights and/or appliances are
and backup. turned on, power is drawn from the batteries
(and inverter). The battery backup system
The electronics (voltage regulation and relays) also provides electricity when the PVs are not
that are necessary to operate PV cells can be generating (at night or when snow covered).
mounted externally away from the cells, or more Some call the battery backup setup an off-grid
recently, some companies have begun to embed system. Most batteries used in solar panels are
the necessary electronics into the PV modules. the lead-acid type. When these batteries are

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The Art of Reading Buildings

charging, they emit highly flammable hydrogen

gas. Additionally, if these batteries are exposed
to fire they can spill sulfuric acid, which is
extremely hazardous and toxic.
Grid-tied system. This system is tied to the
local electric utilitys meter and distribution
grid. When the PV panel generates more power
than the individual building is using, the excess
is diverted to the grid system and back to the
appropriate power company which then buys
it (or credits the generator). Conversely, when
more power is used in a building than the PV Fig. 917. This residential solar array adds approximately
system creates, the appropriate power company 1,280 lb of dead load to the roof.
supplies the difference. Grid-tied systems may
also include a battery backup system for grid
power outages.
Of major importance to fireground personnel are
Fuel cells
the questions of how much do PVs weigh and how Fuel cells are not new, but the emphasis on
much power/voltage/amperage do they generate. As them has accelerated as a result of the hydrogen
there are a multitude of PV panels that can be used fuel initiative that is a part of the Energy Policy
in various configurations, the following is a general Act of 2005. A fuel cell is an electrochemical
overview based on current technology: energy conversion device that converts oxygen
and hydrogen into water, with direct current (DC)
A range of from 12 to 24 volts DC is commonly electricity being a by-product of the conversion
employed for operation (output), which can be process. Although most people are aware of their
considered a low voltage hazard. Depending on use in automobiles, fuel cells are also growing
the system, expect the amperage to be in the more popular as a replacement for UPS systems,
range of 5 to 7 amps (relatively low). Wattage primarily in commercial buildings. Therefore, the
ranges from a low of 10 to highs between 175 fire service can sooner or later expect to encounter
and 210 watts. fuel cells in fireground operations. Fuel cells are
Weight can vary significantly due to the size and capable of generating electrical power with the
type of a cell array, whether it is mounted in sole by-products of heat and water, hence their
aluminum or steel frames, and so on. A common adaptability to green buildings. As compared
3 4 ft residential PV panel weighs about 40 to a lead-acid type battery, fuel cells do not stop
lb. There are 32 panels distributed on the roof working as long as there is a flow of fuel into the
in figure 917. That is an additional dead load cell. However, there are two obvious disadvantages
of 1,280 lb plus the mounting hardware and with fuel cells. Because they produce DC voltage,
conduit feeds. there must be an inverter (for DC to AC) and all the
associated wiring/relays, both of which can present
In all cases, solar fluid heating panels and PV
an electrical hazard. The most concerning hazard
panels can negate and/or significantly increase the
for firefighters, however, is the storage and use of
difficulty and time required for roof ventilation
pure hydrogenan extremely flammable gas with
operations.
the widest flammable range of any gas.

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

firefighters (if not hundreds) have been killed by

Quick summary unstable and falling overhead hazards. Further,
modern varietals present interesting challenges that
Solar energy can be harnessed for passive could surprise working firefighters. In almost all
heating, fluid heating, and electrical generation. cases, cornices, parapets, and facades should not
Passive solar systems are identified by an entire be used to support ladders (ground or aerial) and
wall of windows. they should be viewed as a collapse hazard at any
fire that impacts the roof or upper exterior walls.
Solar fluid heating panels are thicker and include
internal tubes for heat collection.
Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels are thinner and Cornices
include an internal silicon wafer/metallic grid.
A cornice (which comes from the Latin word
PV panels create DC power when light is present. meaning ledge) is a horizontal molding that is a
The actual cells cannot be shut off, although common construction feature on older commer-
they may be disconnected at the inverter or main cial buildings and was originally used to divert
shutoff box. rainwater from the buildings walls. (In residential
Most batteries used in solar panels are the lead- structures this is accomplished by roof eaves and
acid type. When these batteries are charging, gutters.) However, as the classical and Greek style
they emit hydrogen, which is a highly flammable of architecture became more popular, cornices
gas. Additionally, if these batteries are exposed were also used to alter the architecture of the front
to fire they can spill sulfuric acid, which is of a building, often by using a sizeable overhang
extremely hazardous and toxic. supported by corbels and/or decorative horizontal
supports. To further enhance the appearance
All solar panels can add a significant dead load of a cornice, the underside was often finished
to roofs that may or may not have been designed with decorative tin panels that covered the upper
into the load limits of the roof. wood planking used to construct the cornice.
Solar water heating panels and solar panels can Interestingly, cornices are still used on modern
negate and/or significantly increase the difficulty buildings, although they are dramatically different
and time required for roof ventilation operations. in their appearance, construction, and stability.
Lets look at older and newer cornices.
Fuel cells are becoming viable replacements
for lead-acid batteries. However, they intro- Older cornices. Cornices were commonly built on
duce the presence of pure hydrogen, which is multistory residential and commercial buildings
highly flammable. until the mid-1900s for the purpose of capping a
wall and enhancing the architectural appearance of
a building. Unfortunately, this style of construction
can appear as a substantial type of construction,
when in reality it may not be an integral part of
Overhead Hazards the exterior wall of a building and is often signifi-
cantly degraded by time, weather, and other similar
Due to their inherent danger and historical considerations. Additionally, the older cornices
hazard to firefighters in particular, a special section should not be depended upon to support the weight
on cornices, parapets, and facades is appropriate. of personnel, ground ladders, or aerial devices.
Although we mention these overhead hazards in Stone and wood are common materials that were
several places throughout the book, some further used to construct the older type of cornice.
detail and emphasis is warranted. Dozens of

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Stone: Cornices made from stone are supported cornice, and the underside is covered by tin
by a ledge constructed in a brick facade or to give a finished appearance. This type of
parapet wall for support and commonly use cornice presents two noteworthy hazards: fire
mortar that acts as an adhesive to the parapet/ extension and collapse potential. A concealed
facade wall. It should be mentioned that if mortar hollow space in the cornice can allow horizontal
was used as an adhesive prior to the mid-1930s, it extension of fire and the potential of extending
likely lacked Portland cement and was basically fire into areas behind the cornice that are
comprised of lime and sand. Although this type common to the cornice. A partial collapse of
of construction can appear to be an integral part this cornice can result in the collapse of the
of the exterior of a building and relatively strong, entire cornice, creating a significant danger to
the use of a substandard mortar can result in a fireground personnel.
weak bond that has further weakened over time.
Newer cornices. Cornices on modern buildings are
Wood: Wood, tin, and some plaster type com- not quite as ornate as older cornices but they serve
ponents were commonly used to construct these the same primary purpose: to alter or enhance the
types of cornices and are more common than exterior architectural appearance of a building.
stone cornices. The construction of a wood cor- Although they can vary in size and complexity, they
nice often began with leaving lets in a masonry all share some common characteristics. Modern
exterior wall and then inserting short, visible cornices are most commonly made from synthetic
wood supports (that look similar to the ends materials such as closed cell polystyrene that is
of beams) into the lets or decorative corbels. then glued to the exterior wall(s) of a building and
In figure 918, notice the wood cornice is col- often finished with stucco and paint. Although
lapsing due to age, and the two corbels with the this procedure results in an attractive look to a
wood supports are still visible on the left and building (fig. 919), it can also present a danger-
right sides of the photo. However, although the ously flammable and weak element for firefighters
cornice is still intact on the right side, it obvi- engaged in aboveground operations.
ously does not possess any inherent strength
and would not support the weight of a ladder
or personnel.

Fig. 919. Modern cornices are typically made of

foam and glued to the exterior of a building to alter the
external appearance.

Fig. 918. Decorative corbels and wood supports were

commonly used to support wood cornices.
In order to access a roof, firefighters will nor-
mally place a ground ladder or aerial device to the
junction of a roof and exterior wall, which is also
The top portion of wood cornices are covered the location of foam cornices. Because the struc-
by extending the roof sheathing over the tural connection of the cornice to the building is

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

dependent on a bonding agent (adhesive), this con- and weather and are only attached by gravity.
nection will likely not provide sufficient strength These conditions can present an extension of an
to support a ground ladder and will definitely not exterior wall (normally the front and side walls)
support the weight of an aerial device. Additionally, that can readily collapse during fire conditions
it is also likely that a foam cornice will not support and/or when struck by heavy streams.
the weight of a firefighter stepping from an aerial
device to the cornice before continuing onto the
exterior wall and/or roof. Unfortunately, this style
of construction is currently very popular, particu-
larly in strip malls and many commercial buildings.

Parapet walls
A parapet is a continuation of an exterior wall
(normally the front wall) above the roofline of a
building. The term parapet comes from the Italian
word parapetto, which means to cover and defend.
Today, parapets can be used to prevent the spread Fig. 920. Coping stones on parapet walls can present a
of fires and improve wind-uplift resistance, but significant hazard to fireground personnel.
more often they are similar to cornices in that
they can alter the architectural appearance of the
front of a building. Architecturally, they provide an Concrete-tilt up slabs normally extend above
aesthetic function by increasing the apparent height the roofline. Although the stability of this type
of a building and hiding the roofline and HVAC of parapet wall is not a concern, these parapet
equipment on a roof. Parapet walls can extend from walls normally encircle an entire building and
1 ft to well over 8 ft, depending on the occupancy are capable of hiding the roof line below the
and type of wall. Several examples of parapet walls parapet wall (which is a danger if personnel are
and their hazards are as follows: going to the roof) and hiding the type of roof
(flat, arched, etc.). In this case, the presence of
Unreinforced masonry construction is markedly scuppers can indicate a hidden roofline. In figure
different from newer types of masonry construc- 921, the scuppers are well below the signage on
tion. The lack of Portland cement and rebar the building.
plus the addition of old age and deteriorating
mortar (lime and sand) combine to result in
a weak, freestanding wall above the roofline
that is either an extension of the wall it is on
or is supported by a steel I-beam (lintel) that
is embedded in the wall below the parapet
wall. Recall from chapter 2 that masonry walls
achieve strength and stability by the compres-
sive load that is imposed upon them. A parapet
lacks compressive loading and can be considered
like a vertical cantilever. Depending on the age
of a building, this type of wall can be capped by
coping stones, tiles, or wall caps (fig. 920) that Fig. 921. Modern masonry parapet walls can be substantial
have lost their adhesive connection through age in height.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Modern masonry parapet walls can be con-

structed from concrete cinder block (fig. 921)
Facades
or modern brick, which has similar concerns to An important construction feature that has
concrete tilt-up slabs. Stability of this type of become popular in virtually all areas of this
construction (particularly concrete cinder block) country is the facade (or fascia). The term can be
is normally not a concern due to the added defined in a few ways:
strength of concrete and reinforcing rebar.
As a figure of speech, the word facade is used to
describe the face that people show other people,
Quick summary as opposed to what they really think or do.

Neither the older style masonry or wood cornices Websters Dictionary defines facade as an
or newer foam style cornices should be consid- imposing appearance concealing something
ered structurally sufficient to support the weight inferior.
of personnel and/or ground ladders/aerial devices. Applied to buildings, the facade can be defined
Newer foam cornices can be flammable, as as an exterior construction feature that is used on
graphically demonstrated in the Monte Carlo the walls of a building to alter its visual appear-
Hotel fire in Las Vegas in 2008 (see chapter 4). ance. For this discussion, lets use this definition
and the term facade to encompass fascias, false
Unreinforced masonry parapet walls and mansards, cantilevers, eyebrows, and overhangs.
older cornices are potential collapse hazards
to fireground personnel. In both cases, The venerable facade has recently become
suitable collapse zones should be identified a popular construction feature for the simple
when appropriate. reason that it can make the plain, economically-
constructed, boxy shape of a building look more
In many cases, an older unreinforced masonry
appealing. Many local ordinances actually require
parapet wall is supported by a metal I-beam
a building to be finished in a dcor that matches
that will lose its strength between 800F and
surrounding buildings or styles. A good example
1,000F. Although the brick wall on the front of
is that of Spanish architecture. The creative use of
this type of building can look substantial, it can
stone, stucco, and tile for towers, window and wall
easily collapse outward if fire/heat is able to
construction, and roof finish is very attractive
weaken the metal I-beam.
and cost-prohibitive for most buildings. Adding
Master streams are easily capable of dislodging a facade can give the look of a classic Spanish
brick or portions of unreinforced masonry building, even though the construction method is
parapets, particularly when applying water with simple wood frame or lightweight Type III.
pressure/volume in a horizontal direction. These
considerations also apply to older conventional Facades are typically built using a lightweight
wood type cornices. form of construction, yet can be finished with
heavy tiles and other decorative materials that
The height of a parapet can hide the distance from add tremendous dead load. While this dead load
the top of the wall to the roof below. The differ- should be engineered into the supporting structure,
ence can range from several feet to a full story. it will likely have lower safety tolerances, as it is not
considered a part of the building that people occupy.

Facades also serve to provide shade and protec-

tion from weather to the front of a building and
to hide the presence of equipment and machinery
(such as HVAC systems) on a roof. Like cornices

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

and parapets, the facade feature can be extraordi- and plaster over a public walkway, that adds to
narily dangerous to firefighters. The good news is the difficulty of opening the void space above the
that facades are usually easy to identify. soffit for examination. It should be mentioned
that some facades do not have a soffit. Although
Specifically, the facade feature presents six these facades can still collapse when exposed to
considerations for firefighters. As a reference, well fire, they are normally not common to an attic.
use figure 922 to discuss the first five consider- Additionally, they are normally only exposed to
ations (labeled A through E in the figure). fire from auto exposure from the front windows,
and fire can be extinguished without having to
remove a soffit.

Fig. 922. Facade size-up considerations: (A) overhang,

(B) attachment, (C) height and shape, (D) support, (E) height
from the roofline. Fig. 923. When completed, facades often create hidden voids.

Overhang. Regarding the overhang of a facade, If a facade on the front of a building collapses, it
there are three primary concerns that should can block the primary access and egress opening
be evaluated: of a building, and it can easily compromise any
hose lines that may be stretched through the
The overhang is the distance a facade extends front door. Most importantly, if personnel are
outward from a building. As the distance standing within the collapse zone, they are in
increases, so should your concern about struc- immediate trouble.
tural integrity whenever a facade is exposed to
fire. As the size of a facade increases, so does Attachment. Facades come in two distinct vari-
its complexity and the materials used in its eties: those that are an integral part of the construc-
construction, which can often be of lightweight tion, and what we call an add-on or retro method
construction. The size of a facade can have a of construction.
direct affect on the area, path, and travel of fire. The integral (or structural) variety is simply a
Unless proven otherwise, expect any facade to part of the roof construction that is normally
lack fire-stopping and sprinklers and that it will cantilevered over the front exterior wall and
be common to an attic. extends upward and downward in relation to
The underside of most facades is covered with the bearing wall. The amount of cantilever is
soffit paneling. A soffit creates two problems of based on at least a ratio of 3:1, which means a
note: hidden voids and difficulty in breaching. roof that has a span of 30 ft can be cantilevered
The facade creates a hidden void above the soffit 10 ft over the front of a bearing wall. Although
(notice the void that will be behind the facade this type of facade can have a stronger method
in figure 923 when it is completed). As most of support than an add-on/retro facade, it can
building codes require compressed metal lath also be common to the attic space of a building
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The Art of Reading Buildings

and not protected by some type of partition or Height and shape. The height and shape of a
fire wall. Interestingly, if a fire wall is present, facade affect its structural stability, the quantity of
it is primarily designed to partition the attic but building materials present, and the potential path
normally will not extend into the void space of of fire. Remember, a facade is an external common
the facade. Therefore, a horizontally extending attic that can easily conceal and spread the travel
fire in an attic can easily go around a fire wall of fire around the exterior of a building. Keep
and back into the facade and continue to extend such factors in mind during ladder operations. On
on the other side of a fire wall! buildings without facades, the roof type (arched,
sawtooth, flat, etc.) can often be identified from
The add-on/retro varieties are attached by
the ground. This is helpful (and often necessary)
various methods (depending on the type of
when laddering a roof. The style (curved or flat)
exterior walls) such as ledger boards and
of a facade and/or distance out from the building
concrete lag bolts to the exterior of a building,
can hide the type of roof and/or also keep a ground
either during the construction phase or as a
ladder from reaching its top (fig. 925), further
retrofit to an existing building. This may result
hindering access to a roof. Thankfully, on most
in a partition between the attic space and facade
buildings, the facade does not extend to the back
(which would be the exterior wall). However, the
of the buildinga good place for ground ladders.
attachment of a facade to an existing building
can result in minimal strength in the attach-
ment method, which likely will be unknown to
fireground personnel.
There is some debate regarding the structural
integrity during fire conditions of a structural
facade as compared to the add-on/retro facade. As
most facades are of lightweight construction, it is
probable there is more of a difference in the relative
size of a facade, the distance of its overhang, and
Fig. 925. A facade can hinder the placement of a ground
the type of covering than there is in the lightweight
ladder to a roof.
structural vs. lightweight add-on/retro construc-
tion. However, both types are capable of collapsing
at least the same distance outward from a structure Support. Some facades are equipped with vertical
as the size of the facade, which could be considered supports such as pilasters and/or columns that can
a noteworthy distance (fig. 924). serve as a decorative addition but can also serve
as an external support (fig. 926). In this case, the
facade will be supported by its attachment method
to the building and the column/pilaster. Obviously,
these supports can enhance the strength and safety
of a facade and reduce the leverage effect of a
cantilever that is only supported by its attachment
to a building. Unfortunately, supported facades cost
additional money and are thus less frequently used.

Fig. 924. Facades are capable of collapsing outward

a noteworthy distance.

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Normally, they are not on the back of a building

(as the public does not normally view this
portion of a building). If present on the back,
the facade will have an opening for roof access/
egress.
Fire spread investigation. An additional consid-
eration (not diagramed above) is that of fire spread
potential and the need for investigation. A facade
that has been exposed to fire or hot smoke must be
investigated for fire (and/or overhauled). There are
Fig. 926. Some facades are supported by columns, which three basic ways to open a facade: from the front,
can increase their strength. bottom, or back (fig. 927).

Height from the roofline. As facades can conceal

a roof line, ladder operations can present an
additional challenge. When laddering a facade and
the roofline cannot be seen, the height of the facade
above the roof should be determined. If this is not
done, an additional trip back to the ground for
another ladder may prove necessary. Additionally,
personnel on a roof without a safe and easy means
of egress to the top or back side of a facade are
likely in trouble if the roof begins to collapse. If Fig. 927. Access to the interior of a facade is normally
the distance from a roof to the top of a facade (or accomplished from three perspectives: (A) front, (B) bottom,
parapet wall) exceeds about 5 ft, a ladder from the (C) back.
roof to the top of the facade/parapet wall is neces-
sary. The following considerations can assist in
If a facade has a slope (or pitch) on the front
determining the roofline of a building:
portion, it is possible to work from the exterior
Rafter tie plates. These indicate the location (ground ladder or aerial device) down into
of the roof rafters, which will designate the facade (A). However, this is difficult and
the roofline. dangerous from a ground ladder, as the facade
must support the ladder. If the facade is vertical
Windows. Rooflines run between the top floor
on the front portion, it is possible to pull the
windows and the top of a facade/parapet.
finish material from the front with a tool (pike
Equipment on a roof. Air conditioners and pole, etc.), but personnel on the ground will be
heating units that can be seen above a facade located in the potential collapse zone! In these
indicate that a roof is in close proximity. cases, working from an aerial device is superior
Attic vents. Rooflines are between the attic vent to working from the ground.
and top of the facade/parapet. Personnel can stand underneath a facade and
Scuppers. A scupper is the actual level of a roof. pull the bottom portion to access the interior
The scuppers in figure 921 are well below the (B). As compressed metal lath and plaster is
signage on the building. normally required over a public walkway, this
can be a difficult operation at best. Additionally,
Perimeter. Facades are normally constructed personnel will be standing in the potential
only on the front and sides of a building.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

collapse zone while pulling the bottom portion

of the facade! Normally, this is not a recom- Renovations
mended operation.
If the roof is deemed a safe working area, the
and Remodels
interior of a facade can be accessed by quickly Before we look at how examples of renovations
removing the back side of the facade (which and remodels can affect fireground operations, lets
is normally in. plywood, OSB, etc.) and begin with a quick look at a word every firefighter
checking the void within the facade (C). If should be familiar withrenovation. Websters
the facade collapses during the investigation, Dictionary defines renovation as to make as good
the collapsing material will fall away from as new, to restore. However, most firefighters
personnel. would likely associate the word renovation with
changes to a building that can often degrade the
original intent of a building as well as adding light-
Quick summary weight construction elements that are not in the
Facades are exterior construction features that best interest of fireground safety.
are used on the walls of buildings to alter their
If we look again at Websters Dictionary and the
visual appearance.
word remodel, we find the definition is to make
Facades can include fascias, false mansards, over, to rebuild. In some cases, this definition is
cantilevers, eyebrows, and overhangs. more closely associated with the subject of changing
Firefighters are faced with six considerations a building that is usually to the detriment of the
when dealing with facades: overhang, attach- fire service and can be viewed as everything from
ment, height/shape, supports, height from roof, simply changing the windows or roofing materials
and fire spread investigation issues. to a complex remodel of a structure. Unfortunately,
remodels can often be one of the hardest attributes
If fire has extended into a facade (regardless of a building to size-up, as some have been master-
of the type), allow an appropriate collapse zone fully designed and finished to look much different
around the facade. from what they really are.
Remember that most facades are constructed
Although there may be little difference between
from lightweight construction, and facades that
a renovated or remodeled occupancy (and the differ-
are covered with tile or other heavy products
ence may be semantics), lets consider a renovated
impose a significant dead load on light-
occupancy as a small to moderate conversion and
weight construction.
a remodel as an overhaul of a building. We begin
Facades are not normally equipped with sprin- by looking at some common indicators of various
klers and partitions to stop the extension of fire. types of renovations starting with simple indicators
If a facade over a primary entry and exit and advancing to the more complex, and then look
point is (or might be) exposed to fire, consider at some common examples of remodels.
entering and/or stretching an attack line through
another doorway.
If fire has extended into a facade, particularly from
Renovations
the interior of a building, there are three areas Windows. Windows can be a good starting point to
that must be checked for the presence of fire: (1) recognize a change to an original building. As an
the origin of fire in the building, (2) the attic space example, older residential occupancies commonly
common to the origin of fire, and (3) the facade. used double-hung, vertically moving windows,
while newer buildings regularly use horizontally

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

sliding ranch-style windows. It is common practice Attic rooms. A common renovation is to convert an
to exchange the older windows for newer windows attic into a living area and is a popular method to
that are easier to operate and are more energy add additional living space into a common residen-
efficient. The installation of newer windows in an tial structure (fig. 928). Look for curtains, flower
older building is a visible clue that changes have boxes, and/or air conditioners in attic windows
been made to the building. As an example, in figure (see also fig. 95) as an indicator of a converted
79, notice the presence of vinyl windows in an attic. These modifications add another story to a
older center-hallway apartment building in addition structure and are often difficult to access due to a
to the original exterior wood siding being replaced narrow access route into an attic that was not origi-
with stucco. nally designed into the structure.

Roofs. Roofs that are visible from the ground are An additional hazard is a framed attic room
another starting point to recognize a change that can flanked by an attic space where the roof slopes to
negatively affect fireground operations. It should an exterior wall (labeled A in fig. 928). A gable
be anticipated that older composition roofs have roof will usually have two such opposing attic
been reroofed multiple times and that the newest spaces, and a hip roof may have an attic space that
layer of composition materials is laid over previous extends completely around the exterior of an attic
layers, increasing the dead load on a roof that was room. Additionally, a small attic space may be
not designed for the additional weight. Looking at found above the ceiling of an attic room (labeled
the eave line can often indicate an additional thick- B in fig. 928).
ness of roofing materials. Additionally, newer roof
coverings on older buildings such as standing-seam
steel roofing is a indicator that metal panels have
potentially been installed over an existing roof,
thereby creating a void between the original roof
and newer metal roof.

Siding. When the exterior of buildings with wood

shiplap exteriors are renovated, a common replace-
ment for wood siding is vinyl siding. Although
this siding can look the same as wood shiplap Fig. 928. Attics are often converted into living space.
from the street, upon closer inspection it looks and
feels different. The danger of this remodel is when
it is exposed to heat/fire, vinyl siding will melt, If it is necessary to expose attic spaces around
exposing the wood framing and insulation behind or above an attic room from below, pull ceilings
the siding. Additionally, the siding will release a where the floor of the attic room is not present.
very toxic smoke/gas that is dangerous to exterior Normally, this will be within several feet of an
fireground personnel. Another type of siding that exterior wall on a side where the roof slopes
deserves mention is asbestos shingles, commonly downward. Remember that flooring is normally
used on older residential type structures and easily confined to a useful area of an attic room where
identified. Normally, firefighters do not equate a person can walk upright. Pulling ceilings in an
smoke on the exterior of a building as presenting area with a floor above is difficult and normally
the same dangers as interior smoke, but smoke will not expose the attic spaces on the sides of an
from asbestos materials exposed to heat presents attic room. Remember to slowly open knee walls in
a significant danger during attack and overhaul these rooms, as a sudden introduction of oxygen can
operations. cause a backdraft and/or a sudden escalation of fire.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

This is not an uncommon problem and firefighters Suspended ceilings. Suspended ceilings are a
should be acutely aware of its possibility. common method to lower the ceiling of an existing
structure, change the appearance of a room, and/or
Covered windows. Windows that have been cov- create an interstitial space between the ceiling and
ered over or sealed are an indicator that a renova- the floor/roof above that can hide HVAC ducting,
tion of note has changed the basic floor plan of a sprinkler supply lines, electrical conduits, commu-
building. This type of modification is often found nication cables, and other similar components.
on older concrete and unreinforced masonry build- Although suspended ceilings are easily identified
ings, where brick has been used to seal a window and the individual tiles can be removed with little
opening. Although windows may be covered over effort to check the area above the ceiling, they can
for security purposes, the more likely change is a present several noteworthy hazards:
result of changing a floor plan from smaller indi-
vidual rooms to larger rooms/areas. Depending on They are suspended by thin wire and can readily
the type of modification, the increase in the size of collapse when exposed to fire.
a particular area and/or removing partition walls Large interstitial spaces can be created
will allow a fire to increase without the resistive above these ceilings (see fig. 712) that can
affects of walls, and can also increase the difficulty conceal multiple avenues for extension of fire/
of search operations. heat/smoke.
Soffits. Soffits seem to be more common in newer Firefighters can become easily entangled in the
homes than in older homes and are likely a result suspending wires during or after a collapse,
of modern styling (coved ceilings) and space that which can affect a timely egress from a building.
is necessary to run HVAC ducting. These styles
Tie-rods and joist/rafter tie plates. Tie-rods and
of renovated construction are easily recognizable,
joist/rafter tie plates are a common retrofit renova-
particularly in older homes that did not use them,
tion and are primarily found on unreinforced
and they are also ideal avenues for the extension
masonry buildings in an attempt to strengthen
of fire. As an example, the soffit under construc-
the building. Sagging, unstable lime/sand mortar,
tion in figure 929 is being used to hide exhaust
soft brick erosion, and wood shrinkage are aging
ductwork for clothes dryers. If appropriate, soffits
factors that can lead to the need to install reinforce-
must be opened to check for extension of fire/heat/
ments. Joist and rafter tie plates indicate that screws
smoke. Also remember that soffits are often found
or L-shaped bars have been added to help secure
above kitchen cabinets and present voids that can
gravity pocket joist/rafter ends to the wall. The
conceal fire.
ends of the joist/rafter plates can be found on the
building exterior and are recognized by anchor
plates (small flat washers or small squares) with a
lag screw head or an adjustable nut. Additionally,
the anchors will have an orderly arrangement and
even spacing of approximately 16 in. to 24 in. on
center (see fig. 720).

An additional method that is used to strengthen

older masonry buildings and connect opposing
walls to resist lateral forces is the use of tie-rods
that run horizontally through a building. Tension
on the rods is supplied by turnbuckles within the
Fig. 929. Soffits can be used to hide plumbing and ducting, building and spreaders located on the outside of the
resulting in voids that can conceal the spread of fire.
building. Spreaders are typically larger than joist

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

tie plates and may have an ornate shape like a star,

diamond, S, or coat of arms shield. Unlike anchor
tie plates, the tie-rod and spreader arrangement
may not be orderly but random, as their location is
dictated by weak areas of a building. The presence
of spreaders/tie rods and/or joist/rafter tie rods
denotes an older unreinforced masonry building
that is a candidate for collapse in a fire.

Electrical utilities. Electrical utilities are normally

visible on the exterior of residential and commer-
cial buildings and are often a practical indicator of Fig. 930. The original three-wire service has been replaced
with a quadruplex service, indicating a noteworthy change
an interior remodel from two viewpoints: the type
within this building.
of wiring used and the number of electric meters.

Knob and tube wiring was normally used in

Residentials. Renovations in residential struc-
older buildings and is easily identified by a
tures such as single-family dwellings (SFDs)
two-wire lead into a structure from a pole. In
are common and can transform these structures
addition, this wiring usually leads to a fuse box
into a stealthy hazard that can be categorized as
(with removable glass fuses), often on the porch
noteworthy. The key is to look for visible changes
of residential structures. Because this was an
and how they can affect fireground operations.
ungrounded system, it has been replaced with
Several examples follow:
the familiar three-wire grounded system on
residential and commercial structures. When In some cases, single-family dwellings have
older residential structures have a newer three- been converted into commercial offices. These
wire system, expect that the electrical system are often structures located in the perimeter of
has been remodeled with the possible addition the residential neighborhood. In these conver-
of other changes to the interior. sions, the exterior is usually unchanged (except
Commercial buildings will often have multiple for an exterior business sign) and the interior
electrical inlets/meters on the exterior of a will be more spartan than a SFD; however, the
building, and in many cases these utilities look need for a search at night will be reduced.
old (outdated, rusted, etc.). If the older utilities Depending on a particular area, some single-
have been abandoned with newer looking (and family dwellings have been converted into
possibly additional utilities) replacing the older commercial rest care homes. Although the
utilities, expect that the interior of the building exterior remains unchanged to blend into the
has changed as well. For example, one likely surrounding area, the interior may or may not
reason for the change would be that the older still contain the approximate original floor plan.
electrical utility was not sufficient to supply In any case, these types of conversions will
a change in the current occupancy. In figure definitely have a higher search potential at all
930, notice a quadruplex system has been hours of a day than a typical SFD.
installed above the lower abandoned three-wire
The multistory residential dwelling in figure
insulators.
931 was originally a single-family dwelling but
is now a commercial residential that is common
in many areas of this country. Although the
exterior remains similar to the original, notice
the fire escape on the left side of the building.

237
The Art of Reading Buildings

Depending on the area, it is likely that the adjoining buildings have a common attic over
interior has been divided into smaller rooms to multiple occupancies, and that older taxpayers often
increase the occupant load (often illegally), and have a residential occupancy over the commer-
it has multiple narrow hallways, increased fire cial occupancy.
load (clothes, bedding, etc.), and an attic that has
likely been converted into a living area (and is
probably difficult to access). In short, this type Remodels
of structure can present a significant hazard A remodeled occupancy can present a multi-
from the perspective of what there is to burn and tude of hazards that normally accompany a change
life safety of potential occupants. to a building. A familiarity with these types of
buildings begins with prefire planning that allows
fireground personnel to walk through and evaluate
changes that can affect potential fireground opera-
tions (should they be necessary) in a particular
building. Three classic examples that illustrate this
viewpoint are as follows:

The remodeled four-stor y Ford building

in Portland, Oregon (see fig. 415). This
old unreinforced masonry building of mill
construction sat vacant for a number of years
until it was completely remodeled into a
Fig. 931. A fire escape on the exterior of a multistory single- modern office building with numerous internal
family dwelling is an indicator of a dwelling that has been
features of modern buildings. However, this
converted into a commercial residential building.
remodel resulted in a building that now features
suspended ceilings, numerous voids formed by
Commercials. Commercial buildings commonly additional compartmentalization, some light-
undergo many conversions during their lifetimes. weight construction that is mated to old mill
Common examples are mini-malls, older taxpayers, construction, and the list goes on. It is easy to
freestanding commercials (markets, auto repair envision a fire in this building burning faster
shops, etc.), and so on. Although the types of build- and extending to other areas of the building
ings vary widely, they share a common charac- that would not have been possible in the
teristic of leaving the exterior of the building original building.
unchanged (other than the name of the business) but An example of a remodel that has been a benefit
periodically changing the interior of the building as to an original building is the commercial
needed for the type of business. building in figure 932. This row of commercial
Generally, the interior does not significantly occupancies was originally built in the 1930s
change other than erecting a partition wall or two and featured unreinforced masonry (URM)
and likely changing the level of a ceiling to corre- construction with a conventional f lat roof.
spond with the business. In most cases the primary During the remodel, metal I-beams were used
hazard will come from the contents within the to support the interior of the URM construc-
building (e.g., electrical shop, clothing outlet, shoe tion, a metal roof with steel supporting members
store, etc.), which can usually be recognized by was installed, and the front of the building was
the signage (name of the business) on the exterior modernized. Even though the added steel will
and easily readable from the street. Depending weaken with heat (between 800F and 1,000F),
on the type of occupancy, remember that many it is significantly stronger than the original

238
Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

building. Prefire planning is the key to under-

standing the hazards in these occupancies. Quick summary
Windows, doors, and roofs can often give clues
to changes made to a building, particularly to an
older building.
Attic rooms can pose a significant danger due to
their location, limited access, and in some cases
substandard construction.
Anticipate the potential of rapidly changing
conditions when opening knee walls.
Suspended ceilings pose two significant hazards:
the thin wires that hold the assembly in place,
and the open space above the ceiling.
Fig. 932. When remodeled, older buildings are often Tie-rods/spreaders and joist/rafter tie plates are
strengthened to meet modern building codes and/or earth- excellent indicators of an unreinforced masonry
quake resistance, which can be beneficial to building stability building that has been strengthened to prevent
in fire conditions. an early collapse.
Exterior electrical utilities that are new or that
For an example of a remodeled building that has appear to be added can be an indicator of a
been completely changed on the exterior but has renovation/remodel.
retained the original look of the interior, go back
The rear of commercial buildings (particularly
to chapter 1 and look at figures 11 and 12.
older buildings) can often yield valuable clues to
In this case, interior personnel would certainly
changes such as a modified electrical service,
notice the inside does not match the outside, yet
type of construction, blocked openings, and
the focus of this dichotomy of appearance vs.
other issues.
reality is twofold. First, can the remodel affect
fireground operations from the perspective of Depending on the extent of a renovation/remodel
mitigation and safety? Second, is the incident (particularly in older buildings), a basic rule is that
commander aware of the buildings construc- interior remodeling can remove original barriers
tion dichotomy? to the spread of fire, can result in voids that
were not present in the original construction,
Closely related to renovations and remodels are
and often substitute lightweight construction
additionsthat is, expanding the footprint of the
for conventional construction. Additionally, it
building by adding a new wing or space. Likewise,
can be anticipated that fire will burn differently
additional f loors can be added to a building.
as it has new avenues for extension due to
Throughout this book we call attention to the need
the remodeling.
to visually recognize additions and treat them as
a separate building classification even though they Renovated/remodeled occupancies are an
are attached to the original building (see fig. 515). indicator that a building may have a higher
occupant load and a different floor plan than the
Recent remodels and renovations are likely to original building.
include green construction methods, materials, and
technologies. Chapter 6 includes details of these
green considerations.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Practically speaking, there are open and

Light Wells, enclosed light wells. Open light wells have at
least one side open to the exterior of a building
Skylights, and Atriums (fig. 933). Enclosed light wells are completely
surrounded by a building but open to the exterior

Light wells at the top of the light well. In addition to providing

light, both types provide a path for warmer air
A light well or air shaft was originally an to rise (like the transom over doorways in older
unroofed vertical shaft within a building and buildings). Unfortunately, this same principle also
primarily used to provide sufficient light and venti- results in light wells creating a vertical channel for
lation to rooms within the interior of a building. the upward extension of heat and smoke, thereby
Their use dates back to the Egyptians and Romans! creating a significant exposure problem to windows
Light wells travel from the bottom of a grade floor above a fire within the well.
to the roof or, in buildings that have a commercial
occupancy on the first floor and residential units
above the first floor, travel from the second floor
to the roof. Both types are open to the outside
at the top of a building (unless they have been
covered over). Because of advances in HVAC
systems, atriums, skylights, and multistory building
construction techniques, a traditional air shaft/
light well is no longer necessary. Modern energy-
efficient features that allow natural light and air
into a building are categorized here as skylights
and will be discussed later.

Traditional light wells were commonly used in

older multistory residential buildings (some of which Fig. 933. Open light wells have at least one side open to the
have been converted to commercial applications), exterior of a building.
and in both attached and freestanding buildings.

A variation of the light well design is the multi- Two types of wall construction can be encoun-
family residential building constructed with a tered in light wells. The most common wall is
footprint like an H, U, E, or W shape, which allows combustible siding over a wood frame. Wood
more rooms to benefit from exterior wall windows. frame and wood sidings will present an additional
(The upward extension of heat, smoke, and fire is combustible hazard as compared to a noncombus-
still a problem that needs to be addressed in these tible light well. Noncombustible light wells are
types of buildings.) Another variation of the light constructed from concrete, masonry products, or
well design is the half well. Half well is a term brick, which will resist the upward extension of
that is given to a light well that is between two fire. Regardless of the type of construction, there
interconnected buildings. This results in half of a will always be a junction of the exterior walls and
light well serving one building and the other half the roof at the top of a light well that can allow
serving the adjoining building. This condition can the upward extension of fire to expose combustible
result in a fire in one of the interconnected build- roofing materials. Smaller light wells present a
ings easily spreading to the other building via the greater hazard than large light wells as their smaller
light well shaft. size tends to allow a higher concentration of heat,
smoke, and fire within the light well. Larger light

240
Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

wells tend to dissipate and/or reduce the concentra- buildings. Although the size may vary, most include
tions of heat, smoke, and fire. a plastic bubble-like panel in a metal frame that is
attached to a wood or metal riser attached to the
Additionally, open light wells will also tend to roof. Smaller residential-type plastic skylights in an
dissipate concentrations of heat, smoke and fire as aluminum frame can be easily removed with hand
compared to enclosed light wells, particularly those tools. Larger, commercial-grade types with thicker
that have been covered over at a later date. If a light metal retaining bands will likely require power
well has been covered over, this modification can tools for removal. Plastic skylights can also be flush
not only increase concentrations of heat, smoke, and with the roof plane and appear as colored or frosted
fire within the light well due to inadequate ventila- plastics or as fiberglass panels. Corrugated metal
tion, but also increase the possibility of a backdraft kit buildings use plastic skylights as part of the roof
if oxygen is suddenly introduced within the light coveringthese panels can easily blend in with the
well by opening windows. Likewise, the light well other roof covering, but they will not support any
cover may not be constructed in a manner that can significant weight.
hold a firefighters weightcreating a fall hazard.
Tubular daylight device. Part of the energy con-
servation movement includes building features
Skylights or improvements that maximize natural daylight.
Skylights allow daylight into interior building The tubular daylight device (TDD) is a relatively
spaces and can range from a simple glass panel to a new skylight product that can be incorporated
highly functional energy-conserving device. More in new construction or added to existing build-
common skylights include those made of glass, ings. The TDD consists of a light-collecting optic,
plastic, and reflective tubing. small diameter reflective conduit, and diffusing
fixture. The optic is visible above the roofline and
Glass panel skylights. These are normally panels appears as a small glass bubble or parabolic lens
of wired or strengthened glass that are held in a that focuses light into a reflective tube. The tube
metal frame that is either f lush with or raised channels the light down through the attic space to
slightly from the plane of a roof. Found mostly in a ceiling-mounted light diffusion fixture. Diameters
older buildings, the traditional glass panel skylight for the TDD can range from 10 to 28 inches,
was prone to leakage as it aged and seals deterio- although larger diameters are likely to be utilized
rated. It is common to find that tar has been used in the future. The reflective conduit can be found
as a sealant to minimize leakage issues. Likewise, as a straight or bent tube. Some are even flexible so
additional flashing and synthetic sealants may be they can bend around existing trusses or structural
present, making the panels difficult to remove. members. Small diameter TDDs should not be con-
Remember, if the panels are broken, the resulting sidered structural.
shards can fall into the building and become a
hazard for interior personnel. Skylights can be good indicators of building
floor plans. Those in residential occupancies are
Glass panel skylights can be fixed or include normally located over hallways and bathrooms.
hardware that makes the skylight openable. Energy- TDDs can add light to any room or space where
efficient skylights may include automated mecha- there are no windows. In commercial occupancies,
nisms that open or close the panels or operate sun skylights are often placed over open manufacturing
shades or shutters. Electrical power for the automa- or storage areas. Skylights can also be installed over
tion can be solar, battery, or direct-wire AC. stairwells, open light wells, or elevator penthouses.
Skylights offer an attractive ventilation option for
Plastic skylights. The telltale 4 8 ft plastic bub- firefighters assigned to the roof. If the building has
ble is a popular skylight found in legacy and newer an attic space, the area below a skylight is normally

241
The Art of Reading Buildings

boxed off from the attic. Therefore, if the skylight Although the basic design of atriums is relatively
is opened by firefighters, the interior of the building simple and straightforward, their openness also
will be ventilated but the attic will not. results in the following disadvantages:

Reduce compartmentalization. Walls, ceilings,

Atriums and floors can provide barriers to the extension
of fire/heat/smoke, and when they are removed
Atriums are used frequently in residential and or minimized, extension will be enhanced.
commercial applications due to their ability to As an example, a fire on the lower floor of the
provide a noteworthy amount of daylighting and two-story building in figure 934 will quickly
because of the feeling of openness and space that expose the second floor and any occupants.
they provide to a structure (fig. 934). Atriums of
moderate size can be found in residential occupan- Increased air movement. As warm air naturally
cies, but can be of a significant size in commercial rises, the air currents within an atrium will be
buildings, often traversing from the bottom floor to amplified, resulting in an increase in the upward
the roof in multistory buildings. The open atrium extension of heat/smoke/fire.
in the middle of a hotel or mall is a good example Atriums in larger commercial buildings, malls,
of this design configuration. and hotels are often used for displays or exhibits
of materials that are flammable (e.g., consumer
products, books and magazines, artwork, and
even automobiles). Although many atriums have
engineered ventilation systems, it is possible
they may have not been designed for the addi-
tional f lammable materials that exhibits and
displays can provide.
Depending on the size and complexity of an
atrium, it may be necessary for an incident
commander to confer with a building engineer
in order to fully utilize the buildings ventila-
tion system.

Quick summary
Fires in lower floors of multistory buildings
that access a light well are potentially more
dangerous than fires in upper floors.
It should be anticipated that more windows in
a light well will be open during summer months
than winter months.
Due to the proximity of windows to light wells,
Fig. 934. Atriums can provide daylighting and openness to a
structure. (Photo by Michael Gagliano.)
it is common for flammable trash to collect at
the bottom of a light well shaft. This presents a
sizeable hazard to windows within the shaft that
are adjacent and above a trash fire.

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

over the years has caused many fire escapes to be

In areas where light wells are common, roof dangerously inadequate from a strength and safety
personnel should quickly recon the roof to deter- perspective.
mine the presence and status of light wells.
A basic fire escape is nothing more than a hori-
Skylights come in various forms including glass
zontal platformone at each story of a multistory
panel, plastics, and tubular daylighting devices.
building and with stairs or ladders connecting each
Plastic and fiberglass skylights that are flush platformand may include a ladder that can be
with the roofing covering may not hold the lowered from the lowest platform to the ground. In
weight of firefighter. some cases, there is a fixed ladder that goes from
Atriums provide an appealing look, but they can the top platform to the roof that is often called a
allow an increased vertical and horizontal exten- gooseneck. Additionally, fire escapes are commonly
sion of fire and can be more difficult to ventilate, constructed from steel or iron and affixed to the
particularly in commercial applications. exterior of a masonry building by lag bolts that are
held in place by lead anchors (which is a compres-
If roof daylighting is integrated into a design,
sion fitting) or that pass through a wall and are
the skylight can often be used to enhance
secured on the interior, or by lag bolts that are
ventilation operations.
screwed into siding and wall studs on wood framed
In buildings with large or complex atriums, an buildings. Obviously, a bolt that is secured on the
incident commander may need to confer with interior of a wall is far superior to a compression-
a building engineer in order to fully utilize the type connection.
buildings ventilation system.
Note: Fire escapes can also be constructed entirely
of wood (both the platform and stairs). These types
of fire escapes are commonly found on the back
or side of low-rise multistory buildings and do not
Miscellaneous Hazards have stairs to the roof or a moveable escape ladder
at the lowest platform. Hazards of wooden fire
escapes include the obvious combustibility, age/rot
Fire escapes deterioration, and, historically, the convenience
Fire escapes were originally designed as exte- of use as a storage area. For this discussion, we
rior emergency exits for building occupants and concentrate on the metal fire escapes.
can be traced all the way back to the 18th century
Several factors should be considered when
in England. They were also commonly used in
evaluating fire escapes. They include type, ladders,
America until they were essentially replaced by
age, and location.
interior stairways in multistory buildings. Although
fire escapes can provide a primary means of egress Type. Although there are some slight differences
for building occupants during an emergency, (depending on the area of the country), there are three
they can also be used by fireground personnel types of fire escapes that are commonly encountered:
and can create a substantial dilemma due to their
age. Because fire escapes have been in use since Party escapes (or balconies) do not have a stair-
the mid-1800s and continued to be built until the way or connecting ladder between the balco-
mid-1950s, they are at least over 60 years old and nies as they are for the most part a balcony
pose a danger due to deterioration. This problem is that is common to two adjoining occupancies.
compounded by their location (outside a building) The emergency exit from one occupancy is
that has allowed them to be exposed to all types afforded through the adjacent occupancy via the
of weather, particularly moisture. The deterioration balcony. Today, these types of balconies are not

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The Art of Reading Buildings

made from metal but wood and/or lightweight The stairs are held in the horizontal position
concrete. As a result, strength is not a concern by a counterweight, and when a person walks
for the more modern concrete versions. out on the stairs and exceeds the weight of the
counterweight, the stairs will gradually travel
Screened stairways are different from standard
downward. These stairs are heavy and can be
fire escapes in that they are firmly affixed to
dangerous, particularly the older ones.
a structure with no movable escape or goose-
neck ladder, and consist of a permanent metal
stairway that is enclosed by a metal screen for
protection and security of exiting occupants.
They are typically installed on the top floors
of public assembly buildings such as theaters,
schools, and other similar structures. This type
of fire escape is a safer and sturdier fire escape
than the standard version.
Standard fire escapes are the most common
and are easily recognizable by their all-metal
construction features that include a metal Fig. 935. Counterbalanced stairs are activated by a person
balcony at each f loor of a building, a ladder walking toward the end of the stairs.
between each balcony, a ladder that often goes
to the roof from the top balcony, and a horizon-
tally pivoting or vertically sliding ladder from Age. As the fire escapes age and deteriorate they
the bottom balcony to the ground. can become subject to failure, particularly fire
escapes that are on the East coast and in other
Ladders. There are four kinds of ladders that are areas that are subjected to weather extremes.
used on fire escapes: Additionally, fire escapes that are installed on
unreinforced masonry construction can present a
The permanent or stationary ladder is normally
notable hazard due to substandard construction and
associated with screened fire escapes and also
crumbling mortar.
travels between each balcony on standard fire
escapes. Their age is a determining factor in Location. Depending on a particular area, the
their overall condition and stability. Newer location/position of fire escapes on a building
installations should be adequately constructed. can vary, so it is important to know what can be
A gooseneck ladder travels between the upper- expected. Some general guidelines follow:
most balcony and the roof. If the ladder is of
A fire escape on a building such as a multistory
older construction, it can be of questionable
residence that would not normally have one is an
stability.
indicator the building has been modified into a
Both drop ladders and counterbalanced stairs multifamily residential structure.
provide access from the bottom balcony to
Balconies that are not interconnected by a ladder
the ground. The drop ladder (also known as a
likely serve two units that are divided by some
guillotine ladder) is made from steel or iron,
type of separation wall, and if the balcony serves
is positioned on one of the sides of the lowest
more than one window, it likely serves more
balcony, and travels downward when a hook is
than one room and probably more than one unit.
disengaged. Counterbalanced stairs (fig. 935)
are not as common as the drop ladder as they If there is a fire escape without a gooseneck on
are more expensive and complicated to operate. the front of a building, it is likely there is a fire

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Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

escape on the back of the building with a goose-

neck ladder. Quick summary
If there is a fire escape with a gooseneck on the Fire escapes are common for multistory residen-
front of a building, it is likely there is no fire tial and commercial occupancies that were built
escape on the rear of the building. between the mid-1800s and approximately 1950.
A fire escape in the middle of the front of Factors that should be evaluated by firefighters
a multistory building (such as a residential) include the fire escape type, ladder, age,
indicates a center hallway type of building. and location.
Firefighters have learned many lessons from Types include the party escape (balcony),
incidents involving buildings with fire escapes. screened stair, and standard escape.
Several of these lessons are listed here:
Ladder arrangements can include the standard
Are occupants visible on a fire escape? If so, or permanent type, gooseneck, drop style, and
these people need to be rescued and there is a counter-balanced stair.
high probability there are more people inside
Fire escapes on unreinforced masonry build-
the building.
ings can be considered sub-standard as
In some cases, the higher priority may be compared to their newer versions on post-1935
trapped people inside a building as opposed to masonry buildings.
the people on the exterior fire escape.
The presence of a gooseneck roof access ladder
It is normally advisable to lower a fire escape on the front fire escape of a building can indicate
ladder to keep it from inadvertently lowering and that there is no rear fire escape.
causing an injury to civilians and/or firefighters
Fleeing occupants on a fire escape is a visual
during incidents.
clue that indicates a high priority for rescue of
Remember that objects that have been placed on victims still within the building.
fire escapes (flower pots, etc.) can fall during an
incident and injure personnel below.
In most cases, it is advisable to ladder the lower
balcony with fire department ladders rather than
Razor wire
use fire escape drop ladders. Razor wire was developed to provide additional
security to property and structures, and in some
Fire escapes on unreinforced masonry buildings
cases this also applies to the perimeter of roofs.
can be considered substandard as compared to
Razor wire can be constructed of steel, aluminum,
their newer versions on post-1935 masonry
or aluminum strengthened with high-carbon steel.
construction.
For the most part, razor wire is inexpensive, comes
Fire escapes that show signs of neglect or severe in a variety of styles, and is easily installed. It may
age deterioration can collapse from the weight of or may not be supported or entwined with barbed
escaping occupants. Likewise, these fire escapes wire. Usually it is under varying degrees of tension
should not be used for fire suppression access. and is extremely effective in accomplishing its
Wood fire escapes (which can also be catego- intended purpose. Regardless of the style encoun-
rized as secondary access/egress routes) are tered, razor wire can present a challenge to
normally found on the back side of buildings (in personnel considering roof access and egress, and
some cases on the sides) and must be evaluated poses a serious hazard of severe lacerations and
as to their age, storage considerations, and their entanglement.
ability to burn.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Hands-on operations with razor wire should be ft wide by 4 ft high and can be found in single and
employed only when necessary or as a last resort. multiple configurations (fig. 936). Customarily,
Razor wire made from aluminum is easily cut, one is used for transmitting and others are used for
and can then be separated (with great caution) if receiving, but a single antenna can be used for both.
absolutely necessary. Remember that razor wire A cellular repeater is just a cellular antenna that
may be under tension and can spring backward accepts and strengthens a signal to relay to another
when cut. If razor wire is entwined with barbed antenna. Rooftop antennas are either mounted on
wire, the barbed wire should also be cut, enabling brackets/supports that are attached to the side of
the removal of the entire assembly. Razor wire a building, or are secured by a ballast and can be
reinforced with steel wire must be cut with bolt moved. This allows the antenna to be adjusted for a
cutters. Note that this type of wire can also be better location or moved for roof repair. Because the
under significant tension and can result in the wire look of cellular antennas is not appreciated by some
springing back and unraveling when cut. Cutting municipalities, they can be disguised or camou-
this wire is not recommended. flaged to be more visually appealing. Examples are
standalone towers that resemble trees, and plastic/
fiberglass panels that look like the exterior of a
Cellular antennas and other building but enclose the antennas. These panels are
communications equipment often referred to as roofmask panels.

A n emerg i ng ha za rd t hat ca n con f ront

fireground personnel is communications equip-
ment on rooftops, specifically cellular antennas that
are attached to the roofs of commercial buildings
(although they can be found other types of build-
ings as well). Although standalone cellular towers
are commonplace and present a minimal hazard,
firefighters may not be familiar with the hazards
associated with rooftop cellular antennas. A cellular
base station and all of its components provides a
circuitous connection between cell phones and the
traditional telephones in residential and commercial
occupancies by using radio frequency (RF) trans-
mission between the cellular antennas on rooftops Fig. 936. Cellular antennas are commonly found on roofs of
and standalone towers. Because there are more buildings and can be a significant danger to personnel on a roof.
components to this system than just the visible (Photo by Mark McLees.)
antennas, lets look at a basic system and the types
of hazards it can present to fireground personnel. Equipment hut/room. The equipment hut (or
Base station. A base station consists of the receiv- equipment room) can be located in various locations
ing and transmitting antennas, the room that within a building or on a roof in an appropriate
contains all of the necessary system electronics, enclosure. Equipment rooms contain some of the
coaxial cable for connecting the equipment room key elements of the overall system:
to the antennas, and a power supply with a backup It has the hard-wired power for the electronic
such as an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). equipment that consists of 240 V.
Antennas. Rooftop antennas, commonly referred to An uninterruptable power supply (UPS) system
as flat-panel or sector antennas, are approximately 1 for backup of the hard-wired system is located

246
Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

in the equipment room. This backup system can Being exposed to radio frequency waves, either
consist of lead-acid batteries or diesel-, natural from visible or camouf laged antennas, is a
gas-, or fuel cell-powered generators. significant danger. Exposure to radio frequency
(RF) waves can result in a thermal effect, which
It houses a rectifier (inverter) that converts AC
is the inability of the human body to dissipate
voltage to DC voltage for system operation.
excessive heat generated by the RF waves (also
A fire suppression system may be present known as RF burns). Personnel should maintain
in some equipment rooms and capable of a minimum of 10 ft in front of antennas, 3 ft
discharging an nonconductive extinguishing from the sides and back of antennas, and never
agent such as a waterless fire system, halon, or touch an antenna.
other material.
Other communications equipment. Other com-
An air conditioning system that is capable of munications equipment can be found on rooftops
minimizing the heat within the equipment room (and attic spaces) that have similar hazards as
is often needed. cellular features. Namely, firefighters may find
A connection between the cellular network and other antennas or satellite dishes that can result
a link to the public service telephone network in a significant dead load on a roof. Additionally,
(link to traditional telephones) would be found depending on the type of antenna, the emitted
in the equipment room. transmissions can also present a hazard to roof per-
sonnel who may stand in front of or too close to one
Coaxial cable. Coaxial cable connects the antenna(s)
of these antennas. In most cases, the size and type
to the equipment room and is similar but consider-
of these antennas can be identified from the ground
ably larger than the coaxial cable that is used for
(fig. 937). However, remember that nighttime con-
computers, audio visual systems, and other house-
ditions and smoke can obscure these installations,
hold items. Although power runs through this
and personnel going to a roof may inadvertently
cable, the power level is fairly low and normally
place themselves in unnecessary danger. These
less than 5 watts. The cable has a plastic outer
devices are likely mounted as a retrofit and can
jacket (polyethylene, etc.) that is flammable and
include ballast blocks, guy wires, cables, and other
will support flame along the jacket covering. The
trip hazards.
number of cables that will be found in an instal-
lation is determined by the number of antennas
that are used. The cables are usually enclosed in
trays that are designed for multiple cables or metal
conduit, both of which offer security and protection
from the elements.

Hazards. The hazards to fireground personnel are

summarized by the following primary considerations:

The electrical hazard by the system operating

voltage of 240 V.
Depending on the type of backup power supply
Fig. 937. Roof mounted antennas are becoming common-
used, firefighters may be exposed to sulfuric place and can often be identified from the ground. Some can
acid and hydrogen gas, diesel fuel, cylinders of add a sizeable dead load to a roof.
natural gas, and/or pure hydrogen for fuel cells.
The plastic outer covering on the coaxial cables
is flammable and will give off noxious gases if
exposed to fire.
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The Art of Reading Buildings

Signs particular hazard, the following is a brief summary

of considerations:
Advertising signs that were often mounted on the
From the exterior, common indicators are
roofs of older buildings (refer back to fig. 837) are
chemical odors, security bars on doors/windows,
a less common consideration on modern buildings
fans in unusual locations, propane tanks with
(due in part to lightweight construction). Although
unusual valves/attachments, odd looking pipes/
some signs are quite large and capable of imposing
ducts coming from windows and/or walls, and
a significant load on a roof, most of these roofs were
comments from neighbors about questionable
engineered for the additional stress in combination
conditions. Remember, when a structure is
with conventional construction. However, similar
suspected of being an illegal lab, it may also be
to HVAC units, supporting structural members will
booby-trapped, which should place a different
collapse faster when exposed to fire. In all cases,
emphasis on entering the building.
roof personnel must report any abnormal roof
conditions that could negatively affect fireground Once inside a building, some common indica-
operations. Remember, the collapse of a roof is a tors are propane tanks, containers of muratic or
danger not only to roof personnel, but equally to sulfuric-hydrochloric acid, bottles or jars with
interior personnel. rubber tubing attached, multiple containers of
lye, abnormal amounts of common household
Signage on the exterior of buildings comes in products (aluminum foil, paint thinner, lithium
various sizes and styles and can also present a camera batteries, mineral spirits, coffee filters),
hazard at fires if it is dislodged and falls. Signs are and other materials.
often attached to facades, adding dead load and
electrical concerns. Signs that are oriented perpen- T hese build i ngs/cond it ions ca n present
dicular to the building face are often strengthened numerous hazards such as a flammable/explosive
against wind loads by using a diagonal tension wire environment, toxic chemicals, electrical hazards,
that attaches the outermost portion of the sign to incomplete chemical reactions, pressurized LPG
an anchor point above the sign (wall, parapet, or containers, water reactive materials, and so on.
roof edge). In many ways, the perpendicular sign Obviously, a full set of personal protective equip-
arrangement is a cantilevered beam and places ment (PPE) with self-contained breathing apparatus
an eccentric load on the wall. As unreinforced (SCBA) is mandatory, and defensive operations may
masonry walls and parapets are not designed for be more practical and safe than offensive opera-
eccentric loads, a fire can cause the signand thus tions. If unsuspecting firefighters have engaged
the wallto collapse early. in interior operations prior to the lab discovery,
full decontamination efforts are warranted and
the incident becomes a technician-level hazmat
Clandestine drug labs one. With drug labs, attention to detail can save
your life!
A clandestine drug lab is any laboratory that
is used for the manufacture of illegal drugs/
substances. These labs can be found in numerous Pack rat conditions
areas, including residential occupancies, and can
present a significant hazard to first responding Building occupants who exhibit hoarding
personnel. Unfortunately, these labs are designed behaviors can easily fill spaces with tons of added
to be hidden from the exterior but can present a fire load. Common titles given to buildings that
multitude of significant hazards within the interior are packed with abundant fire load are pack rat,
of the building. Although it would be difficult to hoarder, and Collyers mansion. Any structure
cover all of the issues that are associated with this that is encountered with pack rat or hoarder type

248
Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

conditions can present a significant dilemma for

fireground personnel as the interior of a building If a cellular equipment room is equipped with an
will have an inordinate fire load, and access extinguishing system, remember that halon can
throughout the building can be severely restricted. result in toxic gases and lower oxygen levels,
In some cases, this abnormal condition can be while the waterless system removes the heat,
recognized by exterior conditions, as it is not not the oxygen.
uncommon for the exterior to be used for additional Remember to follow cellular coaxial cables to
storage. In most cases, however, this condition will check for extension, particularly if the cables
not be identified until personnel enter a structure. have been routed through the interior of a
When this is the case, the amount of storage will building to the roof (unsealed openings).
quickly dictate the additional difficulty of access,
Advertising signs and communication antenna/
a possible search, and the additional fire load.
discs will add to the dead load on a roof, and
Additional hazards can include the following:
there may also be the presence of electrical utili-
Extended burn times ties that are associated with these hazards.

Blocked windows and doors (no secondary Clandestine drug labs often look like a typical
escape path) residential occupancy but can contain booby-
traps and a variety of extremely hazardous condi-
Elevated collapse risks
tions/materials. Early recognition and appropriate
Firefighter entanglement caution is the key.
Hidden fire or deep smoldering pockets Pack rat (hoarder) buildings should immediately
Difficult hose advancement and high potential raise a red flag that should underscore the
for kinks or rupture viability of interior operations.

In all cases, the IC must be quickly notified of Pack rat conditions have the potential to minimize
a pack rat condition if one is encountered. As a interior access/egress, timely searches, and
final note on this subject, if a pack rat condition effective operations.
is exposed to fire, an intensive overhaul should
be anticipated.

Quick summary
Razor wire can be extremely effective at
restricting access to a roof. Handling razor wire
is normally not recommended.
The primary hazard from cellular base stations is
from personnel who are too close to the antenna,
particularly roof personnel and roof-mounted
antennas. If they are present, the IC should be
immediately notified.
An air conditioning system in an unlikely location
can assist in the early identification of a cellular
equipment room.

249
The Art of Reading Buildings

Chapter Review Exercise

Using the following photographs, examine the visible building features and then list the hazards that they
can present to firefighters.

Photo exercise 1

Feature/hazard

1.

2.

3.

4.

250
Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Photo exercise 2

Feature/hazard

1.

2.

3.

4.

251
The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 3

Feature/hazard

1.

2.

3.

4.

252
Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Photo exercise 4

Feature/hazard

1.

2.

3.

4.

253
The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 5

Feature/hazard

1.

2.

3.

4.

254
Chapter 9 Building Features and Concerns

Photo exercise 6

Feature/hazard

1.

2.

3.

4.

255
The Art of Reading Buildings

Resources for
Further Study
A presentation on cell towers is available at
http://faculty.sunydutchess.edu/walsh/power-
point/misc.%20stuff/misc.htm
Avillo, Anthony, Fireground Strategies:
Fighting Shaft Fires, Fire Engineering,
December 2007.
Ching, Francis D. K., A Visual Dictionary
of Architecture, New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1995.
Fenion, Wesley, 10 Technologies Used in
Green Construction, HowStuff Works.com, a
Discovery Company, March 2011.
Flynn, John, Operating Safely on Fire Escapes,
Fire Engineering, March 2009.
Gusti n, Bill, Avoidi ng the Hazards of
Overhangs, Fire Engineering, April 2010.
Mittendorf, John, Truck Company Operations,
2nd ed., Tulsa, OK: PennWell Corp., 2011.
Murphy, Jack J. and Jim Tidwell, Green
Building Challenges for the Fire Service, Fire
Engineering, January 2011.
Spadafora, Ronald R., G reen Building
Construction and Daylighting: A Chief Officers
Perspective, Fire Engineering, October 2010.
Viscuso, Joseph, Safe Operations Near Roof
Cellular Base Stations, Fire Engineering,
March 2008.
Yago, Jeffrey R., The Power to Roam, Home
Power, June & July 2012.

256
READING BUILDINGS:
HOW TO SIZE UP A BUILDING 10
Objectives
Describe the two kinds of building size-ups for first-due decision makers.
List the three building size-up considerations that should be reported as part
of an initial arrival at structure fires.
Define the eight primary building groupings that can be used to communicate
a first impression for an initial radio report.
Describe the five basic construction considerations that should be analyzed
as part of a 180/360 size-up.
Define the four categories that can be used to describe building status.
Define the fireground clock and its relevance during building fires.
List the six tactical challenges that must be considered for buildings.
List five hazardous game changers that can impact tactical challenges.
Name the four analytical inputs for predicting the collapse of a
burning building.

Time to Put It All Together

he preceding nine chapters have set the stage for this chapter. Here, we

T want to show how your investment in understanding building construction

equates to rapid street reads and tactical decision-making. Before we make
that transition, lets review the journey.

The ability to truly read a building starts with an understanding of basic

building engineering concepts like loads, imposition of loads, and the resulting
forces of imposed loads. From there, we strive to understand the characteristics of
various building materials (wood, steel concrete, etc.) and how those materials are
impacted by shape, mass, and the effects of heat and fire. Using the aforementioned

257
The Art of Reading Buildings

essential concepts, we can explore the various

methods used to construct a building. All buildings Building Size-up
are built using a structural element hierarchy:
The term size-up has been used extensively in
Foundations and footers transfer imposed loads the fire service to describe the constant mental
to earth. evaluation of fireground factors. We evaluate those
Columns transfer loads to the foundation factors and make judgments about how each can
through compression. be used to predict upcoming events. Obviously,
those judgments help us make better strategic
Beams transfer roof and floor loads to columns choices that guide our tactics. Increasingly, we are
through a combination of compression, tension, trying to make tactical assignments that achieve a
and shear. desired outcome while making fireground safety
Connections help attach the structural elements a primary consideration. If fireground safety is a
to one another. primary consideration, then conducting a size-up
that enhances an ability to mitigate an incident
The history of humankind is one of constant
in a safe and timely manner should be a corner-
change and, over time, humans have developed
stone of efficient and safe fireground operations.
many methods to make the basic building hierarchy
Fire service teachings emphasize that any size-up
perform. That history has been inf luenced by
actually begins before an incident is dispatched (in
myriad factors like occupancy needs, material
prefire planning, training programs, etc.). Retired
engineering, wars, ravages of fire and earthquakes,
Chief Alan Brunacini has called pre-incident
and the resulting constant change of building codes.
size-up efforts front-loading. Throughout this book,
These influences present the firefighter a significant
we encourage you to go visit buildingsan essen-
challenge when trying to classify a given building.
tial front-loaded size-up. Upon arrival at a building
This book argues that the five classic types of
fire incident, the first-due decision maker actually
buildings (NFPA 220) is overly simple and can lead
performs two kinds of size-ups:
to traps. Alternatively, firefighters need to classify
buildings using a formula of era/use/type/size. The initial size-up made when first approaching
the buildingwell call it the 180
The balance of our journey examined some
specific building features (floors, roofs, etc.) and the The 360 expanded size-up
associated issues that firefighters have experienced The purpose of the initial size-up is to gain a
or can expect to experience with them. We hope the starting impression for the sake of an on-scene
journey has helped to improve your understanding of radio report. As the first-arriving officer approaches
building construction and that you have been able to the building, he or she can usually pick up one
use some of the information to go out and examine or two sides of the incident building before even
the buildings in your response area. If you have, you leaving the vehicle (hence, the 180). Some standard
may have already improved your ability to read a operating guidelines (SOGs) suggest that the first-
building. The balance of this chapter (and book) can due apparatus actually tries to get a three-sided
help you refine your ability to street read. To help view of the fire building by pulling past it. In either
achieve that refinement, we present the following: case, an initial size-up of observable factors (the
A mental approach to building size-up building and the smoke) can be made, which can
lead to an initial judgment (regarding risk taking)
The six tactical challenges that need to be con- and the on-scene radio report. Although you may
sidered with most buildings not see all of the visible features of a particular
Perspectives for triaging a building and predict- building, a first or initial size-up can often
ing collapse yield important clues that can begin to formulate

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

your impression/familiarity with the building and What is burning (180/360 size-up)
provide indicators that dictate additional time
The fireground clock (360 size-up)
that should be devoted to a more comprehensive
examinationsuch the 360 expanded size-up. It Lets dig into each of these size-up needs and
is important to acknowledge that a structure fire give some specific guidance to help you improve
size-up can be a challenging dilemma for a first- your rapid read.
arriving officer who can be easily pressurized
into spending a minimal amount of time reading a
building as opposed to first addressing the needs of
an escalating incidentnot to mention the supervi-
sion of an anxious crew who want to immediately
put the wet stuff on the red stuff. Therefore, it is
imperative that every first-arriving officer take the
necessary time to read a building in order to plan
for the effective and safe mitigation of the incident.

After arrival, the first-due decision maker

should expand and fine tune the 180 size-up by
conducting a 360 evaluation.1 We acknowledge
that a complete 360 look at the building may not be
possible or practical due to the building footprint, Fig. 101. When conducting a structural size-up, undress the
building in your mind.
attached buildings, fences, or the time constraint of
an immediate rescue need. However, we buy into
the recommendation that a 360 is the rule unless
an exception is presented. When conducting the
360 building size-up, undress the building in your
General use and size classification
mind. Look past the exterior and visualize what is (initial size-up)
inside the building (its strengths and hazards) as
In previous chapters we make the argument
what you initially see may not be what you get!
that classifying a building by a single dimension
Remember, when first arriving on scene, every
is full of traps. When preplanning buildings (front-
building tells a story (fig. 101). Most often, the
loading), it is best to classify buildings by using
short amount of time required to quickly analyze a
the era/use/type/size method. The era/use/type/
building that is under demolition by fire normally
size classification system helps you develop better
pays huge dividends in timely and safe operations
preplans and helps you teach building construction
during suppression operations.
to future generations of firefighters. Even with a
Specific to the building, size-ups should include significant investment in building front-loading,
the following: there are likely to be responses to buildings that
you have never had the opportunity to walk through
The general use and size classification of the and study. Given that, the first building size-up
building (initial size-up) clue youll receive when dispatched to a reported
Basic construction considerations like the building fire is the address. That address will
prevailing methods, era considerations, exterior likely correspond with the general use grouping
features, and interior features (360 size-up) of the kinds of buildings you find on that street or
in that area. This can provide a jump-start to your
Building status (360 size-up) initial size-up.

259
The Art of Reading Buildings

As towns and cities grew, planners found that Institutional

it was important to group buildings based on
Public assembly
community desires, traffic f low, utility (infra-
structure) needs, and convenience. The planners Miscellaneous buildings
developed building use envelopes and zoned those Single-family dwelling (SFD). Single-family
areas accordingly. Responding firefighters can use residential buildings and single-family dwellings
the building address as a way to start their size-up are the same thingdwelling is just a quicker
efforts by grouping the building according to the way of saying residential building. SFDs are those
use zoning found in that area. For example, youre that were built for the purpose of providing living
dispatched to a report of a building fire on 1234 E. accommodations for one family. One can expect
Main Street. You consult the maps (or your memory) rooms for sleeping, bathing, cooking/eating, and
and know that the address falls in a single-family relaxing as well as storage areas and perhaps
residential subdivision that was built in the 1950s an attached or detached garage. SFD rooms are
with one- and two-story, legacy platform, wood typically free-flowing, meaning they have open
frame buildings that are 800 to 2,000 sq ft. We can stairways and hallways to connect the various
make a soft or tentative size-up use grouping based rooms and simple doors (non-fire-rated) to add
on that address. We say soft because obviously you privacy from room to room. While a building may
have to confirm that grouping as you roll up to the have been originally built as an SFD, occupants
address. It is realized that not all buildings can be may have subdivided the home to provide separate
grouped based on address alone, but most buildings living accommodations for others. Some visual
you respond to can be easily grouped based on your clues that can help you recognize that an SFD
first visual impression when you arrive. has been altered are multiple mailboxes/doorbells,
divided porches or patios, add-on exterior stairs,
On arrival, firefighters can look at a building
structural add-on areas (see fig. 515), and separate
and tell what it is likely being used for, such as a
entry pathways.
restaurant, home, retail store, church, or some other
structure. While not absolute, the first impression Multifamily dwelling (MFD). Multifamily dwell-
for building use provides a good and mostly reliable ings are those built to provide distinct separations
starting place for size-up (and initial radio report). between the accommodations of more than one
family or tenant. While terminology varies, the
In chapter 5, we list the official (building code)
MFD includes multiple living units. Each unit
occupancy categories when explaining building
has its own set of sleeping, bathing, living, and
use. Here, we create some broad groupings that
cooking rooms for each tenant. MFDs typically
dont necessarily align with the building code
share one or more building features such as a
they are a bit more firefighter related. While broad,
common yard, parking area, utility infrastructure,
remember they are just a starting place for a
elevator(s), primary access stairway, or recreational
size-up. We further subdivide the groupings in the
amenity. Apartments, condominiums, tenements,
rapid street-read guides found in the last section of
townhomes, and row homes (row frames) are all
this book. These broad use groupings are
examples of MFDs.
Single-family dwelling
Main Street commercial. This broad grouping is
Multifamily dwelling named for Main Street, USAthe part of most
Main Street commercial towns and cities where residents go to purchase
the goods they need. The Main Street concept
Manufacturing/warehouse grew from the early settlers who designated a
Office/hotel commons, which was a central area where
everyone brought their harvest (crops and animals)

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

to share, trade, or sell (like a farmers market). As Institutional. Grouped here are those buildings
towns grew, they did so using the commons as a that are used for civic or societal needs. Schools,
central town squarean open, park-like gathering jails, courts, hospitals, and other human service
area. Permanent retail buildings were built around facilities are included. For brief, initial on-scene
the square as products and services became radio reports, the word institutional may throw
commercialized. The delivery of bulk goods by off other responders. Its best to just say school,
railroad further advanced the Main Street concept. hospital, etc.

Most retail buildings were built right near a Public assemblies. Buildings used for the purpose
towns rail stop. All manner of commerce took of human gathering present the risk of large loss of
place there; dry goods dealers and grocers, cloth- life when fire strikes. Some of the most stringent
iers, barbers, blacksmiths, and bankers built their (fire resistive) building codes have been developed
buildings up and down Main Street. Fast forward to for public assembly occupancies to help prevent
suburban sprawl. We now have strip malls, mega- the reoccurrence of large loss-of-life tragedies that
malls, and big-box store shopping districts that have scarred our history. Some public assembly
harken to the Main Street concept. In essence, the buildings such as stadiums, theatres, and churches
grouping of Main Street commercial includes those are quite large and can include vast parking areas,
buildings that sell goods and services to the general morphed utility systems, and a web of service and
public. For an initial on-scene radio report, youre supply tunnels. However, other public assembly
probably best off by saying the actual business type buildings can be small to medium in size, such as
(strip mall, retail store, small restaurant, etc.) rather the restaurants and churches that are common to
than Main Street commercial. most areas of this country.

Manufacturing/warehouse. In early times, ware- Miscellaneous buildings. In virtually every town

housing shared Main Street (right next to the rail- or city, there are buildings that dont fit any of the
road tracks), and small-scale manufacturing could aforementioned groupings. A classic example is
be found mixed in with the retail stores where the telephone central exchange or switch building
people shopped (retail in the front, manufacturing (fig. 102). These block and brick buildings are
in the back). As populations increased, the manu- typically windowless, have few entry/exit doors,
facturing and warehousing sectors increased their and minimal signage. Grain silos, kit buildings,
building sizes and became industrialized. They utility substations, and toll plazas are all examples
moved off Main Street and got their own spur that can be grouped as miscellaneous.
rail tracks and delivery roads. As grouped here,
manufacturing and warehouse buildings are those
that are typically large, house unique processes or
operations, and are generally not open to the public.
Buildings that deal with the processing and storage
of hazardous materials are also grouped here.

Office/hotel. By and large, hotels and office build-

ings are very similar in nature: They have indi-
vidual rooms or areas used for sleep or work and
communal areas for reception, meetings, provi-
sions, and light recreation. Most share common
parking areas, utilities, and outdoor areas. While Fig. 102. Some buildings, such as this telephone central
building codes vary, they also share very similar switching center, do not fall within common building groupings.
requirements.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Once you have grouped the building on arrival,

you form an impression of the group subset (see Quick summary
the index at the beginning of chapter 11) based on
visual clues about the building. Likewise as you The initial building size-up can be jump-started
arrive, you can form an impression on the approxi- with the dispatched address of the incident.
mate size of the building. In chapter 5 we offer Most communities have building zones that
some general guidelines and the associated hazards indicate the use classifications of buildings in
that building size can present. that area.
There are two building size-ups: the initial 180
At this point, the arriving fire officer should
size-up for the on-scene radio report and the
have enough information to give an initial on-scene
360 focused size-up.
radio report. Most best practice or standard arrival
reports include a brief description of the building The initial size-up includes a brief judgment on
as well as visible smoke and/or fire conditions. The the building size, apparent use of the building,
size and use grouping can satisfy the need to be and obvious fire/smoke observations.
brief for the building description (e.g., Dispatch The first impression on the use of the building
from Engine 5, on scene of a large two-story, is not necessarily defined by code, but rather
single-family dwelling. Smoke showing from Side a common observation such as single-family
B, second floor . . .). dwelling, hotel, retail store, and so on.
With the initial radio report delivered, the first- After arrival, the first-due decision maker
due officer needs to fine tune the building size-up should follow up the initial 180 size-up with an
as part of a 360 or three-side walk around the expanded 360 evaluation.
building. We realize that it may not be physically
possible to get a complete 360 around a building
especially in the urban environment. Regardless,
the first-due officer should invest some time to
Basic construction considerations
further evaluate the building (and smoke/fire condi- (360 size-up)
tions) where possible. The good fire officer will
visually scan the building exterior with attention to The fire officer who has invested front-loading
three things: building construction considerations time will easily pick up visual clues that will help
(covered next), smoke and fire conditions (including in reading a building in further detail. Throughout
rate of change), and the status of the building (to this book, we give you many visual clues that link
help determine if people are likely in the building). the clue to a specific fire spread or collapse issue.
As you walk around a building, these clues should
At night, the fire officer should use a good flood- register and help with tactical understanding. At
style hand light or lantern rather than a narrow minimum, the 360 building size-up should help
pencil-beam style flashlight when conducting the to further define the general construction, era, and
360. The reason for this is twofold: the floodlight interior/exterior features.
will allow you to see more features with each
sweep, and the broad light beam will refract on Prevailing construction method. In most cases,
smoke and allow you to read it faster. A pencil or the initial size-up (while rolling up in the apparatus)
focused light beam minimizes what you can see also provides some visual clues to help classify the
with each sweep. methods and materials used for construction (like
a Type III block building with flat roof). The 360
allows you an opportunity to verify that impression.
Additionally, the 360 offers a chance to amend
the first impression. What appeared to be a Type

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

III flat roof building from Side A can be amended Un r ei n for c e d m a son r y bu i ld i ng s we r e
when you see that Side C is really wood frameor constructed prior to pre-WWII industrial.
an alteration of a different construction method.
Buildings with exposed 2 4 rafter tails
We again mention that the hybrid and alternative
indicate lightweight truss construction from the
methods of construction are an increasing challenge
engineered lightweight era.
for firefighters. The 360 building size-up helps you
spot clues that you are dealing with a hybrid. Exterior features. Exterior features provide some
of the more reliable clues for traps and challenges
Era considerations. We hope the era consideration that firefighters may face for a given building.
information in chapter 5 convinced you that we There are the big-ticket clues like spreaders and
have to tailor our tactics based on the time period anchors, unreinforced masonry construction,
that a building was constructed (and/or altered). parapets, bracing, signage, facades, add-on fire
Building integrity and our safety depend on it! To escapes, pilasters, additions, and so on. Exterior
review, those eras are: features such as facades, false mansards, cantile-
vers, and cornices are notorious for falling off a
Pre-WWI historic
building being attacked by fire. Additionally, the
Pre-WWII industrial exterior features help paint the picture for access
Post-WWII legacy and egress optionsnot just doors and windows,
but also for the type of roof and size/amount of
Engineered lightweight (1990 and later) utilities. Specific to utilities, the 360 size-up can
Recall that the building era reflects the methods, provide a heads-up on utility challenges or other
materials, codes, and engineering principals that hazards like cell phone repeaters, solar panels, and
were prevalent at that time. Fire spread and collapse the like. Lastly, the exterior features can often help
issues differ in each era and thus, our tactical you paint a picture of expected interior features.
solutions must take those into account.
Interior features. Many of the exterior features
It is recommended that to assist you in deter- that you find on a 360 size-up help you visualize
mining the era of building construction that you interior features. Multiple mailboxes and electrical
familiarize yourself with the specific features that meters can help you recognize that the interior of
are prevalent in your jurisdiction. Consider the a building has been subdivided into separate units
following examples, which you should be able to or occupancy spaces. Additionally, remember that
expand upon: visible construction add-ons to a building can
dramatically increase the size of a building as well
Modern appearing townhouses were constructed as alter the original floor plan.
during the lightweight engineered era.
The arrangement of doors and windows can
Dwellings with centrally located masonry
help you visualize the location of bedrooms and
fireplaces were constructed during the historic
living areas in residences, or office space and
and industrial eras.
warehousing areas in commercial structures. Large
Dwellings with attached or adjoining garages overhead rolling doors, long windows, and pilas-
with small doorways (originally built for Model ters can suggest that the interior has wide-open
A automobiles) were constructed prior to the spans (increased risk of collapse). Outside utility
industrial era. feeds that seem disproportional to the building
Commercial buildings with arched, bridge truss, can indicate that industrialized equipment will be
or sawtooth roofs were constructed prior to the found inside. As an example, in figure 930 the
post-WWII legacy era. original three-wire service has been replaced by a

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The Art of Reading Buildings

four-wire quadruplex service, indicating there are business. Open doors or windows, interior lights
now substantial electrical needs within the interior illuminated, running equipment or HVAC systems,
of this building. and functional cars parked in the lot/driveway (fig.
103) are some examples of clues that a building is
While conducting the 360 building size-up, likely occupied.
you will likely make tactical judgments about
the hazards that are present and what needs to be
accounted for and communicated. Making continual
tactical judgments is mostly a good thing, but
perhaps a caution is warranted here: Try to keep
an open mind and just absorb what the building
is telling you during your 360. The prevailing
method, era considerations, exterior features, and
interior features are painting the whole picture for
you. Once you have completed your 360, you must
act and proceed with a course of action that takes
into account what youve discovered. Before we talk
about those actions, lets discuss the building status.
Fig. 103. A parked car next to this building can be a credible

Building status (360 size-up) clue it is occupied.

As applied to size-up, building status refers to the

Using the time of day to make a judgment
likelihood that people are occupying a given struc-
regarding the occupied status of a building has been
ture. By evaluating the status of a building, the first-
a staple of size-up training. This teaching has some
due officer can begin to formulate a foundation for
merit for commercial buildings that have posted
determining an initial risk analysis for the priority of
business hours, but is probably dubious for residen-
suppression or search operations. Some fire officers
tial structures. As a rule, all residential buildings
approach each and every building as if it is currently
that appear lived-in should be considered occupied
occupied. While noble, it must also be said that many
until reliable information proves otherwise.
firefighters have been killed in buildings where there
were no occupants. In the modern world of managed When a building has been judged occupied,
risk, fire officers should make a judgment regarding the fire officer must look at smoke and fire condi-
the occupancy status of buildings on fire based on tions and make a further judgment about surviv-
visual clues. Generally speaking, a given buildings able spaces. The condition of windows can help in
status can be classified in one of four ways: occupied, making the survivable space judgment (more on
unoccupied, vacant, or abandoned. this later in this chapter).

Occupied. Occupied buildings are defined as build- Unoccupied. Unoccupied buildings are buildings
ings that are occupied or have a high probability that are normally occupied but the occupants are
of being occupied during an incident. Visually, the likely to not be in the structure currently. Most
most obvious clue that a building is occupied is often, commercial properties that have defined
the presence of people exiting, occupants outside business hours are those that will be unoccupied
the building, credible assurance from neighbors during off-hours or holidays. To help verify that
(be careful with this one), and those waiting at status, the fire officer should couple the time of day
windows to be rescued! When obvious clues are (or holiday) with an empty parking lot and locked
not readily apparent, the fire officer can use clues doors. As an example, the building in figure 104
that suggest the building is lived in or is open for

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

is a commercial retail building, there is a small Abandoned. Abandoned buildings are those that
closed sign in the front door, and there are no cars have outlived their usefulness, fallen into disrepair,
parked near the building. The chance of occupants and show signs that the owner has basically given
inside this building is remote. up on the building. Boarded-up windows and doors
(fig. 106), vegetation overgrowth, vermin infes-
tation, and obvious structural degradation are all
visual clues that may lead you to classify a building
as abandoned.

Fig. 104. Visual clues indicate this commercial building is

likely unoccupied.
Fig. 106. Abandoned buildings have typically outlived their
usefulness and present numerous challenges for firefighters.
Vacant. The primary difference between a vacant
building and an abandoned building is vacant build-
ings are likely to still be in an acceptable condition Abandoned buildings present numerous chal-
in terms of structural integrity and marketability. lenges for firefighters. These challenges include:
A vacant building is likely to be secured (doors/
windows) and may have For Sale or For Lease Dangerous interior conditions including holes,
signs displayed on the front of the building (fig. collapsed structural elements, and exposed
105). Other clues that a building might be vacant utilities
include the absence of contents and window treat- High potential for criminal-related hazards,
ments, removed signage, and an empty parking lot. including arson, illegal lab production (hazmat
waste), and gang activities
Potential for unlawful occupants such as
vagrants and squatters
Some fire departments have developed programs
to address abandoned buildings that include
marking or placarding them. A common marking
system includes posting a large white X across
a red background to denote buildings that are too
dangerous (structurally) for interior firefighting
operations. These placards are usually accompa-
Fig. 105. Visual clues suggest this building is vacant
and secure.
nied by a No Trespassing warning to others that
the building will not be searched by firefighters.
A red placard with a single white diagonal slash
indicates to firefighters that the structure may be

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The Art of Reading Buildings

sound but interior operations should be limited to methodologies. The end result can be slower
a quick search for squatters by permission of the burn and collapse time frames (and often
incident commander only. predictable results) as compared to lightweight
construction.
The combination of basic building consid-
erations (method, era, and exterior and interior Lightweight materials and construction tech-
features) and status (occupied, unoccupied, vacant, niques include the use of lightweight steel, wood
or abandoned) will help you form a strong impres- members of 2 4 in. or smaller, truss configura-
sion of the challenges that the incident will present. tions, and connection points of staples, gusset
The size-up, however, needs to consider two more plates, glue, and other similar methods.
factors: what is burning and the fireground clock. The focus of assessing what is burning during
a size-up is attempting to define the remaining
relative strength of the structural members that are
What is burning? being weakened by fire and determining the amount
Of all of the factors that should be included of time that is left to safely conduct your intended
under the heading of important size-up consider- operation. It is important to remember that in some
ations, the determination of what is burning should cases it will be necessary to determine the type of
be of paramount importance, as every firefighter construction (that is being weakened by fire) from
should be well aware that every second a fire burns the interior of the building. That is a primary reason
it is weakening a structure and enhancing a collapse why initial attack teams should also carry a pike
of the burning structure. Therefore, the first-due pole (or other similar tool) to pull a ceiling when
decision maker needs to make a judgment as to entering the building. Additionally, determining
what is actually burning and whether the structural what is burning and the amount/extension of fire
elements of the building are being attacked by fire from the interior of a building is information that
or heat. must be relayed to an exterior IC if present.

In previous sections of this book we have Supplementary considerations to remember

discussed the strengths and weaknesses of various when evaluating conventional vs. lightweight
types of construction such as metal, masonry, construction include the following baseline time
wood, and other types of building materials. frames:
Unfortunately, the building industry has not consis-
If f ire is exposing lightweight str uctural
tently used these materials in conventional config-
members for more than 5 minutes, rethink
urations and has continued to develop alternative
interior and/or roof operations.
methods and materials (lightweight construction) to
construct buildings that have proven to collapse If fire is exposing conventional structural
often catastrophicallyin faster time frames than members for more than 1520 minutes, rethink
buildings constructed prior to the 1960s. Therefore, interior and/or roof operations.
a modern size-up should consist of determining Remember, if your initial size-up indicated
what is burning from the perspective of conven- lightweight construction and it turns out to be
tional or lightweight structural materials as follows: conventional constructionthat is in your favor.
However, if your initial size-up indicated conven-
Conventional materials generally consist of
tional construction and it turns out to be light-
reinforced masonry, large steel members,
weight constructionthat is not in your favor.
wood members of 2 6 in. or larger, and so
These baseline time frames can help with the last
on. Additionally, the connection points consist
building size-up input: the fireground clock.
of substantial materials such as nails, metal
plates/bolts, substantial welds, and other similar

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

Fireground clock So the perception of fireground time once

personnel arrive on scene is a combination of the
When the term fireground clock is mentioned, time it will take to apply the first drop of water in
some of the initial questions that come to mind addition to the time it will take for extinguishment!
are: How advanced is the fire? How long did it take Obviously, the time it will take to make a visible
someone to become aware of the fire and report it? impact on a fire will vary from incident to incident,
What was the dispatch time? What was the turn-out but typically the fireground clock can give a general
and response time? While these questions are idea of how much time is available to accomplish
certainly applicable to fireground operations, there an intended operation.
is another fireground clock that is also applicable to
As an example, assume the company you are
fireground operations. That clock is defined as once
assigned to is the first company to stop in front
personnel arrive on scene, how long will it take
of a recently constructed two-story wood frame
to make a visible impact on the fire? Notice this
single-family dwelling that is typical of some newer
definition did not focus on the extinguishment of
residential structures in your district. Additionally,
fire, but the time it will take personnel to perform
your initial size-up indicates fire that is visible from
the following tasks:
a second f loor window as well as heavy smoke
Exit the apparatus, making sure the complete and some fire visible from several attic vents (fig.
personal protective equipment (PPE) is ready. 107). Because you are familiar with this type of
structure, your initial building construction size-up
Conduct a 360 or more defined size-up.
indicates that the fire in the attic is consuming
Deploy an evolution (water delivery system). lightweight roof truss construction and the fire is
Force entry into a building. not static but dynamic (it will keep burning until
you put it out). Applying our fireground clock
Move the water delivery system to apply an
definition, you assume that it will take you approxi-
effective fire stream on the fire.
mately 4 minutes to get off your apparatus, get your
This definition is significantly different from PPE ready to go, perform a 360 evaluation, force
the first definition that focused on the time that the front door, and accomplish a basic stretch of an
elapsed prior to companies arriving on scene. initial attack line into the structure.
Granted, some of the items on our fireground clock
can be accomplished simultaneously (with adequate
staffing), but remember that fires are not static but
dynamic. That means when personnel arrive on
scene, the fire will not wait until they put it out, but
will continue to burn and weaken a building until
the fire is extinguished! Therefore, until a fire is
extinguished, it will continue to weaken a structure.

During suppression operations, there are

three factors that are working against fireground
personnel:

Gravity wants to flatten the building.

The fire is weakening the building as each Fig. 107. Upon arrival, it is observed that fire is visible from
second ticks. a second floor window as well as several attic vents and is
also consuming lightweight truss roof construction.
Water weighs 8.35 lb per gallon.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

At this point, three considerations should 3. Judge the building status (occupied, unoccupied,
command your undivided attention: (1) the 4 vacant, or abandoned).
minutes to start attack just spotted the fire an
4. Determine what is burning and whether conven-
additional 4 minutes, (2) the 4 minutes given to
tional or lightweight structural elements are
this fire also means 4 minutes has elapsed without
being attacked.
mitigating the fire (which will continue to burn and
weaken the structure), and (3) the national average 5. Factor in the fireground clock and rate of change.
for the collapse of lightweight wood trusses when Remember, size-up is a continuous mental
they are exposed to fire is around 5 to 7 minutes. evaluation. It never really ends until you wrap
Therefore, does this simple scenario give adequate your incident and head back to the firehouse. Your
time to enter the structure and extinguish the fire size-up efforts set the stage to make better tactical
before collapse of the lightweight truss construc- decisions. In the next section we address the six
tion? Answer: probably not! tactical challenges that exist for buildings.
Additionally, remember that if fire is showing
upon arrival to a structure fire, consideration should
be given to how long the fire was burning before Quick summary
arrival (unknown) and add that to the fireground The 360 building size-up includes a focused
clock implementation time (known). The point of evaluation of building construction considerations,
our example is simple: The combination of building the building status, and the fireground clock.
size-up, our read on smoke and fire conditions, and
Building construction considerations include the
consideration of the fireground clock has created a
prevailing methods used, era considerations,
negative risk scenario for firefighterscollapse is
exterior features, and interior features.
likely. For decision making, we must then weigh
the survivable spaces left in the building and opt Judging the building status as occupied, unoccu-
to support rapid room searches (if appropriate) and pied, vacant, or abandoned can help the decision
then resort to a defensive nature. maker with the risk analysis used to formulate
tactical priorities.
Closely related to the fireground clock is the
judgment on rate of change. The 360 building Determining what is burning entails the perspec-
size-up provides an opportunity to gauge smoke tive of evaluating the strengths and weaknesses
changes. Simply applied, is the smoke getting of conventional vs. lightweight construction and
better or worse, in seconds or in minutes? This the amount of time left to safely accomplish an
judgment about the rate of change, combined intended operation.
with the fireground clock, can help the fire officer The fireground clock includes the time it takes
understand the time window that is available (or not an arriving crew to prepare for engagement
available) for safe interior operations. (PPE, size-up, deployment of hose and tools) and
the time it takes to make a impact on the fire.
In summary, the building size-up factors or
The building is undergoing attack by fire as the
inputs are as follows:
fireground clock elapses.
1. Upon arrival, make a first impression of the
building size and use group for your initial radio
report.
2. Conduct a 360 size-up to refine basic building
considerations (method, era, exterior/interior
features, etc.).

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

The tactical solution for preventing fire spread

The Six Tactical is generally tied to the act of putting water on the
fire at a rate that exceeds that of energy release.
Challenges While this is a good starting place, the smart fire
officer looks past visible fire and applies the rule
for Buildings of six sides to predict the spread of fire and related
priorities. Here is how it works. Assume you have
Firefighters responding to a reported structure
a fire on the second floor of a three-story building
fire need to think of the building as the host
as depicted in fig. 108:
the building is hosting the incident. Our job is
to quickly tell what kind of host that building is The fire on the second floor is comprised of four
going to be, and we need to design and implement sides (two sides, front, and rear). The primary
tactical solutions to make the event conclude. Rare consideration would be the main body of fire,
is the perfect host that provides an open, easy, potential extension to the side, rear, and front
and gracious event with no agenda. Like people, walls, search and ventilation as necessary.
the building has certain tendencies, secrets, and
The third floor (top) would be viewed as the fifth
agendas that present tactical challenges for the
side. The primary consideration would be exten-
firefighters who are trying to bring a very unfor-
sion from the second floor, search and ventila-
tunate event to a safe ending. Some challenges
tion as necessary.
are easy to overcome and some require significant
effort. Regardless, most buildings share the classic The first floor (below) would be viewed as the
six tactical challenges. In no particular order, the sixth side. Although downward extension could
challenges are fire spread, collapse, forcible entry, be a possibility, salvage would likely be a higher
ventilation, search, and specific hazards. priority (fire goes up and water goes down).

Fire spread
By nature, fire wants to spread out and up. The
internal geometry of a building doesnt always let
the fire do what it wants. In actuality, we know that
three factors dictate fire spread within a building:

The internal geometry of the building (ceiling

height, floor plan, compartmentalization)
The fire load (contents and the building itself)
and its arrangement
The heat (exhaust) and air (intake) flow paths
Fig. 108. A structure fire has six sides.
Building preplanning helps us understand how
each of the three factors influence fire behavior.
When we respond to fire in a building weve never Drawing on acquired building construction
seen before, we rely on our pre-incident study (like knowledge to predict where the fire might have
this book) and our ability to read the building and gone undetected (or is going) is the hallmark of a
smoke to predict fire spread. good fire spread tactician.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Collapse a challenge that the exterior features portion of a

360 size-up will help paint. Using your forcible
Throughout this book, we try to include as many entry knowledge and size-up info, you can priori-
collapse issues as we can squeeze in. Most of these tize entry options that help minimize the impacts
issues weve learned through history and experi- of the fireground clock. Using your understanding
ence. On scene, the first-arriving decision maker of building construction, you may find that making
must make a judgment on the collapse potential a door out of a window (or making a door where
of a building or parts of a building. Typically, fire none exists) may be quicker than trying to tackle
officers use visual warning signs to make that a door with serious security hardware. We also
judgment. These warnings include: must add that any challenge to get into a building
should also be balanced with a challenge to be able
Sagging floors and roofs to get out of a building (escape in a timely manner)
Bowing or bulging walls if a firefighter or victim removal situation arises.
Therefore, forcible entry should be viewed as a
Cracks
two-part operation that consists of forcible entry
Settling noises and forcible exit! As a thought-provoking side note,
Doors out of plumb or jammed we normally require a minimum of two ladders to
a roof for personnel operating above ground. Why
Water flowing out of the building that doesnt
dont we require a minimum of two ways to exit
match water going in
a building?
Fire impingement on trusses
Amount of fire and time it has been burning
Ventilation
Structural material that is being burned
The tactical challenge of ventilation is closely
While this list is important to learn, we feel most related to that of fire spread. Reading the building
are late warning signs. There are dozens (if not and reading smoke go hand in hand to help deter-
hundreds) of investigative reports where firefighters mine what the fire is doing and what it is about
have reported that the building collapsed without to do. As you read both, it is critical to gain an
warning. A better process to predict collapse is understanding of the exhaust and air flow paths.
by using a mental one (as opposed to late visual Inadequate exhaust flow paths sets the stage for
signs). As Francis Brannigan said, The warning is explosive smoke ignition and rapid fire spread
the brain, in your ability to understand how build- especially with todays low-mass, synthetic fire
ings are built and how they react in a fire.2 Later loads. As a general rule, its best to increase the
in this chapter we offer a few suggestions on how exhaust flow path size near the fire. The building
to mentally process collapse judgments, but for size-up and your understanding of construc-
now well add that judging collapse potential is an tion methods (materials, roof types, and window
algorithm of building construction method, fire and options) will help you prioritize choices to increase
heat exposure, and elapsed time. the exhaust flow path.

Dont forget to consider the fireground clock

Forcible entry and rate of change when making tactical ventila-
tion decisions. For example, you may read the fire
The art of forcible entry has been well docu-
and smoke and determine that the best solution to
mented in many fire service books. The point
control heat and smoke flow paths for advancing
here is not to teach you how to force any given
interior crews is that of a large offensive heat hole
door or windowhopefully youve learned many
on the roof near the fire. The fireground clock
techniques. Rather, we include forcible entry as

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suggests that a rooftop heat hole will take 10 survivablethe human life threshold is 300F for 1
minutes to accomplish. The rate of change indicates minute.3 (Retired Chief John Coleman addresses this
that the fire and smoke is getting worse each minute issue from a time perspective in his books Incident
(despite the fire attack). Logically, the fireground Management for the Street-Smart Fire Officer and
clock and rate of change has taken away this roof Searching Smarter. Both are listed in Resources for
venting option. Further Study at the end of this chapter.)

Be aware that as this book is being written Prioritizing search is an exercise of combining
there are new studies being conducted by the most of our building size-up factors: building use,
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and the National building size, building status, what is burning, and
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) on the fireground clock. Each of these factors has to
the effects of horizontal ventilation on fire behavior be weighed with the resources that are immedi-
in legacy and contemporary residential construc- ately available. For example, a large, occupied,
tion, with some surprising results that may modify multistory, multifamily dwelling fire with rapidly
and/or change some long-held beliefs. Briefly, the deteriorating fire and smoke conditions should
studies suggest that initial ventilation efforts are cause you to prioritize search and rescue tactics.
likely to make things worse, and that rapid cooling You know that it would take several companies 10
of turbulent smoke and visible fire conditions are to 15 minutes to search the survivable spaces and
likely to make things better or, at minimum, slow it will take another two companies 5 to 10 minutes
the fire rate of change. These studies are noted at to make an interior knockdown on the fire. If four
the end of this chapter in the section Resources for companies are not immediately available, you may
Further Study. opt to prioritize fire spread tactics (reset and slow
the rate of change) to buy time for the search (hit it
hard from the exterior).
Search
In a simpler time, firefighters valued that every
building (and every room within) was searched
Specific hazards
unless it was physically impossible to achieve Compiling a list of potential building hazards
(fully involved or already collapsed). Without being that can affect tactics is probably futile. There
judgmental, that search value was established based are, however, several hazards that seem to always
on a history of fighting predictable fires in very resil- affect tactical choices. They include:
ient buildings with simple floor plans. Smoke was
a non-issue for entering firefighters back thenwe The use and storage of hazardous materials
had our self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), Evidence of hoarding
and if we could tolerate the heat, it was safe to
Multiple overhead power lines
be there (higher smoke ignition temperature). Two
things happened since that simpler time: Society Challenging access/egress conditions
changed the fire (high heat release rates and explo- Previous fires and collapses within the building
sive, low-ignition temperature smoke) and society
Aging and lack of maintenance
changed the building (engineered lightweight). We
still value the need to search what we can, but we Windowless buildings
must do so with particular attention to survivable Multiple entry levels or sloping grade
spaces (and firefighter safety). The 360 building configurations
size-up can help you determine the survivable
spaces. Heat-cracked windows that are issuing
high-velocity smoke can indicate a room that is not

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In addition to the specific hazards listed above, common on many buildings and capable of creating
we feel there are some significant game-changing serious injury to firefighters who inadvertently
hazards worthy of mention. They include the base stand in the receiving and transmission paths.
of operations, green movement, facades, access/
egress, and name/utilities. Facades. Of all the items that we recommend you
look for in your initial size-up, a facade (some call
Base of operations. In chapter 7 we considered the them a false mansard) is one of the most visible
importance of ensuring the stability of your base of attributes of a building that can be readily identi-
operations, which is simply defined as ensuring what fied from the street. Although we discussed facades
you are standing on (roof or floor) will safely support in chapter 9, the impending hazards that false
your weight until you exit the building! Quite often mansards are capable of creating when exposed
in the desire to put first water on a fire we tend to to fire bears repeating. Unfortunately, facades are
assume the grade floor of a buildingwhere we commonplace on some dwellings and numerous
normally conduct initial entry operationsis stable commercial buildings. Fortunately, facades are easy
and safe enough to support our weight until our opera- to identify, as they are an exterior style of construc-
tion is completed. However, with the proliferation of tion that is often quite large and constructed on the
I-joists that are becoming commonly used in floor front and sometimes the sides of a building. Always
and roof construction in addition to the increasing consider that facades present at least three primary
use of lightweight steel, the mass of conventional hazards:
lumber has been replaced with lightweight wood
and/or metal construction that can easily catastrophi- Many facades are constructed from lightweight
cally fail when subjected to the weight of firefighters construction.
and their equipment, even when the base of opera- They are a common attic on the exterior perim-
tions looks normal from a visual observation or TIC eter of a building, are likely common to an
reading. So, when operating above a fire, either above adjoining attic, and usually lack fire-stopping
a cellar/basement, on floors above a grade floor, and/ and sprinklers.
or on a roof, take the necessary time to ensure your
They are capable of collapsing over the front
base of operations will support your weight.
access/egress opening (front door) and capable
Green movement. Although the green movement of blocking the movement of firefighters,
is an emerging program that has and will continue severing water supply to interior personnel, and
to influence building construction, it presents a burying personnel near the front of a building.
new set of size-up hazards that were not an initial As an example, refer to figure 924.
size-up consideration a few years ago. Some facets If a facade presents any of these hazards,
of the green movement cannot be initially seen consider using an entrance that is not under it (e.g.,
such as more efficient insulation and windows, a rear door).
advanced framing techniques, and cool roofs that
can collectively contribute to more rapid flashovers. Access/egress. In the previous section we briefly
Other hazards that may be readily seen are not as looked at some forcible entry considerations.
well understood, such as roof mounted solar panels, However, lets revisit forcible entry from the
roof cellular antennas with accompanying electrical perspective of being able to get into and out of a
feeds, and atriums. These elements create a new building in an acceptable amount of time. Many
set of hazards that not only must be included in an firefighter injuries and deaths are caused by not
initial size-up but must be emphasized as hazards being able to exit a building in a timely manner.
that every firefighter needs to be familiar with. As Therefore, an initial size-up should include the
explained in chapter 9, an example of a current prospect that personnel who will be committed to
hazard is roof mounted cellular antennas that are the interior of a building are able to satisfactorily

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

enter and exit the building. This often includes

much more than opening/forcing a front door for
a rapid deployment of an attack line! Buildings
that are prime candidates for this type of analysis
and subsequent removal of egress obstructions are
vacant buildings that are secured with plywood/
OSB type materials, buildings with security bars
over the doors and windows as in figure 93, and
so on. Always ensure that interior personnel are
able to exit a building without having to depend on
their primary means of access, which is typically
the front door!

Name/utilities. In many cases, one of the easiest yet Fig. 109. This building initially appears to be a three-story
applicable size-up indicators of building contents, residential building.
layout, and potential hazards is the signage on
the front of the building. Residential buildings
Three-story residential building. Basement
always have an invisible sign on the exterior that
status unknown.
reads people inside, and, depending on the type
of building, can be an important indicator of the The building appears to be from the pre-WWII
expected occupant load. Commercial buildings era, as the roof overhang is beginning to
can be a bit more elusive but will vary from no collapse, the exterior shingles are likely
signage to an exterior name that indicates the type asbestos, windows are in-line indicating
of business and likely interior contents, fire load, balloon frame construction, and the corbels are
expected fire behavior, and potential floor plan. In likely decorative.
combination with exterior signage, the number and The window over the porch has been covered
size of utilities can also indicate potential interior over and now supports a heating appliance duct.
hazards that are noteworthy. Utilities that are more
The attic has been converted into multiple living
numerous and/or larger than typical residential or
spaces. Notice the dormers on the left and right
standard commercial utilities (as an example, refer
sides are original while the front dormer is
to fig. 914) than would be expected for a common
not original.
commercial building indicate interior processes
that can be larger and/or more hazardous to interior The two metal boxes on the right side of the
personnel than processes that are typically encoun- entryway contain 13 mailboxes! This would be
tered. Do not let the excitement of a structure fire noticed upon close inspection.
and the challenge of deploying the first attack As this building allows a 360 size-up, lets walk
line replace simple size-up indicators that have down the right side and see what we did not see
the potential of clarifying the hazards of the host from the front by looking at figure 1010:
building you are about to engage.
In addition to the front entrance, there is a side
Now, as a quick review and using the preceding entrance to the main building.
considerations as a resource, lets apply our
suggested initial size-up templates and assume you Of particular importance, there are two additions
are the first arriving officer who has just stopped to the rear of the main buildingone with a
in front of the building in figure 109 that displays gable roof and another with a flat roof.
the following: Both of the additions appear to have the same
siding as the main buildingasbestos shingles.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Multiple electrical meters are visible on the The building size-up process outlined here is
addition with a gable roof. used to develop the rapid street-read guides in the
next section of the book. We hope you find them
The main building and the two add-ons are
useful as study guides and templates to help you
likely conventional construction.
form your own perspective on reading buildings.
Lastly, this building will present a sizeable That is the keydevelop your own method to get
search/rescue challenge depending on the type a read on your next building response. To finish
of fire. this chapter, we want to share some perspectives
on how to use your building reading skills to triage
and predict collapse of burning buildings.

Quick summary
Most buildings present six tactical challenges:
fire spread, collapse, forcible entry/exit, ventila-
tion, search, and specific hazards.
Fire spread is influenced by interior geometry, fire
loading, and heat/air flow paths.
Visual collapse warning signs like sagging roofs
and floors are considered late warning signs.
Fig. 1010. From the side and back, the building in figure They are important to know and apply, but a
109 appears quite different from the front size-up.
better approach is to use a mental process to
predict collapse using building construction and
There you have itthe process of sizing up your fire degradation knowledge.
next building. You may be thinking that our list The exterior features that are discovered as
is pretty long and quite a challenge to remember, part of a 360 size-up will help paint the forcible
let alone apply at a fire. The key is to create an entry challenge. All forcible entry efforts work
unconscious competence through repeated practice. against the fireground clock. Using building
Formal training helpsand provides the foundation construction and material knowledge, fire
for the competence. The unconscious part comes officers may decide that enlarging windows or
when you consciously apply the size-up processes breaching walls is quicker than forcing a heavily
during routine or day-to-day building visits that secured door.
are unencumbered with incident handling. Great
company officers and battalion chiefs take advan- Ventilation challenges are closely related to fire
tage of any building visit to linger about the spread issues. The management of heat flow
building and exercise their size-up skills. It doesnt paths is essential to fire control. In most cases, it
matter if the visit is for a meeting, shopping for is best to enlarge the heat flow path near the fire
the crew meal, or running other errands. The and rapidly apply water to flames and turbulent
learning (and practice) never ends. Your authors smoke. Building construction knowledge helps
are no longer assigned to suppression duties, yet in making the best decisions for increasing heat
our teaching trips around the world provide great flow paths. The decisions must take into account
opportunities to discover all manner of buildings rate of change and the fireground clock.
and keep our building size-up skills proficient. You
can achieve the same.

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

work. In most organizations that responsibility is

Search challenges are influenced by building automatically assumed by the incident commander
use, size, status, and the fireground clock. As (IC). The strategic and stationary nature of the IC
part of the 360 building size-up, a judgment of responsibilities can limit the ability to continually
interior survivable spaces needs to be made. read the building. For this reason, we support the
Heat-cracked windows emitting high-velocity designation of an incident safety officer (ISO) or IC
smoke is a sign of a nonsurvivable space. assistant who has the flexibility to roam the incident
Depending on resources, firefighters may choose scene and continually read the building (as well as
to prioritize fire spread tactics in order to buy the smoke and other hazards).
time for searches.
Those assigned the role of continually reading
Specific building hazards are myriad. Some a building while interior operations are underway
significant challenges include hazmat, also has a responsibility to triage the building and
sloping grades, overhead electrical lines, and predict collapse. The word triage means to sort or
hoarding. Game-changing hazards include prioritize. Building triage involves the process of
your base of operations, the green movement, evaluating current and changing conditions and
facades, access/egress options, and building making judgments about the risks and integrity of
name/utilities. the various portions of a building. Taken further,
The building size-up process can become second the building triage sets the stage for predicting
nature through repeated practice during noninci- partial, localized, and general collapses.
dent building visits. The practice never ends.
Building triage and collapse projections are
mental processes that use the classic model of
identify/analyze/decide. Lets explore triage and
collapse predictions a bit more.

Perspectives On Triaging building fires

Building Triage and First-due fire officers are challenged by making
go, no-go decisions using initial and 360 size-up
Predicting Collapse processes. At best, the size-up investment will
result in sound risk management decisions and
The first-due decision maker (usually the first-
appropriate tactical accomplishments that lead
arriving company officer) uses his or her reading
to a safe and predictable outcome. The reality,
building skills for rapid recognition of potential
however, is that the initial and 360 size-ups are
traps and to understand the tactical challenges that
accomplished in a short time frame and rely on
a building may present. Once initial operations
surface (exterior) clues to paint an interior picture.
commence, that first-due company officer will have
All the information to make the best decisions isnt
to focus on the safe accomplishment of tasks. The
always apparent. First-due decision makers have
company officer must maintain situational aware-
and will continue to engage in interior operations
ness, but more often than not, the completion of the
without the benefit of collecting all the neces-
task requires the crew to get up close and personal
sary information to ensure our safety (it is a risky
with the smoke, fire, and interior of the building.
business and we willingly accept those risks). This
The up-close completion of tactical assignments
reality has led suppression commanders to develop
limits the ability to see the big building picture.
various checklists and guides to help triage (sort
Someone needs to assume the role of reading
and prioritize) building information and condi-
the whole building after the first-due has gone to
tions. Using a process of building triage can help

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The Art of Reading Buildings

commanders predict hostile events (like rapid fire information. (We add some clarity to Chief Castros
spread and collapse) and make risk-based changes list in parentheses following the item.)
to the incident action plan that could include rapid
withdrawal of interior committed crews. Using Chief Castros fi re triage program, lets
apply his structural triage prompts to the building
One example of building triaging is the multi- in figure 1011.
faceted building fire triage and risk manage-
ment program developed by Los Angeles Fire Assume you have just stopped in front of this
Department Battalion Chief Joe Castro. (See the moderate size, single-story commercial building
feature titled Joes Building Fire Triage Program.) and it is 2 a.m. Your initial size-up (initially limited
Chief Castro has assembled a series of prompts that to Sides A and B) indicates the building is older
helps the IC sort through fireground indicators that as it is in an older, commercial/industrial part of
can be used to consider two primary assessments: town, the walls (likely of URM) are covered with
stucco, the roof appears to be an older gable roof
When to consider not entering a building (likely an older truss gable roof with multiple layers
of roofing materials) that is flanked by an older flat
When to consider getting out of a building
roof (that although is likely conventional construc-
The prompts are divided into structural triage, tion, is also covered with multiple layers of roofing
smoke and fire conditions, and insightful tangibles. materials). The building is obviously vacant (there
As you review the feature, note that the prompts is a small Available sign on the front door and the
include important reminders as well as unanswered previous name of the building on Side B has been

Best to view all sides of building

Joes Building Fire Triage Compare smoke volume to size of building
Program Velocity/pressure (turbulent smoke is a flash-
over warning)
Structural triage Density/thickness (smoke is fuel; thicker smoke
Limited ways in and out leads to more severe fire)

Cant tell what the building is being used for Color (black is heat, dirty white is filtered/
distal smoke, brown smoke is heated wood)
Cant tell where the fire is
Has the potential to having been burning Fire conditions
undetected
Burn time
Cant determine the potential floor planno
High levels of heat
prefire intelligence
No ventilation (inadequate heat flow paths)
Buildings whose construction features
frequently result in unexpected fire behavior or Delays in progress
rapid collapse Lack of progress

Smoke conditions Other tangibles

Read smoke conditions Out of comfort zone due to size/scope/
Zero visibilityincreases interior risk complexity
Evaluation of the rate of change Lack of situational awareness

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

Fig. 1011. This is the scenario that is initially viewed by responding resources.

painted over), there is one small entrance door in From this simple example that has only used
the front that is flanked by a small display window, Joes structural triage and not his smoke conditions,
and it is unknown if the adjoining building (to the fire conditions, and other tangibles, this building
right of the main entrance) is a common occupancy. has completely failed the six structural triage
Assuming there is some smoke visible from this prompts. It is easy to see that any of the prompts
building (particularly the turbine ventilator that is (individually or collectively) can lead to the order
visible on the ridge of the gable roof), you have (or to not enter or to withdraw interior crews, or at
lack) the following structural knowledge: the minimum, initiate a cautious approach that is
based on the potential of rapid change depending
Initially, there appears to be one (small) way in on conditions. The work of Chief Castro is but one
and out of the building. example of how a building triage system can help
You have no idea of what the building is used for. incident commanders and safety officers process
incident observations and judgments for the sake
You are unsure of the fire location.
of firefighter safety.
Due to the vacant/time of day status, the fire
has had the potential of burning for an extended The last part of this chapter specifically ad-
time frame. dresses the mental process of predicting collapse.

There are no windows on Side B.

You are uncertain of the interior f loor plan Predicting collapse
(basement?) and contents. It is also uncertain
As with most incident dynamics, nothing is
if the adjoining building is common to the
absolute about predicting building collapse. There
subject building.
is no perfect formula. Yet the effort to analyze and
The older flat and truss gable roofs are capable predict collapse is absolutely essential to firefighter
of collapse if exposed to fire for an extended safety. The book Collapse of Burning Buildings:
period of time. (This can also be enhanced by A Guide to Fireground Safety, by retired FDNY
the likely multiple layers of roofing materials.) Deputy Chief Vincent Dunn, is an excellent starting
place to learn how buildings and parts of buildings

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collapse. This is just one part of the front-loading the term structure fire to dispatch crews. There
that needs to take place to help predict collapse. may be some benefit in the conservative approach
There are other front-loading activities that can that all fires are structure fires, but the reality is
help you build your ability to predict collapse: that many fires we go to are merely contents fires.
Usually it is a combination of reading the smoke
Developing the ability to read a building by and the read you have on the building that will help
practicing. you determine if the event is a contents fire or if
Reviewing investigative reports from past the structural elements of the building are being
collapse incidents. attacked by heated smoke and fire. A quick visual
clue that the structure itself is being attacked is the
Making postfire site visits of collapsed buildings.
presence of dark gray or black smoke venting under
Performing prefire planning and site visits. pressure from structural seams, eaves, attic vents,
The process of predicting collapse at an actual foundation ridge boards, and wallboard seams.
incident (especially when crews have been interior Also, unfinished wood that is being rapidly heated
committed) becomes a cyclic activity that is akin emits a brownish smoke as it pyrolizes.
to an algorithm. The algorithm uses four analytical
Input 3: Visualizing and tracing loads.
inputs and one important output:
Visualizing and tracing loads is a minds eye
Input 1: Classifying the construction exerciselike using X-ray vision to see how loads
are being delivered to ground. In many ways, you
Input 2: Determining structural involvement are constructing the building mentally. This exer-
cise is designed to help find the weak link, which
Input 3: Visualizing and tracing loads
typically precipitates the collapse. Historical weak
Input 4: Evaluating elapsed time links include the following:

Output: Predicting and communicating collapse Structural connections

potential Overloading
The four inputs are analyzed and a judgment Occupancy changes
needs to be rendered about the collapse potential of
Modern trusses
building or various parts or area of a building. Lets
examine these inputs a bit more and show how they Void spaces
can lead to the output. Stairs
Input 1: Classifying the construction. This is Parapet walls
where the classification approach of era/use/type/ Large, open span interior spaces
size becomes valuable. This combination better
links the building to strengths and weaknesses Facades
as well as fire spread patterns. By classifying Input 4: Evaluating elapsed time. Some struc-
the building, you can imagine how the materials tural elements fail as soon as fire (heat) reaches the
and arrangement of structural elements might be material. Other materials absorb incredible heat
impacted by fire and heat. As an example, there is a for a long duration before they become suscep-
significant difference between older timber trusses tible to collapse. Elapsed time as a factor should
and modern lightweight wood trusses. be brought into the collapse equation, although the
time it takes for gravity to overcome the structure
Input 2: Determining structural involvement.
during a fire is not predictable. Remember that
Determining whether a fire is a contents or struc-
elapsed time includes two clocks: the prearrival
tural fire is imperative. Most fire departments use

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clock (unknown) and the fireground clock (should strategy. Granted, there are times when you can
be known). A number of variables determine the prove reasonable integrity in these building and
amount of time a material can resist gravity and allow interior operations, but the default should be
heat before failure. Many factors can accelerate the defensive until that proof is gathered.
potential collapse time:

Low material mass, or high surface-to-mass

ratio
Quick summary
Higher Btu development and heat release rates Predicting collapse is not an absolute science but
(fire load) is critical for firefighter safety.

Alterations (undesigned loading) Building triage and collapse projections are

mental processes that use the classic model
Age deterioration or the lack of care and mainte- of identify/analyze/decide.
nance of the structure
An algorithm of inputs and an output can serve
Firefighting impact loads (fire stream force, as a mental process to help predict collapse.
accumulated water, forcible entry and ventila-
tion efforts, weight of firefighting teams) The inputs include building classification (era/
use/type/size), structural involvement observa-
Breakdown or loss of fire-resistive barriers like tions, visualizing loads to help determine the
drywall and steel coatings weak link, and elapsed time. The output is
Output: Predicting and communicating collapse communication of collapse potentials.
potential. The preceding inputs can help you visu- Buildings under construction, renovation,
alize a collapse scenario for the building involved or demolition should default to a defen-
in the incident. In many ways, the inputs create a sive approach.
series of hits that can take down the building. One
of the hits alone can take the building (or part of
the building). Likewise, any one input may be a
marginal hit but the synergy of all the marginal
hits will lead to collapse. This information should
be communicated to command in such a way that
includes the establishment of a collapse zone or
zones and an adjustment to the incident action
plan (IAP). Collapse zones should be considered
no-entry zones for firefighters. Most fire service
texts suggest that a collapse zone is at least one and
a half times the height of the element that is antici-
pated to fall. While this may be appropriate for
wood structures, it may not be adequate for unre-
inforced masonry construction. There are many
documented collapses where a falling unreinforced
masonry wall has propelled bricks and mortar three
times the height of the wall!

As a final note, buildings undergoing con-

struction, demolition, or extensive remodeling
are basically losers during fires. Treat them all
as collapse-ready and push for a defensive-only

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Chapter Review Exercise

Study the following pictures and write down your evaluations about use, size, type, and other considerations.

Photo exercise 1

Building use:

Building size:

Basic construction type:

Building era:

Exterior features:

Interior features:

Specific hazards:

Likely building status:

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

Photo exercise 2

Building use:

Building size:

Basic construction type:

Building era:

Exterior features:

Interior features:

Specific hazards:

Likely building status:

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 3

Building use:

Building size:

Basic construction type:

Building era:

Exterior features:

Interior features:

Specific hazards:

Likely building status:

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

Photo exercise 4

Building use:

Building size:

Basic construction type:

Building era:

Exterior features:

Interior features:

Specific hazards:

Likely building status:

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The Art of Reading Buildings

Photo exercise 5

Building use:

Building size:

Basic construction type:

Building era:

Exterior features:

Interior features:

Specific hazards:

Likely building status:

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Chapter 10 Reading Buildings: How To Size Up a Building

Resources for notes

Further Study 1 Numerous NIOSH Firefighter Fatality Investigation
Technical Reports recommend that the first-due
Coleman, John F. (Skip), Incident Management officer perform a 360 size-up of the building fire
for the Street-Smart Fire Officer, 2nd ed., Tulsa, environment prior to interior engagement in order
OK: PennWell, 2008. to help prevent future firefighter fatalities.
Coleman, John F. (Skip), Searching Smarter, 2 Dodson wrote this quote verbatim from a slide
Tulsa: OK: PennWell, 2011. presentation that Professor Brannigan displayed
Dodson, David W., The Art of Reading Smoke during a pre-conference seminar on steel construc-
Practice Sessions, DVD, Tulsa, OK: PennWell, tion that was presented at FDIC in Cincinnati (late
2009. 1980s).

Dodson, David W., The Art of Reading Smoke, 3 Various sources cite the human life threshold for heat
DVD, Tulsa, OK: PennWell Corporation, Fire (death) and they differ slightly. The sources include
Engineering books and videos, 2007. the NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, Journal of
Dunn, Vincent, Collapse of Burning Buildings: Forensic Medicine, and several NIST technical
A Guide to Firefighter Safety, 2nd ed., Tulsa, reports. Most use 250F for several minutes or less.
OK: PennWell, 2010. We chose 300F for 1 minute as a conservative,
inarguable data point that favors potential victims
I A AI and USFA, Managing Vacant and
and is still within the tolerance levels of compliant
Abandoned Properties in Your Community,
structural PPE.
International Association of Arson Investigators
(IAAI) and the United States Fire Administration
(USFA) Abandoned Building Project, 2006.
Marsar, Stephen, Survivability Profiling,
Fire Engineering, July 2010 (available at http://
www.fireengineering.com/articles/2010/07/
survivability-profiling-how-long-can-victims-
survive-in-a-fire.html).
UL research on ventilation can be found at
http://content.learnshare.com/courses/73/306714/
player.html.

285
Section 3
Rapid street-read guides
USING THE RAPID
STREET-READ GUIDES 11
52 Buildings
rom a firefighters perspective, we believe that there are 52 types of build-

F ings. While this may sound like a foolish statement, there is a foundation
for it. In the United States, there are approximately 135 million buildings if
you add up commercial, residential, and government buildings.1 It is estimated
that every year, 1.5 million new buildings are constructed and 250,000 buildings
are demolished. Additionally, there are untold numbers of buildings that are not
counted for many reasons (outbuildings, do-it-yourself structures, hidden ones,
etc.). The 52 buildings cited are representative of the 135 million-plus aggregate.
So how did we come up with the number 52?

If you recall back in chapter 4, we argued that the five classic types of build-
ings that are outlined in fire service curriculums are a bit oversimplified and
can actually lead to some traps for firefighters. We then suggested that from a
firefighters perspective, it is best to classify buildings using a model of era/use/
type/size. That suggestion became the starting place for developing the list of 52
representative buildings. We then considered the following:

Lessons learned from previous building fires

Tactical challenges that are shared by various groups of buildings
Regional influences in the U.S. (East coast, West coast, Mid-America, North,
and South)
Features or hazards that separate a building group from others
The formula may not be perfect, but we used it to help develop the rapid
street-read guides that are found in this section. The intent of the guides is to
provide an informative template for the prevalent types of buildings that may
exist in your community. Further, we wanted to create a resource that could be
used for building preplanning, fire prevention inspections, company training
sessions, and responses to building fires. All told, we hope the guides meet our
original goal of creating a useful desk reference that helps firefighters with rapid
recognition and practical relevancy for the buildings in their community.

289
The Art of Reading Buildings

As you read through the guides, it may help firefighters have developed all manner of slang,
to understand the specific methodology that went jargon, or terms to describe a given building. We
into the design. Likewise, wed like to offer some tried to use the most common terms.
suggestions on how to maximize their use.
3. Owners and occupants of buildings can be very
inventive and resourceful with alterations. There
are likely to be buildings out there that combine
key points from multiple street guides or simply
Design Features dont fit into any of them.
4. The guides are developed to be the starting
As more responding personnel (firefighter,
line for understanding a given building. By
driver, officer, chief officer) can learn how to
design, they are a guideline (flexible in applica-
quickly evaluate and incor porate applicable
tion) and should not be used as a replacement for
building considerations into fireground operations
directive procedures or policies.
(based on safe and appropriate operational effec-
tiveness), structural fireground operations will 5. We know that we will receive reader inputs and
become more of an art rather than an experiment. correctionsand we encourage it. Actually, we
Creating a quick, applicable building reference was challenge you to develop your own guides for
our main design criteria to help you develop your specific buildings in your districtand share
art. To that end, we followed these guidelines: them with us!

Use a quick overall indexing system based on

the first-due arrival size-up approach presented
in chapter 10 (single-family dwelling, public
assembly, etc.).
Using the Rapid
Subdivide the index into common styles or uses street-read guides
(colonial, condo, church, etc.).
The idea of rapid street-read guides isnt a new
Include a photograph that shows a classic
one; creative fire instructors have developed varia-
example of the building being outlined (some
tions of the theme to help with in-house training
guides have more than one photo).
activities for decades. Likewise, some fire depart-
Use one page per building. The front of the page ments have developed specific prefire building
describes the building, the back highlights tactical surveys for those in their jurisdictionranging
concerns that are common to the building. from very simplistic to incredibly complex. Our
Keep text and bulleted items short, easy to read, original vision was to include the street guides as
and to the point. a generic training tool to help firefighters expand
their building knowledge past the five types and
Using the guidelines above created editing bridge the gap between book knowledge and
challenges that may open the door for questions of fireground application. We shared a couple of the
clarity and omissions. In recognition of this possi- early versions of the guides to firefighters around
bility, consider the following: the country, and their input was invaluable. We
then presented a short class on rapid-reads at FDIC
1. The buildings represented are a snapshot of the
in Indianapolis. The resulting feedback from that
classic or most prevalent of that kind.
class blew our mindsand showed how imagina-
2. Terminology can be amazingly diverse across tive and training-hungry firefighters can be. Listed
the United States. As we traveled across the below are some ways you can use the rapid street-
country conducting research, we discovered that read guides.

290
Chapter 11 Using the Rapid street-read guides

As a template for collecting building information

for the development of prefire plans note
As a conversation starter for your actual on-site 1 The figure was derived from data from the U.S.
building familiarization activities Department of Commerce, Energy Information
Spontaneous in-service company training on Administration, and the U.S. Depar tment of
those bad weather days* Housing and Urban Development. Figure represents
total buildings through 2011.
To help add a field component to basic fire
academy building construction classes or
community college fire science curriculums
As a promotional assessment preparation tool
For a community risk analysis project (the need
for sprinklers, fire stations, staffing, etc.)
A field guide for improving rapid street reads as
you drive through your district
As a reference tool for the preparation of
research projects such as those assigned at the
National Fire Academy Executive Fire Officer
development courses
(*Pick a guide and match it to the crews knowl-
edge of buildings in their area and the issues that
could arise.)

More than anything, we encourage you to get

out of the fire station and get into the buildings that
could possibly host your next fire. The information
you glean from these visits are certain to help you
improve your situational awareness, crew safety,
and rapid decision making.

As a final note, we are open to your input on

making the guides more usable. We fully expect
to revise, add, subtract, and expand the guides in
future editions and for other media avenues.

Following is a master index of all the street

guides. You will see a use category (single-family
dwelling, public assembly, etc.) followed by a
numbered list of differing examples that fall in that
category. Each rapid street-read guide is tabbed
with a category acronym and number that coincides
with the index.

291
SFD Rapid street-read guide Index
Single-Family Dwelling (SFD)
SFD 1: Colonial and Georgian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
SFD 2: Victorian/Queen Anne and Cape Cod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
MDF SFD 3: Craftsman and American Four Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
SFD 4: Prairie Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
SFD 5: Split Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
SFD 6: Modern Lightweight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

COM SFD 7: McMansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

SFD 8: Manufactured (Mobile) Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Multifamily Dwelling (MFD)

MFD 9: Brownstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

MANF MFD 10: Tenement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

MFD 11: Row Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
MFD 12: Railroad Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
MFD 13: Center Hallway Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
MFD 14: Garden Apartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

OFF MFD 15: Project HousingLow Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

MFD 16: Project HousingHigh Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
MFD 17: Legacy Townhome/Condo/Apartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
MFD 18: Lightweight Townhome/Condo/Apartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

INST Main Street Commercial (COM)

COM 19: Pre-WWI Ordinary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
COM 20: Pre-WWII Ordinary (Taxpayer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
COM 21: Industrial/Legacy Strip-Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
COM 22: Modern Strip-Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
PUB COM 23: Fast Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
COM 24: Mega-Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
COM 25: Big-Box Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

MISC

292
Manufacturing/Warehouse (MANF) SFD
MANF 26: Block/Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
MANF 27: Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
MANF 28: Concrete Tilt-Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
MANF 29: Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
MANF 30: Converted Mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 MDF
MANF 31: Public StorageSingle Story. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
MANF 32: Public StorageMultistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Oce Building/Hotel (OFF)

OFF 33: Pre-WWIILow Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 COM
OFF 34: Post-WWIILow Rise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
OFF 35: 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
OFF 36: High Rise1st Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
OFF 37: High Rise2nd Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
OFF 38: High Rise3rd Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 MANF
Institutional Building (INST)
INST 39: School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
INST 40: Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
INST 41: Detention (Jail) Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
OFF
INST 42: Attended Care Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

Public Assembly (PUB)

PUB 43: Restaurant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
PUB 44: Stadium/Arena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
INST
PUB 45: Auditorium/Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
PUB 46: Meeting Hall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
PUB 47: Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Miscellaneous Building/Structure (MISC) PUB

MISC 48: Pole Barn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
MISC 49: Kit Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
MISC 50: Silo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
MISC 51: Historical BuildingDwelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
MISC
MISC 52: Historical BuildingCommercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

293
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE SFD
1
BUILDING GROUP: Single-Family DwellingColonial and Georgian
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Conventional wood frame and balloon frame
Some masonry walls

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Historical-era homes are built with full-dimen-
sional, rough-sawn lumber.
Larger historical-era models have heavy
timbers for floor beams and internal columns.
Those built from 18601930 are likely to be
balloon frame.
Older examples have stone or some masonry
foundations.
Rehabilitated examples and those with
additions may have some lightweight
components.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Simple gabled and hipped wood roofs are used;
some have slate roofs.
Freestanding brick fireplaces typically anchor
Side B and Side D.
Windows are typically double-hung, narrow,
and aligned.
Crawl spaces and cellars are expected,
basements are rare. Cellar access is usually on
the exterior of Side C.
Pillars are used for ornate entryways that may also support extensive upper balconies.
Some have combustible wood roofs.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Living spaces typically front the floor plan with the kitchen in the rear. Rooms are boxed-shaped
and symmetrical.
A central stairway near the front door accesses upper floors. Bedrooms are served by a central hallway.
Narrow hallways and interior doors are common. Interior doors may have transoms above.
Attic spaces typically have a natural light window. The space may have been converted into a living or
sleeping space. Access to the attic is usually through a pull-down stair in the central hallway or one of
the bedrooms.

295
SFD TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Lath and plaster interior walls help absorb heat and contain room fires. Small rooms help with
1 compartmentalization. Fires that originate and/or spread to combustible void spaces create extinguishment
challenges. Most voids are combustible and interconnected. Stripping baseboards and placing inspection
holes in suspected stud runs can help detect and extinguish fires in voids. Hollow channels on either side
of double-hung windows can hide extension of fire. Ornate eave finishes present overhaul difficulties.
Fuel-fired, hot-air furnaces that use large flow-through floor registers to distribute heat also help distribute
fire and smoke. Check behind any trim molding exposed to fire. Masonry construction will limit the
spread of fire. However, renovations can create voids that enhance the spread of fire.
Collapse: The high-mass, full-dimension lumber nature of the construction can resist collapse in a predict-
able way. Sagging is a common and usable warning. Most collapse issues deal with aging (deterioration
and lack of maintenance) or with alterations and additions to the original structure. Modernization efforts
can also increase the collapse threat (removing interior walls to create open spaces). Balconies and
exterior ornate features can be expected to fall from the building early. Fireplaces are likely unreinforced
masonry construction. Heavy roof dead loads can be expected.
Ventilation: Interconnected combustible voids almost mandate the use of vertical ventilation tactics. Thick
hardwoods used for roof decking can dull chain saws quickly. A rotary saw with a combination blade is a
viable option. Most rooms have an exterior window, which can aid in horizontal ventilation. PPV should
be used with caution in balloon frame buildings.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. Expect heavy, solid
doors and strong locks. Narrow windows can make access/emergency egress difficult. Clearing the sash
and frame is essential.
Search: Original floor plans include many small rooms that are symmetrical and easy to search. Main floor
rooms flow room to room, whereas a central hallway serves bedrooms.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Some utilities may not be able to be secured from the exterior. Inspect for multiple electrical feeds.
Georgian-style, mansion sized, Civil War- and WWI-era examples may have secret rooms, tunnels, and
passageways that lead to outbuildings.
Expect heavy roof loads on post-and-beam and balloon-frame buildings
Knob and tube wiring is an ungrounded system.
Watch for renovations and combustible wood roofs.

296
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE SFD
2
BUILDING GROUP: Single-Family DwellingVictorian/Queen Anne and Cape Cod
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Conventional wood frame

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Historical-era homes are built with full-
dimensional, rough-sawn lumber.
Those built from 18601930 are likely to be
balloon frame or post and beam.
Older examples have stone or masonry
foundations.
Rehabilitated examples and those with addi-
tions may have some lightweight elements.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Simple gabled roofs are the norm. Some
Queen Anne and Victorian examples have
steep pitches and turrets. Slate roofs may
be encountered as well as combustible
wood roofs.
Fireplaces are central, freestanding unrein-
forced brick.
Wood shake, shingle, and shiplap siding
is popular.
Double-hung windows are typically narrow and aligned.
Cellars are more prevalent than true basements. Most have an exterior cellar access that may have been
covered if an addition was made to the back of the house.
Expect upper balconies and widows watch type platforms.
Covered porches are common on Queen Anne dwellings.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Living spaces typically front the floor plan with the kitchen in the rear. Rooms are mostly small
and symmetrical.
A central stairway near the front door accesses upper floors.
Narrow hallways and interior doors are common. Interior doors may have transoms above.
Larger examples may have hidden passageways and rear stairwells.

297
SFD TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Lathe and plaster interior walls help absorb heat and contain room fires. Small rooms help
2 with compartmentalization. Fires that originate and/or spread to combustible void spaces (such as balloon
frame) create extinguishment challenges. Most voids are combustible and interconnected. Stripping
double-hung window moldings and baseboards and placing inspection holes in suspected stud runs
can help in detecting and extinguish fires in voids. Ornate cornices, scallops, and eave finishes present
overhaul difficulties. Fuel-fired, hot-air furnaces that use large flow-through floor registers to distribute
heat also help distribute fire and smoke. Remember that cellar/basement fires will readily spread upward,
and renovations can add voids that conceal and spread fire.
Collapse: The high-mass, full-dimension lumber nature of the construction can resist collapse in a predict-
able way. Sagging is a common and usable warning. Most collapse issues deal with aging (deterioration
and lack of maintenance) or with alterations and additions to the original structure. Modernization efforts
can also increase the collapse threat (removing interior walls to create open spaces). Balconies and
exterior ornate features can be expected to fall from the building early. Anticipate heavy roof loads.
Ventilation: Interconnected combustible voids almost mandate the use of vertical ventilation tactics. Queen
Anne examples with steep, multiple rooflines will require multiple roof vent openings. Positive pressure
ventilation (PPV) fans can create undesired flow paths in combustible voids. Basement and cellar fires
can be especially difficult to ventilate.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. Narrow windows
can make access/emergency egress difficult. Clearing the sash and frame is essential. Expect to encounter
heavy and/or solid doors and strong locks.
Search: Original floor plans include many small rooms that are symmetrical and easy to search. Main floor
rooms flow room to room, whereas bedrooms are served by a central hallway.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Some utilities may not be able to be secured from the exterior. Inspect for multiple electrical feeds.
Attic fires should be considered a basement/cellar fire firstrule it out.
Civil War- and WWI-era examples may have secret rooms, tunnels, and passageways that lead to
other buildings.
Anticipate balloon frame construction and knob and tube wiring.
Asbestos siding may be encountered.
Queen Anne SFDs are popular choices for conversion to bed and breakfasts or MFDs.
Attics may be converted to occupant spaces, creating knee walls.
Be wary of vinyl siding and combustible wood roofs.
Pulling ceilings below converted attics can be very difficult.

298
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE SFD
3
BUILDING GROUP: Single-Family DwellingCraftsman and American Four Square
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Legacy wood frame is most prevalent
(Craftsman).
Load-bearing brick exterior with wood frame
interior (Four Square)

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Historical-era homes are built with full-
dimensional, rough-sawn lumber.
The 18601920 Craftsman can be balloon
frame (look for narrow and aligned windows).
Post-WWII are mostly legacy platform.
Older examples have stone or masonry
foundations.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Simple gabled wood roofs with dormer
windows are common for Craftsman.
Simple hip wood roofs with dormer windows
are common for Four Square.
Expect open front porches with large
supported overhangs.
A crawl space or small furnace cellar is more
common than a basement. Those with a cellar
or basement have an exterior access that may
have been covered with an addition to the back of the house. Larger versions will have an interior stair
located in the rear of the house. Basement and cellar windows are very small.
Attached garages are very rare and, where present, are probably not original to the house.
Shiplap or masonry siding (can include asphalt siding) is used.
Mid-floor windows indicate the location of an interior stairway.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Most have a centered front door that divides a living room and dining room. Rooms are mostly small
and symmetrical.
The front door location (center or to one side) is typically aligned to the upper floor access stairway.
There are no real hallways. First-floor rooms flow room to room and the bedroom doors surround
the stairwell.
The pictured four-square has an unusual cellar access door and stairway window on Side B, indicating
an interior remodel.
Fireplaces are typically centrally mounted or found on opposing sides of the structure.

299
SFD TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Lathe and plaster interior walls help absorb heat and contain room fires. Small rooms help
3 with compartmentalization. Balloon frame examples have interconnected combustible voids that create
extinguishment challenges. Stripping double-hung window and baseboard moldings and placing inspec-
tion holes in suspected stud runs can help in detecting and extinguish fires in voids. Fuel-fired, hot-air
furnaces that use large flow-through floor registers to distribute heat also help distribute fire and smoke.
As a rule, non-balloon-frame examples contain fires very well. Smoke explosion or backdraft potentials
exist behind knee walls on either side of dormers. Remember that basement/cellar fires can rapidly spread
vertically.
Collapse: The high-mass, true-lumber nature of the construction can resist collapse in a predictable way.
Sagging is a common and usable warning. Most collapse issues deal with aging (deterioration and lack
of maintenance) or with alterations and additions to the original structure. Modernization efforts can
also increase the collapse threat (removing interior walls to create open spaces). The second floor beams
of brick (Four Square examples) sit on a ribbon ledge that can be brick or wood. Beware of heavy roof
dead loads.
Ventilation: Rooftop heat holes are the preferred way to ventilate fires that have extended to the second
floor or into the attic. Holes may have to be placed on either side of dormers to vent knee wall spaces.
PPV can be effective for first- and second-floor fires. Basement and cellar fires are especially difficult to
ventilate.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional forcible entry methods.
Narrow windows can make access/emergency egress difficult. Clearing the sash and frame is essential.
Expect heavy and/or solid doors and locks.
Search: Original floor plans include many small rooms that are symmetrical and easy to search. Main floor
rooms flow room to room, whereas a central stair serves bedrooms.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Some utilities may not be able to be secured from the exterior. Inspect for multiple electrical feeds.
An oil-burning hot-air furnace in the cellar can cause significant smoke spread into the home. These
furnaces often have large heat registers in the floors.
Oil- and gas-fired boilers with radiators in each room are very popular. The steam pipes were often
wrapped in a sleeve that contains asbestos (industrial and legacy eras).
Anticipate balloon frame construction and knob and tube wiring.
Asphalt and asbestos siding may be present.
Knee walls in converted attic spaces can be encountered and need to be checked.
Vinyl siding can be used to replace older exterior wood siding.

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BUILDING GROUP: Single-Family DwellingPrairie Style
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Legacy platform wood frame

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Those from 19501970 have
2 6 in. exterior wall studs and
cut lumber floor beams. Rafters
are tied to a ridge beam.
Those from 19701990 may have
a nailed-lumber truss roof,
although the floors can remain
solid cut lumber.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Simple gabled wood roofs with
low pitches are used for prairie
style.
Simple gable or hip wood roofs are used for split levels and cookie-cutter ranches.
Large windows, some with creative window shapes are featured (Frank Lloyd Wright style).
Bay windows are common.
Expansive eaves and overhangs are used to form porches and patios as part of the roofline.
Garages are usually attached with interior access.
Masonry or shiplap siding is used.
Common roof coverings are composition, rock, and tile.
Masonry veneers of brick or stone are often used.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Expect predictable floor plans that can be read easily from the exterior.
The great room concept is introduced in these homes.
Ranch (single-story) examples with basements have an internal stairway that is located central or near
the front entry.
Stacked (two- to three-story) examples with a basement have an internal stairway that is accessed by a
door on the back side (opposite) the second-story access stairs.
Vaulted ceilings may have exposed, true lumber beams with no attic.
Interior moldings are less dramatic and smaller than in older SFDs.
Some lathe and plaster was used in the interior.

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SFD TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Drywall is the primary fire spread barrier room to room. Modern HVAC return air and
4 distribution systems are rarely fire-stopped (no dampers). Attached garages are rarely finished with
drywall, although the separation wall to the living space must be drywalled (two layers of in.).
Multistory (stacked) designs are candidates for floor-to-floor fire spread when the fire originates on lower
levels (central open stairwell). Hollow-core interior doors were common in the 1970s and can defeat
compartmentalization.
Collapse: Legacy platform wood frame with true lumber is collapse resistive in most growth stage fires.
Sagging is a common and usable warning and is usually the result of wood consumption during the fire.
Multistory examples with bedrooms above the attached garage are more prone to rapid collapse when the
garage is involved.
Ventilation: Rooftop heat holes are the preferred way to ventilate single-story fires or fires that have
extended to the top floor or into the attic. Horizontal ventilation is often effective because of the large and
numerous window options. PPV can also be effectively deployed.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. Original doors,
windows, and locks can be easily removed or defeated. Occupant-installed security devices may slow
forcible entry, although breaching walls is usually fast and easy.
Search: Ranch and traditional stacked floor examples are of a simple arrangement and easy to visualize.
The chimney nature of the split-level central stair may necessitate the use of ladders to access and search
upper level bedrooms.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Most utilities can be secured from the exterior.
Side C walkout basements and garden levels can be expected on slope-grade examples.
Grade floor joists may be unprotected and exposed.
Tongue-and-groove roof sheathing can be found where vaulted ceilings exist.
Some shiplap siding has been replaced by vinyl siding.
Original kitchen cabinetry that has been replaced with modern modular units can create hidden voids
that extend to the second floor or attic knee walls.
Lightweight construction can be found, particularly in floor joists and for roof rafters.

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BUILDING GROUP: Single-Family DwellingSplit Level
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Legacy platform wood frame
Staggered floor levels may have some balloon-
like framing where levels meet.

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Those built from 19501970 have 2 6 in.
exterior wall studs and cut lumber floor
beams; rafters are tied to a ridge beam.
Those built from 19701990 typically have
a nailed-lumber truss roof. However, some
lightweight construction may be present.
Those built from 1990 to present are of
predominately lightweight construction.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Simple gable or hip wood roofs are used for
split levels.
Large windows and creative window shapes
are found (Frank Lloyd Wright style).
Bay windows are used.
Garages are usually attached and have
interior access.
Basements are common.
Double-hung and/or sliding windows are common.
Masonry veneers of stone or brick can be used.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Predictable floor plans are read easily from the exterior.
The great room concept was introduced in these homes.
Tri-levels have a centrally located side-by-side stairwell that serves the upper and lower levels.
A basement door and stair can be accessed on the back side of the lower stairwell.
Bi-levels typically have an entry door opening to a stairway that splits the upper and lower level.
Vaulted ceilings in legacy examples have exposed, true lumber beams and no attic, whereas lightweight
models will have a scissor-like truss and void space attic above the vault.
Interior drywall is common.

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SFD TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Drywall is the primary fire spread barrier from room to room. Modern HVAC return air and
5 distribution systems are rarely fire-stopped (no dampers). Attached garages are rarely finished (with
drywall), although the separation wall to the living space must be drywalled (with two layers of in.).
Split-level designs are notorious for floor-to-floor fire spread when the fire originates on lower levels
(via a central open stairwell). Hollow-core interior doors were common in the 1970s and can defeat
compartmentalization.
Collapse: Legacy platform wood frame with true lumber is collapse resistive in most growth-stage fires.
Sagging is a common and usable warning and is usually the result of wood consumption during the fire.
Split-level examples have a structural weak link: the central open stairwell. While most interior and
exterior walls are fire-stopped, the studs that form and support the stair walls are rarely fire-stopped.
Lightweight construction will rapidly fail when exposed to heat and/or fire. Second-floor occupant areas
above car garages are prone to rapid collapse if the garage is involved in fire.
Ventilation: Rooftop heat holes are the preferred way to ventilate fires that have extended to the top floor or
into the attic. Horizontal ventilation can be effective because of the large and numerous window options.
PPV can be effective for all levels.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. Original doors,
windows, and locks are easily removed or defeated. Occupant-installed security devices may slow
forcible entry, although wall breaching is usually fast and easy. Interior hollow-core doors can be
easily forced.
Search: Ranch and traditional stacked floor examples are of a simple arrangement and are easy to visualize.
The chimney nature of the split-level central stair may necessitate the use of ladders to access and search
upper level bedrooms. Due to typical residential floor plans, search patterns are typically simplified.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS:
Most utilities can be secured from the exterior.
Side C walkout basements and garden levels can be expected on slope-grade examples.
Split level examples may present communication confusion when labeling the first floor, second floor,
and other levels.
Side-to-side split levels are visible the front while front-to-back splits are not.
Anticipate the presence of lightweight construction.
Watch for zero-clearance fireplaces.

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BUILDING GROUP: Single-Family DwellingModern Lightweight
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Lightweight platform wood
frame with wood roof and floors
Basements may have steel
cylinder post columns and steel
or laminated veneer lumber
(LVL) girders to support the
main floor.
Extensive use of lightweight
wood trusses, engineered wooden
I-beams, and oriented strand
board (OSB)

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Those built from 19802000 are likely built with classic wood frame techniques (cut lumber). Floors
and roof use trusses and/or engineered wooden I-beams, exterior walls are framed with 2 6 in. studs
or twin/tripled 2 4s at corners, and interior walls are 2 4s.
Those built from 2000present may have advanced framing methods (reduced lumber use) and incorpo-
rate the use of more engineered lumber such as laminated veneer lumber (LVL), parallel strand lumber
(PSL), oriented strand board (OSB), and finger-jointed lumber (FJL).

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Larger windows, most of e-glass and with double and triple panes, are common.
Steep gable and hipped roofs are most common. OSB is most prevalent for roof sheathing and composite
shingles are common, although light masonry and baked tile covering can also be found. Expect vented
attic spaces with well-slotted eaves and numerous rooftop vents or a ridgeline vent; unvented (sealed) attics
are rare.
Exterior wall sheathing is of OSB with a wallboard, stucco, brick or stone veneer, or vinyl finish.
Basement windows are large enough for occupant escape (deep well).
Expect to find vertical and horizontal sliding windows.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Great room concepts are the rule. Expect large open spaces for kitchen, dining, family, and living areas.
Bathroom areas are likely to align with rooftop sewer vent pipes.
Most water and waste piping is synthetic rather than copper or iron pipe. Natural gas piping can also
be plastic.
Vaulted and coffered ceilings are common.
Adhesives are commonly used for structural binding applications.

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SFD TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Drywall is the primary fire spread barrier room to room. Modern HVAC return air and
6 distribution systems are rarely fire-stopped (no dampers). Attached garages are rarely finished (drywall),
although the separation wall to the living space must be drywalled (two layers of in.). Open stairwells
and great rooms allow explosive smoke to accumulate in upper areas. Those same features will contribute
to extreme fire spread when the outside wind is over 15 mph. The use of adhesives can cause contents to
rapidly burn and spread fire. When present, combustible wood roofs can contribute to spreading exposure
hazards, and zero-clearance fireplaces can easily spread fire vertically to common areas.
Collapse: Exposed steel columns and girders in unfinished basements and garages fail quickly. Any fire or
hot smoke that has captured structural wood areas is cause for concern; expect rapid collapse. Roofs and
floors are assembly-built, which means they can collapse prior to sagging. Higher heat release rates of
building contents can cause drywall to fail quicker. Brown or tan smoke coming from roof or floor seams
and vents is a collapse warning sign. Overall, the modern lightweight wood building collapses very
quickly. Exposed I-beams (basements) can rapidly collapse.
Ventilation: Higher insulation values in newer homes may mask smoke and heat signs from the exterior.
Ventilation-limited fires can be expected on arrival. Opening the front door for access may cause air
to be introduced into explosive smoke. These homes may benefit from positive pressure attack (PPA)
methods on a single room and contents fire (follow PPA protocol). Rooftop ventilation is a risky option
due to lightweight trusses and should only be attempted with a well-trained crew and on an uninvolved
portion of a roof. (Some departments prefer personnel to work from roof ladders to distribute weight.)
Gable end venting may provide a safer alternative but can be dangerous.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. The front entry
door is usually the most secure with multiple locking devices in a solid wood core. Interior doors are
likely hollow core. Larger windows increase entry/egress options as ground floor windows are easily
converted into doors with a power saw.
Search: A 360 size-up of window status can help prioritize search areas (survivable spaces). Using a
window vent-enter-isolate-search method can help speed up searches of survivable spaces. Floor plans
can vary from typical residential floor plans.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Most utilities can be secured on the outside of the home.
Solar electrical panels are live until they are covered with a dark salvage cover.
Access to Side C can be difficult for homes built on sloping grades.
Vinyl siding can be encountered.
Adhesives will off-gas formaldehyde as they burn.
Double-pane windows can resist heat and fire and enhance flashover conditions.
The presence of solar electrical panels usually indicates that a battery room will also be present.
Zero-clearance fireplace flue spaces may not be fire-stopped.
Combustible wood roofs can add to exposure concerns.

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BUILDING GROUP: Single-Family DwellingMcMansion
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Conventional or lightweight
platform wood frame with
wood roof and floors
Large span spaces with steel
girders and steel post columns;
some exposed beams may
appear to be heavy timber
but are likely steel with a
wood veneer.
Insulated concrete forms
(ICF) and structural integrated
panels (SIPs) may be used for
portions of the building or the
entire structure (look for signs of very thick walls).

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
The McMansion is a relatively new trend (1990present). Most are a morphed version of the modern
lightweight wood single-family dwelling (SFD). Floors and roof use trusses and/or engineered wooden
I-beams.
The use of engineered lumber (LVL, PSL, OSB, and FJL) can be extensive.

Exterior features
Multiple rooflines combine gables, hips, and flat roofs. OSB is most prevalent for wall and roof
sheathing. Light masonry and baked tile/slate roof coverings dominate. Vented attic spaces have well-
slotted eaves and numerous rooftop vents or a ridgeline vent.
Basement windows are large enough for occupant escape (deep well).
Multiple garages are common. They may be colocated or separate. Side C may have its own garage for
golf carts or landscaping apparatus.
Decorative masonry veneers (stone and/or brick) are common.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Unusual or inventive floor plans can be expected. Great rooms can be cavernous. Bedroom areas are
likely to be split, with guest rooms in one area and the master suite in a separate wing, floor, or area.
A separate guest suite or nanny apartment may exist within the interior and not be discernible from
the exterior.
Vaulted and coffered ceilings are common.
Natural gas piping can be plastic.
Basements can include a lap pool, wine cellar, theatre, or other high-end amenities.

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SFD TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Drywall is the primary fire spread barrier room to room. Modern HVAC return air and
7 distribution systems are rarely fire-stopped (no dampers). Open stairwells and great room concepts allow
explosive smoke to accumulate in upper areas. Those same features will contribute to extreme fire spread
when the outside wind is over 15 mph. The large footprint can mask interior fire conditions when viewed
from the exterior. A thermal imaging camera may not reveal hidden fire in floors or walls when tile and
decorative veneers are used for floors and walls. Large open areas are conducive to rapid fire spread.
Collapse: The oversized room concept of the McMansion makes them susceptible to early collapse once
floor and roof elements are attacked by heat. The use of heavy floor tiles and granite counters/accrue-
ments adds dead load. Any fire or hot smoke that has captured structural wood areas is cause for
concern; expect rapid collapse. Roofs and floors are often assembly-built, which means they can collapse
prior to sagging. Crews assigned to interior ops should routinely test the floors to check for integrity.
Ventilation: Higher insulation values and vast floor plans may mask smoke and heat signs from the exterior.
Numerous rooms, vaulted ceilings, stairwells, and unusual floor plans present significant ventilation
challenges. Positive pressure attack (PPA) can be questionable for all but the smallest fires due to the
large square footage and complex floor plans. Rooftop ventilation is a risky option due to lightweight
trusses, multiple rooflines, and masonry/tile roof coverings. A combination of natural horizontal ventila-
tion and multiple positive pressure ventilation (PPV) fans will have to be thoughtfully considered.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. Interior doors can
be solid and/or hollow core. The front entry door is likely to be oversized, ornate, and very stout. Larger
windows increase entry/egress options as ground floor windows may be converted into doors with a
power saw if masonry siding is not present.
Search: A 360 size-up of window status can help prioritize search areas (survivable spaces). The use of
large-area search tactics is warranted (tag lines). There are likely to be interior rooms and areas that are
distal to exterior escape options.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Most utilities can be secured on the outside of the home.
Commercial grade or multiple furnaces and boilers are common.
In-floor radiant heating systems add dead load and collapse concerns.
Solar electrical panels usually indicate that a battery room will also be present.
Access to Side C can be difficult for homes built on sloping grades.
Insulation and modern energy-efficient windows can enhance interior temperatures and
flashover conditions.
High ceilings and large rooms can hold large volumes of smoke, creating a rapid fire spread potential.
Zero-clearance fireplaces are common and can be numerous.
Formidable security measures for doors and windows can be encountered.

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BUILDING GROUP: Single-Family DwellingManufactured (Mobile) Home
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Wood frame of lightweight
construction, often of 2 2 in.
framing.
Larger examples may have
aluminum skeleton with 2 2
in. framing for interior walls.
Wood structure built upon
twin steel I-beams that serve
as a frame for transport axles

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
These types of structures date
back to the 1940s.
Newer models are often
called modular homes and can
include two or more transported sections that are connected together on the home site.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
The steel frame rails are anchored to a foundation of cinder blocks (CMUs), jacks, or other similar
materials that allow the building to be relocated if necessary.
The foundation is typically above ground and is skirted with panels to allow access to utility feeds.
Siding is typically lightweight wood siding such as T-11 panels. In some cases, wood shiplap or
synthetic masonry can be used. Older models may have aluminum or galvanized steel panels as siding.
Roof structural members are also of lightweight construction and covered with a waterproof
membrane material.
Windows are typically small.
Underside storage is common.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Interior layouts are linear with narrow hallways between rooms.
Interior privacy doors are quite narrow and hollow core.
Finish can be drywall (minimal thickness) or panel board. Adhesives are also used for bonding agents
for many materials.
There is typically a main entry door on one side and a small emergency door off a bedroom on the
opposite side.

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SFD TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Fires in these types of structures will rapidly grow in intensity and quickly spread due to the
8 lightweight construction throughout the structure and the common use of flammable adhesives. Radiant
heat is initially significant due to the low ceiling height. Flashover can occur in a few minutes or seconds.
Floor burn-through is common. Underside storage is likely flammable and will rapidly extend fire under
the structure.
Collapse: Collapse can occur in a short period of time due to the construction and relatively small size (as
compared to typical single-family homes) of the structure. Multistory or high ceiling models are rare, and
where they exist, present a more rapid collapse potential.
Ventilation: Due to the rapid extension of fire and the size of these structures, roof ventilation is normally
not an option. Most self-ventilate as the exterior walls and roof burn through. Natural horizontal ventila-
tion is rarely effective due to window size. The use of positive pressure ventilation (PPV) can be useful if
applied in a judicious and timely manner to uninvolved areas.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional forcible entry methods
often with only hand tools due the lightweight nature of the materials that form the doors, door frames,
and other elements such as windows.
Search: Search operations are totally dependent of the amount of involvement. Remember, these fires burn
hot and fast, so uninvolved areas must be able to allow sufficient time for search operations.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Extensive use of flammable adhesives is expected.
Smoke from these fires can contain a noteworthy amount of formaldehyde that is used as an adhesive in
the wood paneling and for other similar uses.
Mobile homes in parks are normally in close proximity to other mobile homes, so the potential of rapid
exposure problems should be considered (depending on the amount of fire).
Utility feeds are usually post mounted (detached from the home) with underground conduit that feeds
the underside of the home.
Underside storage is common and normally flammable.

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BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingBrownstone
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Conventional wood and noncombustible
construction, conventional flat wood roofs MFD
Commonly have basements/cellars 9
ERA CONSIDERATIONS
They were erected during the late 1800s as
private dwellings.
Brownstones are indigenous to the East coast
(New York, New Jersey, etc.).
Adjoining buildings resulted in rows that can
be a block long.
If different builders were involved,
noteworthy differences can be visible in
each building.
Remodels are common and can employ light-
weight materials.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Brownstones are three to five stories in height
with a cellar underneath a basement, and are
about 20 ft to 25 ft wide and 60 ft deep.
The basement is the first floor and the
entrance (doorway) to the basement is under
the stoop (stairs).
A partially sunken patio in the front provides access to the doorway under the stoop.
Exterior walls are typically conventional brick construction.
Parapet walls above a roof and between occupancies should be visible.
Division walls were constructed between each occupancy but are likely to have been breached.
Expect a lack of proper fire-stopping in common attics/cocklofts.
Wood or metal cornices are frequently found, and some can be elaborate.
Roof skylights are common over an interior stairwell.
Windows are older double-hung with associated hazards.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Balloon frame construction and knob and tube wiring was commonly used.
The basement contains a kitchen, dining room, and an interior stairway to the second floor and cellar.
The second floor is accessed by the front stoop (stairs) and contains a front and rear parlor, bedroom,
and primary entrance to the building.
The third and fourth floors contain two bedrooms each.
Originally, a hot air furnace was located in the cellar with ducting to other portions of the building.
Dumbwaiters that served several floors were often used. Sprinklers are not common.
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 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The interior is comprised of conventional, flammable materials. Fires in the cellar and
basement can easily spread vertically through pipe chases, stairways, dumbwaiter shafts, and other
openings. Fire can also spread horizontally to adjoining buildings via substandard construction in the
division walls, common cocklofts, exterior cornices, and wooden gutters. Vertical extension can also
occur in open stairs at the rear of a building and the main staircase. The main stairway is often paneled
with combustible wood products.
MFD Collapse: The noncombustible masonry exterior is resistant to fire; however the combustible wood interior
9 is not. Although it will take a sizeable fire for an entire building to collapse, the interiorwith its many
vertical passagewaysis capable of collapsing when attacked by a fast-moving fire. If the interior
portions begin to collapse, the brick exterior is also at risk of collapsing. Do not forget the potential
of floors over a developed fire (particularly a cellar or basement fire) collapsing, as well as cornices
collapsing downward from the front of a building.
Ventilation: If the interior stairway is contaminated, smoke can be cleared by the removal of the roof
skylight over the stairway. Fire on lower floors and/or the cellar and basement will quickly rise toward
the top portion of a building. It is a top priority to quickly vent the top portion by vertical roof opera-
tions (opening roof, skylights, etc.) and/or horizontal operations using appropriate windows. Strip/trench
ventilation can be used to limit horizontal extension in attics/cocklofts. Fires in cellars will be difficult to
ventilate as there are limited means for ventilation. PPV can be beneficial with proper coordination.
Forcible Entry: On the exterior, barred windows at grade level (front and rear) can be expected, with some
bars set into the masonry construction. There is normally a metal grate over the cellar vent, an iron gate
on the door into the stoop that accesses the basement, and substantial door/locking devices on the main
entrance doorway. In the interior, pocket sliding doors and doors within rooms are not very substantial.
However, if a building has been converted into a multiple residential type occupancy, then doors and
subsequent locking devices can be very substantial. In most cases, forcible entry operations can be
accomplished by conventional methods.
Search: Search operations are governed by the potential occupant load. If a single family is the sole
occupant, search operations are simplified as opposed to a converted multiple dwelling type occupancy
with multiple occupants/families. Four areas deserve special consideration. One, small bedrooms (front
and rear) with a single entrance from a hallway (referred to as a deadmans room). Two, rear extensions
to a building that may be several stories in height. Three, buildings with a fully dormered attic apart-
ment. Four, the cellar under the basement. Remember that some rooms will be small to moderate in size,
and vertical stair shafts can be narrow. Search operations above a fire will be challenging.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Many brownstones have been converted into multiple residential dwellings. In the process, sprinklers
may have been installed in lieu of a secondary means of escape.
Some conversions have resulted in illegal multiple dwellings without fire escapes or sprinklers.
Common attics/cocklofts should be expected. Look for attic vents and their condition.
Division walls are often breached and can allow openings for horizontal extension of fire.
Look for the presence of a fully dormered attic apartment and/or an added rear extension.
Adjoining buildings can present serious exposure considerations and apparatus placement problems to
the rear.
Expect significant roof dead loads.
Anticipate the presence of inverted roofs.

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BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingTenement
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Brick masonry exterior or wood framing with wood
exterior and conventional wood roofs MFD
Commonly have a basement 10
ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Due to noteworthy construction differences, tenements can
be defined as old law tenementsthose built prior to 1901,
or new law (or retrofit) tenementsthose built after 1901.
Tenement type buildings are not indigenous to New York
City, but the old/new law regulations are.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Old law summary
Old law tenements are three to seven stories high, 20 ft to
25 ft wide, and 50 ft to 85 ft deep.
Roof styles are normally a conventional flat roof or
inverted/raised sloping roof over a common attic.
Fire escapes on both the front and back denote four apartments per floor.

New law (retrofit) summary

New law tenements are typically six to seven stories high, 35 ft to 50 ft wide, and 85 ft deep. Front
cornices (often quite large) are common.
Buildings with fire escapes on both the front and back have four apartments per floor.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Old law summary
Cellars have a stairway to the grade floor and floor joists for the grade floor are exposed to the cellar.
There are two to four apartments to each floor. There may be two railroad flats per floor.
Stairways and stairs can use combustible materials.
There are two means of egress from each apartment (interior stairway and fire escape).
They may have dumbwaiter chutes that travel from the cellar through the roof.

New law (retrofit) summary

The cellar ceiling is of fireproof construction with no stairway to the floor above.
The cellar entrance is by way of exterior stairs and there are five to six apartments per floor.
The interior stairs (grade floor to top floor/roof) are fireproof and enclosed in partitions of
fireproof construction.
A second means of egress to occupants is either by another stairway or an exterior fire escape.
Newer new law buildings can have elevators that run from the cellar to the top floor, with a roof
bulkhead. After 1929, these buildings were called apartment houses.
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 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The open stairway from the cellar to the grade floor in old law buildings can allow the
vertical spread of fire up the stair shaft to the top of the building. Also expect fire spread due to combus-
tible materials in the vertical stair shafts, dumbwaiter shafts, pipe chases, substandard construction,
elevator shafts if present, common attics, stacked closets, structural steel I-beams that provide a substan-
tial void within the web of the beam, exterior cornices, voids that extend vertically through all floors,
and throats that are between various types of large multiple buildings (e.g., H, E, O, U, double H) and
MFD duplex apartments.

10 Collapse: The numerous voids and construction configurations (common attics, exposed floor joists to the
cellar, etc.) will expedite the rate of failure. Additionally, steel I-beams that are exposed to heat/fire can
warp and collapse, often allowing large portions of a building supported by the I-beams to also collapse.
Ventilation: Stair shafts(s) can be vertically ventilated by opening the bulkhead door on the roof, and
contaminated hallways and rooms can be horizontally ventilated by natural and/or PPV operations.
Roof ventilation can be accomplished by a suitable variety of opening bulkhead doors, bulkheads over
dumbwaiter shafts, skylights that will help to ventilate the top floor hallway (common to the skylight),
and opening the roof. Roof ventilation teams should be alert to the presence of an inverted/inverse roof
that can feel spongy without being exposed to fire and multiple layers of roofing materials. Ventilation of
a contaminated cellar can be challenging and should be accomplished through openings to the exterior of
the building, not the stairway into the grade floor of a building.
Forcible Entry: Substantial wood doors and/or metal clad doors in metal frames in addition to multiple
locking devices are common. Some windows are barred by protective gates, particularly those windows
that are common to fire escapes. Although conventional forcible entry methods can work, expect delayed
times and/or the possibility that extreme security measures may require the consideration of other means
of entrance such as entering from a fire escape, walls between apartments, or some other means. The
exterior entrance to the cellar in new law buildings will likely be of substantial construction with formi-
dable security considerations. These forcible entry concerns are particularly true in East coast buildings
Search: The sizeable number of people in these structures can easily require an intensive and coordinated
commitment of resources for search operations. However, the size of each unit/occupancy is small to
moderate and the floor plans are typically command and residential in nature. Access is limited to each
unit from a central hallway. Coordinated search operations may require that the numerous units to be
searched be visibly identified as (1) being searched, (2) needs to be searched, and (3) search completed in
order to avoid repetition.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Differentiate between old law and new law buildings.
The status of the vertical stair shaft(s) and hallway(s) is a key initial consideration.
Determine how the floors and apartments are designated, as 3E could be on the third or fifth floor.
Determine the type of stairways that are present (e.g., transverse, wing, and isolated).
Anticipate renovations, settling of a building, and poor workmanship.
Common attics/cocklofts should be expected. Look for attic vents and their condition.
Exterior cornices can present a formidable collapse hazard when exposed to fire.
Stairs are often steel risers with marble/slate treads and can collapse with little warning when heated or
suddenly cooled by water.
Buildings that are not on level ground will have differences in height between the front and back.
Look for the presence or absence of sprinklers and elevators.
Rear access is typically poor at best and may only be accomplished through the building.
Always consider the possibility of a wind-driven fire on the windward side.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingRow Frame
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Conventional wood framing unless remodeled with
lightweight materials MFD
Conventional wood roofs, either with a pitch or flat 11
Perimeter foundations and basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Most were constructed between the 1800s and
early 1900s.
They were built in rows that can consist of
numerous buildings. Significant differences can
be visible in each building.
Expect conventional wood and some masonry
construction. Roofs are of conventional
construction.
Remodels are common and can employ light-
weight materials.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Recognized by individual attached residential
occupancies in rows that may be over 20 buildings in length.
Height can vary from two to five stories and are often 20 ft to 30 ft wide and 40 ft to 60 ft deep.
Exterior can be comprised of conventional brick masonry, brick veneer, wood siding, and some vinyl.
Roof styles are normally a sloped flat, gable, or hip roof. Most roofs are over a common attic/cockloft.
Division walls were constructed between each occupancy but are likely to have been breached.
Expect a lack of proper fire-stopping in the attics/cocklofts.
Common cornices (between occupancies) are frequent.
Depending on a specific area, retail stores may be found on the first floor.
Division walls above a roof may be visible on some buildings.
Some buildings use dormers for the top floor.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Basements/cellars are common and may run under multiple buildings with no separation.
Balloon frame or braced frame construction was used along with knob and tube wiring
(unless upgraded).
Common cocklofts/attics potentially extend over buildings in a row.
Expect to find remodeled interiors and resultant voids.
Older buildings can be expected to use lath and plaster, whereas remodels use drywall.
Dumbwaiter and light shafts are common. Sprinklers are likely not present.
Scuttle on roof allows access into the top floor.
Newer versions commonly use lightweight construction.
315
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: These types of buildings can be considered large rectangular boxes of dried lumber that are
capable of producing copious amounts of fire, in all directions, and in a relatively short amount of time.
Fire can easily spread vertically in pipe chases, light/air shafts, auto exposure via rear and front windows,
balloon frame construction, from basements/cellars upward, and in voids created by modern remodels.
Horizontal extension is a primary concern in common attic/cocklofts. Once a well-developed fire creates
copious amounts of smoke in a common attic/cockloft, it may be difficult to find the involved building.
MFD Fire can also easily spread horizontally in the exterior common cornices, between walls separating
occupancies, in common basements/cellars under adjoining occupancies, and from adjoining roofs.
11 Lightweight floor remodels will allow rapid extension of fire between the flooring, and ducting from the
original heating plant to registers throughout a building can also easily extend fire.
Collapse: Due to the age and type of construction of these buildings, the potential of collapse should be a
measurable concern. Heavy fire in a common attic/cockloft will rapidly weaken ceiling and roof struc-
tural members. Brick veneer on the exterior of a building is subject to collapse when the wood framing
behind the masonry is exposed to fire. Rear walls have been known to collapse in one section, and floors
over a well-developed fire (e.g., basement/cellar) can be a prime candidate for collapse. Wood/metal truss
construction in the floors and roof structural members from remodels is a prime candidate for collapse
when exposed to fire.
Ventilation: Horizontal and/or PPV is normally effective and easily used for cross ventilation of contami-
nated occupancies. Vertical roof ventilation can be effectively used for top floor occupancies in multi-
story buildings (remember that slate type roofs will require additional time), and opening penthouses
and/or bulkheads can effectively ventilate stair shafts. Skylights and light wells can also be used for
vertical ventilation.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can generally be accomplished by conventional methods as entry is simpli-
fied by typical doors and windows that are found in the average residential type of occupancy (although
older buildings can have substantial doors). Although conventional forcible entry methods can work
well, expect multiple locking devices (some with dead bolts) in entry doors as the close proximity of
people in these occupancies often result in increased security concerns. This is particularly true in East
coast buildings.
Search: The potential number of people in these structures can easily require a larger resource commitment
for search operations. The size of each unit/occupancy is dependent on the size of the building; however,
the floor plans are typically residential in nature. Access to grade floors is obtained by front/rear doors.
Access to basements/cellars and floors above grade level may be limited due to narrow stairways. Search
operations can be minimized during the day depending on observed factors but are generally maximized
at night.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Some row frame buildings can be very large, over 100 years old, made entirely of wood, and contain
numerous occupants.
Large buildings can present a significant search challenge.
Always try to determine the presence of a remodel and the resultant use of lightweight construction.
Common attics/cocklofts are a standard. Look for attic vents and their condition.
Although division walls are often visible, they are often breached.
Exterior brick veneers are decorative only and are subject to collapse if fire exposes the wood framing.
Buildings in close proximity can present considerable extension problems.
Vinyl siding (from retrofit modifications) will readily burn and also emit toxic smoke.
Look for the presence or absence of sprinklers. Some newer units do have sprinklers, depending on
applicable codes that are area specific.
Anticipate inverted roofs on older buildings.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingRailroad Flat
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Brick masonry exterior, wood framing with wood
exterior, conventional roof of wood MFD
Perimeter foundations and basements 12
ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Railroad flats made their initial appearance in New
York City around the middle of the 19th century, and
are most common in New York, San Francisco, and
their neighboring areas.
Railroad flats are also common in brownstone
type buildings.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Buildings are normally narrow and can vary from
single-family residential type to those that are five to six
stories in height.
The exterior finishes can be comprised of conventional
masonry, brick veneer, or wood siding. Remodels can
use other materials, such as vinyl siding.
Roof styles are normally a sloped gable or hip roof over
a common attic, and flat roofs (normally over a common
attic/cockloft) are also common.
The placement of the common hallway in single-family
type residential buildings may be on the side of the
building and visible.
In larger buildings, the short hallway and associated
stairwell per floor is not visible from the exterior.
They often back up to a similar building on an
opposing street.
Some single-family dwellings can contain railroad flat
floor plans.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Railroad flats/apartments are configured with a series of rooms connecting to each other in a line
(linked together like railroad cars) that are served by a common hallway.
A short center hallway that serves four flats per floor is accessed by a vertical stairway. Some older
buildings may have trash chutes and other similar vertical voids.
Normally, the bedroom areas are toward the front with the kitchen toward the back.
There are two entrances to each flat.
Kitchens and bathrooms are stacked on top of each other in multistory buildings.
These buildings are prime candidates for remodeled interiors and resultant voids.
Individual HVAC units typically serve each occupancy.
317
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Fires in basements can spread vertically very rapidly. This is enhanced by openings/voids
such as the vertical stairway and pipe chases for stacked kitchens and bathrooms that allow for the spread
of fire/heat/smoke upward into upper flats and the cockloft/attic and roof. If fire and/or smoke is able
to extend into the vertical stairway, it will rapidly spread upward and contaminate each landing above
the point of origin. Fire on the top floor can spread into the attic/cockloft above, which can then rapidly
spread horizontally due to the presence of a common attic/cockloft. If division walls are present, they
MFD must be verified for security. Cornices can horizontally spread fire. A one-room fire will quickly contam-
inate all rooms in a flat.
12 Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire for an entire building to collapse, particularly in masonry buildings.
However, remember that unreinforced masonry construction is not as resistant to collapse as conventional
brick construction and remodels will likely use lightweight materials that readily burn and fail at a faster
rate than conventional materials. Whether a building is single story or multistory, common attics are
usual and are subject to collapse when exposed to fire (a contributing factor is numerous layers of roofing
materials that have built up over the years). Cornices are a willing candidate for collapse when weakened
by fire.
Ventilation: Horizontal and/or PPV can be effective and easily used for cross ventilation of contaminated
occupancies. Particular attention must be directed toward the hallways, as keeping these areas clear is
essential. It is also important to quickly vertically ventilate a contaminated stair shaft in multistory build-
ings. Vertical ventilation for contaminated flats can be effectively used for one-story structures and for
top floor occupancies in multistory buildings.
Forcible Entry: Entry is simplified by the typical doors and windows that are found in these occupancies.
Although conventional forcible entry methods can work well, anticipate advanced and/or multiple locking
devices (some with dead bolts) in entry doors as the close proximity of people in these occupancies often
result in increased security concerns. However, once inside a flat, sliding/pocket type doors are common
and are not difficult to force.
Search: As the individual rooms are somewhat small, the floor plans should be known in advance. The
rooms in each flat are in line, so they can be rapidly searched in an orderly manner. In multistory build-
ings, there are typically four flats per staircase landing. It is normally best to enter a flat through the door
nearest the staircase landing, as it should enter the kitchen area and not be blocked as is common with
the other door that enters the bedroom and/or living room areas. Search operations can be conducted in
linear fashion from the kitchen to the bedroom/living room area.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Remember that each flat has two entry doors. In multistory buildings, the entry door by the staircase
enters the kitchen and is normally not blocked. The other entry door enters a bedroom/living area and is
often blocked.
The stacked bathrooms and kitchens in multistory buildings provide vertical passageways that often
travel into the cockloft/attic and above the roof.
Common attics/cocklofts are standard. Look for attic vents and their condition.
If the vertical stairway becomes contaminated with fire/smoke, it will quickly travel upward and
contaminate floors above the point of origin.
Rear access to multistory buildings is typically poor at best.
Always try to determine the presence of lightweight renovations.
If division walls are visible, they are often breached.
Cornices can be a collapse hazard to fireground personnel.
Determine the presence or absence of sprinklers.

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BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingCenter Hallway Structure
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Configured with residential or commercial units
that are accessed by interior center hallway(s) MFD
Wood/metal frame, masonry of concrete
block or brick construction, brick veneers, and
13
poured-in-place concrete with either wood or
metal roofs
Concrete slab, perimeter foundation, and
some basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings are primarily conventional
construction comprising the walls, floors,
and roofs.
Post-1960 buildings have embraced light-
weight construction due to cost effectiveness.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
These buildings are easily identified by the
presence of center hallways with windows at
each end.
Floor plans can be either residential
or commercial.
Buildings are configured from one story to multiple stories in height, including some high-rise
buildings.
As these structures have been built for many years and encompass a wide range of building types, the
exterior finish can be a variety of materials such as stucco, wood/vinyl siding, concrete, concrete block,
brick veneer, and brick masonry.
Depending on the type of structure, roof construction will encompass all types and configurations.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Interior units will vary between residential and commercial type occupancies and will also vary in size
and complexity.
Interior residential or commercial units are accessed by an interior center hallway.
Older buildings that have been remodeled will be a mixture of old and new construction that is often
accompanied by voids that were not an original part of the building.
Common attics will be present in many buildings and, depending on the type of building,
can be extensive.
Lath and plaster is used in older buildings and drywall and/or dropped ceilings is used in
newer buildings.
Expect to find truss floor construction in newer buildings.
Depending on the age and configuration of a building, sprinklers and/or standpipes may be present.
HVAC units vary between a central system and individual units for each occupancy within a building.
319
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: A primary concern for the spread of fire is the center hallway configuration. If fire is able
to extend into a hallway, it can quickly become a horizontal avenue for the spread of fire and can also
hamper occupant egress and firefighter access. This is why the status (clear or contaminated) is a primary
consideration. Fire on the grade floor of single-story buildings can easily spread into an attic (which can
be a common attic). Fire on the top floor can easily spread into the attic above and is only slowed by lathe
& plaster or drywall type materials. If fire spreads into a common attic it will allow rapid horizontal
MFD spread of fire to both ends of the building. Remember that multistory buildings with lightweight
construction often have lightweight construction between the floors that will allow rapid extension of
13 fire between the flooring. Also, if division walls are present, they may be breached and must be verified
for security.
Collapse: Generally, it will take a sizeable fire in conventional construction for an entire building to
collapse. Concrete is the most fire resistive, conventional masonry is somewhat less resistive, and wood/
metal construction is the most prone to collapse when exposed to fire. Wood/metal truss construction in
the floors and roof structural members is a prime candidate for collapse when exposed to fire. Some of
these buildings commonly used a brick veneer on the exterior that is subject to collapse when the wood
framing behind the masonry is exposed to fire.
Ventilation: Horizontal and/or PPV can be effective and easily used for cross ventilation of contaminated
occupancies by using blowers to clear hallways and then individual units/occupancies. PPV can also be
used to pressurize vertical stair shafts and horizontal hallways. Vertical ventilation can be effectively
used for one-story structures and for top floor occupancies only. Opening penthouse doors when present
can also clear common vertical stair shafts
Forcible Entry: Depending on the type of structure, forcible entry can generally be accomplished by
conventional methods as entry is simplified by typical doors and windows. Remember that commercial
type structures often employ more intensive security measures than residential type structures. Expect
multiple locking devices with dead bolts in entry doors.
Search: A common configuration with these structures is individual units or occupancies that are accessed
by a center hallway. Therefore, if only individual units or occupancies are contaminated and need to
be searched, the number of units/occupancies dictates the type and difficulty of search operations.
Additionally, if the hallways are contaminated, this will add to the difficulty of search operations.
Remember that some type of order to search operations when multiple units/occupancies are involved
will include visually designating rooms that have not been searched, are being searched, and need to be
searched to help avoid duplication.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
The status of the hallway(s) is a major indicator of the type and extent of fire. If the hallways are clear,
it is likely a room and contents fire with possible vertical/horizontal extension. If the hallways are
contaminated, the fire has spread into the hallway that suddenly becomes a horizontal passageway for
the extension of fire and the potential entrapment of occupants on the contaminated floor(s).
Fires that have captured the central hall on upper floors will likely require significant resources to
ladder windows for search and rescue.
Look for the presence of lightweight construction.
Anticipate the presence of a common attic.
Although division walls are often present, they are frequently breached and can allow openings for
horizontal extension of fire.
Exterior brick veneers may be decorative only.
Sprinklers and/or standpipes may be present.
Vinyl siding will readily burn, emit a toxic smoke, and can create significant exposure problems.
Consider the presence of zero-clearance fireplaces and elevators.

320
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingGarden Apartment
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Residential or commercial
units that open to the exterior MFD
of a building; no interior hallways for unit access
Wood frame is most predominant, with some
14
masonry of concrete block or brick construction
Concrete slab or perimeter foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings are primarily conventional
construction comprising the walls, floors, and
roofs. Some use brick veneer, and older build-
ings use conventional brick construction.
Post-1960 buildings have embraced lightweight
construction. Brick veneers are still common.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Garden apartments are easily identified by units
that open to the exterior of a building and a lack
of center hallways.
The front of each unit is normally configured
with a door and one or more windows.
Buildings are normally configured from one to three stories in height. One to two stories is the
most prevalent.
The exterior finish will vary (stucco, wood or vinyl siding, concrete, concrete block, etc.).
Roofs are typically sloped gable or hip but can be flat. Older roofs are constructed from conventional
lumber and likely have numerous layers of roofing materials (composition) or other materials such as
tile, corrugated metal, etc.
Stairways and landings are easily recognized as they serve the upper or lower units.
Division walls projecting above a roof will be visible on some buildings.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Residential or commercial units face the exterior of a building and are accessed by landings
and stairways.
Individual units are normally simplistic and consist of smaller residential type occupancies (e.g., motels,
apartments, etc.) or office type units.
Lath and plaster is used in older buildings and drywall is used in newer buildings.
Common attics can be expected.
Sprinklers and/or smoke detectors may or may not be present.
Individual HVAC systems are normally used for each unit.
Expect to find a single wall between older occupancies and offset studs between occupancies in
newer buildings.
Expect to find lightweight truss roof and floor construction in newer buildings.
321
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Fire on the grade floor of single-story buildings can easily spread into an attic, which is likely
a common attic. Fire on the grade floor of multistory buildings can be hampered by the floor construc-
tion above the fire. Fire on the top floor can easily spread into the attic above. If fire spreads into the
attic, a common attic will allow rapid horizontal spread of fire to both ends of the building. Additionally,
if division walls are present, they may be compromised or breached and must be verified for security.
Remember that multistory buildings with lightweight construction often have lightweight construction
MFD between the floors that will allow rapid extension of fire between the flooring.

14 Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire for the entire building to collapse. Concrete is the most fire resistive,
conventional masonry is somewhat less resistive, and wood/metal construction is the most prone to
collapse when exposed to fire. Wood/metal truss construction in the floors and roof structural members is
a prime candidate for collapse when exposed to fire. Remember that some of these buildings use a brick
veneer on the exterior that is subject to collapse when the wood framing behind the masonry is exposed
to fire.
Ventilation: These buildings have multiple avenues that can be used for ventilation operations. Horizontal
and/or PPV can be effectively used for cross ventilation of contaminated occupancies. The fact there
are no enclosed stairwells and hallways greatly simplifies horizontal ventilation considerations. Vertical
ventilation can be effectively used for one-story structures and for top floor occupancies only.
Forcible Entry: Grade floor units are easily accessible, and exterior stairs to landings simplify access to
upper floors. Typically there are no rear doors, so access to the interior is simplified by either a window
next to the entry door and/or a door (wood) that is similar to those found on single-family dwelling
structures. Multiple locking devices and dead bolts are common. Conventional forcible entry methods
can work well.
Search: Search operations are normally simplified by the small to moderate size of each unit. The floor
plan is dependent on the type of occupancy (residential or commercial). Easy access is limited to the
front of each unit; however, some units feature large windows at the rear and front. Search operations are
minimized at night in commercial occupancies and maximized at night for residential occupancies.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Lightweight construction is common.
Common attics spread fire horizontally.
Division walls are often breached and can allow openings for horizontal extension of fire.
Offset studs and walls can be found in newer construction. This will allow horizontal and vertical fire
spread between the walls that separate individual occupancies.
Exterior brick veneers are for decoration only.
Asphalt siding (also referred to as gasoline siding) will readily burn.
Vinyl siding will readily burn and also emit a toxic smoke.
A lack of sprinklers is common.
Check for basements. Access to basement units may be not be visible from the front of the building.
Check the sides and rear.
Elevators are not typically present.

322
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingLow Density
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Poured-in-place concrete, masonry of concrete
block or brick, wood/metal structural members MFD
with wood/metal framing
Lightweight materials of wood, metal, and/or
15
lightweight concrete
Concrete slab, perimeter foundation, and basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
These occupancies are recognized by containing
multiple dwelling units in one or more buildings
(that are grouped together) in low-cost areas.
The defining feature is a more relaxed or widely
spaced type of housing as opposed to high-density
low-cost housing, which places as many occupan-
cies as possible into the least amount of space.
Older buildings typically use conventional
construction and materials such as concrete,
masonry, wood, and metal for the walls, floors, and
roofs. Newer buildings use an increasing amount of
lightweight methods and materials.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Exterior finishes can be comprised of conventional masonry, brick veneer, wood/vinyl siding, and some
poured-in-place concrete. Lightweight synthetic panels are often used on newer low-cost construction.
Roof styles are normally a sloped gable or hip roof over a common attic. Flat roofs (often over a
common attic) are also common.
Center hallways are the typical configuration for multistory buildings, but some garden apartment
configurations can be found in smaller multistory buildings.
Multistory buildings may have exterior patios or balconies for some or all units.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Normally consists of individual residential units that are accessed by exterior doorways or a
center hallway.
Older buildings can be expected to use lath and plaster, whereas newer buildings use drywall.
Expect to find some older buildings with remodeled interiors and resultant voids.
Some offset studs/walls between adjoining occupancies are found in newer buildings, and single walls
in older buildings.
Depending on the building, individual HVAC units serve each occupancy or a central HVAC unit
is used.
Sprinklers may be present, depending on the age of a building.
Older buildings may have lift or elevator devices that have been added to the building to meet ADA or
occupant needs. Newer buildings are likely to have more modern elevators.
Some older buildings may have trash chutes and other similar vertical voids.
323
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Fire on the grade floor of single-story buildings can easily spread into the attic, which is likely
a common attic. If a fire extends past a room of origin in a single-story garden apartment type building,
the fire will primarily extend to the exterior of the building. Fire on the grade floor of multistory build-
ings can be hampered by the floor construction above the fire (stronger and thicker than lath/plaster and/
or drywall). However, if fire extends into a center hallway, the hallway will become a horizontal channel
within the building for the extension of heat, smoke, and fire. Fire on the top floor can easily spread into
MFD the attic above. If fire spreads into the attic, a common attic will allow rapid horizontal spread of fire to
both ends of the building. Also, offset studs between adjoining walls will willingly spread fire horizon-
15 tally and vertically.
Collapse: Newer buildings constructed from lightweight materials can readily burn and will fail at a faster
rate than conventional buildings. Wood/metal truss construction in the floors and roof structural members
is a prime candidate for collapse when exposed to fire. Remember that some of these buildings use a
vinyl siding that can enhance exposure problems and emit a toxic smoke. Brick veneer on the exterior of
a building is subject to collapse when the wood framing behind the masonry is exposed to fire.
Ventilation: Horizontal and/or PPV can be effective and easily used for cross ventilation of contaminated
occupancies. Ventilation operations will be more extensive for contaminated hallways/stair shafts, but can
be ventilated with PPV. Hallways/stair shafts are not a concern with garden apartment type occupancies.
Vertical ventilation can be effectively used for one-story structures and for top floor occupancies only in
multistory buildings.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can generally be accomplished by conventional methods, as entry is simpli-
fied by typical doors and windows that are found in the average residential type of occupancy. Although
conventional forcible entry methods can work well, expect multiple locking devices (some with dead
bolts) in strong entry doors as the close proximity of people in these occupancies often result in increased
security concerns. This is particularly true in East coast buildings as opposed to West coast buildings.
Search: The increased number of people in these structures (as opposed to typical single-family dwellings)
can easily require a larger resource commitment for search operations. However, the size of each unit/
occupancy is small to moderate and the floor plans are typically residential in nature. Easy access is
limited to the front of each unit above grade floors and the front/rear of many single-story structures.
Search operations can be minimized during the day depending on observed factors but are generally
maximized at night.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Always try to determine the presence of lightweight construction.
These types of buildings are typically found in low-income areas and can present additional safety
concerns toward fireground personnel.
Offset studs and walls can be found in newer construction.
Common attics are standard. Look for attic vents and their condition.
Although division walls are often present, they are frequently breached.
Exterior brick veneers are for decoration only and are subject to collapse if fire exposes the
wood framing.
Asphalt siding (also referred to as gasoline siding) will readily burn.
Vinyl siding will readily burn and also emit a toxic smoke.
Look for the presence or absence of sprinklers. Newer units may have sprinklers, depending on
applicable codes for that area.
Multiple buildings in close proximity and/or remote to roadways can present apparatus
placement problems.

324
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingProject HousingHigh Density
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Wood or metal structural members, some poured-
in-place concrete, masonry of concrete block MFD
or brick
Lightweight materials of wood, metal, and/or
16
lightweight concrete
Concrete slab, perimeter foundation, and basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
These types of buildings share a common charac-
teristic of providing affordable housing (also known
as socialized/public housing) in single or multiple
buildings that place a large number of people in
close proximity. These buildings have been built for
many years and in many different configurations.
Some buildings that are often associated within
this category are large multistory buildings that
can be of older construction and newer lightweight
multistory buildings that have been specifically
built for this use.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Multiple dwelling units in one or more buildings
(that are grouped together) in high-density areas.
Exterior finishes can be comprised of conventional masonry, brick veneer, some wood/vinyl siding,
and some poured-in-place concrete. Lightweight synthetic panels are often used on newer buildings.
Roof styles are normally flat, sloped gable, or hip roof, all of which can be over a common attic.
Center hallways are the typical configuration for multistory buildings.
Older buildings typically have exterior fire escapes and standpipe connections.
Division walls above a roof may be visible on some buildings.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Individual residential units are often accessed by doorways from a center hallway configuration.
Older buildings can be expected to use lathe and plaster, whereas newer buildings use drywall.
Some offset studs/walls between adjoining occupancies are found in newer buildings, and single walls
in older buildings.
Expect to find some older buildings with remodeled interiors and resultant voids.
Elevators are normally present, and their design will depend on the age of the building.
Standpipe connections of various types are located in hallway landings. Sprinklers may be present.
Fire doors are used in some buildings but are often blocked open.
Basements are common. Some are divided into lockable storage areas using fencing.
Depending on the building, individual HVAC units serve each occupancy or a central HVAC unit is used.
Some older buildings may have trash chutes and other similar vertical voids.
325
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: If fire is able to extend into a center hallway, it will become a horizontal channel within the
building for the extension of heat, smoke, and fire. Fire in hallways on lower floors of multistory build-
ings can extend vertically if fire doors are not present or are blocked open. Fire on the top floor can
easily spread into the attic above. If fire spreads into the attic, a common attic will allow rapid horizontal
spread of fire to both ends of the building. Offset studs between adjoining walls will willingly spread
fire horizontally and vertically. Remodels will likely have voids that can easily spread fire. Storage area
MFD basement fires can rapidly extend upward.

16 Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire for an entire building to collapse, but newer buildings constructed from
lightweight materials can readily burn and will fail at a faster rate than conventional materials. Concrete
is the most fire resistive, conventional masonry is somewhat less resistive, and wood/metal construction
is the most prone to collapse when exposed to fire. Wood/metal truss construction in the floors and roof
structural members is a prime candidate for collapse when exposed to fire. Brick veneer on the exterior
of a building is subject to collapse when the wood framing behind the masonry is exposed to fire, and fire
in a common attic will quickly weaken roof structural members.
Ventilation: Horizontal and/or PPV can be effective and easily used for cross ventilation of contaminated
occupancies (using entrance doors and windows). Ventilation operations will be more extensive for
contaminated hallways/stair shafts but can be ventilated with natural ventilation and/or PPV. Remember
that it will be necessary to open penthouse/bulkhead doors to vertically ventilate a stair shaft. Vertical
ventilation can be effectively used for top floor occupancies in multistory buildings.
Forcible Entry: Entry is simplified by typical doors and windows that are found in the average residential
type of occupancy. Although conventional forcible entry methods can work well, expect multiple locking
devices (some with dead bolts) in entry doors as the close proximity of numerous people in these types of
occupancies often result in increased security concerns. This is particularly true in East coast buildings
as opposed to West coast buildings. Main entrance doors can be formidable.
Search: The increased number of people in these structures (as opposed to typical multifamily dwellings)
and in close proximity to each other can easily require a larger resource commitment for search opera-
tions. The size of each unit/occupancy, however, is small to moderate and the floor plans are typically
residential in nature. Easy access is limited to the front of each unit on the above-grade floors and the
front/rear of occupancies on the grade floors. Search operations in these structures can be a considerable
challenge depending on the size and extension of fire.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Due to the number and close proximity of people, expect challenging rescue considerations.
These types of buildings are typically found in low-income areas and can present additional safety
concerns toward fireground personnel.
Always try to determine the presence of lightweight construction.
Offset studs and walls can be found in newer construction.
Common attics are standard.
Although division walls may be present, they are often breached.
Hallway fire doors may be blocked open.
Exterior brick veneers are for decoration only and are subject to collapse if fire exposes the
wood framing.
Look for the presence of sprinklers and standpipe connections.
Multiple buildings in close proximity and/or remote from roadways can present apparatus
placement problems.
Expect large-scale electric utility rooms and altered utility distribution equipment in large buildings.

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BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingLegacy Townhome/Condo/Apartment
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Mostly brick masonry and conventional wood
frame, some concrete block and poured-in- MFD
place concrete
Conventional wood floor and some concrete
17
over conventional wood flooring
Typically conventional wood roof construction
and some conventional metal roof construction
Concrete slab, perimeter foundation,
and basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
The defining difference between these struc-
tures built prior to 1960 and the same type of
structures constructed after the 1960s is the
use of lightweight construction in newer build-
ings and the predominance of conventional
construction in the older buildings. Many older
commercial buildings have been converted to
residential apartment and condominium type
structures, resulting in a mixture of conven-
tional and lightweight construction.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Range from simple two- to four-story struc-
tures with several units to numerous adjoining
units that comprise one common structure (e.g., row buildings).
The exterior is normally of brick masonry construction or wood siding on all-wood structures.
Cornices, corbels, and other decorative type exterior features are often used.
Roof is usually of conventional or lightweight construction with multiple layers of roofing materials.
Some of these buildings incorporate adjoining occupancies that share a common attic.
Unreinforced masonry construction can be identified by its visible characteristics.
Basements are common depending on the area of the country.

INTERIOR FEATURES
The majority of these buildings use the floor plan of an interior hallway configuration, where each unit
is accessed from a center hallway.
Multiple units normally share a common attic.
Depending on the age, lath and plaster is the standard interior finish for older buildings and drywall for
newer buildings and/or renovations.
Older elevators are common in larger buildings and smoke detectors/sprinklers may not be present.
Standpipes may be present depending on the size and type of building.
There is generally no HVAC system.
327
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although these buildings are rather simplistic from the perspective of dwelling type configu-
rations and the construction is generally older and of conventional materials, fire can rapidly spread
in vertical stair shafts, pipe chases, and particularly within common attics. Many of these structures
used full-dimension wood and conventional masonry construction, which can resist fire in a superior
manner compared to lightweight construction. However, structures that use wood exterior siding can
rapidly burn, particularly when covered by asphalt siding. Lastly, a fire in a basement can rapidly travel
MFD vertically within unprotected channels. Exposed floor joists over an unfinished basement increases the
collapse hazard.
17 Collapse: Conventional construction (walls, floors, and roofs) is not prone to early collapse when exposed to
fire. Conventional wood and masonry construction is also not prone to early collapse. However, many of
these buildings use brick veneer on a wood frame that can easily collapse if the wood frame is weakened
by fire. Remember that if a fire is on the top floor, it can easily extend into an attic and cause an early
collapse of a wood or metal roof, particularly when the roof has numerous layers of roofing materials that
impose a significant dead load.
Ventilation: Ventilation operations are similar to single-family residential homes in that either horizontal
and/or vertical ventilation can be beneficial, depending on the location of fire. Horizontal ventilation
is enhanced by windows in each room and can often be assisted by PPV. If present, hallways normally
terminate into vertical stair shafts that may exit a roof through a penthouse. Although vertical ventila-
tion can be useful for fires on the top floors of these buildings, expect heavy construction and numerous
layers of roofing materials that will require appropriate resources and time for completion.
Forcible Entry: Conventional forcible entry methods are normally sufficient as doors and windows are
similar to common residential doors and windows. Most older windows are plate (annealed) glass,
although newer-construction and remodels likely use double-pane/energy-efficient type windows. It is not
uncommon for entry doors to be solid wood and secured by multiple locking devices, which can hamper
forcible entry operations. Some of the larger complexes can have on-duty security personnel who should
be available to assist with entry/exit considerations.
Search: Search is not much different from conducting a search in a residential occupancy as the floor
plans are often similar. In many cases, the size of each occupancy and individual rooms are small
to moderate, which can be a benefit to search operations. Larger buildings can present a significant
occupant consideration as well as occupants above a fire in multistory buildings. Remember that some
buildings will have numerous adjoining occupancies that may also need to be searched depending on
exposure considerations.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Common attics are normally found over adjoining occupancies. Read the attic vents.
Asphalt siding (also known as gasoline siding) can be expected to rapidly burn and fail when exposed
to fire.
Older exterior cornices (if present) may be flammable and will not support the weight of an aerial
device or personnel.
Expect many older buildings to have been renovated with lightweight construction and voids that were
not present in the original building.
Fires on the top floor can present a hazard by extending into a common attic.
Always check for a basement.
Well-developed fires can cause collapse of exterior brick veneers.
The older buildings normally lack sprinklers.
Older elevators may be present in some large buildings.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Multifamily DwellingLightweight Townhome/Condo/Apartment
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Light wood or metal framing, and truss floor
and roof construction MFD
Some brick veneer, wood, vinyl, and
stucco exteriors
18
Concrete slab or perimeter foundation and
some walkout basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
These types of buildings have universally
embraced the use of lightweight (engineered)
construction in almost every aspect.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Whether listed as apartments, condominiums,
or townhomes, the construction, floor plans,
and resultant hazards are similar.
Sizes vary from simple two- to four-story
structures that can incorporate several units
(modular) to numerous units that comprise one
common structure.
The exterior is normally finished with stucco, T-11 type siding, vinyl siding, or brick veneer.
Roof construction consists of some type of lightweight wood or metal construction. Fake dormers,
decorative gable vents (nonfunctional), and foam cornices are often part of the roof construction.
The presence of stairways to individual units can indicate the number of units within a structure.
A complex of buildings can be difficult to size-up and reach with resources from on-scene apparatus.
Underground parking is often used in larger buildings.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Garden apartment style floor plans do not have a center hallway configuration. However, some large
buildings have center hallways that serve the units within a building.
The interior normally consists of interconnected rooms that are similar to single-family dwellings.
Drywall is the standard interior finish.
Zero-clearance fireplaces are common.
Adjoining units often use offset studs, which can be considered a modern form of balloon
frame construction.
Multiple units can share a common attic.
Mechanical and utility-areas (laundry, storage) are typically located in lower levels of the complex.
Modern elevators and enclosed interior vertical stair shafts are common in larger buildings. Smoke
detectors are common in both older and newer buildings.
Sprinklers are normally present in newer buildings and/or municipalities with strict codes.

329
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although these buildings are rather simplistic from the perspective of dwelling type configu-
rations and small units to moderate sizes, fire will rapidly spread in lightweight construction, particularly
within common attics, open truss type floors, and vertically in zero-clearance fireplaces. Fire can also
easily spread in voids within soffits, dropped ceilings, and within center hallways (if this floor plan is
utilized). A fire in an automobile in an underground parking area can create severe exposure problems.
Vinyl siding can create noteworthy exposure problems to the area of the fire building and other buildings
MFD in close proximity that also have vinyl siding.

18 Collapse: Lightweight construction (walls, floors, and roofs) is prone to early collapse when exposed to fire,
particularly when glue has been used as a bonding agent for connection points in trusses. Remember
that if a fire is on a top floor, it can easily extend into an attic and cause an early collapse of a truss roof.
Brick veneer on a wood frame can also easily collapse if the wood is weakened by fire.
Ventilation: Ventilation operations are similar to single-family residential homes as either horizontal and/
or vertical ventilation can be beneficial, depending on the location of fire. Horizontal ventilation is
enhanced by windows in each room and can often be assisted by PPV. Although vertical ventilation can
be useful for fires on the top floors of these buildings, it is not normally beneficial for floors below the top
floor. Roof ventilation operations on lightweight roofs is not recommended in an area where trusses are
exposed to fire.
Forcible Entry: Conventional forcible entry methods are normally sufficient as doors and windows are not
commercial grade. Most doors are lightweight and windows are likely plate (annealed) glass, although
newer buildings likely use double-pane windows. Some of the larger complexes can have on-duty
security personnel who should be available to assist with entry/exit considerations.
Search: Search in these buildings is not much different from conducting a search in a residential occupancy,
as the floor plans are often similar. In many cases, the size of each occupancy and individual rooms
are small to moderate, which can be a benefit to search operations. Remember that it is not uncommon
for occupancies above ground to have only one means of exit, so ground ladders may need to
be implemented. Also, remember that exposed lightweight trusses offer minimal time prior to collapse.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Lightweight construction rapidly burns and fails when exposed to fire!
Common attics are widespread. Read the attic vents.
Exterior cornices constructed of rigid foam (if present) are flammable and will not support the weight of
an aerial device or personnel.
Look for the presence of offset studs in adjoining occupancies.
Fire can easily spread vertically in zero-clearance fireplaces.
Fires that originate on balconies or the top floor can rapidly spread into attics spaces and lead to early
collapseeven when the occupant spaces have fire sprinklers.
Well-developed fires can cause collapse of exterior brick veneers.
Anticipate below ground escape windows when walkout basements are present.
Consider the use of ground ladders for above ground occupancies with a single means of entry/exit.
Vinyl siding is flammable and emits a very toxic smoke.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Main Street CommercialPre-WWI Ordinary
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Ordinary load-bearing brick or
stacked stone walls
Timber floor beams and
wood roof
Perimeter stacked stone founda-
tions and rock pads for central
columns (where present)
COM
ERA CONSIDERATIONS 19
Some examples may still
have water-soluble sand and
lime mortar.
Most have heavy timber floor
beams. Some have central
heavy timber columns.
Fire-cut floor beams emerged in this era.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
First floor businesses often have dwelling spaces on upper floors.
Front wall is curtain-style, all other exterior walls are load bearing.
Narrow, arched windows have keystones or solid stone lintels.
Bridge truss and authentic mansard roofs look similar from the street level. Decorative cornices/
parapets are common for flat roof examples.
Cast iron columns and lintels are used for glass storefronts (pictured).
Access to under-building crawl spaces and utility tunnels are typically made from exterior
cellar-like doors.
Presence of spreaders, anchors, and/or rafter tie plates are common and indicate that efforts have
been made to prolong structural stability or give earthquake protection.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Open stairwells are used for upper-floor access.
Narrow center hallways for upper floors and simple floor plans are common.
Expect open first floor with tin ceiling coverings.
Interior doors are likely to have transoms.
Cellars and/or basements are not uncommon.

331
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Expect rapid fire spread through the open area first floor. Open stairwells and center hall
construction will cause rapid fire spread through common areas on upper floors. Fire can communicate
through multiple and connected combustible voids. Individual room fi res on upper floors are typically
contained, but transom openings above hallway entry doors will accelerate fire spread where present. Fires
in mansard roofs are difficult to extinguish due to multiple voids. While simple, the upper floor layout will
present difficulties for hoselines due to distances, corners, and multiple small spaces.

Collapse: The pre-WWI ordinary commercial building is high mass and can typically withstand the
effects of fires contained in small rooms. However, some of the most spectacular collapses have occurred
in pre-WWI ordinary construction buildings. Fire-cut (self-releasing) floors can cause a general collapse,
and sagging floors are a typical warning. The use of cast iron for columns and lintels can cause the curtain
wall supported above the cast iron to collapse with little visual warning. Alterations to load-bearing walls
COM and floors create significant weaknesses that are accelerated by heat and fi re. Decorative cornices and
parapets fail easily with the slightest roof sag. Aging and deterioration of brick mortar creates higher
19 collapse risk. The presence of anchors and rafter tie plates indicate that the building has been strengthened
to resist collapse (look for uniform spacing of anchors on the exterior wall). The presence of tie-rod ends
and spreaders on the exterior wall indicates a rapid collapse potential; when an interior fire heats the steel
tie-rod, it will elongate and allow floor beams to pull away from the wall.

Ventilation: Roof ventilation should be a high priority if the fire has captured combustible voids (likely).
Stairwell penthouses may assist ventilation of open, center hall configured upper floors. The size and
interior geometry can present challenges for the use of PPV fans.

Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods as the doors and
frames are typically solid wood. Security hardware on storefront windows and entry doors can require
power saws or hydraulic spreaders.

Search: First floor open spaces may require large area search techniques. Stock, furnishings, kitchens, and
arrangement variables can also be challenging on the first floor. Open stairwells and center hallways are
also smoke/heat/fire pathways that can hamper search and rescue. Window rescues are typical for upper
floor fires. Upper floor plans are typically simple and repeated.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Multiple electrical feeds are usually found on Side C.
Steam heat, water, and sewer systems are usually under the building and are accessed by an exterior
cellar door.
Utility tunnels and underground passageways can cause fire spread to adjacent exposures.
Expect numerous poke-through holes created by years of utility and infrastructure upgrades.
Anticipate multiple layers of roofing materials.
Sprinklers may not be present.
Cellars/basements can be encountered, and they present a formidable challenge due to storage, vertical
fire spread paths, and limited access and ventilation options.
Utilities are old (with associated hazards) unless they have been upgraded.

332
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Main Street CommercialPre-WWII Ordinary (Taxpayer)
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Mostly unreinforced and conventional
brick masonry, full-size wood, and some
rough-cut lumber
Perimeter foundations or concrete slab
Basements are common and can traverse
multiple stores
Common cocklofts/attics are typical.
COM
ERA CONSIDERATIONS 20
Primarily constructed from the late 1800s to the
early 1900s, the first floor is typically the commer-
cial occupancy and the second and/or third floors
are the residential occupancies. Basements are
also incorporated below grade level and often
contain a noteworthy fire load. Although these
buildings are old and constructed from conven-
tional materials, they are prime candidates for
remodels that can change the original floor plans
and construction materials (notice the blocked
second-floor windows in the bottom photo).

EXTERIOR FEATURES
The sizes of these occupancies most often range
from simple two to three stories. All can incorporate a basement, which adds an additional story
to the building.
Some buildings are a block long; multiple adjoining taxpayer type buildings can appear to be a
block long.
Cornices and corbels are often used.
Roofs are typically flat or sloped and use conventional wood construction that is covered with multiple
layers of roofing materials.
Unreinforced masonry construction and roof rafters/floor joists will often be strengthened by rafter tie
plates that are visible from the exterior.
Access to the residential occupancies is normally through a door/interior stairway on the street level
and/or a door/exterior stairway on one side of the building.

INTERIOR FEATURES
The first floor is commercial, while the floors above are residential or office space.
Basements can contain noteworthy amounts of storage.
Lath and plaster wall and ceiling coverings are standard. Some tin ceilings can be found in first floor
occupancies. Sprinklers are not typical, and, where present, are likely to be a retrofit.
Interior hallways and stairways can be narrow.
Large display windows of plate (annealed) glass on the grade floor are common.
Common cocklofts/attics can extend the full length of these buildings.
333
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although these buildings are rather simplistic, a fire in a basement can rapidly spread verti-
cally to the floors above the basement. Similarly, a fire in the first floor can spread to the overhead
residential occupancies and potentially trap the occupants. Additionally, a fire in the top floor can extend
into the cockloft/attic and then easily extend horizontally in the common attic/cockloft.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings as they are of
substantial construction. However, unreinforced masonry construction is prone to collapse when exposed
to a prolonged fire. Another potential area of collapse is the front portion of these buildings, as the
supporting member over the display windows (which supports the construction/parapet wall above the
member) is either a wood or cast iron beam, both of which can fail and allow the entire front portion of
a building to collapse outward into the street. Additionally, if a fire is on the top floor and extends into a
common attic/cockloft, collapse of a roof depends on the size of structural members. These are normally
conventional construction and the roof will have a sizeable dead load from numerous layers of roofing

COM materials. Cornices and parapets are always a collapse concern when fire involves the top floor.
Ventilation: Ventilation in a basement can be slow due to few openings; oftentimes there is only one
20 openingthe stairwayfor basement access/egress. In many cases, PPV can be used to enhance natural
ventilation if there are sufficient openings. Horizontal and/or PPV can be used in the grade floor and
floors above by cross ventilating contaminated areas. Although horizontal ventilation can be used on
a top floor, roof ventilation that consists of either offensive operations or defensive operations for an
extending attic/cockloft fire can be useful.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can generally be accomplished by conventional methods. The display
windows are plate (annealed) glass and can be easily broken, but will break in large shards that can fall
outward. Windows on the floors above grade level are normally openable and are also plate glass. Expect
heavy security on the front of some of these buildings (such as scissor gates, overhead doors, multiple
locking devices, etc.). The rear door is also usually of heavy construction and may be secured with an
interior security bar. (Look for a double pair of carriage bolt heads on the exterior of a door.)
Search: Search operations in a basement with fire will be difficult and dangerous at best. Search operations
on grade floor commercials will be simplified by the floor plan (usually rectangular and with few parti-
tion walls), but can be degraded by a noteworthy fire load. Search operations on the residential floor(s)
above the grade floor will be similar to multi-family dwellings as these occupancies have similar configu-
rations. Remember that in some cases there may be multiple residential occupancies that are served by a
common hallway.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
When exposed to fire, unreinforced masonry construction can collapse outward at least twice its height.
Masonry parapets are also prone to collapse outward when exposed to fire.
Exterior cornices are likely flammable and will not support the weight of an aerial device or personnel.
The name of a business (often displayed in its exterior signage) is an indicator of the interior contents.
Fire can easily spread in a common attic/cockloft.
Fires on the top floor can present a hazard to exterior cornices and common attics.
These occupancies are prime candidates for remodels.
Consider forcing entry to occupancies on either side of the original fire occupancy if extension into
a common attic is suspected.
Expect a lack of sprinklers.
Expect multiple/altered utility shutoffs on the rear of the building. Apparatus access may be restricted
in alleyways.
Anticipate inverted roofs on older buildings.
Apparatus access is typically restricted in alleyways.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Main Street CommercialIndustrial/Legacy Strip Style
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Mostly unreinforced and
conventional brick masonry
Full-size wood and some rough-
cut lumber and conventional
wood roof
Perimeter foundation or
concrete slab
Basements common COM
ERA CONSIDERATIONS 21
Primarily constructed from
the early to mid-1900s, they
are similar to taxpayers except
they are limited to one-story
buildings.
Depending on the area of the country, basements were also incorporated below grade level. They often
contain a noteworthy fire load and can be common to adjoining buildings.
Although these buildings are old and were constructed from conventional materials, they are prime
candidates for remodels that can change the original floor plans and construction materials.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
These occupancies range from a simple one-story building with one or two adjoining occupancies to
multiple adjoining occupancies, all of which can incorporate a basement that adds an additional level.
Cornices and corbels are often used. Remember they will not support an aerial device or personnel, and
can hide a void behind the cornice. They can also be dislodged with master streams.
Roofs are typically flat or sloped and use conventional wood construction that is covered with multiple
layers of roofing materials.
Unreinforced masonry construction can be strengthened by rafter tie plates that are visible from
the exterior.
In some cases, large advertising signs were mounted on the roofs of these buildings.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Basements can contain noteworthy amounts of storage.
Lath and plaster wall and ceiling coverings are standard. Some tin ceilings can be found in some of the
more upscale occupancies.
An access door can be found at the rear of these occupancies but can be difficult to force.
Large display windows of plate (annealed) glass on the grade floor are common.
Sprinklers are not typical and where found are likely a retrofit.

335
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although these buildings are rather simplistic from the perspective of a single-story
occupancy that is often over a basement, a fire in a basement can rapidly spread vertically to the floor
above. Similarly, a fire in the first floor occupancy can spread to the overhead common attic/cockloft and
rapidly spread horizontally. Because of adjoining occupancy configurations, there can be an exposure
problem with occupancies on either side of the fire occupancy.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings as they are
of substantial construction. However, unreinforced masonry construction is prone to collapse when
exposed to prolonged fire due to its inherent weaknesses. Another potential area of collapse is the front
portion of these buildings. A wood or cast iron beam is often used as the supporting member (over the
display windows) for the parapet wall above, both of which can fail and allow the entire front portion of
a building to collapse outward into the street. Remember, if fire extends into a common attic/cockloft,
collapse of the roof depends on the size of structural members that are normally conventional construc-

COM tion, but the roof will have a sizeable dead load from numerous layers of roofing materials.
Ventilation: Fires in a basement are slow to be ventilated due to few openings; often there is only one
21 openingthe stairwayfor basement access/egress. In many cases, PPV can be used to enhance natural
ventilation if there are sufficient openings. Horizontal and/or PPV can be used on the grade floor by cross
ventilating contaminated areas from front to back (or the reverse). Roof ventilation that consists of either
offensive operations or defensive operations for an extending attic/cockloft fire can be useful. However,
cutting a roof will be slowed by conventional construction and multiple layers of roofing materials.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can generally be accomplished by conventional methods. The display
windows are usually plate (annealed) glass and can be easily broken, but will break in large shards that
can fall outward. Expect heavy security on the front of some of these buildings (such as scissor gates,
overhead doors, multiple locking devices, etc.). The rear door is also of heavy construction and may be
secured with an interior security bar. (Look for a double pair of carriage bolt heads on the door.)
Search: Search operations in a basement with fire will be difficult and dangerous at best. Search operations
on the grade floor commercial(s) will be simplified by the floor plan (often rectangular with few partition
walls), but can be degraded by a noteworthy fire load. Access/egress to the front and rear of grade floor
occupancies can be helpful to search operations.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
When exposed to fire, unreinforced masonry construction can collapse outward at least twice its height.
Masonry parapets are also prone to collapse outward when exposed to fire.
Exterior cornices are likely flammable and will not support the weight of an aerial device or personnel.
The name displayed on the exterior of the business is an indicator of the interior contents.
Fire can easily spread in a common attic/cockloft.
These occupancies are prime candidates for remodels.
Consider forcing entry to occupancies on either side of the original fire occupancy if extension into a
common attic is suspected.
If a large advertising sign is mounted on the roof, determine whether the roof has been strengthened to
adequately support the sign (see photo).
Expect multiple/altered utility shutoffs on the rear of the building. Apparatus access may be restricted
in alleyways.
Anticipate the presence of inverted roofs.

336
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Main Street CommercialModern Strip-Style Store
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Load-bearing CMU exterior
walls (Sides B, C, and D) with
lightweight steel, wood, or
composite trusses
Side A steel and/or wood
columns and girders to
support trusses
Foundation usually slab
on grade unless a storage
COM
basement is included 22
Tenant spaces separated by
light steel or wood framed stud
partition walls

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Those built from the late 1970s
to 1990s are CMU exterior
walls with parallel chord steel bar truss roofs.
The 21st century examples are engineered lightweight. They may still have CMU walls but utilize a
lightweight trussed flat roof (wood chords with a stamped metal web is most common).

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Side A is usually glass with customer entry doors for each tenant. Side A will likely include a cantile-
vered canopy or column-supported overhead facade (pictured).
Rooftop HVAC and exhaust vents can be hidden by decorative skirts, false mansards, or parapets.
Expect to find no windows on Sides B, C, and D. Steel access (delivery) doors are located on Side C,
and are rarely used for customer access.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Individual retail spaces or tenants (units) are divided by lightweight partition walls.
The rear of each unit is also partitioned to create stock and office spaces for staff.
The products/services that individual tenants offer will dictate interior arrangement and potential fire
load. Attention to the individual signs on the facade or entry door can help with size-up for interior
features (physicians office, hair salon, coffee shop, auto parts retail, etc.).
Small restaurant tenant spaces will also include a partitioned kitchen/prep area. This introduces
fixed cooking equipment (including a grease hood), commercial-sized coolers, and stationary food
prep counters.
Common attics over most or all occupancies are normal.

337
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Strip stores are subdivided into tenant units by simple partition walls that should be consid-
ered temporary (they can be torn down and moved to reallocate space for larger or smaller tenants).
These walls rarely extend to the roof, which creates a shared void space above a suspended ceiling. Fire
can easily spread from one unit to another. It is paramount to check for fire extension on adjoining units
(remember to check the adjoining unit that stands to receive the most loss first). Fires that originate in or
behind occupancy signs can easily capture the entire facade or canopy. Not all codes require the facade to
be separate from the roof structure; be sure to check for fire above the dropped ceiling of interior spaces.
Fire intensity and smoke production are obviously influenced by the fire load that each unit holds. (Read
the tenant signs!) Additionally, remember that division walls do not typically extend into exterior facades,
which means they are not fire-stopped!
Collapse: The primary collapse threat is that of the roof and Side A facade or canopy. Most examples have
a significant dead load consisting of multiple HVAC units, cooking hoods, vents, and communications

COM equipment. Newer buildings with lightweight trusses are especially dangerous. Firefighters can expect a
rapid collapse of the roof when fire and heat enter a suspended ceiling space of newer buildings. Often,
the collapse is limited to the areas above and immediately adjoining the fire unit. The threat of a domino
22 style collapse past the involved unit is rare but can be thwarted by cooling the trusses in adjoining,
uninvolved unit spaces.
Ventilation: The modern strip-style store is easily ventilated using common tactical practiceswith a few
caveats. In most cases, it is dangerous to perform rooftop ventilation directly over the fire due to the
lightweight nature of the trusses. A proven approach to ventilation typically includes the creation of a
primary exhaust flow path for the involved unit (consider outside wind direction and take out the front
window if appropriate). This is followed by adding defensive ventilation for uninvolved, adjoining units
(PPV, defensive roof strips, etc.).
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods for the main
customer entrance doors. Most are glass with an aluminum frame. Rear service/supply doors are
typically all steel and are secured with commercial-grade security hardware and/or interior bars that
require powered equipment for forced entry. Breaching CMU walls can be accomplished, although it is
often time consuming and discouraged.
Search: The need to prioritize search is rare as customers/staff are likely to self evacuate during fires. The
only exception could be staff members who become trapped in the rear office or storage area. Rear access
doors are typically fortified for security.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Gas and electrical utilities can be secured on the building exterior, although they may require the
forcing of locks.
Dumpster fires that are next to the building can extend into the roof structure if an eave or other
opening exists.
The rear of the building may include auxiliary equipment or waste/recycle collection areas.
Common attics allow horizontal fire extension.
Division walls may partition an attic but not exterior facades.
Signage can help indicate interior contents, arrangement, and fire load potential.
Facades over entry/exit areas can be very dangerous.
Consider not using ground ladders on facades.

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BUILDING GROUP: Main Street CommercialFast Food

COM
23
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Load-bearing CMUs with wood or steel roofs or lightweight steel or wood framing with trusses
Usually slab on grade unless a storage basement is included

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Legacy examples are likely to be CMU walls with wood beam roofs.
Engineered lightweight may still have CMU walls but utilize a lightweight truss roof of metal or wood.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Large windows are used in the customer seating area; few to no windows are included in the cooking/
storage areas (perhaps with a drive-up window).
Rooftop HVAC and exhaust vents are hidden by decorative skirts, false mansards, or facades.
Rear service areas are often fenced and contain exterior refrigeration equipment, dumpsters, and/or
waste cooking oil vats.
Drive-thru traffic arrangements vary but most allow 360 apparatus access.
Exterior facades typically have a rear-mounted ladder for roof access.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Interiors are usually divided into three areas: order counter and customer seating area, prep/cooking
area, and restroom areas.
A small office at the rear of the building is common. Likewise, a stairway to a basement storage area
can be found in the rear of the building.
Older examples have fixed cooking equipment (including a grease hood), commercial-sized or walk-in
coolers, and stationary food prep counters.
Newer examples have open cooking areas with drop-down utilities to allow for modular (and moveable)
cooking equipment and appliances.
Suspended ceilings are common and create a void above the ceiling.

339
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Fires that originate in cooking equipment are usually contained by an appliance sprinkler/
suppression system. Older examples may have antiquated suppression systems that are defeated by
vertical spread of fire in ducting that terminates on the exterior (roof or rear exhaust vents). Fire can also
start in electrical and gas appliances and can spread in a similar fashion. Fires in the dining area are
not common but can easily spread due to the openness of the room and lack of partition walls. Soffits,
facades, and other decorative modifications must be checked for hidden extension of fire in concealed
voids. Remember that fire can also easily spread in voids above suspended ceilings.
Collapse: The primary collapse threat is that of the roof. Most examples have a significant dead load
consisting of multiple HVAC units, cooking hoods, and exhaust vents. Newer buildings with lightweight
trusses are especially dangerous. Partition walls between the seating and cooking areas are rarely
load-bearing. Firefighters can expect a rapid and general collapse of the roof when fire and heat enter
the suspended ceiling space of newer buildings. Fire spread into decorative facades can cause local-

COM ized collapse.

Ventilation: Roof ventilation should only be considered for legacy era types. PPV fans will likely be needed
23 for horizontal ventilation of the cooking area and restroom areas. The seating area is much easier to vent.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods for the main
customer entrance doors. Most are glass with an aluminum frame that are typically secured by Adams
Rite cylindrical locks. Rear service/supply doors are typically steel and are secured with commercial-
grade security hardware and/or interior bars.
Search: The need to prioritize search is rare as customers/staff are likely to self evacuate during fires.
The only exception could be staff members who become trapped in the rear office or storage area.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Gas and electrical utilities can be secured on the building exterior, although they may require the
forcing of locks.
Dumpster fires that are next to the building can extend into the facade. Many fire codes require that
dumpsters and waste cooking oil holding systems be located away from the building.
Large indoor or outdoor childrens play areas can create a considerable fire load as well as a resulting
smoke that is extraordinarily toxic/flammable due to the use of synthetic materials.
Sprinklers may or may not be present, depending on the age of the building.
Rapid collapse of the roof and facade cannot be overemphasized in lightweight constructed
fast-food buildings.
Roofs with facades can typically be accessed by a rear-mounted ladder.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Main Street CommercialMega-Box

COM
24
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Mostly fire resistive (Type I) that combine reinforced concrete and coated steel
Some load-bearing CMU walls
Roofs of lightweight steel parallel bar trusses with numerous skylights, domes, and finishes
Slab-on-grade foundation and footers on peripheral stores
Central core with a reinforced concrete basement foundation for delivery tunnels and utility conveyance

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Legacy examples are likely to be reinforced concrete. Additional wings built onto the original mall may
be constructed using CMU walls where appropriate occupancy separation exists.
Newer malls use mostly coated steel to meet fire resistivity requirements.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Big-box anchor stores surround a central core (mall) for smaller retail shops.
Anchor stores have exterior customer entry doors, whereas smaller stores may only be accessed from
the central mall area. Some larger restaurants may also have exterior entries.
A central receiving/loading dock is shared by smaller tenants. Each anchor store may have an indepen-
dent receiving dock.
Expect a flat roof for anchor stores. The central mall area may have multiple light wells, skylights, or
other features as part of a flat roof.
Most HVAC systems are on the roof, although a large chiller unit may be found on site.

INTERIOR FEATURES
The central mall is usually designed with a grand avenue with spur hallways. Some spurs open to the
parking lot and some are dead ends that include restrooms, staff offices, and emergency-only exits.
Older malls incorporate a central facility utility plant for boilers, water, and electrical needs (usually in
a basement). Central receiving and stock distribution is colocated near the utility plant.
Newer malls are likely to have multiple utility service and stock receiving areas.
For malls with multiple floors, expect to find escalators, open stairways, and elevators for customers
and freight.
Food courts are common.
341
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Mega-malls rely on an automatic fire sprinkler system to suppress fires. The system is
designed to have multiple zones and includes multiple risers. Compartmentalization of fires to a given
area is accomplished using a combination of fire walls, fuse-link doors, and ventilation system dampers
as well as the fire sprinkler system. Fire spread issues exist with the utility conveyance system, waste/
recycle collection areas, and suspended ceiling spaces. If fire extends to a metal bar joist roof, it can
travel between the metal decking and roof composition.
Collapse: Fire resistive buildings also have a certain resistance to collapse. Collapse threats do exist for
suspended ceilings in individual retail stores and for the exposed atrium trusses in the central mall. In a
fire, bar-joist roofs are candidates for collapse.
Ventilation: The combination of individual stores, dead end corridors, cavernous atriums, and long
distances to exterior doors make ventilation a challenge. Smoke removal from smaller fires can often be
accomplished with the help of the building engineer using the facilitys ventilation system. Newer malls
COM typically have a fire command center that allows fire officers to control various building systems. Tactical
ventilation for uncontrolled fires is difficult and usually requires the removal of skylight or atrium glass
24 and PPV fan relays.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods for the main
customer entrance doors. Most are glass with an aluminum frame with Adams Rite circular locks.
Emergency exit doors should include panic hardware that is easy to force. Stock receiving areas with
overhead rolling doors require power saws and well-trained firefighters to defeat. Retail stores that are
accessed by the central mall may not have actual doors, but rather roll-down security gates. Most are
key-activated, with an electric motor that raises and lowers the gate. These can be defeated but generally
require power tools and special training. Security personnel, mall staff, and building engineers may have
more rapid solutions for gaining entry into given spaces that are well secured.
Search: The need to prioritize search is rare as customers/staff are likely to self evacuate during fires.
Multiple entry/exit doors on each side of the building should assist in occupant egress routes. Most
malls have 24/7 security services whose employees may help responders target areas that need to be
searched. The use of large area search techniques may be required for larger stores where visibility has
been hampered.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Gas and electrical utilities can be secured on the building exterior, although they may require the
forcing of locks. Multiple gas and electrical feeds are common, extensive, and large. Expect high
voltage and high pressure service feeds.
Congested parking lots and evacuating occupants can hinder arriving apparatus. Mega-box facilities
that include multiplex movie theatres will exacerbate this challenge. Fire departments are encouraged
to preplan apparatus access areas and practice arrival options during times of crowd congestion prior to
actual incidents.
Legacy-era malls are likely to have asbestos in insulation, pipe casings, and as part of the spray coating
of steel structural elements. Asbestos can be released when firefighters tear into these components
for overhaul.
Anticipate the extension of fire between the metal roof decking and roof composition if fire exposes a
metal bar joist roof. Likewise, always check for fire extension above suspended ceilings.
External storage areas are prime locations for fire.
Interior displays can pose a specific combustible hazard (i.e., automobiles, etc.)
Food courts can present restaurant-type hazards.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Main Street CommercialBig-Box
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Load-bearing CMU exterior
walls with interior steel
columns to support lightweight
steel parallel bar trusses
Tilt-up concrete walls with
interior steel columns to
support lightweight steel
parallel bar trusses
Slab-on-grade foundations
COM
and footers 25
ERA CONSIDERATIONS
The big-box store is mostly a
modern engineered lightweight
building.
A few legacy examples exist that are CMU with solid steel girders supporting steel bridge trusses.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Expect a large, expansive footprint with 360 apparatus access.
Exterior walls can range from 20 ft to 40 ft high, and decorative facades are common.
Windows are on the storefronts only.
Customer access doors are usually glass and aluminum. Emergency evacuation doors surround the
building. The rear or side of the building will have several shipping/receiving overhead roll-up doors.
Most HVAC systems are on the roof, although a large chiller unit may be found on Side C.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Two general interior arrangements can be found: (1) A wide-open floor plan with high-rack displays and
storage as part of the customer area, or (2) a large showroom style floor plan with a separate high-rack
storage area that is partitioned from customers.
Both variants have a separate receiving area for incoming goods.
Some examples include a mezzanine-like office area built as a building within a building for staff
offices and a staff break area. These should be of noncombustible construction, although wood framing
can be found.
Most have exposed roof trusses. Flat, metal bar joist roofs are the most common. HVAC ducting,
lighting, and signage are typically hung from the trusses.
A fast food, bank, or other convenience service tenant may have a sublet space inside that is located
against an exterior wall.

343
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The big-box store relies on an automatic fire sprinkler system to suppress fires. The system
is designed to have multiple zones and typically includes an overhead (truss) protection grid as well
as a high-rack storage grid. Fires that surpass the capabilities of the sprinkler system are rare but are
cause for great concern. High fire loads, deep-seated storage rack challenges, and long hose lay lengths
typically challenge attack crews. Risk managers consider the big-box store an engineered loss, meaning
that a fire or other event that cannot be controlled by automatic devices will result in a total loss of the
contents and building. If fire extends to a metal bar joist roof, it can travel between the metal decking and
roof composition.
Collapse: The primary collapse threat is that of the high-rack storage units, either by fire or water satura-
tion (sprinkler activation). High-rack storage units can be considered vertical trusses with cantilevers
they are very strong but have design limits that can be exceeded by water saturation or the application
of heat (800F). Large-scale fires that attack the roof truss system should be considered an instant

COM collapse threat. Failure of roof trusses can cause wall stresses. Walls that are no longer supporting a roof
should be considered unstable. Shoring of walls (using rakers) is mandatory prior to overhaul and fire
cause investigations.
25 Ventilation: The cavernous nature of big-box interiors renders most fire department ventilation techniques
inadequate. For those occasions where an interior operation needs ventilation, some consideration can
be given to removing rooftop light diffusion panels (where they exist) and setting up PPV fan relays.
Although few exist, the use of an apparatus-mounted, ultra high-volume fan may prove effective.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods for the main
customer entrance doors. Most are glass with an aluminum frame with Adams Rite circular locks.
Emergency exit doors should include panic hardware that is easy to force. Stock-receiving areas with
overhead rolling doors require power saws and well-trained firefighters to defeat.
Search: The need to prioritize search is rare as customers/staff are likely to self evacuate during fires.
Multiple emergency exit doors on each side of the building should assist in occupant egress routes,
although a panic-stricken stampede for the storefront egress can produce a mass-casualty event. After-
hours stockers are common for busier stores, as some companies schedule stock deliveries at night.
In most cases, these staffers will be waiting for the fire departments arrival and can help account for
all workers.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Gas and electrical utilities can be secured on the building exterior, although they may require the
forcing of locks. Multiple gas and electrical feeds are common, extensive, and large. Expect high-
voltage and high-pressure service feeds..
Congested parking lots and evacuating occupants can render the storefront inaccessible to responding
apparatus. Fire departments are encouraged to preplan apparatus placement options for various types of
incidents in big-box buildings.
Anticipate fire extending between the metal roof decking and roof composition if fire exposes a metal
bar joist roof.
Expect to encounter large utility feeds.
Food courts can present restaurant-type hazards.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Manufacturing/WarehouseBlock/Masonry
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Walls of brick or concrete block
Roofs of metal or wood, often of light-
weight materials
Concrete slab foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings commonly used either
brick or concrete block with conventional
wood roofs (bowstring roofs were common) or
flat metal roofs of open web bar joists. Some
unreinforced masonry buildings (pre-1933) can
be found with either conventional wood roofs
or flat metal roofs. Some wood panelized roofs
can be encountered in the West.
Post-1960 buildings used conventional
MANF
reinforced brick construction and concrete
block with lightweight roofs of open web metal
26
bar joist construction. Some wood panelized
roofs can be encountered. Arched roofs are
normally not found after 1960.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Depending on the size and age of a building,
many types of roofs can be used, including flat,
sawtooth, gable, and arched (bowstring or rigid
arch truss). Metal deck roofs are commonly found on the East coast and wood roofs are common on the
West coast. Bowstring roofs are very common in many areas of the country.
It is not uncommon for additional buildings to be attached to the original building for additional
space without having to modify the original building. The attached buildings are often a lesser
grade of construction.
Depending on the occupancy, large display windows may be present.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Large open areas are common with these types of buildings as the openness favors storage and
manufacturing processes.
A lack of partition walls is common.
Small office areas are common and are used for records, reports, management of the business,
and other purposes. In many cases, the office area is a building-within-a-building and maybe of
dubious construction.
Sprinklers may or may not be present.
Mezzanines may be present.

345
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire can be rapid and intense due to open floor plans, the size of some build-
ings, and primarily the type of contents. In most cases, not only will the contents readily burn, but so
will wood structural components of a building. Metal structural components will soften and then fail
between 800F and 1,000F. The rapid spread of fire within flammable contents can be enhanced by the
type of storage that is in close proximity to other flammable contents (racked or tiered storage, etc.). The
presence of operative sprinklers can retard the spread of fire. Suspect a lack of sprinklers on older build-
ings unless they have been retrofitted.
Collapse: Collapse is totally dependent on the type of construction, size of the building, type of contents,
and presence or lack of sprinklers. It will take a sizeable fire and time to affect the stability of concrete
block walls; however, if a roof does collapse, the concrete block walls will be freestanding and weaker
than their original configuration. Conventional brick walls are more prone to collapse than concrete block
walls, and unreinforced brick walls can readily collapse if a roof collapses. Buildings with unreinforced
masonry construction should be considered extremely dangerous when exposed to fire. Collapse of any
roof depends on the size and type of roof. The large wood timber roofs will resist fire for longer periods
of time than metal roofs or wood roofs of smaller conventional and/or lightweight lumber.
Ventilation: These buildings can normally support horizontal, vertical, and/or PPV as is most appropriate
for the type/size of building and extent of fire encountered. Horizontal ventilation will often be limited to
minimal doors such as a single standard size door on one end of a building and multiple overhead loading
doors on other ends of a building (depending on size). Vertical ventilation can be a viable operation,
MANF particularly in wood roofs, but depending on the size of building may be a resource- and time-intensive
operation to have a meaningful effect. If a particular building is equipped with glass and/or plastic
26 skylights, these can be quickly removed for ventilation operations. As a building approaches the large
warehouse size, PPV will require fans capable of large CFM capability.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is usually limited to either a standard size interior door into an office area or
overhead loading doors. Some overhead doors will have a standard size door inserted as part of the larger
unit. Some windows may be present if the building houses processes that require openable windows for
ventilation, but windows are usually not in abundant supply. Challenging and time-intensive entry opera-
tions should be anticipated, as security is a major consideration in these types of commercial buildings.
Search: Unless there are known trapped occupants, search should not be a primary concern as the
occupants are normally ambulatory. Obviously, a rapid escalation of fire can dramatically change this
consideration; trapped occupants often seek refuge in the office area (building within a building).
Additionally, if a search is necessary, the inherent risk should be evaluated and personnel must be profi-
cient in large area searches as they can be difficult and time consuming.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Always look for clues that give an indication of the contents and hazards, such as signage on the
exterior of the building, for any particular storage outside a building, and the size of the utilities.
As entry and exit openings can be in short supply, and the size of these buildings can be formidable,
consider making as many large entry and exit openings as feasible.
Mezzanines should be anticipated.
Unreinforced masonry construction should be considered very dangerous (due to collapse) when
exposed to fire conditions.
Buildings that are not equipped with operative sprinklers pose an additional risk.
The larger the building, the more difficult suppression operations will likely become. This applies to
forcible entry, attack, and ventilation operations.
Searches in large buildings can be challenging unless personnel are proficient in large area searches.
Collapse hazards are presented by burned rack/tiered storage (particularly during overhaul operations).

346
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Manufacturing/WarehouseSteel
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Structural members of metal beams
that form a skeleton for wall and roof
coverings (often kit buildings such
as Butler or Murphy red-beam)
Wall sidings typically of corrugated
steel, aluminum, or fiberglass panels
Roofs of metal decking over metal
structural members (some use
wood sheathing)
Concrete slab foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings use thicker and
stronger structural materials. MANF
Post-1960 buildings use lighter and
smaller structural materials, and some 27
fibrous materials for roof decking.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Exterior walls can appear as
corrugated metal panels, but can be
corrugated fiberglass. Various types of wood such as plywood can also be used as a covering.
Roofs are typically of a gable or flat configuration.
These buildings can vary widely from a medium size to large buildings that are hundreds of feet in
length and width.
In some cases, masonry veneers are used for aesthetic purposes.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Interior configurations can fall into three categories: (1) open floor plans used for storage, (2) floor plans
used for manufacturing processes, and (3) a combination of manufacturing and storage.
Typically a small to medium size area is reserved for office/administration space.
The buildings are often equipped with sprinklers.
The interior contents can vary widely. This also holds true for the flammability of the contents.
Hazardous materials can be encountered in some buildings.
Some buildings will have interior insulation panels for the walls and/or roof.

347
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The extension of fire is dependent on the size of a building, contents, and the presence of
functional partition walls and sprinklers. Partition walls will tend to compartmentalize areas within these
buildings and reduce interior open areas. Fire spread is also dependent on the type of manufacturing
processes (if present) and the type of storage, such as piled, stacked and/or rack-tiered materials. A lack
of sprinklers can contribute to an enhanced fire spread.
Collapse: Depending on the amount of fire, steel, aluminum, and fiberglass wall panels can readily fail,
particularly fiberglass panels. Steel structural members will weaken and become a candidate for collapse
when heated to 800F to 1,000F. Corrugated roof panels are also prone to rapid collapse when exposed
to sufficient heat and/or fire.
Ventilation: Horizontal ventilation is usually limited to doors and windows, which can be minimal in these
buildings. PPV can be beneficial but is dependent on the size of a building and the ability to use strategi-
cally placed openings. Roof ventilation is enhanced by removing plastic/fiberglass skylights (if present)
and/or opening the roof sheathing, which can be wood, metal, or fibrous type materials. Roof ventilation
can be time intensive depending on the size of the building. Remember that activated sprinklers near roof
ventilation openings can negate vertical ventilation. Roof ventilation personnel must know what type of
roof they are on.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is normally limited to either the standard interior door(s) to the office areas
(small opening) or overhead loading doors (much larger). Security is a concern in these buildings that is
reflected in the substantial doors and windows. Proper training techniques for overhead doors is essential
MANF for efficient operations.
Search: Search operations can be challenging due to the amount of floor space and the need for personnel
27 who are proficient in large area searches. Remember that occupants are normally ambulatory and are not
usually lost in commercial building fires.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
The signage on the exterior of a building can be a good indicator of the interior contents.
The sizes of utilities (electrical, gas, and water) are also a good indicator of noteworthy
interior processes.
Exterior hazmat placarding and exterior storage of palletized goods may offer additional clues
to interior processes.
Mezzanines can be found in these buildings and are normally located above the office door and not the
overhead loading door areas.
Roof ventilation on large buildings will require resources, time, and large and/or many openings to
create effective vertical ventilation. Corrugated metal roofs are not recommended to support roof venti-
lation personnel.
Security measures can contribute to lengthy forcible entry operations.
Activated sprinklers can minimize or negate interior contaminates from vertically exhausting through
roof ventilation openings. In this case, the sprinklers must be temporarily shut off to allow vertical
ventilation to be effective.
Be wary of burned racked/tiered storage and building access/egress under mezzanines.

348
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Manufacturing/WarehouseConcrete Tilt-up
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Walls of tilt-up concrete
panels, either poured on site
or prefabricated
Roofs of metal or wood
Concrete slab foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings commonly
use concrete tilt-up panels
with conventional wood roofs
(bowstring roofs are common) or
flat metal roofs of open web bar
joist. Wood panelized roofs are
very common on the West coast.
The concrete panels of the build- MANF
ings are often more substantial
in their connection to the slab foundation than their newer counterparts. As a point of interest, if a
28
concrete tilt-up building has a conventional wood roof such as a gable or arched, it likely was built prior
to 1960.
Post-1960 buildings use concrete tilt-up panels with lightweight metal and wood roofs (panelized).
Conventional arched roofs are normally not found after 1960.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Depending on the size and age of a building, many types of roofs can be used, including flat, gable, and
arched (bowstring or tied truss). Metal deck roofs can commonly be found on the East coast and wood
roofs are common on the West coast. Bowstring and rigid arch roofs on pre-1960 buildings are very
common in some areas of the country. Flat roofs are the most common.
In some cases, additional buildings are attached to the original building for additional space without
having to modify the original building. The attached buildings are normally not concrete panels and are
often a lesser grade of construction.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Large open areas are common with these types of buildings as the openness favors storage and
manufacturing processes.
A lack of partition walls is common.
Small office areas are common and are used for records, reports, management of the business, and
other uses.
Mezzanines are often found above the office area, which is accessed through a standard size door and not
above the overhead loading door areas.
Sprinklers are often present in these buildings.
Depending on the occupancy, manufacturing processes and rack/tiered storage are common.

349
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire can be rapid and intense due to open floor plans, the size of the building,
and the type of contents. In most cases, not only will the contents readily burn, but so will the wood
structural components used for the roof. Roof metal structural components will soften and then fail
between 800F and 1,000F. The rapid spread of fire within flammable contents can be enhanced by the
type of storage that is in close proximity to other flammable contents (racked-tiered storage, etc.). The
presence of operative sprinklers can retard the spread of fire. Suspect a lack of sprinklers on older build-
ings unless they have been retrofitted.
Collapse: Collapse is totally dependent on the type of roof construction, size of building, type of contents,
and presence or lack of sprinklers. It will take a sizeable fire and time for the concrete tilt-up panels to
be in danger of collapse. However, if a roof does collapse, the concrete panels will be freestanding and
weaker than their original configuration and can collapse outward. Collapse of any roof depends on the
size and type of roof. The large wood timber roofs will resist fire for longer periods of time than metal
roofs or wood roofs of smaller conventional and/or lightweight lumber. Mezzanines that are subjected to
water from sprinklers are prone to sudden collapse.
Ventilation: These buildings can normally support horizontal, vertical, and/or PPV as ventilation options
depending on the building and extent of fire encountered. Horizontal ventilation will often be limited to
minimal doors such as a single standard size door on one end of a building and multiple overhead loading
doors on other ends (depending on size) of a building. Vertical ventilation can be a viable operation,
particularly in wood roofs, but depending on the size of building, may be a resource- and time-intensive
MANF operation. If a particular building is equipped with glass and/or plastic skylights, they can be quickly
removed for ventilation operations. PPV is totally dependent on the size of a building, and as a building
28 approaches the large warehouse size, PPV will require fans capable of large CFM capability.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is usually limited to either the standard size door into an office area or
overhead loading doors. Some windows may be present, such as in buildings with specific interior
processes that require openable windows for ventilation, but windows are usually not in abundant supply.
Challenging and time-intensive entry operations should be anticipated as security is a major consider-
ation in these types of commercial buildings. Personnel should be proficient in forcible entry techniques
for overhead doors.
Search: Unless there are known trapped occupants, search should not be a primary concern as the
occupants are normally ambulatory. Obviously, rapid fire escalation can dramatically change this consid-
eration. Additionally, if a search is necessary, the inherent risk should be evaluated and personnel must
be proficient in large area searches as they can be difficult and time consuming.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Always look for signage on the exterior of a building and for any particular storage outside a building,
as these can be indicators of the interior contents and processes.
The size of the utilities can be an excellent indicator of any unique hazards within a building.
As entry and exit openings can be in short supply, and the size of these buildings can be formidable,
consider making as many large entry and exit openings as feasible.
Mezzanines should be anticipated and are subject to collapse when sprinklers have been activated.
Buildings that are not equipped with operative sprinklers pose an additional risk.
The larger the building, the more difficult suppression operations will likely become. This applies to
forcible entry, attack, and ventilation operations.
Search in large buildings can be challenging unless personnel are proficient in large area searches.
Be wary of rack/tiered storage collapse issues if exposed to fire.
Consider the dangers of access/egress under mezzanines.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Manufacturing/WarehouseWood
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Walls of wood frame with wood and/
or corrugated metal siding
Substantial wood structural members,
and some large timber wood trusses for
the roof
Concrete slab foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings used a heavy grade
of wood for structural members. Large
timber wood trusses were common.
Post-1960 manufacturing/warehouse
buildings made from wood are rare
due to cost constraints and/or code
requirements. Where found, smaller
MANF
dimensional lumber and trusses for
structural members will be common.
29
EXTERIOR FEATURES
Depending on the size and age of a
building, many types of roofs can be
used, including flat, monitor, gable,
and arched (bowstring or tied truss).
Metal deck roofs can also be found but
wood roofs seem to be more common. Bowstring and rigid-arch roofs are very common in many areas
of the country.
It is not uncommon for additional buildings to be attached to the original building for additional space.
The attached buildings are often a lesser grade of construction (pictured above).
Even though some of these buildings can be quite large, their walls are often covered by corrugated
metal siding and/or plywood/OSB type materials.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Large open areas are common as the openness favors storage and manufacturing processes.
A lack of partition walls is common.
Small office areas are common and are used for records, reports, management of the business, and
other purposes.
Sprinklers may or may not be present.
Expect storage and manufacturing processes.

351
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire can be rapid and intense due to open floor plans, the size of the building,
and the type of contents. The rapid spread of fire within flammable contents can be enhanced by the
type of storage that is in close proximity to other flammable contents (racked-tiered storage, etc.). When
exterior siding of plywood type materials has been used, it provides little resistance to fire. Wood roofs
will readily burn, but the older wood timber roofs will last longer than their newer lightweight counter-
parts. The presence of operative sprinklers can retard the spread of fire. Suspect a lack of sprinklers on
older buildings unless they have been retrofitted.
Collapse: Collapse is totally dependent on the type of construction, size of building, type of contents,
and presence or lack of sprinklers. It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in the
older wooden walls. The large wood timber roofs will resist fire for longer periods of time than metal
roofs or wood roofs of smaller conventional and/or lightweight lumber. Smaller buildings with more
conventional roofs will fail depending on the size and duration of fire in a particular building. Watch for
overloaded mezzanines.
Ventilation: Horizontal ventilation will often be limited to minimal doors such as a single standard size
door on one side of a building and multiple overhead loading doors on other ends (depending on size)
of a building. Vertical ventilation can be a viable operation, particularly in wood roofs, but may be a
resource- and time-intensive operation to have a meaningful effect. If a particular building is equipped
with glass and/or plastic skylights, these can be quickly removed for ventilation operations. Roof ventila-
tion operations on metal deck roofs is not normally recommended. PPV is totally dependent on the size
MANF of a building, and as a building approaches a large warehouse size, PPV will require fans capable of large
CFM capability. Monitor roofs with openable windows/vents can provide vertical ventilation.
29 Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is usually limited to either the standard size door into an office area or
overhead loading doors. Some windows may be found in buildings that house specific interior processes that
require openable windows for ventilation, but windows are generally not in abundant supply. Challenging
and time-intensive entry operations should be anticipated as security is a major consideration in these types
of commercial buildings. Personnel should develop forcible entry techniques for overhead doors.
Search: Unless there are known trapped occupants, search should not be a primary concern as the
occupants are normally ambulatory. Additionally, if a search is necessary, the inherent risk should
be evaluated and personnel must be proficient in large area searches as they can be difficult and
time consuming.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
The size of the utilities can be an excellent indicator of any unique hazards within a building.
Always look for signage on the exterior of the building and for any particular storage outside a building
as these can be indicative of the interior contents and processes.
As entry and exit openings can be in short supply, and the size of these buildings can be formidable,
consider making as many large entry and exit openings as feasible.
Buildings that are not equipped with operative sprinklers pose an additional risk.
The larger the building, the more difficult suppression operations will likely become. This applies to
forcible entry, attack, and ventilation operations.
Search in large buildings can be challenging unless personnel are proficient in large area searches.
Overhead doors require specific forcible entry techniques.

352
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Manufacturing/WarehouseConverted Mill
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Heavy timber and timber floor beams
and columns
Exterior walls of load-bearing brick
Flat, conventional wood roof
Perimeter concrete foundation with internal
concrete footer pads for central columns
Rarely have basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Converted historic-era examples may have a
steel post and beam substructure backing the
brick exterior walls.
Converted industrial-era examples are more
likely to have steel reinforcement only for MANF
selected heavy timber components.
30
EXTERIOR FEATURES
In rehabbed brick build-
ings, energy-efficient windows
and modern material doors are common.
Some buildings have first floor businesses,
with dwelling spaces on upper floors.
Modern construction additions are used for
new stairs and/or elevators (pictured above).
The presence of bolt ends and anchor
plates on the exterior wall indicates a steel-
reinforced substructure.
Decorative cornice/parapets are common.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Vast open spaces may have been partitioned into individual apartments or condos accessed by a center
hall. Top floor units may be two stories with lofts and mezzanine arrangements.
Modern stairs and elevators may be added.
First floor businesses are accessed by a central mall.
The buildings may have been retrofitted with sprinklers and modern HVAC systems.
Central hallways are common.

353
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The large, strong, and open spaces of heavy timber construction are ideal for conversion to
a multi-tenant apartment or condominium building. To meet code, an automatic fire sprinkler system
and standpipe system must be added. The greatest fire spread threat comes during the conversion or
renovation period; expect rapid fire spread throughout and tremendous heat release rates. Because of the
expansive space, master streams are unable to penetrate the interior. This can lead to a fire that could
burn for hours, resulting in collapse. Once finished, the converted mill is highly compartmentalized and
protected with sprinklers. Fire spread is usually influenced by drywall and other fire-stop methods added
during the conversion (e.g., fire doors, dampers, etc.). High-rise fire attack protocol may be warranted.
Fire spread can also be enhanced by vertical stair shafts, elevator shafts, and common hallways.
Collapse: Mill buildings are quite stout and collapse resistive for all but the fully involved fire. Likewise,
the greatest collapse threat comes when the mill building is undergoing conversion, as exposed, aged,
and temporarily braced structural elements are prone to rapid failure. Once converted, the mill building
is actually more collapse resistant as steel reinforcement has been added to load-bearing walls and
internal beams and columns. Add to this the compartmentalization and automatic sprinkler system. Many
converted mills have a completely new roof of lightweight steel or composite (wood/steel) trusses and
lightweight sheathing and membrane. Like all lightweight truss systems, a collapse threat exists. Fires on
the top floor can collapse the trusses or may weaken cornice connections, leading to collapse.
Ventilation: The use of high-rise apartment ventilation tactics is the ventilation option of choice. PPV fans
used to pressurize stairwells can help. Exhaust flow paths can be established by removing downwind
MANF windows. Top floor fires may benefit from defensive holes. (They should not be located above the fire
as lightweight trusses are likely.) Where present, stair and elevator penthouses may assist in ventilation
30 efforts by pressurizing these shafts.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods for individual
living units. The multitude of interior doors and locking devices are likely of modern materials. Security
hardware on ground floor businesses may require power saws or hydraulic spreaders.
Search: First floor open spaces may require large area search techniques. Stock, furnishings, and other
arrangement variables can also be challenging on the first floor. Upper floor plans are often simple and
repeated unit to unit. Smoke conditions in exit corridors may cause occupants to await rescue near
exterior window openings.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Extensive remodeling has most likely consolidated utility shutoffs to a central location within the
building. Expect modern, commercial-style equipment.
Backup generators and uninterruptable power supply battery banks may be present.
Occupant amenities such as swimming pools may be found.
Original building features such as smokestacks, water tanks, and boilers may have been left in place to
add character or serve a purpose.
Windows may have been replaced with tempered glass or energy-efficient windows.
Using outside windows to count floors for orientation may not be accurate due to loft-style interior
units. Fire departments are encouraged to preplan converted mill buildings and develop floor plans for
incident referencing.
Elevators and HVAC systems will tend to be older.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Manufacturing/WarehousePublic StorageSingle Story
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
There are three different types:
Concrete block with
conventional or lightweight
construction
Walls of wood frame with
conventional and/or lightweight
construction and plywood and/
or metal siding
Lightweight metal frame
construction with plywood
materials and/or corrugated
metal siding
Concrete slab foundations
MANF
ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings are wood
31
frame construction with wood siding.
Some use poured-in-place concrete and concrete block with light construction materials.
Post-1960 buildings are typically concrete block and lightweight construction, metal interior/exterior,
and wood exterior and lightweight interior construction.
Wood/metal frame buildings typically have plywood type materials or metal panels for exterior walls.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
These buildings typically use minimal construction such as T-11 siding, metal studs, and/or lightweight
construction.
Some buildings were built with concrete block walls, but normally are of lightweight construction.
Attached units are a single-story row of various lengths with secure doors of various sizes for each unit.
Locks on each door are the property of each renter.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Individual compartmentalized rooms of various sizes are used.
Unknown contents will vary within each unit. Contents can consist of hazardous storage, such as
ammunition, flammable items, and hazmat items.
Partition walls between rented spaces may not go to the roof, leaving an open void that spans multiple
individual units.

355
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Rooms in common single-story buildings often use partition walls that do not travel from the
foundation to the roof. This lack of separation (at the top) will easily allow fire spread between numerous
units and can result in a fast spreading fire as well as weakening large sections of a lightweight roof.
Partition walls are often made from drywall that will not resist fire for long periods. The type of fire is
dependent on contents.
Collapse: Collapse is dependent on the type of construction. Concrete block and conventional construction
are not prone to rapid collapse and can offer a measurable amount of fire resistance. However, common
single-story row buildings are often of minimal wood and/or metal construction and will be prone to
early collapse, particularly the roof.
Ventilation: Ventilation is limited as there is typically only one door per unit. Therefore, ventilation is
limited to opening the access door to an involved unit, an operation that can be dangerous. Roof ventila-
tion is not normally recommended due to a lack of substantial roof construction. When utilized, roof
ventilation operations should be defensive (flank the burning area) as opposed to ventilating directly over
the fire.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is simplified by easy access to the door locks that are normally a single
padlock. Although the locks are the property of the renter, their attachment to the door is not usually
substantial and can be removed with conventional forcible entry methods.
Search: Search is not a primary concern as these buildings/units are principally used for storage.

MANF SPECIFIC HAZARDS

31 The primary hazard comes from the variety of unknown contents that can vary widely, including
flammable materials, hazardous materials, ammunition, and anything else that renters would want to
store in a secure location. Illegal disposal of chemicals and waste has been found in storage units.
These buildings can rapidly burn due to the common use of lightweight materials.
Expect a common void between each unit at the top of the partition walls.
These buildings are not usually sprinklered.
Be careful of opening a door to an involved unit before adequate extinguishment operations.

356
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Manufacturing/WarehousePublic StorageMultistory
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Either concrete block or poured-in-place
concrete walls with conventional or light-
weight interior construction
Concrete perimeter or slab foundation
May have basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings are poured-in-place
concrete or concrete block construction and
may be converted multistory commercials of
concrete and conventional construction.
Post-1960 buildings are typically concrete
block and lightweight construction,
metal exterior, and lightweight interior
construction.
MANF
32
EXTERIOR FEATURES
Older multistory buildings are frequently
converted commercial buildings and often
have few entry doors. However, some
buildings have windows on each floor
(see picture above).
Older multistory buildings can be of substan-
tial construction such as concrete or block
and may also have a substantial roof.
Entry doors are likely substantial.
Locks on each door are the property
of each renter.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Individual compartmentalized rooms are of various sizes.
Unknown contents will vary within each unit.
Interior hallways are commonexpect some dead-end hallways.
Contents can consist of hazardous storage, ammunition, and other flammable materials.
Locks, which are the property of each renter, can vary widely.
Sprinklers may or may not be present in these buildings.

357
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Rooms in converted multistory commercials are normally well compartmented with minimal
voids. If the rooms are sealed floor to floor, fire spread is largely dependent on the type of access door
to each room. These are usually not fire rated and can vary widely from heavy to minimal construc-
tion. If fire is able to extend into a hallway, the hallway will become a horizontal channel for fire and its
by-products. A lack of sprinklers will enhance the spread of fire. Light smoke showing can indicate a
deep-seated fire that is difficult to locate due to extensive compartmentalization. Expect extremely smoky
conditions for most fires.
Collapse: Collapse is dependent on the type of construction. Poured-in-place concrete, block, and conven-
tional construction are not prone to rapid collapse and can offer a measurable amount of fire resistance.
The strength of the roof is dependent on the type of construction.
Ventilation: Ventilation is limited as these buildings typically have only one door per unit. Involved rooms
within multistory buildings can create heat and smoke problems in the hallways that can be ventilated by
horizontal and/or PPV ventilation operations, but will take resources and time. Dead-end hallways will be
difficult to ventilate.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is simplified by easy access to the locks on the doors, which are normally a
single padlock. Although the locks are the property of the individual renter, their attachment to the door
is not usually substantial and can be removed with conventional forcible entry methods. Forcible entry to
the building can prove challenging, as the exterior doors/locks can be substantial.

MANF Search: Search is not a primary concern as these buildings are principally used for storage. However,
multistory buildings with interior hallways that are contaminated may need to be verified for a lack
of occupants.
32
SPECIFIC HAZARDS
The primary hazard comes from the variety of unknown contents, such as flammable materials,
hazardous materials, ammunition, and anything else that renters would want to store in a secure
location. Illegal disposal of chemicals and waste has been found in storage units.
The center hallway design can complicate ventilation and/or search operations.
A lack of sprinklers can compound an existing problem.
Smoky conditions, numerous compartments, and dead-end hallways are a dangerous formula that can
lead to lost firefighters, air-management issues, and getting trapped.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Oce Building/HotelPre-WWIILow Rise
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Either poured-in-place concrete,
concrete block, or conventional
or unreinforced masonry
construction
Interior structural members of
conventional wood
Concrete slab or perimeter
foundations, some include
basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
They were built prior to World
War II and constructed of heavy
grade conventional materials.
Unreinforced masonry construc-
tion was popular until 1935.
Basements are frequently found.
External fire escapes and sprin-
klers may be present.

EXTERIOR FEATURES OFF

Varying sizes of these occupancies range from simple two-story office buildings to multistory buildings 33
up to about six stories.
Roof construction normally consists of metal deck built-up construction or heavy timber/conventional
wood construction. Expect numerous layers of roofing material on either type of roof.
Conventional cornices are often used and can be quite large.
Check the rear and sides of the building for fire escapes.
There are numerous windows.

INTERIOR FEATURES
These buildings are prime candidates for renovations.
Lath and plaster walls and ceilings are common; some have tin ceilings.
The interior normally consists of offices that are common to a center hallway.
The interior environment of the building is typically heated by a central system (steam or forced hot air)
and A/C is provided by retrofit methods (individual wall/window units or a central system).
Older elevators and external fire escapes are widespread.
Basements are common and can be quite large/extensive.

359
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although these buildings use a standard floor plan of offices that are accessed from a
center hallway, fire can spread by the following primary avenues: (1) auto exposure, (2) HVAC ducting
if present, (3) poke-through construction from renovations, (4) center hallways, and (5) voids from
renovations. Remember that fire in the top floor or roof that exposes an exterior building cornice can
easily spread in the void behind the cornice and cause it to collapse, as well as allow the fire to spread
to the attic area. Fires that originate in a basement can rapidly spread upward through numerous
vertical avenues. Retrofit data and electrical cable distribution trays add additional fire load and fire
spread hazards.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings as they
are primarily constructed of older conventional materials. In most cases, the roofs are of heavy wood
construction that does not readily fail when exposed to heat/fire. Remember that unreinforced masonry
construction can readily collapse when exposed to fire and/or the walls or structural members of the
roof collapse. Watch for weakened cornices that can easily collapse.
Ventilation: Although the windows are plate (annealed) glass, they are numerous and can be easily used for
natural and/or PPV horizontal ventilation in contaminated areas. Pressurized air from PPV blowers can
be supplied to vertical stair shafts and then to contaminated areas, exhausting the contaminates either
horizontally through window openings or up vertical stair shafts to exit a roof. Roof ventilation can be
accomplished but should be approached with the perspective that older roofs, although strong, can have
numerous layers of roofing materials. Renovations can result in a roof that is constructed from light-
weight metal or wood materials. If present, the HVAC system should be turned off as soon as possible
and only used if personnel are totally familiar with its operation and capabilities.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods as the doors/
windows are of conventional construction. The glass in the windows is normally plate (annealed) glass
unless upgraded to tempered or double-pane glass. Some of these buildings have on-duty security
personnel who should be available to assist with entry/exit considerations.
Search: A potential search in this type of building should be preplanned as there will be numerous rooms
OFF that will need to be accounted for. In most cases, searches will emanate from a center hallway, but must
be done in a systematic manner until all affected rooms are searched. The older conventional construc-
33 tion that is used in these buildings can be a benefit due to the fact that conventional construction is more
fire resistive than modern lightweight construction, allowing additional search time. Search operations
can be enhanced by appropriate information from on-duty security personnel, if present. Occupants
above the fire floor may try to escape to the roofcheck the top floor of all stairwells.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Unreinforced masonry construction can easily collapse outward in fire conditions.
Renovations can result in hidden voids and poke-through openings between floors.
Sprinklers may not be present and elevators are likely old and substandard.
Older cornices will not support the weight of an aerial device and/or personnel.
There is a sizeable void behind exterior cornices that may be common to the attic/roof.
Older cornices can readily fail when exposed to fire and/or heavy streams.
Consider the safety of using older elevators and external fire escapes.

360
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Oce Building/HotelPost-WWIILow Rise
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Poured-in-place concrete; concrete
block; conventional brick; metal
frame with exterior of decorative
metal, stucco, glass, or brick veneer;
and wood frame with brick veneer
Roofs vary from older conventional
roofs to the more modern lightweight
materials
Concrete slab or perimeter founda-
tion; some basements, particularly
older buildings

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Post-WWII buildings are a challenging mix of old (built after the war), an intermediate combination of
old and emerging new technologies (19601985), and modern construction renovations.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
The buildings range from simple two-story office buildings to buildings up to about six stories.
From the exterior, these buildings can present a vast array of configurations and materials.
Roof construction normally consists of conventional wood and/or metal deck built-up construction,
with numerous layers of roofing materials on older buildings to lightweight metal and wood structural
OFF
members covered by composition, rock, membrane materials, and so on. 34
The use of flammable decorative cornices or conventional framed cornices is dependent on the age of
the building.
Expect a wide range of window styles. Most can be opened but have a small range of motion.
Curtain exterior wall construction can be found on newer buildings.

INTERIOR FEATURES
The interior normally consists of office spaces that surround a central hall or elevator corridor.
Circuitous office floor plans were starting to be utilized (open floor plans that circle around a central
elevator lobby or access area).
Suspended ceilings that hide voids above the ceilings are common on newer buildings, and lath and
plaster ceilings are common on older buildings.
Older windows will be openable and use plate (annealed) glass, while newer windows will be fixed and
of tempered glass or double panes.
Central HVAC systems were increasingly being utilized (older buildings may still have central heat but
retrofit A/C).
Elevators are common and sprinklers may be present.
Older buildings are prime candidates for renovations, including retrofit data and electrical cable trays.
Many office buildings include a paper file storage area(s) that include large, steel, rolling units.
Hotels typically have a first floor that includes common-use areas (lobby/lounge, restaurant, conference
rooms, etc.) and upper floors with a repeated floor plan of individual sleeping rooms.
361
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Older buildings use a more conventional, heavy type of construction that can be more resis-
tant to the spread of fire as compared to the use of lightweight materials in newer buildings. Both circu-
itous and center hallways can spread fire/heat smoke. The older buildings often have vertical voids/shafts/
stairways/cornices that support the spread of fire. The newer buildings have curtain wall construction,
HVAC systems, voids above the suspended ceilings, and other fire spread hazards.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in the older buildings due to the conven-
tional type of construction. Newer buildings with lightweight metal/wood construction and masonry
veneers will take less time for collapse when exposed to fire/heat. If fire is on a top floor, collapse of the
roof depends on the size and type of roof. Renovated buildings that use lightweight materials are subject
to faster collapse times than conventional materials.
Ventilation: Although the windows are plate (annealed) or tempered glass, they are numerous and can
be used for natural and/or PPV horizontal ventilation in contaminated areas. Pressurized air from PPV
blowers can be supplied to vertical stair shafts and then to contaminated areas, exhausting contaminates
either horizontally through window openings or up vertical stair shafts that exit the roof. Although older
roofs will likely be a conventional type of wood or metal construction, expect a heavy layer of roofing
materials. Newer roofs are likely constructed from lightweight metal and some wood materials. If
present, the HVAC system should be turned off as soon as possible.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. Doors should
be of conventional construction. However, if glass in the windows is tempered, it will require specific
techniques to break.
Search: A potential search in this type of building should be planned as there will be numerous rooms that
will need to be accounted for. In most cases, searches will emanate from a center hallway or elevator
lobby, but must be done in a systematic manner until all affected rooms are searched. This process can be
enhanced by appropriate information from on-duty security personnel (if present). Occupants above the
fire floor may try to escape to the roofcheck the top floor of all stairwells.

OFF SPECIFIC HAZARDS

34 These buildings can present a mix of old and new fire protection features, but most have stairwell
standpipes.
Exterior foam cornices are flammable and will not support the weight of an aerial device. Older
cornices also are unlikely to support an aerial device and can hide a void that may be common
to an attic.
Suspended ceilings are common in newer buildings and can subject firefighters to entanglement in the
supporting wires if the ceiling fails.
In newer buildings, fire can spread vertically from several avenues. Older buildings also have many
vertical extension routes, but the original construction is stronger than modern lightweight construction.
Older buildings are prime candidates for renovations.
In case of fire/smoke, HVAC systems (if present) should be shut off as soon as possible.
It is best to preplan the use of elevators for fire incidents on an individual building basis.
Circuitous open floor plans are often finished with modular office cubicles that add tremendous fire load
and make search patterns and hose movements difficult.
Underground parking may be present.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Oce Building/Hotel21st Century
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Concrete block or metal frame
with exterior of glass, stucco,
decorative metal, and brick veneer
Curtain exterior wall construction
in many cases
Concrete slab or perimeter
foundation
Hybrid construction with noncom-
bustible common areas and wood/
metal-framed individual rental
or room units for some of the
newest buildings.

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Post-1960 buildings commonly use metal structural members (skeleton) that are then finished with
an exterior covering of decorative metal, glass, brick veneer, or stucco. This type of construction
commonly utilizes the methodology of curtain construction. The roofs are usually metal deck with
built-up or membrane finish.
Post-2000 versions are constructed with concrete, CMU, or steel common areas (lobby, stairwells,
elevator shaft) with wood-framed sleeping rooms or office spaces.
OFF
EXTERIOR FEATURES 35
These occupancies range from simple two-story office buildings to multistory buildings of about six
stories that do not qualify as high-rise (buildings over 75 ft).
Many of these buildings use curtain construction with various exterior materials.
Roof construction normally consists of metal deck built-up construction. In some smaller buildings of
several stories, lightweight wood trusses can be used.
Decorative cornices made of rigid foam and fastened to a building by adhesives are common.

INTERIOR FEATURES
The interior normally consists of offices that are circuitous to a common hall or elevator lobby. Hotels
use a center hall configuration for sleeping rooms.
Suspended ceilings that hide voids above the ceilings are the standard.
Virtually all windows are tempered glass and not openable (sealed building).
Modern elevators and enclosed interior vertical stair shafts are common.
Wet standpipes and sprinklers are normally present.
Underground parking of various levels is common.
Hotels may have restaurant facilities and associated hazards.

363
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although these buildings are rather simplistic from the perspective of offices and hallways,
they are renowned for allowing fire to spread vertically by five avenues: (1) auto exposure, (2) curtain
construction, (3) HVAC ducting, (4) poke-through construction, and (5) transfer of heat through the
floors. Fire can also easily spread in voids above the suspended ceilings and within the center hallways.
Remember that fire in the top floor or roof can expose and ignite the decorative foam cornices on the
exterior. Sprinklers are normally present. Fire spread from room to room in hotels is typically limited
due to compartmentalization and fire suppression systems. Fire can vertically spread up grease ducts in
kitchens.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in buildings that are of noncombustible
construction and compartmentalized. Hybrid examples are more prone to a rapid collapse. In most cases,
the roofs are constructed of lightweight metal trusses supporting a metal deck that can readily fail when
exposed to high heat and/or fire. Lightweight wood truss roofs can also readily fail if exposed to fire.
Additionally, interior firefighters can be entangled in supporting wires if suspended ceilings fail.
Ventilation: These buildings have multiple attributes that can be used for ventilation operations. Although
the windows are tempered glass, they are numerous and can be used for natural and/or PPV horizontal
ventilation in contaminated areas. Pressurized air from PPV blowers can be supplied to vertical stair
shafts and then to contaminated areas, exhausting contaminates either horizontally through window
openings or up vertical stair shafts that exit the roof. Roof ventilation can be accomplished but should
be cautiously approached as most roofs are constructed from lightweight metal materials. Lastly, HVAC
systems should be turned off as soon as possible and should only be used if familiar with their operation.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can generally be accomplished by conventional methods as there are
multiple conventional doors. The glass in the windows is normally tempered, which requires specific
techniques to break. Some of these buildings have on-duty security personnel who should be available to
assist with entry/exit considerations.
Search: Although the frequency of fires in these buildings is very low, a potential search should be planned
as there will be numerous rooms that may need to be accounted for. Typically, searches will emanate
OFF from a center hallway or elevator lobby, but must be done in a systematic manner until all affected rooms
are searched. This process can be enhanced by appropriate information from on-duty security personnel
35 (if present).

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
It is imperative to preplan the construction methods used for modern office/hotel buildings. They can
range from Type 1 to hybrid.
The exterior foam cornices are flammable and will not support the weight of resources.
Failed suspended ceilings can subject firefighters to entanglement in the supporting wires.
It is best to preplan the use of elevators for fire incidents on an individual building basis.
Circuitous open floor plans are often finished with modular office cubicles that add tremendous fire load
and make search patterns and hose movements difficult.
Hotels with indoor swimming pools will have boiler and chemical rooms.
In case of fire/smoke, HVAC systems should be shut off as soon as possible.
Fires on the top floor can present a hazard to exterior foam cornices and roof structural members.
Fires in underground parking areas can create noteworthy problems.
Kitchen facilities may be present with associated hazards.

364
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Oce Building/HotelHigh-Rise1st Generation
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Poured-in-place concrete, brick masonry,
or stone construction exterior walls with
iron floor beams
Roofs vary from concrete to heavy wood
timber and/or metal construction
Perimeter foundations and basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
These buildings were constructed from the
late 1800s to the early 1900s, so virtually
everything about them is strong and will
resist fire in a superior manner.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Height is limited to about 20 stories.
Iron/steel beams and cast iron columns
are used.
Exterior walls are typically comprised of
concrete or masonry.
Roof construction normally consists of
concrete or heavy wood/metal construc-
OFF
tion. Rooftop penthouses for stairways and
elevators are common.
36
Conventional facades are common and comprised of heavy wood materials and some cast iron.
Stone/concrete corbels are used for decorative purposes.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Offices/living units that are common to a center hallway are the norm.
Unprotected vertical passageways are likely.
They were not originally equipped with modern elevators, building communication systems, or other
amenities that are used today.
Return-type stairs are most common. The first floor may be two stories in height and include a central
grand stairway that is open to a mezzanine level as part of the first floor.
Dry standpipes are common; the presence of wet standpipes and sprinklers is questionable.
Some tin ceilings are found, particularly in the lobby areas.
Horizontal and vertical passageways tend to be narrower than modern passageways.
Lath and plaster walls and ceilings are used.
Windows are openable and elevators are likely old or substandard.
Originally these had no HVAC systems.

365
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although these buildings feature strong construction, fire can readily spread vertically up
numerous vertical passageways such as elevator shafts, open stairwells (which can go from the lowest
floor to the top floor), light wells, voids created by plumbing and/or electrical channels, and the open
hallways on each floor. Remember that an extending fire in the top floor or roof can expose the decorative
cornice on the exterior of a building. The presence of renovations will introduce voids that were not in
the original construction.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings, which is not a
common occurrence as the construction is based on heavy concrete, masonry, and wood/metal materials.
This also holds true for the roof. However, when exposed to fire, the wood floors and cast iron structural
members can collapse and may be considered the weak point of this construction.
Ventilation: As the windows are plate (annealed) glass and they are often numerous, they can be easily
opened or broken and used for natural and/or PPV horizontal ventilation in contaminated areas.
Pressurized air from PPV blowers can be supplied to vertical stair shafts and then to contaminated
areas (including hallways), exhausting contaminates either horizontally through window openings or
up vertical stair shafts that exit the roof. If the open stairwells become contaminated with heat/smoke,
they can be ventilated if the stair shaft exits a roof. Roof ventilation can be accomplished but should
be cautiously approached as most roofs are constructed from substantial materials with heavy layers of
roofing materials.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods, but anticipate the
presence of substantial doors and windows. The glass in the windows is normally plate (annealed) glass
that is easily opened/broken if necessary. Some of these buildings have on-duty security personnel who
should be available to assist with entry/exit considerations.
Search: Although the fire load is low to moderate and lath/plaster can better withstand fire and heat as
compared to drywall, a potential search in this type of building should be planned as there will be
numerous rooms that will need to be accounted for. In most cases, searches will emanate from a center
hallway, but must be done in a systematic manner until all affected rooms are searched. This process can
OFF be enhanced by information from on-duty security personnel (if present).

36 SPECIFIC HAZARDS
The exterior cornices can be flammable, will not support the weight of an aerial device, and will also
conceal voids behind the cornice.
Corbels are likely unstable due to their age.
Fire can easily spread vertically in the open stairwells and access shafts.
Expect a large boiler room for heat and hot water utilities.
Expect many retrofit systems (HVAC, plumbing, electrical, data cable trays, etc.).
Horizontal and vertical passageways are narrower than modern passageways.
Elevators original to the building will not have modern fire service use features.
Heavy objects such as water tanks may be found on the roof.
Stairwells will not be pressurized by an HVAC system.
Falling glass and debris during fires can endanger those leaving and entering the building.
Standpipes and fire department connections may not be capable of high gpm or flow pressures.
Restaurant facilities and underground parking may be present.

366
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Oce Building/HotelHigh-Rise2nd Generation
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Constructed prior to WWII
Stone/brick masonry or poured-in-place
concrete
Roofs of concrete, heavy wood timber, or
metal deck of heavy construction
Perimeter foundation or with basement,
depending on the area of construction

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
The primary difference between these
buildings and first generation high-rise
buildings is protected steel structural
members, noncombustible materials,
and a lack of open vertical passageways.
Due to the era of construction, virtually
everything about these structures is
basically strong.
Building heights greatly surpassed first generation high-rises.

EXTERIOR FEATURES OFF

Structural elements are normally comprised of concrete, masonry, protected steel, and other noncom-
bustible type materials. 37
Roof construction normally consists of concrete or metal. Spire shaped roofs may include radio/TV
relay antennas.
Stone/concrete corbels are used for decorative purposes.
Cast iron columns and beams are common for first and second floor exterior decorative purposes
(not structural).

INTERIOR FEATURES
Expect protected vertical shaft enclosures.
Return type stairs are likely present for older examples. Scissor-type stairs are common for later
examples. Later examples have enclosed stairways that can be considered an area of refuge.
The interior normally consists of offices/living units that are common to a center hallway.
Lath and plaster walls and ceilings are used instead of drywall coverings.
Elevators likely have older characteristics although elevator lobbies on each floor are typically larger
to accommodate multiple lifts. It is common to have separate elevators that serve only a given range
of floors.
Most lack HVAC systems, so expect unpressurized stairwells.
Dry standpipes are common; wet standpipes/sprinklers may also be present.

367
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although these buildings feature strong construction and protected vertical shafts, fire can
readily spread up open vertical passageways such as elevator shafts, stairwells that are open (which can
go from the lowest floor to the top floor), light wells, vertical voids created by plumbing and/or electrical
channels, and the open hallways on each floor. Renovations will introduce voids that were not in the
original construction.
Collapse: These buildings are generally considered to be resistant to fire and collapse as the construction is
based on heavy concrete or masonry materials. Therefore, it will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse
to occur in these buildings and is not a common occurrence. This also holds true for the floors and the
roof, which are also of substantial construction.
Ventilation: As the windows are plate (annealed) glass and are often numerous, they can be broken and
used for natural and/or PPV horizontal ventilation. Pressurized air from PPV blowers can be supplied to
vertical stair shafts and then to contaminated areas (including hallways), exhausting contaminates either
horizontally through window openings or up vertical stair shafts that exit the roof. Stack effect may
limit the use of vertical ventilation if the distance to the roof openings allows for smoke cooling. Open
stairwells can be ventilated if the stair shaft exits the roof. If not, they must be ventilated by exhausting
contaminants horizontally at the highest level. Roof ventilation can be accomplished but should be
cautiously approached as most roofs are constructed from substantial materials with heavy layers of
roofing materials. HVAC systems are normally not present.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods, but anticipate the
presence of substantial doors and windows as this is older conventional construction that was the norm
before the use of modern lightweight materials. Window glass is normally plate (annealed) glass that is
easily opened and/or broken if necessary. Some of the larger buildings have on-duty security personnel
who should be available to assist with entry/exit considerations.
Search: A potential search in this type of building should be planned as these buildings can be large and
comprised of numerous rooms that will need to be accounted for. In most cases, searches will emanate
from a center hallway, but must be done in a systematic manner until all affected rooms are searched.
OFF This process can be enhanced by appropriate information from on-duty security personnel (if present).

37 SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Although the vertical passageways are protected, fire can easily spread vertically in stairwells that are
open and access other shafts.
Corbels are likely unstable due to their age.
Horizontal and vertical passageways are somewhat narrower than modern passageways.
The buildings were not originally equipped with modern elevators, building communication systems,
smoke detectors, and other modern amenities.
Circuitous open floor plans are often finished with modular office cubicles that add tremendous fire load
and make search patterns and hose movements difficult.
Falling glass and debris during fires can endanger those leaving and entering the building.
Wet standpipe systems on buildings greater than 10 floors may have pressure limiting devices that
restrict flow.
Expect multiple boiler rooms for heat and hot water utilities. Industrial-size electrical transformers and
distribution equipment can be found near the ground floor or subgrade.
Restaurants and underground parking may be present.

368
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Oce Building/HotelHigh-Rise3rd Generation
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Constructed after WWII
Primarily steel skeleton frame attached to
reinforced concrete cores with exteriors of
decorative metal, stucco, glass, or brick veneer
Roofs are typically modern lightweight
metal/concrete
Perimeter foundation and some underground
parking areas that are reinforced concrete

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
They are curtain construction with exteriors of
decorative metal, glass, tile, and concrete slabs.
The concrete core normally contains the stair-
wells, elevators, and electrical/plumbing shafts.
HVAC systems are the standard.
Building heights can reach over 100 stories.
Newest examples include a fire
command center.

EXTERIOR FEATURES OFF

Exterior materials are normally curtain panels
of glass, metal, tile, or brick veneer.
38
Roof construction normally consists of a metal deck with a built-up or membrane finish.
Green roofs with extensive plantings and cellular equipment can be found on some of these buildings.
Decorative cornices made of rigid foam that are fastened to a building by adhesives are common.

INTERIOR FEATURES
The ground level floor is typically greater than one story in height and may include mezzanines.
Upper floor plans are typically open and include a center core for elevators, restrooms, and stairwells.
Open floor plans are finished out by the users in a multitude of ways (partition walls, open office
cubicles, conference rooms, etc.).
Hotel room floors typically have central hallways leading from the elevator lobby.
Suspended ceilings that hide voids above the ceilings are the standard.
Virtually all windows are tempered glass and not openable, as the interior environment of the building
is maintained by an HVAC system. Expect pressurized stairwells.
Modern elevators with firefighter controls are the norm.
Scissor stairs are more common than return stairs.
These buildings are normally equipped with communication systems, heat and smoke detectors, sprin-
klers, standpipes at each floor in the stair shafts, and other features.
The top floor is often two stories in height and likely to include a swimming pool, restaurant, and/or
luxury suites.
369
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: These buildings are renowned for allowing fire to spread vertically by five avenues: (1) auto
exposure, (2) curtain construction, (3) HVAC ducting, (4) poke-through construction, and (5) transfer
of heat through the floors. Fire can also easily spread in voids above the suspended ceilings, within the
center hallways if they are exposed to extending fire, and via access stairways that allow travel between
floors within a common occupancy. Fires in open floor plan office cubicle spaces can be quite intense and
will require high gpm flows. Extending fire in the top floor or roof can easily ignite exposed decorative
foam cornices on the exterior of a building. Always expect a wind-fed fire for upper floors after windows
have failed.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings as they are
primarily of fire-resistive construction. However, if a fire is on the top floor, collapse of a roof depends on
the size and type of roof, particularly if it is supporting a significant dead load (e.g., a green roof, HVAC
equipment, etc.). The attacks on the World Trade Center towers on September 11, 2001, remind us that a
catastrophic collapse of a modern high-rise is possible.
Ventilation: Although the windows are tempered glass and are numerous, they can be broken (with proper
techniques) and used for natural and/or PPV horizontal ventilation. Pressurized air from PPV blowers
can be supplied to vertical stair shafts and then to contaminated areas, exhausting contaminates either
horizontally through window openings or up vertical stair shafts that exit the roof. Although these roofs
are constructed from lightweight metal materials, roof ventilation is very doubtful. High-rise buildings
with modern fire command centers may have HVAC control features that can assist with ventilation.
Preplanning and training with these features is encouraged. On-site building engineers can be a useful
asset when trying to evaluate ventilation options during fire incidents.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods as there are multiple
conventional doors that are likely metal frame and glass (usually entry type doors) and interior metal
in metal frame doors. However, the glass in the windows is normally tempered glass. Loading dock
doors can be forced but will take time and the necessary expertise to accomplish this operation. Some
of these buildings have on-duty security personnel who should be available to assist with entry/exit
OFF considerations.
Search: A potential search in this type of building should be planned, as each floor can contain a significant
38 amount of floor area and there will be numerous rooms that will need to be accounted for. Remember that
many office type high-rise buildings use the workstation or cubicle concept, which results in minimal
partitions and large open areas. In most cases, searches will emanate from a center hallway, but must be
done in a systematic manner until all affected rooms/areas are searched.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Dropped ceilings are common and can subject firefighters to entanglement in the supporting wires if a
ceiling fails.
On-demand water heating systems can be found in suspended ceiling spaces for each floor or each room
in hotels.
Expect large (moving van size) HVAC equipment on the roof and in mechanical areas on the ground
floor or subgrade levels. Some high-rise buildings have an entire floor used for mechanical equipment at
some mid-level point between the ground and top floor.
Industrial-size electrical equipment can be found in numerous locations. Newer high-rise buildings may
have a central control room to manage all building utility functions.
Circuitous open floor plans are often finished with modular office cubicles that add tremendous fire load
and make search patterns and hose movements difficult.
Consider the possibility of falling glass and debris.
Underground parking may be present.
Aboveground wind-driven fires are a risk.

370
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Institutional BuildingSchool
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Conventional brick, concrete
block, and poured-in-place
concrete
Walls of wood frame with wood
siding, vinyl siding, stucco, or
brick veneer
Concrete slab or perimeter
foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 schools use a heavy
grade of wood, some poured-in-place concrete, and some concrete block or brick masonry. Roofs are of
heavier construction than modern roofs.
Post-1960 schools use smaller dimensional lumber and trusses for structural members in wood frame
buildings. Concrete block is often found, depending on the size of a building. Brick masonry tends to
be a veneer on wood framing. Lightweight materials are becoming more popular. Roofs are often of
lightweight materials.
Industrial- and legacy-era schools may still have combustible wall and ceiling finishes.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Schools vary from an elementary school of moderate size to a multistory college complex.
Poured-in-place concrete, concrete block, and brick masonry are popular for larger buildings. Smaller
buildings use wood framing with stucco, metal or vinyl siding, and brick veneer.
Due to cost considerations, some newer schools are using more lightweight materials.
Different types of roof construction can be used but are often a flat/sloped configuration. Conventional
wood roofs and metal deck roofs are common; wood roofs seem to be more common on the West coast
and metal roofs are more common on the East coast. INST
INTERIOR FEATURES
39
Floor plan layouts are either garden style or center hallway configurations for classroom areas. A central
or anchored commons area may include staff offices, gymnasium, cafeteria, and/or auditorium.
Larger buildings have multiple center hallways that access numerous rooms.
Partitioned walls are in abundance.
Security personnel are on premises at all times for larger complexes such as colleges.
There are numerous windows and multiple doorways.
Older/smaller structures may not have fire suppression sprinklers.

371
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire in these buildings is not a common problem as the interior is partitioned
with numerous rooms, sprinklers are common (larger buildings), and on-duty staff is present during
normal hours. However, if a fire starts and extends into hallways, it will rapidly spread to other areas
served by the hallways. Additionally, fire in masonry/concrete buildings does not accelerate as rapidly
as fires in combustible buildings (wood frame, etc.). Suspended ceilings are common and will allow fire
above the ceiling to rapidly spread.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings. Poured-in-
place concrete and concrete block can resist collapse; however, collapse of a roof depends on the size and
type of roof. Conventional wood roofs will resist fire for longer periods of time than metal roofs or wood
roofs of smaller conventional and/or lightweight lumber. Smaller buildings with more conventional and/or
lightweight wood roofs can readily fail depending on size and duration of fire in a particular building.
Ventilation: Although these buildings have numerous doors and windows, ventilation operations will
be assisted or hampered by the size and configuration of a building. Individual rooms can be easily
ventilated by vertical, horizontal, and/or PPV. However, as the size increases up to and including large
complexes, ventilation becomes more intensive. Contaminated center hallways in larger buildings must
be ventilated early to allow access and egress to and from the individual rooms. This can be accom-
plished by a combination of horizontal ventilation and/or PPV. Roof ventilation is dependent on the type
of roof.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is enhanced by multiple conventional doors and windows in these buildings.
Additionally, the on-duty staff should be available to assist with entry/exit considerations during normal
school hours. Older buildings will have more substantial doors and locks, whereas newer buildings
may not.
Search: The need for search operations is low as the individual rooms are easily entered and vacated by
occupants, and schools regularly conduct fire drill evacuations. Although the frequency of fires in these
buildings is low, it will take minimal smoke/disruption to create a measurable amount of panic in the
students (particularly younger children). Obviously some type of an immediate dilemma can dramatically
change this consideration. If rescue operations are needed, they can be challenging for younger children
and should be anticipated.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Younger students are the primary hazard as they often need constant supervision and directions for
simple tasks. Fortunately, they are ambulatory.
INST Schools typically have a high occupancy load during normal school hours. Evacuation of K8 schools
will likely be orderly with teachers accounting for students. High school and college evacuation may
39 have less accountability and may present congestion issues.
Expect some special events during nighttime hours.
Schools often have courtyards or other open areas that are not visible from the outside perimeter of
the building.
Aging boilers and electrical distribution systems can be problematic.
Expect unique challenges in schools with chemistry labs and research facilities, and even the possibility
of radioactive materials.
Accountability and location of occupants is a key consideration.

372
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Institutional BuildingHospital
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Poured-in-place concrete or concrete block or
brick masonry
Concrete slab or perimeter foundations
Limited use of wood for structural members
in older hospitals or small clinics

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Most industrial- and legacy-era hospitals are
well-built using heavier grade materials and
engineered for significant dead loads.
Modern-era hospitals are typically masonry
or concrete for load-bearing walls but
may include a lightweight truss roof and
lightweight trusses with metal pan and
concrete flooring.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Depending on the size and age of a building,
these types of buildings can vary from a
single story to large high-rises.
Hospitals are usually characterized by lots of
windows, a large primary entrance area, and
a separate drive-up emergency room entrance.
Most hospitals have an oxygen storage/generation area located on the exterior. Liquefied oxygen tanks
and the oxygen generation and distribution system are usually colocated and should be placarded.
Many hospitals have a large exterior electrical generator and industrial-size electrical transformers.
The presence of a rooftop wind sock indicates that a helicopter pad (and helicopter) may be on the roof. INST
INTERIOR FEATURES
40
Large open areas are not common with these types of buildings. Instead, there is an abundance of
hallways and partitioned rooms.
Hospitals typically have plumbed medical gases (oxygen, etc.) to many areas within the building.
Exam rooms may include large, fixed imaging equipment (X-ray, MRI) that present unique hazards.
Hallways are typically congested with mobile or staged exam equipment, rolling beds, and wheelchairs.
Small office areas are common and are used for records, reports, management, and other adminis-
trative needs.
There is always 24/7 security. However, remember that many patients will have little or no ability to
self evacuate.
Interior finishes are typically noncombustible and durable (lots of tile).
Fire sprinklers are normally present. Interior corridors typically have self-closing doors that are
activated by the fire alarm system to help with compartmentalization.

373
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire will be hampered by the numerous partitioned rooms, but the byproducts
can quickly spread via the hallways. In most cases, combustible materials are not excessively abundant;
however, the rapid spread of fire can be enhanced by the presence of flammable gases. Remember that
these buildings often have radioactive materials and specific chemicals that are used in specialized treat-
ments. Hospitals are normally equipped with operative sprinklers that will retard the spread of a fire.
Collapse: Collapse is totally dependent on the type of construction, size of the building, and presence or
lack of sprinklers. It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in these buildings, and is not
a common problem. Collapse of a roof depends on the size and type of roof. Older wood timber roofs
will resist fire for longer periods of time than metal roofs or wood roofs of smaller conventional and/or
lightweight lumber. Smaller buildings with more conventional roofs can fail depending on the size and
duration of fire in a particular building.
Ventilation: These buildings can normally support horizontal, PPV, and, depending on the type of roof
construction, vertical ventilation. Horizontal ventilation will be limited to doors and windows, which
are normally plentiful. Vertical ventilation can be a viable operation, particularly in wood roofs, but a
challenging operation in metal roofs. PPV is totally dependent on the size of the building and the number
of doors and windows that can be used. These buildings typically have center hallways that can be used
for PPV. It must be remembered that the larger the building, the more resources and time that will be
required for any type of successful and timely ventilation operations.
Forcible Entry: Hospitals operating 24/7 with security personnel rarely present a forcible entry issue for
firefighters. When needed, forcible entry is usually limited to either the standard size doors into the
office areas or overhead loading doors at ground level. Windows are normally abundant. Some areas with
specific interior processes will have limited windows and doorways. Likewise, there may be a storage
area for controlled substances that is well secured but can be defeated with powered tools.
Search: Most hospital staffs are trained for a systematic and accountable evacuation plan for patients. Some
plans include the movement of patients to an interior refuge area. If a search by the fire department is
necessary, a method of cataloging the movement/location of patients as well as identifying rooms that
have been, have not been, or need to be searched should be established.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
The size of the utilities can be an excellent indicator of any unique hazards within a building.
Expect the presence of medical gases (such as oxygen), radioactive materials, and hazardous chemicals.

INST Hospitals typically contain a large number of computers, communication, and electrical-powered
medical equipment that may cause interference to fire department portable radios. Some medical
imaging equipment may actually damage FD radios and thermal imagers.
40 Search in these buildings can be challenging unless personnel are proficient in prioritizing multi-
area searches.
If patients are moved, document names and their new location.

374
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Institutional BuildingDetention (Jail) Facility
Note: This guide focuses on jails and not prisons.

BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Poured-in-place concrete, concrete block, brick
masonry, and concrete tilt-up panels
In a few cases, wood framing with stucco and/
or vinyl siding
Concrete slab or perimeter foundations
Flat roofs with minimal openings

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Industrial-era buildings are likely masonry with
sizable wood for floor and roof supports.
Legacy purpose-built detention facilities are
likely poured-in-place concrete.
Engineered lightweight-era facilities are
typically CMU block with metal pan/concrete floors and steel trusses.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Most of these buildings feature a stout type of construction to alleviate security concerns. This means
minimal doors, windows, and basically solid exterior walls.
In many cases, these buildings are surrounded by high fencing topped with barbed wire and/or razor
wire for additional security.
Most exterior doorways have a redundant or secondary interior doorway to enhance security.
Windows for the detention areas of the facility are for light/ventilation only and are typically too small
for an adult to pass through.
An overhead rolling door or multiple garage doors indicate a sally port, which is a secured garage INST
area for vehicles that transport detainees.
In some cases, existing buildings in smaller jurisdictions have been converted into a detention type
41
facility. In this case, the construction may be of a lesser grade than the typical detention facility,
although security concerns will still be formidable.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Most detention buildings are divided into three interior spaces: administrative offices, secure detainee
processing area, and a secure cell or holding area.
The holding area in larger facilities will have an open cafeteria and activity area surrounded by parti-
tioned holding cells.
Holding areas typically have no combustible materials or furnishing.
Expect highly secure interior doors that are stout and redundant.
Sprinklers may be present.
Security is 24/7.

375
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire should be minimal due to a minimal fire load. Although some furnishings
are present, they are also minimal due to the type of occupancy. Sprinklers are usually present, but may
not be plumbed to individual cells for obvious reasons. Fire spread can also be minimized by constant
security in the building.
Collapse: Collapse is totally dependent on the type of construction, size of building, type of contents, and
presence or lack of sprinklers. Collapse is not a common concern in these buildings.
Ventilation: Ventilation options in these buildings is typically limited and can present challenges. Vertical
ventilation in concrete buildings is normally not a feasible operation unless the roof is constructed from
lightweight materials. Horizontal ventilation will often be limited to minimal doors such as standard size
doors. In most cases, PPV ventilation fans will be needed, depending on the size of a building and the
number of openings to the exterior of a building.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry will be a significant challenge but will be minimized by 24/7 on-duty
personnel inside these facilities. Forcible entry into the building is usually limited to a standard size
door into an office/entry area. A few windows may be present in some buildings but windows are not in
abundant supply. Challenging and time-intensive entry operations should be anticipated as security is a
major consideration in these buildings. If necessary, forcible entry inside the building will be noteworthy
without personnel equipped with appropriate keys and security access.
Search: Unless there are known trapped occupant/detainees, search should not be a primary concern as
inmates will likely have been moved to a safe place of refuge and are normally ambulatory under super-
vised conditions. Obviously a rapid change in conditions can dramatically change this consideration.
Additionally, if a search is necessary, the inherent risk should be evaluated.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Fire departments should preplan suppression operations with detention facility supervisors.
The greatest hazard at detention facilities comes from the potential behavior of detainees. A fire or
other significant incident can create an opportunity for escape, hostage taking, or act of violence.
Sentry dogs, crowd control gases, and weapons may be utilized by law officials during incidents at
detention facilities.
As entry and exit openings are likely to be in short supply and some buildings can be large, consider
entry/exit and ventilation options based on openings that are available.
Consider appropriate security/escorts before entering these facilities.
INST
41

376
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Institutional BuildingAttended Care Facility
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Wood frame, wood siding, vinyl siding,
and stucco
Brick and/or concrete block also common
Concrete slab or perimeter foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Industrial- and legacy-era buildings use a
heavy grade of wood for structural members,
some use poured-in-place concrete, concrete
block, or brick masonry.
Engineered lightweight-era buildings use
smaller dimensional lumber and trusses for
structural members in wood frame build-
ings, and concrete block is often used for
larger buildings.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
The sizes of these buildings can vary widely
from a converted single-story, single-family
dwelling (pictured) to a large multistory complex.
Most have a central entryway and may include a covered drive-through in front of the primary building
entrance. Windows are plentiful, and individual balconies can be encountered.
Some include a separate ambulance transfer door remote from the primary entrance.
One or more sides of the exterior may be inaccessible for apparatus due to gardens or other outside
recreation areas. Likewise, an outdoor courtyard may be present that is not visible from the exterior
perimeter of the building.
Depending on the size and age of a particular building, different types of roof construction can be used INST
but will normally be a flat, hip, or gable configuration.
42
INTERIOR FEATURES
Expect an open reception area inside the primary entrance door. Individual tenant rooms are typically
served by central hallways. Common areas for socializing and recreation may be centralized or
dispersed throughout the building.
Expect a centralized dining and kitchen facility. It is rare to have cooking appliances in individual
tenant rooms.
Large buildings have multiple center hallways that access numerous rooms with one to four persons
per room.
Partitioned walls are found in abundance.
Staff and security is on premises at all times.
There are numerous windows and multiple doorways.
Sprinklers are normally present, but older/smaller structures may not have sprinklers.
Converted single-family dwellings can have multiple people in each room.
377
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire in these buildings is not a common problem as the interior is partitioned
with numerous rooms, sprinklers are common, and constant supervision is common if not mandatory.
However, if a fire were to start and extend into the hallways, it would rapidly spread to other areas served
by the hallways. Kitchen areas are a prime location for fire.

Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings; however,
collapse of a roof depends on the size and type of roof. Conventional wood roofs will resist fi re for
longer periods of time than metal roofs or wood roofs of smaller conventional and/or lightweight lumber.
Smaller buildings with more conventional and/or lightweight wood roofs can fail depending on the size
and duration of fire in a particular building.

Ventilation: Although these buildings have numerous doors and windows, ventilation operations will be
assisted or hampered by the size of the building. Converted single-family dwellings are easily ventilated
by either vertical, horizontal, and/or PPV, similar to operations used in average single-family dwellings.
However, as the size increases up to and including large complexes, ventilation becomes more intensive.
Contaminated center hallways in larger buildings must be ventilated early to allow access and egress to
and from the individual rooms. This can be accomplished by a combination of horizontal ventilation and/
or PPV.

Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is not a primary concern as there are multiple conventional doors and
windows in these buildings. Additionally, the 24/7 staff or security personnel should be available to assist
with entry/exit considerations.

Search: The need for search and rescue operations will be dependent on the size of a fire, the amount of
contamination within a building, and the amount or lack of expertise of on-duty staffing in the building.
Although the frequency of fires in these buildings is low, it will take minimal smoke/disruption to create
a measurable amount of panic in the occupants. Rescue operations can be challenging and should be
anticipated. Remember that the rooms within these buildings are filled with people in various stages of
mobility and end of life considerations.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
INST Patients inside these buildings are the primary hazard as they can be nonambulatory and also numerous,
depending on the size of a building.
42 Single-family dwellings that have been converted into these facilities may not be easily identified from
the exterior.
Responsible staffing in converted dwellings are often ill-equipped to handle emergencies at night and have
been directed to call 911 for any assistance.
In some cases, expect minimal assistance from the staff in larger buildings for rescue considerations.
Due to the type of patients, it takes little disruption (food burning on the stove, the presence of firefighters,
etc.) to create undue worry. Anticipate the need for EMS resources for all types of fire department incidents
at these facilities.
The use of portable medical oxygen devices is likely to be abundant. Improper storage of spare oxygen
cylinders is a strong concern.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Public AssemblyRestaurant
Note: This guide focuses on stand-alone purpose-built restaurants. See the Main Street Commercial
section for restaurants that are part of another building.

BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Wood/metal frame, wood or vinyl siding,
stucco, or brick veneer
Unreinforced masonry (URM) or conventional
brick and/or concrete block
Concrete slab or perimeter foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings use a heavy grade of wood
for structural members, some use poured-in-place concrete, concrete block, and conventional brick
masonry. Some older buildings will have unreinforced masonry construction.
Smaller modern-era restaurants are likely to be wood/metal frame with lightweight trusses. Larger ones
will be noncombustible with CMU or metal post and beam walls and metal trusses. Brick masonry
found on modern era-buildings is likely a veneer on wood or metal framing.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
The varying sizes of these occupancies can range from small mom-and-pop restaurants to those
capable of seating hundreds of occupants.
Many older buildings of unreinforced masonry construction have been converted into a restaurant-
type occupancy.
Different types of roof construction can be used and will vary between flat, pitched, and arched. Newer
buildings typically use flat roofs. Conventional wood roofs and metal deck roofs are common on older
buildings and lightweight wood and metal roofs are common on newer buildings.
The rear of the building typically serves as a supply receiving area and can include auxiliary refrigera-
tion equipment, grease/oil recycling storage, and waste dumpsters. Some of these areas are fenced or
walled off for security.
Purpose-built restaurants typically have grease hood exhausting to the roof. Older buildings that have
been converted or multistory buildings may have exhaust vents on a side or rear wall.
Facades of lightweight construction or rigid foam are common on many restaurant buildings.

INTERIOR FEATURES PUB

The interior normally consists of a waiting/dining area, kitchen, dishwashing station, and storeroom.
Some include a separate lounge or bar area. 43
The dining area will be filled with chairs, tables, and/or booths, often creating congestion for movement
of personnel/hoselines, particularly if visibility is obscured.
Elaborate decorations/architecture may conceal noteworthy voids.
Based on the design of the restaurant and/or building, the number of windows and doorways varies widely.
Food storage areas include a walk-in refrigeratoreven in small buildings.
Cooking areas are typically finished with noncombustible and durable materials.
Fire sprinklers are typically required for purpose-built buildings that qualify as public assemblies.
Older/smaller structures or those that have been converted from another use may not have sprinklers.
379
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Although fires in restaurants are not a frequent occurrence, they usually start in the kitchen
area, which is normally protected by sprinklers/suppression systems. The potential of vertical spread
of fire in ducting that terminates on the exterior of a building must be checked from the interior to the
exterior. Fire can also start in the electrical and gas appliances and can spread easily. Fires in the dining
area are not common but can easily spread due to the openness of the room and lack of partition walls.
Soffits and other decorative modifications must be checked for extension of fire in concealed voids.
Remember to check for the spread of fire in voids above suspended ceilings.
Collapse: Roof collapse is the most common threat for restaurant fires due to long spans and the dead
load of exhaust venting and HVAC equipment. Often, fires originate around grease hoods and smolder
undetected while they degrade roof support elements. The collapse of a roof depends on the size and type
of roof. Conventional wood roofs will absorb fire for longer periods of time than metal or wood roofs of
smaller conventional and/or lightweight lumber. Poured-in-place concrete and concrete block best resist
fire and collapse.
Ventilation: Although these occupancies may have numerous doors and windows, ventilation operations
will be assisted or hampered by the size of the building. In most cases, conventional ventilation opera-
tions consisting of either vertical, horizontal, and/or PPV can be effectively utilized. However, as the size
increases up to and including large complexes, ventilation becomes more intensive. Roof ventilation will
be dependent on the type of roof encountered, with older wood roofs offering the most options, metal
deck roofs offering less options, and lightweight wood roofs offering the fewest options.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods, especially if there
are multiple doors (metal frame with glass) and windows.
Search: The need for search operations will be dependent on the size of a fire, the amount of contamination
within a building, and the size of the restaurant. Although the frequency of fires in these buildings is low
and occupants are normally ambulatory, search in a dining area can be challenging due to obstacles such
as tables, chairs, and/or booths. A potential search in these types of buildings should be practiced before-
hand to develop the necessary expertise, as restaurants of all sizes are common.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
If a fire has involved the vent ducting in the kitchen area, be sure to check the (1) vent, (2) attic, and (3)
roof for extension of fire.
Three predominant hazards are high-voltage electrical, gas for cooking appliances, and the vents over
the cooking appliances.
Gas-fired cooking equipment is typically left on warm overnight to help minimize start-stop
heating cycles.
Deep fat fryers are open appliances that present a hot-liquid splash, spill, or immersion hazard.
Lightweight facades are commonly found on these buildings.
Look for the presence of a basement. Basements used for storage are not public spaces and are accessed
by a stairway near the rear of the kitchen or back door.
PUB The presence of fire/smoke, or the activation of grease hood fire suppression system in eating establish-
43 ments requires an inspection by the health department prior to reopening of the facility.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Public AssemblyStadium/Arena

BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Fire resistive (Type I) that combines reinforced concrete and coated steel
Roofs made with steel trusses, domed concrete, or air-inflated membrane

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Legacy arenas are mostly reinforced concrete with a steel truss or domed, lightweight concrete roof.
Legacy stadiums often lack a full roof and are mostly coated steel columns and beams on a reinforced
concrete substructure.
Newer stadiums and arenas have a reinforced concrete core (ground floor, concourses, and elevator
towers) with coated steel seating supports, luxury boxes, and roof support columns.
Where present, roofs are steel truss.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Large, expansive footprint with 360 apparatus access is usual.
Windows (where present) only serve as daylighting for grand entryways or concourses.
Dozens of entry and exit doors exist. Most are used by patrons and usually include some kind of
turnstile or ticket counting system. Ramps may serve elevated doors.
One portion of the exterior will include a service area with loading docks, utility access, and waste/
recycle processing.
Most HVAC systems are at ground level or are incorporated into the service area. Rooftop ventilators
(fans only) may be present.
PUB
44
INTERIOR FEATURES
Central seating areas are served by multiple access tunnels that connect to a perimeter concourse.
Luxury suites, media boxes, and vendor spaces are accessed from the concourse.
A system of service/supply hallways, tunnels, and elevators are typically hidden under the seating
stands. Locker rooms, prop storage, vehicles, staff offices, and infrastructure support systems can also
be found in these areas.

381
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Covered arenas and stadiums rely on an automatic fire sprinkler system to suppress fires
that originate in all areas except the seating stands. Open-air stadiums utilize sprinkler systems only
for enclosed areas. The systems are designed to have multiple zones and they include multiple risers.
The structures are built to compartmentalize fires to a given area using a combination of fire walls,
fuse-link doors, and ventilation system dampers as well as the fire sprinkler system. Fire spread issues
primarily exist with the utility conveyance system, waste/recycle collection areas, enclosed suites, and
plastic seating.
Collapse: The risk of a general or significant collapse is almost nonexistent. Collapse threats exist for
individual and isolated components within the structure such as scoreboards, luxury suite ceilings, light
towers, and overhead equipment in service areas or tunnels.
Ventilation: The cavernous nature of arenas and enclosed stadiums renders most fire department ventilation
techniques inadequate. For those occasions where an interior operation needs ventilation, some consid-
eration can be given to engaging the building engineer to use facility ventilation systems to help move
smoke. PPV fans can be used for fires in small spaces, such as under the general seating area or in vendor
spaces on the concourse.
Search: The need to prioritize search is rare as customers/staff are likely to self evacuate during fires.
Multiple emergency exit doors on each side of the stadium/arena should assist in occupant egress routes,
although a panic-stricken stampede can produce a mass-casualty event. A difficult search challenge exists
for the extensive tunnel and service areas beneath the seating stands. The use of preplans and large area
search techniques is mandated to coordinate search efforts for potential victims in these areas.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods for the main
entrance doors. Emergency exit doors should include panic hardware that is easy to force. Stock receiving
areas with overhead rolling doors require power saws and well-trained firefighters to defeat.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Exiting patrons and parking lot congestion can hamper arriving apparatus.
The circular nature of the concourse and the complexity of passageways can lead to directional disori-
entation, even with perfect visibility.
Electrical distribution equipment is very complex and is typically high voltage and amperage.
Fire suppressions and rescues in overhead equipment and scaffolding will require technical rope skills
(scoreboards, light towers, lighting catwalk, etc.).
Cooling equipment for ice arenas presents a hazmat potential.

PUB
44

382
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Public AssemblyAuditorium/Theater
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Conventional brick, concrete block, and
poured-in-place concrete for larger buildings
May be of unreinforced masonry
Wood/metal frame, wood siding, vinyl siding,
or stucco for smaller buildings
Concrete slab or perimeter foundations, some
with storage basements

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings use a heavy grade of
wood for structural members, poured-in-place
concrete, or concrete block or brick masonry.
Modern engineered lightweight auditoriums
and theatres are commonly CMU block with
steel truss roofs. Steel or wood framing, or
steel post and beam kit buildings may exist for
smaller examples in rural areas.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
The sizes of theaters can range from a single-
story, single theater type building to a large
multi-theater complex.
Poured-in-place concrete, concrete block, and
brick masonry are popular for larger buildings. Smaller buildings typically use wood or metal framing
with stucco, metal or vinyl siding, or brick veneer.
Depending on the size and age of a particular building, different types of roof construction can be used
but will normally be a flat configuration. Conventional wood and metal deck roofs are common, with
lightweight metal and wood roofs replacing the older heavier roofs in some cases.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Common layout includes a reception/ticketing area and food concourse just inside the primary entrance
doors. The concourse is used to access large open audience seating areas.
Partitioned walls are used in smaller rooms outside the seating area(s). PUB
Theatres with a performance stage are likely to have a prop/costume storage area, individual dressing
rooms, and a workshop behind or flanking the stage. Likewise, expect overhead lighting rigs, catwalks 45
with straight ladder access, and curtain rigging in the stage area.
Film storage and projection rooms are typically at the rear of the seating area and are typically accessed
by a locked door and short stairwell.
There are no windows; however, there are normally large exit doors.
Sprinklers are typically required for larger structures.
The projection area will have substantial electrical feeds and high-voltage projectors and substantial AC
equipment considerations.

383
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire in these types of buildings is not a common problem as the interior is
largely nonflammable with the exception of the audience seats and interior decorative elements. Historical
theaters are a notable exceptionthey may not meet modern codes and are at risk for substantial fire
spread and life loss. Likewise, kit-building theaters in rural areas may not have adequate code-compliant
exits and fire code provisions. Sprinklers are common and can retard the spread of fire. Additionally,
fire in masonry/concrete buildings does not accelerate as rapidly as fires in combustible buildings (wood
frame, etc.). The primary locations for fire are the projectors and sound equipment above the viewing
area and the HVAC equipment on the roof, which can easily spread fire/smoke via the ducting throughout
a building.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings, and is not
a common occurrence. However, collapse of a roof depends on the size and type of roof. Conventional
wood roofs will resist fire for longer periods of time than metal roofs or wood roofs of smaller conven-
tional and/or lightweight lumber. Smaller buildings with more conventional and/or lightweight construc-
tion and wood roofs can fail depending on the size and duration of fire in a particular building.
Ventilation: Ventilation operations will be assisted or hampered by the size of the building, and as the size
increases up to and including large theater complexes, ventilation becomes more challenging. These
buildings have minimal doors and a lack of windows, which will minimize horizontal ventilation opera-
tions. In most cases, horizontal ventilation and/or PPV will be the most beneficial operation. Vertical
ventilation will likely only be a viable option on small to moderate size theaters. Remember that most of
these types of buildings have substantial HVAC systems that can be used for ventilation operations.
Forcible Entry: As there is a lack of windows, forcible entry is limited to public assembly type exit doors,
which are more difficult to force than single doors or doors with visible exterior locking devices. The
advantage of exit doors is they normally provide a wide opening. The staff on duty during business hours
should be available to assist with entry/exit considerations.
Search: The need for search and rescue operations will be dependent on the size of a fire, the amount of
contamination within a building, and the amount or lack of expertise of on-duty staffing in the building.
Although the frequency of fires in these buildings is low to nonexistent, it will take minimal smoke/
disruption to potentially create a measurable amount of panic in the occupants. As an example, smoke
from a faulty HVAC system can dramatically change this consideration. The success of a search opera-
tion will be based on restoring order to the incident and then verifying the status of all occupants. Rescue
operations in the audience area(s) will be challenging due to the large open areas and a lack of visibility.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Occupants are the primary hazard, although they are most often ambulatory and self evacuate. Expect
occupant and vehicle congestion near the primary entrance if an incident requires evacuation. Rapidly
escalating incidents may create panic and lead to a mass-casualty event.
The primary origin for fire/smoke is in the rooms used for projection and sound equipment, the snack
bar areas, and the HVAC equipment on the roof.
A problem in the HVAC equipment would quickly spread to other areas of a building via the ducting,
PUB and in a relatively short period of time.
Older theaters are often remodeled into bowling alleys or churches. The inverse is also common.
45 In both cases, expect the hazards of remodels: poke-throughs, void spaces, dropped ceilings, and
inadequate exits.

384
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Public AssemblyMeeting Hall
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Wood /metal frame, wood/metal siding, vinyl
siding, and stucco
Conventional and unreinforced brick and/or
concrete block, some poured-in-place concrete
All-steel kit buildings in rural areas
Concrete slab or perimeter foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Pre-1960 buildings use a heavy grade of wood
for structural members; some use poured-in-
place concrete and concrete block or conven-
tional brick masonry. Roofs are normally
of heavy construction with flat, gable, or
arched configurations.
Post-1960 buildings use smaller dimensional
lumber and lightweight trusses for structural
members in wood frame buildings. Concrete block is often used, depending on the size of the building.
Brick masonry tends to be a veneer on wood or metal framing.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
There are thousands of these types of buildings of various styles and sizes across the country and can
range from small buildings used for local club meetings to large multistory buildings. Some examples of
these buildings are pool halls, nightclubs, granges, dance halls, armories, Masonic clubs, bingo parlors,
and so on.
Most include a primary entrance area, exit doors on each side and rear, and perhaps a shipping
receiving/waste recycle area at the rear.
Various types of roof construction can be used but will normally be a flat, gable, hip, or arch configu-
ration. Conventional wood roofs and metal deck roofs are common on larger older buildings but have
been replaced in many cases by lightweight flat or gable metal/wood trusses. HVAC units are typically
roof-mounted.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Expect an entryway foyer near the primary entrance that may include restrooms, coat storage, and/or
partitioned rooms for vending.
PUB
Kitchen facilities are common and can range from a typical residential style to a full commercial one 46
capable of serving hundreds of meals.
The defining characteristic of the building is a large open meeting space or multiple open meeting
rooms. Some large areas may have movable separation walls used to break the large room into smaller
ones. Some center or perimeter hallways are used to access partitioned smaller rooms.
Some buildings have basements.
Windows and multiple doorways are often present.
Larger buildings are typically required to have fire sprinklers.
The building fire load is typically limited to stackable tables and chairs.
385
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire in these buildings can be enhanced from two perspectives. One, the open
areas used for meeting functions lack partition walls. Second, some of these occupancies still allow
smoking in selected areas (such as lounges). If a fire were to start and extend into any of the hallways,
it would rapidly spread to other areas served by the hallways. Additionally, fire in masonry or concrete
buildings does not accelerate as rapidly as fires in combustible buildings (wood frame, etc.). A kitchen
area, where present, is a prime location for the origin and spread of fire, particularly within a cooking
ventilation ducting/system. Expect additional fire loads during holiday periods or special occasions
(weddings, reunions, bar mitzvahs) that may not be code-compliant.
Collapse: The primary collapse threat is the large open span roof covering the meeting area(s). Depending
on the size of fire, concrete and concrete block walls do not readily collapse. Conventional wood framing
is not as fire resistive as concrete, and lightweight wood/metal framing is the least fire resistive. Older
conventional wood roofs will resist fire longer than metal roofs; newer lightweight wood/metal roofs are
the least fire resistive and can suddenly collapse when subjected to high heat levels and/or fire. Smaller
buildings with lightweight wood/metal roofs are particularly prone to rapid collapse depending on the
size and duration of fire.
Ventilation: Although these buildings often have numerous doors and windows, ventilation operations must
be determined by the size of the building. The interior can be ventilated by either vertical, horizontal,
and/or PPV, but will be dependent on the size/configuration of the assembly areas. As the size increases
up to and including large buildings, ventilation becomes more challenging. Roof ventilation will be
dependent on the size of building and type of roof, with conventional wood roofs offering more options
than lightweight metal and wood roofs. Contaminated center hallways (if present) must be ventilated
early to allow access to and from the individual rooms. This can be accomplished by a combination of
horizontal ventilation and/or PPV.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is dependent on the availability of windows and doors. Because these build-
ings fall under the classification of a public assemblage, they must be equipped with enough doors to
adequately handle a rapid evacuation of the interior occupant load. These same doors can also provide
good forcible entry/exit avenues. In most cases, conventional forcible entry is sufficient for entry consid-
erations. Due to the popularity of concrete block construction, doors are usually metal clad in metal
frames and can be more difficult to open than conventional wood doors.
Search: Although the frequency of fires in these buildings is low, it will take minimal smoke/disruption to
create a measurable amount of panic in a large group of occupants. Obviously some type of dilemma can
dramatically and rapidly change this consideration. Rescue operations, if necessary, can be challenging
and should be anticipated. It may be difficult to accurately determine the status of all occupants from
those personnel responsible for a function and/or the building.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Occupants are the primary hazard as they can be numerous depending on the size of a building and
type of function. Fortunately, they are normally ambulatory. It is doubtful that personnel responsible for
the building will know the status of all occupants.
PUB Facilities that serve semi-private or nonprofit social groups may have dubious additions or modifications
that are not code-compliant. Likewise, storage of materials may be found in exit corridors.
46 Decorations for holiday and other social events may introduce a significant fire load or create
search obstacles.
An entanglement hazard may present itself in open areas with various arrangements of movable tables
and chairs.
If a fire incident rapidly escalates in a meeting hall/nightclub, occupants are likely to rush the primary
entrance door and clog the path (Cocoanut Grove, Road House, etc.). Fire departments should preplan
for alternative entry points and mass-casualty incidents for non-fire-sprinklered meeting/nightclub
facilities.

386
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Public AssemblyChurch
Note: This guide covers purpose-built churches. Buildings converted to a church are likely to fall into
one of the Main Street Commercial guides.

BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Either wood frame with wood, metal, or vinyl siding; metal structural
members with metal or vinyl siding; or brick and/or concrete block
Concrete slab or perimeter foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Large historical-era examples are likely to be of stone and heavy
timber construction.
Industrial- and legacy-era buildings use a heavy grade of wood for
structural members, poured-in-place concrete, and concrete block or
brick masonry. Heavy timber trusses can be found with poured-in-
place concrete and stone and masonry construction.
Post-1960 buildings use smaller dimensional lumber and trusses for
structural members in wood frame buildings, and concrete block is
also used depending on the size of a building. Brick masonry tends to be a veneer on wood framing.
Popular variants use all-metal structural members and some lightweight construction.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Places of worship are easily identified from the exterior either by design and/or designation.
They are of varying ages and sizes, dating from the early 1800s and from small wood frame buildings
to large complexes of various designs and materials used for their construction.
Different types and styles of roof construction can be used but are often a gable configuration for an
open and spacious interior. Conventional and lightweight wood roofs are common. Metal deck roofs are
often used in flat roof designs. Many older church buildings use heavy wood timber trusses capped with
a slate or tile roof.
The presence of exterior masonry buttresses indicates an open-span heavy timber roof on unsupported
masonry walls.
Multiple exterior basement stairwells indicates that a meeting hall is below the worship area.
Many churches have adjoining or attached meeting halls or classrooms.

INTERIOR FEATURES PUB

Most have an entry foyer that leads to a large worship area via multiple interior doors.
Expect a large, open worship area with numerous fixed pews and/or chairs.
47
The worship area is often surrounded or flanked with numerous smaller rooms for classes and other
uses. Likewise, a choir or organ loft may be found in a mezzanine area located opposite or to the side of
the worship stage.
Partitioned walls are in abundance outside the worship area, but are not common in the worship area.
Multiple windows and doorways are common.
Multiple interior basement stairwells indicate a meeting hall below.
Fire loads are relatively low. Fire sprinklers are likely to be found on large, modern churches or those
that have been significantly updated.
387
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire is enhanced by the large open area of the worship area, but the spread of
fire can be limited by partition walls that are common with numerous smaller rooms. Fires that originate
in older large churches are often successful in destroying the entire building as a result of substandard
wiring and numerous voids that allow a fire to grow and gain significant headway without detection.
Fortunately, fires in places of worship are not a common occurrence. Where present, bell towers and
steeples can enhance rapid fire spread due to limited access and their vertical nature.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in the older churches with heavy timber
trusses. However, collapse of a roof depends on the size and type of roof. Conventional wood roofs
will resist fire for longer periods of time than metal roofs or wood roofs of smaller conventional and/
or lightweight lumber. Smaller buildings with more conventional and/or lightweight wood roofs can fail
depending on the size and duration of fire in a particular building. Vertical features such as bell towers
and steeples are a significant collapse hazard when attacked by fire or lightning strike. Unsupported
masonry walls left freestanding after roof collapse or loss are extremely dangerous and prone to collapse.
Ventilation: Ventilation operations will be defined by the size of a particular building. Although these
buildings often have numerous doors and windows that can be used for horizontal/PPV operations,
expensive stained glass windows should be saved if possible. Horizontal/PPV operations can be success-
fully used in the individual rooms; however, these operations in an auditorium can be doubtful depending
on size. If necessary, roof ventilation can be accomplished on flat and some pitched roofs of wood or
metal construction with conventional coverings. Roof ventilation on older churches with steep pitched
roofs, heavy sheathing, and tile/slate roofs will be doubtful at best.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry is not difficult as there are multiple conventional doors and windows in these
buildings that can be forced with conventional methods. The presence of on-duty staff can be anticipated
on Wednesdays and Sundays in many churches. During the week, some churches have office staff avail-
able during the day who should be able to assist with entry/exit considerations.
Search: The need for search operations is minimal due to ambulatory occupants, but some type of collapse
or explosion (or other rapid type of dilemma) can dramatically change this consideration. Although rare,
some churches have 24/7 living accommodations for priests or other staff. Rescue operations in churches
can be challenging due to large area worship/meeting spaces and smaller rooms.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Older large masonry/timber churches are renowned for large fires that are difficult to extinguish and
often result in a complete loss of a building.
The presence of commercial-sized utility feeds may indicate a worship area with a large multimedia
production stage or a meeting hall with industrial cooking equipment.
Risk/benefit decisions might be influenced by pressure to save irreplaceable stained glass, historically
significant features, or other high-value contents.

PUB
47

388
 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Miscellaneous Building/StructurePole Barn
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Wood post and beam with wood clapboarding
or corrugated metal covering
Steel post and beam with corrugated
metal covering

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Historical- and industrial-era examples are
usually heavy timber with mortise and tenon
or dowel connections. Most have stone footers
and foundations.
Legacy-era examples are cut lumber with steel
bolt/plate connections. Most have a perimeter
concrete foundation.
Engineered lightweight-era examples are
typically pressure-treated round post columns
with cut lumber beams connected with galva-
nized hangers and screws or nails. The roof is
likely to be lightweight wood truss.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Simple square or rectangle shapes are
most common.
Roofs are gabled or lantern (or gambrel) styles
with wood plank or plywood sheathing and
shingles, corrugated tin, or aluminum weather coverings.
Expect one or two large ground-level access doors plus a gable end access door (for lifting hay to a
loft area).
Wood clapboard siding is most common, although corrugated steel/aluminum can be found on newer
or repaired barns.
Many older barns have combustible roofs of shakes or shingles.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Pole barns usually have a wide open space with little or no interior finish.
An exposed ridge beam is used as an anchor for pulleys or other lifting equipment.
Minimal utilities (usually just an electrical light and plug circuit) are typical.
Most have a loft or multilevel storage bin.
The floor can be earth, gravel, or concrete slab.

MISC
48

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 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Any interior fire should also be considered a structural fire as all columns and beams are
exposed. All-wood barns will become well involved in a short period of time. Barns used for stacked hay
bale storage present a smoldering overhaul challenge. Older barns will have years of accumulated loose
hay, sawdust, and other debris that can accelerate fire spread. Barns should be considered a wild card for
predicting fire loadsome are packed full of accumulated items. The potential for explosive and hazmat
materials should always be expected.
Collapse: Older barns that have been well-maintained are quite stout and will burn for hours prior to
collapse. Barns that are abandoned, age deteriorated, and those with previous collapses will fail quicker.
Sagging is a common and usable warning for all barns except newer engineered lightweight ones.
Collapses are usually general (complete failure). Storage in a loft will enhance early collapse of the
affected area.
Ventilation: Most wood barns self-ventilate quickly because they are rarely insulted and the exterior siding
and roof covering are immediately exposed to flame. If ventilation is desired for fire control, fire officers
should weigh the risk against the benefit.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. Heavily secured
doors may indicate the storage of high-value items.
Search: The wide open interior of barns makes for quick searches. Rarely is search a high tactical priority
for barns and other outbuildings used for storage. Some barns are used for animal shelter, which may
need to be considered.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Alternative heating appliances (usually unvented) may be found.
Fuel for farm equipment may be stored in the barn or nearby.
Do-it-yourself additions and alterations that are sub-code or dubious are common
Vermin infestation can be expected.
Expect significant storage of combustible materials and fire loads that can accelerate fire spread or
contribute to rapid collapse of interior above-grade bins or floors.
Wood barns with wood combustible roofs are a recipe for a hot, fast-burning fire with noteworthy
exposure problems.
Many older barns are in a state of disrepair and lack structural integrity.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Miscellaneous Building/StructureKit Building
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Post and beam steel frame with light steel
wall framing and purlins for the wall and
roof coverings
Concrete perimeter footers and concrete pads
for inside columns

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Most are engineered lightweight buildings.
Some examples have trussed roofs that
replace the steel I-beams and purlins.
The buildings are primarily used for storage
and/or manufacturing processes.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Simple square or rectangle shapes
are common.
Roofs range from a very slight pitch to a
gabled shape.
Clear plastic or glass panels may be incorpo-
rated into the roof to add interior light.
Expect minimal use of windows.
Siding is normally sheet steel or aluminum. However, fiberglass can be used as a substitute for
these materials.

INTERIOR FEATURES
The interior will usually be a wide open space, with the outer walls finished with an insulation batting
covered with a synthetic membrane.
Tenants may build an interior building to form an office area, break room, or for area separation. These
are usually wood frame with drywall.
The floor can be earth, gravel, or concrete slab.
Sprinklers may or may not be present.

MISC
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391
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: Other than interior contents, the only combustible part of the building is the synthetic
membrane that covers the wall insulation and plastic light diffusion panels in the roof. Fire intensity and
spread concerns are mostly influenced by the occupancy fire load. Also consider the size of utilities.
Collapse: Exposed steel structural elements are subject to early failure, and a high contents fire load can
speed steel failure. History shows that these building dont really fall downthey simply start to sag and
eventually kneel down. This is due to the bolted-together construction and contiguous nature of the wall
column and roof beam (see the pictures above). Sagging is a common and usable warning sign. Truss
roof examples act more like other truss buildings and actually fall when they fail. A collapse issue may
exist when extensive interior content such as overhead radiant heaters, lifts and hoists, drop-in ceilings,
and other items have been hung from the steel roof beams.
Ventilation: Kit buildings are fairly simple to ventilatethe use of PPV fans can usually clear accumulated
smoke. Rooftop ventilation is discouraged for kit buildings as the roof panels arent really designed to
support much weight. Roof and wall panels, however, are easy to cut through using a carbide-tipped or
abrasive friction blade on a rotary saw.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods through entry
doors. Overhead rolling doors can be cut and disassembled, although some find that cutting a flap in a
wall panel is quicker.
Search: The interior content and arrangement will dictate search challenges. Clues as to the search
challenge may be found from the exterior signage on the building. Some kit buildings have an interior
building that is used for an office, staff break room, or other use. These are typically wood frame and
drywall and may add a search challenge.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Most utilities can be secured from the exterior and can be an indicator of the interior content.
Electrical shutoffs and feeds that appear disproportional to the building indicates high-voltage equip-
ment within.
Overhead hanging radiant-style space heaters (fired with propane or natural gas) can collapse.
Poke-throughs for exhaust vents on the exterior wall or roof may indicate the use of industrialized
manufacturing equipment.
Do-it-yourself interior partitions and storage units may be sub-code, unlawful, or dubious.
Buildings with no business name or signage warrant caution.
The building may lack sprinklers.
Mezzanines may be present in larger buildings.

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BUILDING GROUP: Miscellaneous Building/StructureSilo
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Concrete or steel materials common in
modern-era models
Wood staves used in historic-era silos
Metal legs and/or slab foundations

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
In this country, silos date back to 1843
and the use of wood staves was the
most common construction material.
In the early 1900s, concrete and steel
replaced wood staves.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
Silos come in a wide variety of sizes
dictated by the needs of the owners.
The round cylindrical shape is primarily designed for a
combination of strength and the ability to provide bulk
storage (silage).
Grain elevators are used to transport silage to the top of
silos, but are a part of the silo complex.
Silos can either be stand-alone cylinders or part of a
complex that combines storage and other related facilities
(top picture).
When silos are part of a complex, the construction of
other buildings can typically vary from conventional
wood/metal structural members to metal, and use a
variety of materials for exterior sidings. Some larger
complexes use concrete block for exterior walls, with
conventional or lightweight roofs.
Silos can be loaded from the top or bottom. This requires
mechanized equipment to accomplish these operations.
On many farms, spare tractors are used to supply the
necessary power.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Silos are commonly used for bulk storage of grain. They are also used for storage of carbon black, coal,
cement, wood chips, sawdust, food products, and other similar items.
Some silos are designed to keep their contents in a low-oxygen atmosphere to prevent mold and decay
or reduce the risk of a dust explosion.
Depending on the silage, dust is often a by-product of operating a silo and associated equipment.
MISC
Some silos are equipped with water misting capabilities. 50

393
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire in silos is not an uncommon occurrence as it can be initiated from
numerous sources such as spontaneous ignition, lightning, mechanical heat from friction/sparks (from
loading/unloading equipment), and electrical shorts, to name a few causes. Typically, fires occur in the
top 10 feet of silage, so access to a fire can be simplified by its location in a silo.
Collapse: Collapse of a silo can occur as a result of a dust explosion or a backdraft. Wood staves would
be the most susceptible to an explosion and/or fire, with metal less susceptible and concrete potentially
offering the most resistance to failure. However, if a silo is subjected to a fire and/or explosion, consider
the structure to have been weakened and requiring due diligence for safety.
Ventilation: Interestingly, PPV has been effectively used to vertically ventilate a silo with the primary
focus being to minimize the accumulations of smoke, heat, and steam during extinguishment operations.
Natural ventilation can also be used if openable panels/hatches are in the proper locations.
Forcible Entry: These operations can normally be accomplished by using panels/hatches in various
locations on a silo, particularly on/near the top and bottom portion.
Search: Instead of search operations, it is likely that rescue operations would be more likely, particularly
entrapment considerations. However, search operations in associated structures that are a part of a silo
complex would be similar to search operations in commercial buildings as both are likely to have large
open areas.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Departments that are responsible for responding to farm emergencies must be familiar with the methods
required to resolve silo type emergencies and entrapment in farm equipment.
In many cases, an interior fire can be suppressed by the implementation of a probing nozzle, but care
must be exercised when directing water into a silo from the top that also introduces oxygen. If the
interior atmosphere is oxygen deficient, this can cause an explosion.
For additional information on silo fires, see the FEMA report Hazards Associated with Agricultural
Silo Fires, or use an internet search on agricultural silo fires.
Fires that occur in buildings in a silo complex will burn commensurate with their method of construc-
tion. Remember a fire in these surroundings will likely burn with more intensity due to a noteworthy
presence of flammable dust.

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 RAPID STREET-READ GUIDE
BUILDING GROUP: Miscellaneous Building/StructureHistorical BuildingDwelling
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Wood frame construction with rough-
sawn lumber for exterior walls and interior
framing; exterior wood siding
Masonry construction of exterior brick
masonry walls with rough-sawn lumber for
interior construction
Roof construction of rough-sawn lumber in
conventional configurations
Perimeter foundation and/or basement

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Although these buildings/districts are
typically older, ranging from the late 1700s to
the early 1900s, it is not the era that sets these
buildings/districts apart from other types of
older buildings. Instead, it is the fact that
they are classified as historic buildings and
are listed on the National Register of Historic
Places and/or have been identified by recog-
nized preservation groups.
Typically, these structures/districts maintain
the original type of construction and
materials of conventional and heavy weight
construction materials and configurations.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
The size of these buildings can range from a
small, single-story dwelling to a very large, multistory dwelling (pictured).
All-wood construction consisting of rough-sawn lumber for framing and wood siding is used. Some
buildings have brick masonry walls of unreinforced masonry (URM) with interior and roof of conven-
tional wood construction.
Conventional wood roofs of pitched gable or hip configurations are used. Some roofs are covered with
slate or tile materials. Combustible wood roofs of shakes or shingles were also used.
Double-hung windows were typically used in these buildings.

INTERIOR FEATURES
Multiple floors are common, and a basement and/or cellar can be expected.
The size of these residential buildings can vary from 1,000 sq ft to over 5,000 sq ft.
Lath and plaster is the material of choice for walls and ceilings.
The interior normally consists of a dining area, family room, kitchen, and bedrooms.
MISC
Expect solid core doors and substantial locking hardware. 51
Windows may be comprised of plate glass, and original double-hung windows are typical.
Numerous types of moldings (crown, base, etc.) are used.
395
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire in these buildings is very similar to typical residential type buildings.
Lath and plaster will better retard the spread of fire as compared to the drywall used in newer buildings.
Balloon frame construction will enhance the vertical spread of fire in the walls into an attic area and
between floors in multistory buildings. Basement/cellar fires will readily extend upward. Additionally,
combustible wood roofs can create exposure problems, particularly in windy conditions.
Collapse: These buildings will last longer than newer lightweight buildings as the construction is older
conventional. It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings.
Although collapse of a roof depends on the size and type of roof, conventional wood roofs are the most
common and collapse can be enhanced by multiple layers of roofing materials. Sagging is a dependable
collapse warning sign.
Ventilation: In most cases, conventional ventilation operations consisting of either vertical, horizontal, and/
or PPV can be effectively utilized, depending on the size of a building. However, as the size increases up
to and including large areas and/or multiple floors, ventilation will become more intensive. If necessary,
roof ventilation will be enhanced by the fact that the roof will be of conventional constructionlight-
weight metal or wood trusses are rare on these buildings. Some departments will open a ventilation
opening on the roof and over exterior walls to keep upward travel of fire in balloon frame construction
from spreading into an attic area.
Forcible Entry: These operations can normally be accomplished by conventional methods on common
doors and windows. However, remember that the doors and locks in these buildings can be more substan-
tial than modern applications, and it is not uncommon to encounter plate glass in the windows.
Search: Search operations will be dependent on the size and location of a fire, the amount of contamination
within a building, and the anticipated occupant load. Search operations will be very similar to a typical
residential dwelling as the floor plans are similar. The presence of a basement and/or cellar will add to
the difficulty of a search in minimal or no visibility conditions.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Due to age, anticipate balloon frame construction on wood buildings.
Unless the building has been modernized, expect knob and tube wiring to be present.
In buildings that are much older, post and beam and/or mortise and tenon construction can
be encountered.
Unreinforced masonry brick construction may include soft bricks and substandard mortar. Arched-top
window frames and doorways may have keystones that can dislodge and cause collapse of load-
bearing brick.
Assume multiple layers of roofing materials that increase roof dead load.
Historical dwellings are often used for bed and breakfast businesses which may present interior configu-
ration and occupant search challenges.
Moldings such as base, crown, and those used around windows must be removed to search for void
space extension if exposed to fire.
Basement/cellar fires will readily extend upward and can also be difficult to extinguish and ventilate.

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BUILDING GROUP
Miscellaneous Building/StructureHistorical BuildingCommercial
BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Exterior of brick masonry construction with
rough-sawn lumber for interior construction for
larger buildings
Wood frame construction with rough-sawn lumber
for exterior walls and interior framing, and exterior
wood siding for smaller buildings
Roof construction of rough-sawn lumber in conven-
tional configurations
Perimeter foundation and/or basement

ERA CONSIDERATIONS
Similar to historic residential buildings, it is not the
era that sets these buildings (or districts with multiple
buildings) apart from other types of older build-
ings, it is the fact that they are classified as historic
buildings/districts. They are listed on the National
Register of Historic Places (NRHP) and/or have been
identified by recognized preservation groups.
Typically, these structures maintain the original
type of conventional construction and heavy weight
materials and typically do not use modern light-
weight construction materials and configurations.

EXTERIOR FEATURES
The varying sizes of these occupancies can range from a moderate size building to large buildings, such
as the pictured railroad station in Indiana and the Elks Lodge building in Oregon.
Brick masonry is popular for larger buildings. Small to moderate size buildings use either brick
masonry or wood framing with stucco or wood siding.
Different types of conventional roof construction can be used and will vary between flat, pitched, and
arched. Roof coverings are usually slate, tile, or multiple layers of composition.
Ground floor businesses with showroom windows are likely to include cast iron columns, lintels,
and door frames.

INTERIOR FEATURES
The interior floor plan is dependent on the intended use of the structure, although most will have narrow
hallways and doorways between spaces.
Expect a heavy grade of wood construction that can use milled timber materials.
Lath and plaster wall finishes are common as are stamped-tin ceilings. MISC
Some of these buildings have been converted to house multiple smaller businesses. 52
Expect interior doorway transoms for light and air distribution.
Elaborate decorations/architecture that can conceal noteworthy voids are often used.
Many of these buildings have added poke-through HVAC systems to improve the interior environment. 397
 TACTICAL CONCERNS
Fire Spread: The spread of fire in these buildings will be dependent on the size of a particular building. In
many cases, conventional construction of heavy wood structural members and lath/plaster wall/ceiling
finishes will resist the spread of fire as compared to modern materials. These older buildings normally
have open attics so rapid fire spread in an attic can be expected. Transoms over interior doors can speed
fire spread. Stairways and hallways are typically open and can help accelerate horizontal and vertical fire
spread. Lastly, wood frame construction is likely a balloon frame configuration that will rapidly spread
fire vertically into an attic via an involved exterior wall.
Collapse: It will take a sizeable fire and time for collapse to occur in most of these buildings due to the type
and size of construction. However, once a fire develops momentum, it can rapidly begin to weaken even
the older types of heavy conventional construction that can burn with a significant intensity. Floors can
collapse when exposed to fire but the size of construction is superior to modern, more flammable floor
construction and can equate to longer time frames as compared to lightweight construction. Exterior
walls of unreinforced masonry construction can collapse outward (more than twice their height!) when
floor/roof structural members begin to fail. Collapse of a roof depends on the size and type of roof.
Although conventional wood roofs will resist fire for longer periods of time than newer roofs, many of
these roofs are supporting an extremely heavy dead load of slate, tile, or numerous layers of other roofing
materials. Smaller buildings with more conventional wood roofs can rapidly fail depending on the size
and duration of fire in a particular building.
Ventilation: Although these occupancies can have multiple doors and windows, ventilation operations will
be assisted or hampered by the size of the building. In most cases, conventional ventilation operations
consisting of either vertical, horizontal, and/or PPV can be effectively utilized. However, as the size
increases up to and including large complexes, ventilation will become more intensive. If necessary, roof
ventilation will be dependent on the type of roof encountered, with older wood roofs offering the most
options. It is doubtful that many metal deck roofs will be encountered and lightweight wood roofs were
not used on these types of buildings. Fires that have captured vertical combustible void spaces will likely
destroy the building if vertical ventilation cant be accomplished.
Forcible Entry: Forcible entry can normally be accomplished by conventional methods. However, expect
the presence of hardwood for interior doors and frames and substantial locking devices.
Search: The need for search operations will be dependent on the size of a fire and the type of building as
it can be a common commercial type building or a commercial residential building. Remember that a
potential search in larger commercial types of buildings should be practiced beforehand to develop the
necessary expertise for large open areas.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
A primary hazard will be the size of some of these buildings.
Expect a significant roof dead load.
Consider the presence of balloon frame construction in wood frame buildings.
Masonry buildings will likely be comprised of unreinforced masonry construction. Additionally, look
for the presence of spreaders, joist anchors, and rafter tie plates.
Buildings that are not equipped with operative sprinklers pose an additional risk although there should
be a suppression system in a kitchen (if present).
Anticipate numerous voids depending on the interior decorations/architecture, particularly when the
interior has been remodeled for multiple commercial businesses.
Some NRHP buildings may be exempted from modern fire and life-safety requirements even if signifi-
MISC cant restoration has taken place.

52

398
GLOSSARY
abandoned. A building status for those that have outlived their usefulness, fallen into
disrepair, and show signs that the owner has basically given up on the building.

advanced framing methods (AFM). Refers to a variety of wood framing

techniques that reduce the amount of lumber (and waste) used to construct a
wood frame building and increase its energy efficiency. AFM is also known as
optimal value engineering (OVE).

alternative building methods. Building construction materials, assemblies, and

systems that are nontraditional, unusually innovative, or dont readily fit into the
five classic types. Also called hybrid construction.

aluminum. A natural element that exists in many minerals and ores. In fact,
aluminum is the most abundant metal that exists on earth.

arched truss. A truss in which the top chord is arched and the bottom chord is
straight (horizontal). Arched trusses can be bowstring (tied) or rigid.

attic. A large space that is created by a steep pitched roof (arched, gable, etc.) for
drainage and/or appearance.

autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC). Building blocks made from a mixture of

sand, Portland cement, gypsum, water, expansion agents, and air that forms a
solid block that is one fifth the weight of a similar size concrete block.

axial load. A load that is imposed through the center of the material.

balloon frame. A wood framing method where exterior wall studs are continuous
from the sill plate to the roof plate. Floors are attached to ribbon board, with no
fire-stopping structure within the wall.

bar truss (or bar joist). A steel parallel chord truss assembled with angle iron for
the chords and cold-drawn round billet for the web.

base of operations. Concept of ensuring the platform you are working on (roof or
floor) will safely support you for the duration of your operations.

basement. A habitable space that is either completely or partially below the ground
floor. For this text, basement and cellar are interchangeable terms.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

beams. Structural elements that deliver loads carbon-fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP).
perpendicularly to their imposed load and in Composite materials that include a reinforcing
doing so, create opposing forces within the material (the carbon fibers) that is bound together
element. with a polymer (like epoxy).

bowstring truss. A tied truss with an arched upper cast iron. A material usually formed from molten
chord and a horizontal tension bottom chord that pig iron, which has a high carbon content and is
connects the ends of the arched cord, creating thus brittle.
compression in the top chord. Diagonal web
members are added to help transfer loads. ceiling. An interior surface (lining) that covers the
top of a room and is not considered a structural
bridge truss. A roof style characterized by sides element such as walls, floors, and foundations.
that are sloped from the exterior walls to a flat
roof portion. The sloped sides are derived from cellar. (see basement)
the trapezoidal shape of the truss (unequal chimney. A structural component used for the
parallel chords, with the bottom chord longer venting of hot flue gases or smoke from a stove,
than the top). boiler, furnace, fireplace, or other appliance.
brittle. A material that will fracture or fail as it is cockloft. A small space that is created when a roof
deformed or stressed. is raised above the level of ceiling joists and
building block systems. Any of various alterna- rafters to provide a pitch for drainage.
tive materials used to form a stacked wall. For column. Any structural element that is loaded
example, mortar-less concrete blocks engineered axially, along its length, in compression.
with unique internal shapes filled with expanded
polystyrene (EPS). combustible. Will burn, flammable.
building triage. The process of evaluating current component connections. Also known as framing
and changing conditions and making judgments junctions, where two or more structural members
about the risks and integrity of various portions are joined and how they are joined.
of a building.
compression. A stress that causes a material to
bungalow construction. An older wood frame flatten or crush.
construction style that uses rough-sawn 2 3 in.
or 2 4 in. rafters spaced up to 36 in. on center. concentrated load. A load that is applied within a
Each is butted together at the ridge without a small area or at one point.
ridge board, and typically use 1 4 in. spaced
concrete. A mixture of Portland cement, sand and
sheathing nailed to the rafters.
aggregate (gravel), and water that cures into a
buttress. An exterior wall bracing feature used solid mass.
to assist with lateral forces created where roof
concrete infill. A type of masonry wall construc-
beams or trusses rest on a wall. Also known
tion that consists of gaps between parallel
as a counterfort. Buttress are structural in
courses of masonry units that are filled with
nature and can take on numerous shapes (a
concrete and pieces of brick or concrete with
diagonally ascending stack of stone or brick is
vertical and/or horizontal runs of rebar.
most common).
continuous beam. A beam supported by three or
cantilever beam. A beam supported at only one
more columns.
end. (Or a beam that extends well past a support
in such a way that the unsupported overhang conventional construction. Solid lumber of 2 6 in.
places the top of the beam in tension and the or larger used in a standard framing configuration.
bottom in compression.)

400
 Glossary

cool roof. One designed to reflect more of the suns for tenant needs. A fire division wall is used to
rays than a common roof, such as one using subdivide a building and/or attic to restrict the
composition or shingles. spread of fire.

crawl space. The unfinished space below a ground door. A moving panel or other moveable cover used
floor that allows access to under-floor utilities to close an opening in a wall.
(pipes, ducts, etc.). Crawl spaces are of limited
height and typically have a soil surface. double-stud wall construction. A building
technique that uses two parallel walls, spaced
cricket. The junction of a vertical member (such as a about 3 in. apart, that are built with dimen-
skylight riser, parapet wall, etc.) and a horizontal sional lumber and configured with either
member (such as a roof) where the intersection opposing (aligned) or offset (staggered) studs.
junction is covered by a roofing material. The gap between the walls can be filled with
insulation and provide a high R-value.
cross-laminated timber (CLT). An engineered
wood product using several layers (three to seven ductile. A material that will bend, deflect, or stretch
or more) of boards that are layered crosswise as a load is appliedyet retain some strength.
(typically rotated 90) and glued.
eccentric load. A load that is imposed off-center,
curtain wall. An exterior wall used to enclose causing a material to want to bend.
multiple stories.
electrochromic smart glass windows. (Also
daylight basement (or walkout basement). A known as suspended particle display windows.)
basement arrangement found on buildings built Windows that are primarily designed to allow an
on slopes and are under the grade floor (or main occupant to change the amount of light a window
entrance), which allows occupants to walk out of reflects. This is accomplished by using tiny
the basement on the lower grade level through a transparent electrodes sandwiched between two
doorway to the outside. panes of glass.

dead loads. The weight of the building itself and engineered wood. A term used by the fire service
anything permanently attached to the building. to describe a host of wood products that use
modern methods to transform wood chips/
decking. The horizontal or pitched platform for slivers, veneers, shavings, and even recycled
floors or roofs. Decking is applied directly to wood products into components that replace
beams to provide a surface to accept loads sawn lumber, sheathing, and other composite
(building contents and people) or a durable cover structural materials.
(roofing).
engineered wood product (EWP). Derivative
decorative sheathing. Thin wood paneling used to wood product primarily manufactured by
finish interior walls or the outside of cabinets. binding fibers, strands, particles, or veneers of
diagonal sheathing. A series of 1 6 in. boards wood together with adhesives. Also referred to
that run at a 45 angle from the exterior walls as manufactured board, man-made wood, and
to the primary structural members and provide composite wood.
increased structural stability (compared to era. The historic time period during which a
straight sheathing) as they cross more roof struc- building was built. Predominate eras include
tural members. the pre-WWI (historical), pre-WWII (indus-
distributed load. A load spread over a large trial), post WWII (legacy), and the new
surface area or over multiple points. engineered lightweight.

division wall. An occupancy division wall is used facade. An exterior construction feature that is
to provide a major subdivision within a building used on the walls of a building to alter its visual
appearance. For this text, facade encompasses

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The Art of Reading Buildings

fascias, false mansards, cantilevers, eyebrows, footers (or footings). Weight-distributing pads that
and overhangs. serve as the bottom of foundations.

fiber-reinforced product (FiRP). A FiRP foundation. A buildings anchor to earth and base
(pronounced furp) is a wood beam that has for all elements built above that anchor.
layers of high-strength synthetic fiber material or
carbon graphite strands sandwiched and bonded foundation walls. These are walls installed below
to layers of cut timber or laminated strand grade to serve as structural support for other
lumber (LSL). FiRP beams can carry twice the structural elements and also to hold back soil
load of a solid wood beam. and other materials.

field stones. Easily accessed stones that are frame. The structural case or border into which a
common to the area of construction. Granite, window is set.
quartz, limestone, and various forms of river framed. A building built on site one piece at a time
rock are examples of field stones. also known as stick-built. The building is enclosed
finger-jointed lumber (FJL). FLJ has become by simple siding attached right to the framing.
a common method to produce long lengths girder. A beam that carries other beams.
of wood members from multiple short pieces
of native wood lumber. When joining these glazing. The process of setting glass and/or
short pieces, the joining ends are mitered in an thermoplastic into a window frame. The glass
interlocking fingers configuration and pressed (transparent material) of a window assembly is
together with an adhesive as a bonding agent. known as the glazing.
fire load. The potential amount of heat energy glued laminated timber (GLT or glulam). Glued
(measured in British thermal unitsBTUs) that laminated timber is comprised of multiple layers
may be released when a material is burning. of dimensional timber bonded together with
The term fire load is not a building engineering moisture-resistant adhesives.
termits purely a fire behavior term.
gravity connection. The connection of two or more
fire resistance rating (FRR). The length of time to materials that relies on the gravitational weight
burn through a given materialrated in minutes of the upper element to hold it to the other.
or hours.
green insulation. Insulation that uses recycled
fireplace. An architectural structure or materials such as cotton and denim in place
appliance designed to contain a fire for heating of fiberglass.
and/or cooking.
ground gradient. A term used to describe
flame spread rating (FSR). The length of time electricity that is returning to zero potential
it takes to burn across the surface of a given through nonconductive surfaces like soil,
materialrated in minutes or hours. concrete, and masonry. Downed wires can create
a ground gradient in concentric waves from their
floor. The platform and substructure that serves as contact on those materials and travel for several
a base for accommodating people movement, yards. Firefighters who feel tingling through
furnishings, and fixtures within a building. their boots should shuffle-step away from the
floor covering. The covering that serves as a durable gradient and notify others.
(and attractive) surface to protect the subfloor. header. See lintel.
floor supports. Structural elements responsible for hybrid building. An unofficial term that refers to a
carrying the load of a floor. Supports may be a building that combines various NFPA 220 types
foundation wall, structural beam, or a stud load- in one structure or a building that is constructed
bearing wall.

402
 Glossary

in a manner that, from a firefighters view, doesnt laminated strand lumber (LSL). LSL is an
really fit into any of the NFPA 220 types. It is engineered structural composite lumber
also described as alternative construction. manufactured from flaked and chipped strands of
native wood blended with an adhesive. Mostly,
impact load. A moving or sudden load applied to LSL uses strands oriented in a parallel fashion
a building in a focused or short time interval. (also known as parallel strand lumberPSL).
For example, wind, large crowds, and fire stream
water are all impact loads. laminated veneer lumber (LVL). An engineered
wood product consisting of thin sheet veneers of
insulated concrete form (ICF). Forms made of native wood that are stacked with grains aligned
permanent expanded polystyrene (EPS) that are and then glued with a phenolic resin.
used for poured concrete and come as blocks,
panels, or planks. ledger. A beam attached to a wall column that
serves as a shelf (ledge) for other beams or
interstitial space. A space created between building features.
building materials that can hide utilities or
other building components. Also, the space lightweight construction. Solid or engineered
created when a suspended ceiling is hung from products used to form assembly-built structural
overhead beams. elements that are lower in mass than previous
construction methods.
jack rafter. Roof rafter used in hips or valleys to
span between ridge boards or wall plates. lightweight trusses. Trusses that are comprised of
members of 2 4 in. (or smaller) and are often
jamb. The structural case, border, or track into made from engineered lumber (or metal).
which a door is set. A jamb supports and may
contain the stop for a door. limited-combustible. Materials that have about
one-half the heat potential of wood, or not over
joist. A wood or steel beam used to create a floor 3,500 Btu/lb.
or roof assembly that supports sheathing or
decking. Joists span between primary supporting lintel. A beam that spans an opening in a load-
members such as foundations, load-bearing bearing wall, such as over a garage door opening
walls, or structural beams. (often called a header). Lintels can also be
commonly found over windows and doors in
knob and tube wiring. An older electrical wiring unreinforced masonry construction and in newer
style identified by a two-wire lead into a struc- CMU construction.
ture from a pole. In addition, this wiring usually
leads to a fuse box (with removable glass fuses), live green roof. A roofing system that employs a
often on the porch of residential structures. layer of soil and planted vegetation to insulate and
Within a building, a knob and tube includes a protect the structure from heat and cooling loss.
single, minimally-insulated wire supported by
ceramic knobs used as spacers/supports between live load. Any load applied to a building other than
the wire runs. Porcelain or cloth tubes were used dead loads. Live loads are typically transient,
wherever a wire passed through a wall stud, floor, moving, impacting, or static (like furniture).
or box. A cloth tube or loom was used where two loads. Static and dynamic weights that come from
wires crossed or where a wire entered a junction the building itself and anything that is placed
or outlet box. This is an ungrounded system. within, or acts upon a building.
lamella roof (also known as a Summerbell roof). lock. Various types of locking devices used to
An arched roof that uses a weave of eggcrate, provide security.
geometric, or diamond-patterned roof supports
that is higher (or steeper) than the common
bowstring roof.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

lookout basement. A basement arranged such that hazardous. Buildings used for the manufacturing,
the walls extend above the grade level so that processing, generation, or storage of materials
some of the windows are above grade. that constitute a physical or health hazard in
quantities in excess of allowed control areas.
masonry. A common term that refers to brittle
materials like brick, tile, concrete block, institutional. Buildings where people are cared
and stone. for or live in a supervised environment because
of health, age, medical treatment, or those
modular panel systems. Factory-built panels that are detained for penal or correctional purposes.
assembled on a job site to form load-bearing walls.
mercantile. Buildings used for the display and
monolithic. A poured-in-place concrete and steel sale of merchandise and involving the stocking
building that forms a single stone. of goods that are accessible to the public.
mortar. A workable paste made from a mixture residential. Buildings used for sleeping purposes
of sand, cement or lime, and water. Once when not classified as Group I.
cured, mortar serves as a binding agent for
masonry blocks. storage. Buildings used for storage that is not
classified as a hazardous occupancy.
noncombustible. Materials that will not ignite,
burn, support combustion, or release flammable utility and miscellaneous. Buildings, and build-
vapors when heated. ings of an accessory character, that are not
classified by any other occupancy use. This
occupancy. The intended use or purpose of a group includes structures such as agriculture
building. Common occupancy classifications are: buildings, carports, sheds, tanks, and towers.
assembly. Buildings used for the assembly occupied. A building that is occupied or has a high
of people for civic, social, religious, recre- probability of being occupied during an incident.
ational, food or drink consumption, or
awaiting transportation. oriented strand board (OSB). Known mostly by its
acronym, OSB is sheathing that is formed with
business. Buildings used for offices, professional wood shavings and a urea-formaldehyde adhesive.
or service transactions, storage of records, or
ambulatory health care. optimum value engineering (OVE). See advanced
framing methods (AFM).
day care. Buildings used for the supervised
care of children with no overnight care. panel wall. A single-story exterior wall used to
(NFPA recognizes day care facilities separate enclose a space.
from educational.)
parallel chord truss. A truss in which the top and
educational. Buildings used for educational bottom chords run in the same plane.
purposes of six or more people (at any one
time) through the 12th grade and some day parapet wall. A continuation of a wall above a roof
care facilities. (ICB puts day cares in an line.
E classification.) particle board (PB). Wood sheathing made from a
factory. Buildings used for assembling, disas- coarse sawdust and glue.
sembling, fabricating, finishing, manufac- partition wall. A wall used to divide areas or rooms
turing, packaging, or repairing operations that into smaller areas or to separate one portion of an
are not classified as Group H (hazardous) or area from another and usually not load-bearing.
Group S (storage).
party wall. A wall shared by two buildings or two
occupancies within the same building. If the

404
 Glossary

party wall carries beams or structural assem- pressure-equalized rain screen insulated
blies, it is a structural element. structure technique (PERSIST). A building
technique developed by the National Research
pilaster. A decorative column that protrudes in Council in Canada. The method consists of 2
relief from a wall to give the appearance of a 4 in. framing, OSB sheathing covered with
separate post column. Over time, the fire service a peel-and-stick membrane (rubberized asphalt
began using the term pilaster to describe any adhesive backed by a layer of high-density cross-
interior or exterior thickening of wall used to laminated polyethylene), and single or multiple
add lateral support for roof beams and trusses. layers of rigid extruded polystyrene (XPS) foam
pilings. Vertical posts that are driven down into the insulation. Finally, the building is finished with
earth to serve as the foundation or foundation any type of preferred siding.
anchor of buildings. protected. Having a fire resistance rating of at
pillar. A freestanding vertical post, monument, or least one hour based on its structural elements or
architectural feature. protective envelope for the structural elements.

pinned connection. Those that use a screw, nail, purlin. A beam placed horizontally and perpen-
nut and bolt, rivet, or similar device to pass dicularly to trusses or beams to help support roof
through the elements being connected. Pinned sheathing or to hang ceilings.
connections concentrate transferred loads to a radiant barrier sheathing (RBS). Plywood or
single point. OSB sheathing with an aluminum type foil
plastic. A synthetic or semi-synthetic material affixed to one side that is designed to reflect
that is made of moldable polymers (a molecule radiant heat away from the foil.
with many connected atoms). Most plastics are rafter. A sloped wood joist that supports roof
derived from petroleum. coverings between a ridge beam and wall plate
plenum space. An interstitial space used as an air on peaked and hipped roofs.
return for HVAC systems. raker. A diagonally-oriented column (loaded
plywood. A wood product made from layering in compression).
sheet veneers of wood such that grain directions rebar. (Short for reinforcing bar.) A steel bar that
alternate 90 with each layer. is used as a tensioning material in reinforced
post and beam. A building built with a series concrete and masonry to increase stability and
of post columns and beams (no load-bearing strength. The rough surfaces on the rebar aid in
walls). The building is enclosed by panel or bonding the rebar to the concrete.
curtain exterior walls. The same as a skeletal reinforced concrete. Concrete that is poured over
frame building. steel rebar, which becomes part of the cured
pre- and post-tensioned concrete. Concrete that concrete mass.
has steel cables placed through the plane of the reinforced masonry construction. A wall
material and then tensioned, compressing the construction method using stacked brick or block
concrete to give it the required strength. Cables and mortar with steel rebar reinforcement placed
can be pre-tensioned (at a factory) or post- in open cells and then filled with concrete, or
tensioned (at the job site). steel embedded in the mortar joints.
precast concrete. Slabs of reinforced concrete that repeated load. Loads that are transient or intermit-
are poured at a factory and then shipped to a tently applied (like people on an escalator).
job site.
ridge beam. The uppermost beam of a pitched roof.
Rafters attach to the ridge beam.

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The Art of Reading Buildings

rigid or rib arch truss. A truss with a curved, spalling. Refers to a pocket of concrete that has
self-supporting top chord (not tied by the bottom crumbled into fine particles through the exposure
chord) and horizontal bottom chord along with to heat.
web members that are all rigidly connected.
static load. A constant load that rarely moves.
rigid connection. A connection formed by bonding
two materials together. Examples include bead straight sheathing. A series of 1 6 in. boards
welds in steel, glues, poured concrete over steel, that run at a 90 angle to supporting struc-
and the like. Rigid connections tend to spread tural members.
transferred loads over a greater area. strike. The receptacle that receives a dead bolt or
roof. The top portion of a structure that is respon- latch from a locking mechanism. A protrusion
sible for providing an active role in sheltering that stops a door and keeps it from swinging past
interior spaces and includes structural supports the jamb.
and coverings. steel. A metallic material made from iron ore, carbon,
roof slope-pitch. This refers to the degree of and an alloy agent (metallic solid solution).
slope or pitch for a roof and is expressed as a structural assembly. An engineered collection of
ratio. For example, a 4:12 pitch means that the interconnected building components that form a
roof rises 4 in. vertically for every 12 in. of cohesive structural unit such as a roof or floor.
horizontal distance.
structural elements. The essential underpinnings
sash. The metal, wood, or plastic framework that of a building that allow it to stand erect and
surrounds and supports glazing (window glass). resist imposed loads and gravity. Foundations,
sheathing. All manner of materials used to cover columns, beams, and connections are the
or encase walls, ceilings, and roofs of framed primary structural elements of any building.
structures. It is the first layer of covering for structural hierarchy. A concept that defines the
studs, joists, trusses, or rafters. progressive order in which building loads are
shear. A stress that causes a material to tear or delivered to earth.
slide part. structural insulated panels (SIPs). Specially
shear wall. A reinforcement wall that adds building engineered panels used to form load-bearing
stiffness to help resist the impact load of wind. walls and the roof. Each panel consists of two
outer skins of OSB with an insulating core made
simple beam. A beam supported by columns at the from expanded or extruded polystyrene (EPS or
two points near its ends. XPS, EPS is most common).

skeletal frame. A building built with a series of strut. A horizontal column (loaded in compression).
post columns and beams (no load-bearing walls).
The building is enclosed by panel or curtain subfloor. The horizontal platform material that
exterior walls. is attached to the top of floor joists and can be
made from tongue-and-groove (T&G) planking,
slabs (when used as a foundation). Flat horizontal plywood, OSB, or even lightweight concrete.
elements that simply rest on the ground.
suspended beam. A beam that has one or both
slab-on-grade foundation. A concrete slab that is ends supported from above by a cable or rod
poured over a suitable rock base on the ground, (sometimes called a hung beam).
and then the walls, floor(s), and roof are erected
on top of the slab foundation. suspended load. A load that is hanging from
something above.

406
 Glossary

tension. A stress that causes a material to pull apart unoccupied. A building that is normally occupied
or stretch. but the occupants are likely to not be in the
structure currently.
tied arch roof. A roof construction method
that uses arch-shaped beams that are held in unprotected. A material that when exposed (or can
compression with tensioned horizontal tie-rods. be exposed) in its natural state to the effects of
heat and/or fire will cause a degradation of its
tilt-up. A structure built using prefabricated, load- structural integrity.
bearing wall sections (typically reinforced concrete)
that are tilted upright, then pinned together. unreinforced masonry. A wall construction
method using stacked brick or block and mortar
timber truss. Large dimension lumber used to without Portland cement, steel rebar, or strap-
form a truss. Commonly found in older roofs, ping. Also, a modern masonry wall that is not
this type of roof construction is normally made designed for load-bearing structural applications.
from full-dimensional lumber, and is often
comprised of multiple members bolted together vacant. A building that is likely to still be in an
to form one structural member. acceptable condition in terms of structural integ-
rity and marketability. A vacant building is likely
titanium. An abundant metal found in many to be secured (doors/windows).
minerals. It is lightweight, low density, noncor-
rosive, and nonmagnetic. Titanium alloys are veneer wall. A decorative-only wall added to help
known for a high strength-to-weight ratio and improve the buildings appearance.
tremendous resistance to heat.
walk-up basement. A basement that is accessed
torsion load. A load that is imposed in such a way by an exterior stairway entrance. The exterior
that causes a material to twist. entrance may be unprotected, partially covered,
or fully enclosed.
traditional wood products. Refers to the century-
old development and improvement of manufac- wall. A vertical or upright surface designed to
tured wood products for a specific application enclose or divide a compartment. Walls can be
that cut lumber cannot fill. load-bearing (a wall column structural element
that supports floor or roof beams) or non-load-
transom. A beam above a door used to support bearing (supports its own weight plus anything
glass (to help spread light) or a louver (to help attached to it).
improve ventilation) as opposed to a mullion,
which refers to a vertical structural member wall-bearing. A building where beams or roof/floor
between panes of glass. (A transom is the tradi- assemblies rest on the load-bearing walls (as
tional American term for a transom light, which opposed to posts).
is the window over this horizontal member.)
wind/snow load. Atmospheric loads that stress a
triangular truss. The most common type of truss building.
used to form a peaked roof.
wythe. A continuous vertical section of masonry,
truss. An engineered structural element that one unit in thickness. A single wythe can
uses groups of rigid triangles to distribute and be separate from or interconnected with an
transfer loads. The triangles create an open web adjoining wall. In a multiple-wythe wall, the
space. Trusses are used in lieu of solid beams in wythes are interconnected for additional strength
many buildings. and stability, and are often used for a structural
load-bearing wall.
truss loft. An attic space created by the open web
nature of trusses.

407
ACRONYMS
AC alternating current

ACC autoclaved aerated concrete

AFM advanced framing methods

ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

Btu British thermal unit

CFRP carbon-fiber reinforced polymer

CLT cross laminated timber

CMU concrete masonry unit (cinder block)

COM commercial

DC direct current

EPS expanded polystyrene

ELB engineered lightweight building

EWIB engineered wooden I-beam

EWP engineered wood products

FiRP fiber reinforced plastic (usually pronounced furp)

FJL finger-jointed lumber

FPS feet per second

FRR fire resistance rating

FSR fire spread rating

GLT glue laminated timber

glulam glue laminated

409
The Art of Reading Buildings

HP horsepower PPV positive pressure ventilation

HUD Housing and Urban Development (govern- PSL parallel strand lumber
ment agency)
PUB public assembly building
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
PV photovoltaic (solar electrical panel)
IAP incident action plan
PVB polyvinyl butyral
IBC International Building Code
PVC polyvinyl chloride
IC incident commander
RBS radiant barrier sheathing
ICF insulated concrete forms
RF radio frequency (as in electrical waves)
INST institutional buildings
SBB straw bale building
ISO incident safety officer
SCBA self-contained breathing apparatus
LODD line-of-duty death
SFD single-family dwelling
LSL laminated strand lumber
SIP structural insulated panel
LVL laminated veneer lumber
SOG standard operating guideline
LW lightweight
SOP standard operating procedure
MANF manufacturing/warehouse building
T&G tongue and groove
MFD multifamily dwelling
TIC thermal imaging camera
MGP metal gusset plate
UL Underwriters Laboratory
MISC miscellaneous building
UPS uninterrupted power supply
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
URM unreinforced masonry
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health USFA United States Fire Administration

NIST National Institute of Standards and UTL utility

Technology UV ultraviolet
NRHP National Registry of Historical Places WMD weapon of mass destruction
OFF office and hotel buildings WWI World War I
OSB oriented strand board WWII World War II
OVE optimal value engineering XPS extruded polystyrene
OWC open web construction

OWS open web steel

PB particle board

PPE personal protective equipment

410
INDEX
A straw bale buildings as, 126127
straw clay buildings as, 120, 127128
structural insulated panels as, 124126
abandoned buildings, 265266
alternative energy systems
AC/DC currents, 219
fuel cell, 226
adhesives and glues
solar, 224226
hydrated, 176
aluminum
melting temperature of, 168, 177
aspects of, 22
softening and failure of, 64, 80, 81,
corrugated roofing of, 190191
120, 122
sidings of, 156
toxicity and flammability of, 17, 18,
American Four Square homes, 299300
20
American Institute of Timber Construction,
trusses connected with, 177
6768
adjoining walls, 152, 153, 154
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
advanced framing methods (AFM), 130,
(ARRA), 129
132133, 155
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
advertising signs, 199, 248
(ADA), 97
aerial devices
anchor bars, 39, 92, 159
cornice dangers involving, 65,
annealed glass, 205
228229
antennas, 246
facades needing, 233
arched roofs
lamella roofs needing, 182
bowstring, 3638, 182, 183, 184185
for ventilation, 171, 182
lamella, 182
aging, and collapse, 9192, 98
tied, 182183
air shafts, 197, 240241
arched trusses, 3638, 182184
air-blast resistant windows, 206
arena buildings, 381382
alterations. See also remodels; renovations
asbestos
clues to, 260
hazmat aspects of, 155
collapse and, 74, 91, 97
shingle sidings, 155, 235
division walls and, 64, 195
asphalt-felt sidings, 156
timber trusses with, 188
assembly buildings. See public assembly
Type III buildings with, 64
buildings
Type IV buildings with, 68
assembly-built construction, 40, 99, 118
Type V buildings with, 70
atriums, 242
void space due to, 64, 68, 238
attended care facility buildings, 377378
alternative building construction methods
attics
aspects of, 8788, 119120, 129
aspects of, 166
firefighting safety and, 23
balloon framed vulnerability of,
flashover caused by, 130, 131, 272
7374, 154
insulated concrete forms as, 122124
common (shared), 64, 107, 238, 272
lightweight steel as, 120122
division walls in, 153
Saebi alternative building systems as,
facade hazards and, 231232, 272
135
fire in, 190, 267

411
The Art of Reading Buildings

rain roofs as, 191 building materials. See also evolving building methods/
renovations in, 235236, 238, 273 materials
skylight issues regarding, 198, 241242 aspects of, 1415
truss lofts as, 167 building triage. See triaging building fires
in Type III buildings, 6364 buildings. See also size-up
vents on, 197, 198, 233, 267 classifying of, 4951, 88, 101103, 259
auditorium buildings, 383384 eras of, 8899
autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), 133 NFPA types of, 5282
axial loads, 13, 3132, 36, 37 size considerations of, 103106
uses of (occupancy types), 99102
bulkhead doors, 198, 215
B bungalow construction, 74, 93, 168
burns, radio frequency, 247
ballistic-resistant glass, 206, 209 business buildings, 101
balloon frames buttresses
collapse in, 7475 roofs supported by, 162, 182, 183, 184
fire spread in, 74, 154155 walls with, 32, 36, 162
identification of, 74, 154
stud spacing and length in, 73, 154
Type V buildings with, 7375, 154155
bar trusses (joists), 3536
C
base of operations, 140, 141, 142, 272 cantilever beams, 34
base station antennas, 246 Cape Cod homes, 297298
basements carbon-fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP), 25
common (shared), 108, 146 cast iron
considerations of, 145146 brittle nature of, 15, 2122, 27n1
egress from, 145 columns, collapse of, 27n1, 91
escape windows in, 145 as wrought iron, 3738
historical perspectives of, 144 Castro, Joe, 276277
sub-basements and, 145 C-channel steel studs, 21, 120, 121
types of, 143 ceilings
beams. See also I-beams and I-joists; post and beam concrete, 151
construction defined, 140, 149
aspects and types of, 3334 directly fastened, 149151
fire cut, 3839, 91, 92, 158, 159 drywall, 150151
big-box commercial buildings, 106, 343344 lath and plaster, 149150
block/masonry buildings, 345346 metal wire mesh and plaster, 150
boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE), 221 pulling of, 235, 266
bond beam caps, 158, 160 suspended, 55, 151152, 236
bowstring trusses, 3638, 182, 183, 184185 tin and decorative wood, 150
Brannigan, Francis, 1, 27n1, 270 cellars. See basements
brick. See also unreinforced brick walls cellular antennas and communication equipment
clay foundations, 140 antennas of, 246
king row, 158, 160 base stations of, 246
noggin, 153 coaxial cables of, 247
reinforced walls of, 160161 equipment huts/rooms of, 246247
brick and joist construction. See Type III (221 or 200) ordinary hazards of, 223, 247
construction radio frequency waves, thermal effect and, 247
bridge truss roof, 180181, 189 cement. See also concrete; masonry
British thermal units (BTUs), 12 fiber siding, 156
brittle materials, 1415 Portland, 23, 91, 157, 158, 160, 161
cast iron as, 15, 2122, 27n1 center core floor plans, 55
concrete as, 23 center hallway floor plans, 55
masonry as, 24 center hallway structure homes, 319320
brownstone homes, 311312 Chicago construction. See balloon frame
Brunacini, Alan, 258 chimneys/fireplaces, 196197
bucks, window and door, 126, 211 chords
building block systems, 133 in I-beams or joists, 175176
building code occupancy uses, 101102 in trusses, 3536, 186187

412
 Index

church buildings, 387388 communication/data systems. See cellular antennas and

cinder block. See masonry communication equipment
circuit hallway floor plans, 55 component connections, 166, 187
classifying buildings, 4951, 88, 101103, 259 composite sheathings, 41
clay brick foundations, 140 composite wood. See engineered wood products
clay tile roof coverings, 193 composites, 2526, 41
coaxial cables, 247 composition shingle roof coverings, 193
cocklofts, 6364, 108, 166 compression forces, 13
Coleman, John, 271 concealed spaces. See void spaces
collapse concentrated loads, 12
aging and, 9192, 98 concrete. See also insulated concrete form; tilt-up concrete
alterations and, 74, 91, 97 slab construction
in balloon frame buildings, 7475 autoclaved aerated, 133
cast iron columns and, 27n1, 91 ceilings, 151
communicating potential, 279 formed walls, 162
construction classification predicting, 278 in foundations, 141
of engineered wood platform (lightweight) construction, heat retention of, 54
82, 9899, 148 infill masonry walls, 157
of exterior elements, 91 nonstructural lightweight flat roofs, 180
gravity connections and, 91 overhaul operations of, 24, 54
of insulated concrete form buildings, 124 spalling of, 24, 54, 56, 57
in lightweight steel buildings, 121122 tile roof coverings, 194
of masonry, modern or unreinforced, 59 tilt-up buildings, 349350
mortar, water-soluble and, 91, 158 types of, 2324
occupancy shifts, alterations and, 97 concrete masonry units (CMU), 24
open spans and, 97 condo homes, 327328
overloading and, 9798 connections
of post and beam construction, 73 metal hangar joist, 147
in post-WWII buildings, 9798 tilt-up slab, 162163
predicting, 270, 277279 trusses with glued, 177
of pre-WWI buildings, 9192 types of, 3839
in pre-WWII era buildings, 94 contents of buildings
safe areas in, 160 overhaul operations affected by, 60
in stacked log buildings, 72 as primary hazard in Type II buildings, 5960
in straw bale buildings, 127 synthetics, fire load, spread and, 82, 96
in straw clay buildings, 120, 127128 continuous beams, 34
of structural insulated panel buildings, 126 conventional construction, 79, 166, 167
structural involvement predicting, 278 conventional platform construction
of tilt-up concrete slab construction, 59, 61 exterior walls of, 154155
time elapsed in predicting, 278279 Type V buildings, 7677
of Type II building walls, 59 converted mill buildings, 353354
in Type IV, areas of, 69 cool roofs, 131
visualizing loads in predicting, 278 cornices
Collapse of Burning Buildings: A Guide to Fireground Safety newer synthetic, 65, 228229
(Dunn), 277 older stone or wood, 227228
Colonial homes, 295296 on Type III buildings, 65
columns corrugated
cast iron, 2122, 27n1, 91 roofs, 190191
cross-laminated timber as, 19 sidings, 156
glued laminated timber as, 20 counterforts. See buttresses
H-column, 21, 31, 121 Craftsman homes, 299300
heavy timbers as, 67 craftsman-built trusses, 79
monolithic buildings, use of, 24 crawl space vents, 142, 143, 145146
in post and beam construction, 72 crickets, 197
rakers as, 32 cross-laminated timbers (CLT), 1920, 134
steel, 21, 5354 curtain walls
struts as, 32 about, 41
types of, 3132 in Type I construction, 55, 56, 60
commercial buildings, 106108, 260261, 331336, 341344

413
The Art of Reading Buildings

D knob and tube wiring, 218, 237

main shutoff of, 217218
outlets/switches/junction boxes, 218219
day care buildings, 101
power distribution circuit protection of, 218
daylight basements, 143
renovations to, 237
dead loads
shock hazards of, 219
defined, 12, 166
supply feed of, 217
of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, 222
transformers of, 218
live green roofs as, 127, 131
electrochromic smart glass, 131132
roofs as, 166
electrocution, 219
solar panels as, 120
elevator houses, 198
decking. See sheathings
energy-efficient glass, 206
decontamination. See hazmat decontamination triggers
engineered lightweight building (ELB) era, 9899, 148
decorative sheathings, 1718
engineered wood platform (lightweight) construction
deep-pocket fire, 127
aspects of, 7981
detention (jail) facility buildings, 375376
collapse of, 82, 9899, 148
diagonal sheathings, 166
drywall issues in, 81, 82
dimensional lumber, 16
exterior walls of, 154155
distributed loads, 12
fire spread in, 8182
division walls, 64, 152, 153, 195
I-joist flooring in, 147, 148
doors
trusses in, 80, 8182, 98
assembly parts of, 214
Type V (111 or 000) wood frame construction with,
bucks in, 126, 211
7982
bulkhead, 198, 215
engineered wood products (EWP)
construction materials of, 214215
cross-laminated timber, 1920, 134
glass, 215
defined, 18, 166
impact-resistant glass in, 209213
fiber-reinforced products, 134
inward swing or outward swing, 215216
finger-jointed lumber, 20
locks on, 214, 216
glued laminated timber, 20
metal, 214215
laminated strand lumber, 19
overhead, 214215
laminated veneer lumber, 19
penthouse, 198
oriented strand board, 18
security bars on, 215
engineered wood systems, 133134
in Type IV buildings, 6869
engineered wooden I-beam (EWIB). See I-beams and I-joists
wooden, 214
equipment huts/rooms, 246247
double-pane glass, 96, 206
era considerations
double-stud wall construction, 130, 152, 154
attended care facilities, 377
drug labs, 248
auditorium/theater buildings, 383
drywall
big-box buildings, 343
ceilings, 150151
block/masonry buildings, 345
in engineered lightweight construction, 81, 82
brownstone homes, 311
as firewall, 153
center hallway structure homes, 319
in lightweight steel buildings, 121, 122
church buildings, 387
ductile materials, 1415
Colonial and Georgian homes, 295
aluminum as, 22
concrete tilt-up buildings, 349
concrete with steel as, 23
converted mill buildings, 353
plastics as, 25
Craftsman and American Four Square homes, 299
steel as, 21
detention (jail) facilities, 375
ducting, 199
fast food buildings, 339
Dunn, Vincent, 277
garden apartment homes, 321
high rise-1st generation buildings, 365

E high rise-2nd generation buildings, 367

high rise-3rd generation buildings, 369
eccentric loads, 13 historical buildings-commercial, 397
eco-friendly construction. See green construction historical buildings-dwelling, 395
educational buildings, 101 hospital buildings, 373
electrical utilities industrial/legacy strip style buildings, 335
distribution wires of, 218 kit buildings, 391
ground gradients, 219220 legacy townhome/condo/apartment homes, 327

414
 Index

lightweight townhome/condo/apartment homes, 329 supports for, 232

manufactured (mobile) homes, 309 Type III buildings with, 66
McMansion homes, 307 factory buildings, 101
meeting hall buildings, 385 false floors, 55
mega-box buildings, 341 fan shafts, 198, 199
modern lightweight homes, 305 fast food buildings, 339340
modern strip-style stores, 337 feet per second (FPS), 210
pole barns, 389 fiber cement sidings, 156
post-WWII low rise buildings, 361 fiberglass
prairie style homes, 301 corrugated roofing, 190191
pre-WWI ordinary commercial buildings, 331 sidings, 156
pre-WWII low rise buildings, 359 skylights, 241
pre-WWII ordinary (taxpayer) buildings, 333 fiber-reinforced product (FiRP), 134
project housing-high density homes, 325 field stone foundations, 140
project housing-low density homes, 323 finger-jointed lumbers (FJL), 20
public storage-multistory buildings, 357 fire, deep-pocket, 127
public storage-single story buildings, 355 fire blocking in walls, 76, 154
railroad flat homes, 317 fire cut beams, 3839, 91, 92, 158, 159
restaurant buildings, 379 fire division walls, 152, 153, 195
row frame homes, 315 Fire Engineering, 7
school buildings, 371 fire escapes
silo buildings, 393 age of, 244
split level homes, 303 aspects of, 243
stadium/arena buildings, 381 ladders of, 244
steel manufacturing/warehouse buildings, 347 location of, 244245
tenement homes, 313 party (balcony) type, 243244
21st century buildings, 363 screened stairway type, 244
Victorian/Queen Anne and Cape Cod homes, 297 special concerns regarding, 245
wooden manufacturing/warehouse buildings, 351 standard type, 244
eras of construction wooden, 243
engineered lightweight building, 9899, 148 fire loads
post-WWII (after 1949): the legacy era, 9498 as heat energy released, 12
pre-WWI (pre-1914): the historic era, 8992 occupancy groupings and, 60, 102
pre-WWII (pre-1939): the industrial era, 9394 synthetic contents and, 82, 96
era/use/type/size classification methods, 88, 259, 262 in Type IV buildings, 69
escape windows, 145 fire resistance rating (FRR), 52
evolving building methods/materials. See also green fire resistive construction. See Type I (442 or 332) fire resistive
construction construction
advanced framing methods, 130, 132133 fire spread
building block systems, 133 in balloon frame buildings, 74, 154155
engineered wood systems, 133134 contents, modern and, 96
modular panel systems, 133 in engineered wood platform (lightweight) construction,
expanded polystyrene forms (EPS), 122124, 125126, 133 8182
exterior tie plates, 39, 92, 159, 233 in facade interiors, 233234
extruded polystyrene (XPS), 124, 130 factors dictating, 269
glass and, 96
in hallways, central, 94
F in insulated concrete form buildings, 124
in lightweight steel buildings, 121122
facades in post-WWII buildings, 9697
aerial devices for, 233 in pre-WWI buildings, 9091
aspects of, 230231 in pre-WWII buildings, 9394
attachment concerns of, 231232 rate of change in, 268
attic considerations of, 231232, 272 rule of six sides in, 269
fire spread investigation in, 233234 in stacked kitchens and baths, 64, 317, 318
height and shape concerns of, 232 in stacked log buildings, 72
overhangs on, 231 in stairwells, open, 94
roofline concealment of, 233 in straw bale buildings, 127
size-up of, 272 in straw clay buildings, 127128

415
The Art of Reading Buildings

in structural insulated panel buildings, 125126 pre-incident planning as, 258

technology updates causing, 96 fuel cell energy systems, 226
in utility chases, 94 full dimension lumber, 16
in void spaces, 94
fire spread rating (FSR), 52
fireground clock, 3, 267268
fireground operations, 3
G
fireplaces/chimneys, 196197 gable roofs, 159, 167169, 186
fires previous, in buildings, 6566 gambrel roofs, 167, 170171
first-due decision maker garden apartment homes, 321322
180 and 360 size-ups by, 258259, 285n1 gas utility systems
burning materials briefing by, 266 boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion, 221
indexing system, use by, 290 liquefied natural gas, 220221
occupancy use briefing by, 101 liquefied petroleum gas (propane), 220221
response area knowledge by, 6 Georgian homes, 295296
triage by, 275 girders, 34, 42, 58, 67
flame spread rating (FSR), 52 girts, 72
flashover glass
alternative building methods causing, 130, 131, 272 annealed (plate), 205
compressed time to, 1 ballistic-resistant, 206, 209
glass, double-pane and tempered causing, 96, 206 doors, 215
injuries and death due to, 3 double-pane, 96, 206
particle board and, 17 electrochromic smart, 131132
flat panel walls, 123, 124 energy-efficient, 206
flat roofs. See roofs, flat fire spread and, 96
floodlighting size-ups, 262 hurricane-resistant, 206
floors impact-resistant, 209213
coverings of, 147, 148 laminated safety, 205
defined, 140, 146 panel skylights, 241
joists of, 146, 147, 148 tempered, 96, 205
multiple, in buildings, 147148 windows, types of, 204206
on sloping ground, 147148 wired, 205
subflooring of, 4041, 146, 147 glazing. See glass
supports of, 146 glued laminated heavy timber, 1617
foam homes, 135 glued-laminated timber (GLT), 20
footers, 30, 31 glues. See adhesives and glues
forces resisting loads, 13 glulam (glued laminated heavy timber), 1617
forcible entry granite foundations, 140141
in impact-resistant glass, 212213 gravity connections
of Saebi alternative building systems homes, 135 aspects of, 3839
security bars and, 207 collapse of, 91
in size-up, 270, 272 fire cut beams in, 3839, 91, 92, 158, 159
tempered glass and, 205 green construction
Type I buildings, types of, 5657 aspects of, 129130
foundations types of, 130132
basement/cellar types, 143146 green insulation, 131
era of, 140141 grid block walls, 123, 124
as relevant size-up, 143 ground fault interruption (GFI), 218219
types of, 3031, 141146 ground gradients, 219220
walls, 3031 grouping buildings
framed (stick-built) construction, 42 in initial size-up, 259260
framing as institutional, 261
junctions, 166 as Main Street commercial, 260261
steel, 21, 5354, 5859 as manufacturing/warehouse, 261
stick-built as, 42 as miscellaneous, 261
freshwater systems, 223 as multifamily dwellings, 260
front-loading size-up. See also size-up as office/hotel, 261
era/use/type/size method for, 259, 262 as public assembly, 261
predicting collapse through, 278 as single-family dwellings, 260

416
 Index

subsets of, 292293 split level home, 304

zoning as, 260 stadium/arena building, 382
gypsum board. See drywall steel manufacturing/warehouse building, 348
tenement home, 314
21st century building, 364
H Victorian/Queen Anne and Cape Cod home, 298
wooden manufacturing/warehouse building, 352
hallways, 55, 94, 319320 hazmat decontamination triggers
hangers, metal, 55, 147, 175, 178 abandoned buildings as potential, 265
hazards. See also overhead hazards asbestos shingle siding, 155, 235
attended care facility, 378 barn storage as potential, 390
auditorium/theater, 384 drug labs as, 248
big-box building, 344 ice arena cooling equipment as, 382
block/masonry building, 346 manufacturing warehouses as, 348
brownstone home, 312 PCB transformers, 218
buildings with chemical/material, 101 public storage units as potential, 355
cellular antenna, 223, 247 H-columns, 21, 31, 121
center hallway structure home, 320 headers, 34, 158, 160
church building, 388 heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC)
Colonial and Georgian home, 296 appliances and systems of, 221222
concrete tilt-up building, 350 dead load hazards of, 222
converted mill building, 354 plenum spaces with, 151152
Craftsman and American Four Square home, 230 Type I buildings with, 5455
detention (jail) facility, 376 heat-strengthened glass, 205
electrocution, 219 heavy timber/mill construction. See Type IV (2HH) heavy
fast food building, 340 timber/mill construction
garden apartment, 322 hierarchy, structural, 42, 258
high rise-1st generation building, 366 high rise-1st generation buildings, 365366
high rise-2nd generation building, 368 high rise-2nd generation buildings, 367368
high rise-3rd generation building, 370 high rise-3rd generation buildings, 369370
historical buildings-commercial, 398 high-rise buildings, 106
historical buildings-dwelling, 396 hip roofs, 167, 170
hospital building, 374 the historic era. See pre-WWI (pre-1914): the historic era
industrial/legacy strip style building, 336 historical buildings-commercial, 397398
kit building, 392 historical buildings-dwelling, 395396
legacy townhome/condo/apartment, 328 Hoevelmann, Jason, 2
lightweight townhome/condo/apartment, 330 horizontal ventilation, 57
manufactured (mobile) home, 310 hospital buildings, 373374
McMansion home, 308 hot mop roof coverings, 193
meeting hall building, 386 Housing and Urban Development (HUD) windows, 207
mega-box building, 342 hurricane-resistant glass, 206
modern lightweight home, 306 hybrid buildings
modern strip-style store, 338 alternative construction methods of, 8788
pole barn, 390 combining NFPA 220 building types, 8587
post-WWII low rise building, 362 size-up challenges of, 263
prairie style home, 302 hybrid panelized roof system, 178179
pre-WWI ordinary commercial building, 332
pre-WWII low rise building, 360
pre-WWII ordinary (taxpayer) building, 334
project housing-high density home, 326
I
project housing-low density home, 324 I-beams and I-joists
public storage-multistory building, 358 chords in, 175176
public storage-single story building, 356 as engineered wood, 57
railroad flat home, 318 flat roofs with, 175176
remodel, 238239 floor failure of, 147, 148
restaurant building, 380 oriented strand board in, 1819
row frame home, 316 poke-throughs in, 82
school building, 372 steel, 21, 121, 176
silo building, 394 types of, 34

417
The Art of Reading Buildings

impact loads, 12 knee walls, 64, 80, 94, 235

impact-resistant doors and windows knob and tube wiring (K&T), 218, 237
aspects and testing of, 209212 kraft paper, 178179
firefighter considerations regarding, 212
tactical tips regarding, 212213
impact-resistant windows, ventilation issues of, 212
incident action plan (IAP), 279
L
incident commander (IC), 78, 29, 190, 209, 242, 275 lamella roofs, 182
Incident Management for the Street-Smart Fire Officer laminated safety glass, 205
(Coleman), 271 laminated strand lumber (LSL), 19
incident safety officer (ISO), 275 laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 19
industrial commercial buildings, 335336 ledgers or ribbon boards, 34, 72, 73, 154
the industrial era. See pre-WWII (pre-1939): the industrial era legacy apartment homes, 327328
institutional buildings, 101 legacy condo homes, 327328
attended care facility, 377378 the legacy era. See post-WWII (after 1945): the legacy era
detention (jail) facility, 375376 legacy platform construction
hospital, 373374 exterior walls of, 154155
school, 371372 Type V buildings, 7779
size-up of, 261 legacy strip style commercial buildings, 335336
insulated concrete form (ICF) legacy townhomes, 327328
as alternative building method, 122124 lightweight apartment homes, 329330
collapse of, 124 lightweight concrete roofs, 180
fire spread in, 124 lightweight condo homes, 329330
pyrolysis in, 124 lightweight construction, 166
wall types of, 123124 lightweight steel buildings
insulation C-channel studs in, 120, 121
double-stud walls and, 130 collapse of, 121122
flashover due to, 3, 4, 120 drywall issues in, 121, 122
green, 131 fire spread issues of, 121122
insulated concrete form walls as, 122124 post and beam construction in, 95, 120
pressure-equalized rain screen insulated structure lightweight steel sidings, 156
technique as, 130 lightweight townhomes, 329330
International Building Code (IBC), 86, 101102 lightweight trusses, 166, 268
interstitial areas. See also void spaces lightweight wood platform buildings. See engineered wood
false floors, 55 platform (lightweight) construction
suspended ceilings, 55, 151 lightwells, 197, 240241
in Type I buildings, 55 limited combustible materials, 52
inverted roofs, 191192 line-of-duty death (LODD), 1, 81
iron. See cast iron lintels, 34, 158, 160
liquefied natural gas (LNG), 220221
liquefied petroleum gas (propane) (LPG), 220221
J live green roofs, 127, 131
live loads, 12, 129, 166
jack rafter, 166, 185 load-bearing wall. See wall columns
jails, 375376 loads
jambs, door, 214 forces resisting of, 13
Joes Building Fire Triage Program, 276277 imposition of, 1213
joists. See also I-beams and I-joists as predicting collapse, 278
bar, 3536 types of, 1213
defined, 34 locks, door, 214, 216
flooring, 146, 147, 148 log buildings. See stacked log buildings
as I-joists and floor failure, 147, 148 look-out basements, 143
metal hanger connections, 147 lumber
junction boxes, electrical, 218219 cut, sawn or native wood, 1516
nominal and full dimensional, 16, 78
K old-growth and new-growth, 1516
rough-sawn, 77
king row, brick, 158, 160
kit buildings, 391392

418
 Index

M roofing, 194
sheathings, 41
straps on roofs, 159
Main Street commercial buildings
temperature for failure of, 21, 179
big-box, 106, 343344
types of, 2122
fast food, 339340
metal gusset plates (MGP), 177, 178
industrial/legacy strip style, 335336
mill buildings. See Type IV (2HH) heavy timber/mill
mega-box, 106, 341342
construction
modern strip-style store, 337338
mill (converted) buildings, 353354
pre-WWI ordinary, 331332
mini-malls. See Type III (221 or 200) ordinary construction
pre-WWII ordinary (taxpayer), 333334
miscellaneous buildings/structures
size-up of, 260261
historical buildings-commercial, 397398
man-made wood. See engineered wood products
historical buildings-dwelling, 395396
mansard roof, 171, 181
kit buildings, 391392
manufactured board. See engineered wood products
occupancy grouping of, 101102
manufactured (mobile) homes, 309310
pole barns, 389390
manufacturing/warehouse buildings
silos, 393394
block/masonry, 345346
size-up of, 261
concrete tilt-up, 349350
mobile homes. See manufactured (mobile) homes
converted mill, 353354
modern lightweight homes, 305306
public storage-multistory, 357358
modern strip-style store buildings, 337338
public storage-single story, 355356
modular panel systems, 133
size-up of, 261
monitor roofs, 167, 171172, 195
steel, 347348
monolithic construction, 2324, 42
wood, 351352
mortar, 2425
masonry
Portland cement as, 23, 91, 157, 158, 160, 161
aspects of, 2425
water-soluble, collapse of, 91, 158
cinder block, 24
mortise and tenons, 72, 73
concrete infill, 157
multifamily dwellings (MFD)
fireplace, 196197
brownstone homes, 311312
parapet walls of modern, 230
center hallway structure homes, 319320
Portland cement in, 23, 91, 157, 158, 160, 161
garden apartment homes, 321322
rebar in, 157
legacy townhome/condo/apartment homes, 327328
reinforced construction, 157
lightweight townhome/condo/apartment homes, 329330
unreinforced, 59, 157
project housing-high density homes, 325326
veneers, 24, 41, 156, 157158, 161
project housing-low density homes, 323324
wall collapse of, 59
railroad flat homes, 317318
wythe walls of, 157
row frame homes, 315316
masonry/block buildings, 345346
size-up of, 260
materials
tenement homes, 313314
aluminum and titanium, 2223
multiple-wythe walls, 161
aspects of, 1415
cast iron, 15, 2122, 27n1
composites, 2526, 41
concrete, 2324 N
engineered wood, 1820
National Fire Protection Association 220 (NFPA)
masonry, 2425
building classifications, 4951, 101103
noncombustible, 52
definitions of, 51
protected, 52
numerical designations of, 5253
steel, 21
Type I (442 or 332) fire resistive construction, 5357, 103
unprotected, 52, 5859
Type II (222, 111 or 000) noncombustible construction,
wood, 1518
5861, 103
McMansion homes, 307308
Type III (221 or 200) ordinary construction, 6266, 103
meeting hall buildings, 385386
Type IV (2HH) heavy timber/mill construction, 6770,
mega-box commercial buildings, 106, 341342
103
mercantile buildings, 101
Type V (111 or 000) wood frame construction, 7082,
metal
103
deck fire in, 179
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
doors, 214215
(NIOSH), 285n1
hangers, 55, 147, 175, 178

419
The Art of Reading Buildings

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 2, 271

National Registry of Historic Places, 91 P
native woods, 1516
pack rat conditions, 248249
NFPA 220: Standard on Types of Building Construction, 50,
panel walls, 41
5152, 71
panelized flat roofs, 178179
NFPA 5000: Building Construction and Safety Code, 86,
parallel chord trusses, 3536, 186187
101102
parallel strand lumber (PSL), 19
nominal dimension lumber, 16, 78
parapet walls
noncombustible construction. See Type II (222, 111, or 000)
bond beam on, 158, 160
noncombustible construction
of concrete tilt-up slabs, 64, 229
noncombustible materials, 52
gable roofs hidden by, 159
nonstructural lightweight concrete flat roofs, 180
masonry, modern construction of, 230
numerical designations, NFPA 220, 5253
Type III buildings with, 6465
of unreinforced brick or masonry, 158, 229

O particle boards (PB), 17

partition walls, 41, 152, 153
party walls, 41, 153154
occupancy. See also uses of buildings (occupancy types)
penthouse doors, 198
division walls, 153
performance-designed construction. See also assembly-built
separation, 8687
construction
size-up of, 265
firefighting time not addressed in, 118
occupied buildings, 264
prescriptive building compared to, 117118
office/hotel buildings
perimeter (deep) foundations, 141143
high rise-1st generation, 365366
personal protective equipment (PPE), 248, 267
high rise-2nd generation, 367368
photovoltaic panels (PV), 225226
high rise-3rd generation, 369370
pilasters, 32, 36, 37, 163. See also buttresses
post-WWII low rise, 361362
pilings, 31
pre-WWII low rise, 359360
pillars, 31
size-up of, 261
pinned connections, 3839
21st century, 363364
pipe chases, 64, 198
offset walls or studs. See double-stud wall construction
placarding abandoned buildings, 265266
old-growth and new-growth lumber, 1516
plaster sidings, 156
open span collapse, 97
plasterboard. See drywall
open web
plastic skylights, 241
bar joist roofs, 179180
plastics, 25
flat roofs constructed with, 176
platform construction. See conventional platform construction;
steel joists, 176
legacy platform construction
trusses, 3435
plenum space, 151, 152
open web construction (OWC), 176
plywoods, 17
open web steel (OWS), 176
T-11 sidings, 156
openings. See void spaces
poke-throughs, 56, 79, 82
optimum value engineering (OVE), 130
pole barn construction. See post and beam construction
ordinary construction. See Type III (221 or 200) ordinary
pole barns, 389390
construction
polyvinyl butyral (PVB), 210
oriented strand boards (OSB), 1819, 40, 120121, 124126
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 156, 195
outlets, 218219
Portland cement, 23, 91, 157, 158, 160, 161. See also mortar
overhaul operations
post and beam construction
concrete heat retention and, 24, 54
aspects of, 42, 72
contents impacting, 60
collapse in, 73
strawbale, straw clay houses and, 120, 127, 128
exterior walls, 72, 73, 123124
overhead doors, 214215
fire spread in, 73
overhead hazards
insulated concrete form walls using, 123, 124
cornices, 65, 227229
lightweight steel buildings with, 95, 120
facades, 230234
mortise and tenons in, 72, 73
parapet walls, 229230
pole barn construction as, 72
overloaded building collapse, 9798
Type V buildings, 7273
post-WWII low rise buildings, 361362
post-WWII (after 1945): the legacy era

420
 Index

aspects of, 9495 defined, 34

collapse issues in, 9798 jack, 166
fire spread issues in, 9697 tails of, 71, 74, 154, 169, 170, 263
foundations in, 141 tie plates on, 39, 92, 159, 233
legacy platform construction, 7779 railroad flat homes, 317318
trusses in, 97 rain roofs, 191
Type I legacy buildings, 95 raised roofs, 191192
Type II legacy buildings, 95 rakers, 32, 163
Type III legacy buildings, 9596 Rapid Street-Read Guide
Type IV legacy buildings, 96 52 buildings of, 289290
power distribution circuit protection, 218 design of, 290
prairie style homes, 301302 index to, 292293
pre- and post-tensioned concrete, 23 using of, 290291
precast concrete, 23 razor wire, 245246
pre-incident study, 50, 258, 269 reading a building. See size-up
prescriptive building, 117118 rebar, 23, 157, 158
pressure-equalized rain screen insulated structure technique reinforced brick walls, 160161
(PERSIST), 130 reinforced concrete, 23
pre-WWI ordinary commercial buildings, 331332 reinforced masonry construction, 157
pre-WWI (pre-1914): the historic era relevant size-up. See size-up
aspects of, 8990 remodels. See also renovations
collapse issues of, 9192 benefits of, 238239
fire spread issues of, 9091 hazards of, 238239
foundations in, 140141 renovations
transoms in, 91 attic rooms with, 235236, 238, 273
pre-WWII low rise buildings, 359360 commercial, 238
pre-WWII ordinary (taxpayer) buildings, 333334 covered windows as, 236
pre-WWII (pre-1939): the industrial era to electrical utilities, 237
collapse in, 94 residential, 237238
fire spread in, 9394 to roofs, 235
foundations in, 141 to siding, 235
project housing-high density homes, 325326 soffits in, 236
project housing-low density homes, 323325 suspended ceilings in, 236
protected materials, 52 tie plates and rods in, 236237
public assembly buildings void spaces created by, 64, 68, 238
auditorium/theater, 383384 to windows, 234235, 236
church, 387388 repeated loads, 12
defined, 101 residential buildings, 101, 106107
meeting hall, 385386 restaurant buildings, 379380
restaurant, 379380 RF burns, 247
size-up of, 261 rib arch trusses, 183184
stadium/arena, 381382 ribbon boards or ledgers, 34, 72, 73, 154
public storage-multistory buildings, 357358 ridge beam, 34
public storage-single story buildings, 355356 rigid (rib) arch trusses, 3637, 183184
pulling ceilings, 235, 266 rigid connections, 3839
purlins, 34 roofs. See also roofs, flat; roofs, styles of; roofs, unique
pyrolysis, 124 construction
advertising signs on, 199, 248
air shafts/lightwells on, 197
Q appendages of, 195199
attic vents on, 197, 198, 233, 267
Queen Anne homes, 297298 buttresses supporting, 162, 182, 183, 184
chimneys/fireplaces, 196197
cool, 131
R coverings of, types, 193195
cricket junction in, 197
radiant barrier sheathing (RBS), 130131 dead loads of, 166
radio frequency waves (RF), 247 definitions of, 140, 166167
rafters ducting on, 199

421
The Art of Reading Buildings

elevator houses on, 198 scuttle, 198

fan shafts on, 198, 199 sealed buildings, 57
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems on, search considerations, 271
221222 Searching Smarter, (Coleman), 271
live green, 127, 131 Sears Catalog mail order homes, 93
metal, 194 security bars
metal straps on, 159 on doors, 215
penthouse doors, 198 on windows, 206207
reading of, 165166 self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 155, 248, 271
renovations to, 235 sewer systems, 223
scuttle, 198 shafts, 56, 6869, 197, 198, 199, 240241
sheathings of, 166 shear forces, 13
skylights, 197198 shear walls, 41
slope/pitch of, 166 sheathings
terms, important to, 166167 composites as, 41
vent pipes on, 198 decorative, 1718
ventilators on, 198, 199 diagonal, 166
roofs, flat metal as, 41
conventional, 174175 radiant barrier, 130131
general, 167, 173174 of roofs, 166
with metal gusset plates or glue, 177, 178 straight, 166
nonstructural lightweight concrete, 180 as structural assemblies, 4041
with open web bar joist, 179180 types of, 1718
with open web construction, 176 wood as, 4041
panelized, 178179 shed roofs, 174
shed, 174 shingles
with wooden I-joists, 175176 asbestos, 155, 235
roofs, styles of composition, 193
arched, 182186 wood or shiplap sidings, 155156
bridge truss, 180181, 189 shock hazards, 219
gable, 159, 167169, 186 sidings, wood frame
gambrel, 167, 170171 asbestos shingle, 155, 235
hip, 167, 170 asphalt-felt, 156
mansard, 171, 181 corrugated (fiberglass, aluminum, lightweight steel), 156
monitor, 167, 171172, 195 fiber cement, 156
sawtooth, 167, 172173 masonry veneer on, 156
roofs, unique construction plaster or stucco, 156
corrugated, 190191 plywood (T-11), 156
gable truss (older), 186 renovations to, 235
inverted (raised), 191192 vinyl, 156
parallel chord truss (older), 186 wood shiplap or shingles, 155156
rain, 191 signs, advertising, 199, 248
single-ply, 194195 silos, 393394
timber trusses (older), 186190 simple beam, 34
rough-sawn lumber, 77 single-family dwellings (SFD)
row frame homes, 315316 Colonial and Georgian homes, 295296
rule of six sides, 269 Craftsman and American Four Square homes, 299300
manufactured (mobile) homes, 309310
McMansion homes, 307308
S modern lightweight homes, 305306
prairie style homes, 301302
Saebi alternative building systems (SABS), 135 size-up of, 260
safe areas, in collapse, 160 split level homes, 303304
safety glass, 205 Victorian/Queen Anne and Cape Cod, 297298
sash, 204 single-ply roofs, 194195
sawn lumber (native wood), 1516 single-wythe walls, 161
sawtooth roofs, 167, 172173 size considerations
school buildings, 371372 big-box buildings, 106
scuppers, 233 commercial buildings, 107108

422
 Index

high-rise buildings, 106 stadium buildings, 381382

mega-box buildings, 106 stairwells, 94
residential buildings, 106107 standard operating guidelines (SOG), 145, 258
two-four-six method of, 104105 standard operating procedures (SOP), 145
vagaries of, 103104 static loads, 12
size-up. See also first-due decision maker; size-up, 360 steel
degrees aspects of, 21
access/egress in, 272273 C-channel studs, 21, 120, 121
base of operations in, 272 columns, 21, 5354
burning materials determination in, 266 corrugated roofing of, 190191
conventional or lightweight construction in, 266 decorative enhancements, void spaces of, 122
crawl space vents used for, 142, 143, 145146 framing, 21, 5354, 5859
facades in, 272 hot- and cold-rolled, 21
fire rate of change in, 268 I-beams, 21, 121, 176
fire spread in, 269 open web joists of, 176
fireground clock and, 267268 protection materials of, 5354
first-due decision maker and, 258259, 285n1 temperature for failure of, 21, 179
floodlights for, 262 as unprotected in Type II buildings, 5859
forcible entry in, 270, 272 steel, lightweight. See lightweight steel buildings
foundations in, 143 steel framing
front-loading of, 258, 259, 262, 278 Type I buildings, protected, 5354
grouping buildings in, 259260 Type II buildings, as unprotected in, 5859
hazards affecting tactics, 271274 steel manufacturing/warehouse buildings, 347348
initial 180 (use and size), 101, 259262 stick-built (framed) construction, 42, 167
name/utilities in, 273274 storage buildings, 101
reading a building, 257258 straight sheathings, 166
search considerations, 271 straw bale buildings (SBB)
soft, 260 aspects of, 126127
standard operating guidelines of, 258 collapse in, 127
survivable spaces determination in, 264, 268, 271 fire spread in, 127
unconscious competence in, 274 overhaul operations in, 120, 127
uses of buildings (occupancy types) in, 101102, 260 straw clay buildings (SCB)
262 aspects of, 119120, 127128
ventilation, 270271 collapse, 120, 127128
size-up, 360 degrees fire spread in, 127128
building status in, 264266 overhaul operations in, 120, 128
construction method as, 262263 strikes, door, 214
doors and windows in, 263 strip malls. See Type III (221 or 200) ordinary construction
era considerations as, 263 structural assemblies, 4041
exterior features as, 263 structural elements
interior features as, 263264 beams, 3334
mailboxes, multiple in, 263 columns, 3132
tactical judgments of, 264 connections, 3839
utility feeds in, 237, 263264 fire cut beams, 3839, 91, 92, 158, 159
skeletal construction. See post and beam construction foundations, 3031
skylights, 197198, 241242 trusses, 3438
slab foundations, 31 structural hierarchy, 42, 258
slab-on-grade foundations, 141 structural insulated panel (SIP) buildings
slate roof coverings, 193 aspects of, 124125
snow/wind loads, 12 collapse of, 126
soffits, 78, 236 fire spread in, 125126
solar energy systems, 224226 struts, 32
solar panels, 120, 224, 226 stucco sidings, 156
spalling, 24, 25, 54, 56, 57 studs
spans, open, 97 advanced framing methods, use of, 132, 155
split level homes, 78, 303304 balloon framing, spacing of, 73, 154
spreaders, 92 C-channel steel, 21, 120, 121
stacked kitchens and baths, 64, 317, 318 double-stud wall construction, 130, 152, 154
stacked log buildings, 7172 laminated strand lumber as, 19

423
The Art of Reading Buildings

laminated veneer lumber as, 19 public storage-multistory buildings, 358

in legacy platform buildings, 77 public storage-single story buildings, 356
offset, 152, 154 railroad flat homes, 318
spacing of, 132 restaurant buildings, 380
subfloor, 4041, 146, 147 row frame homes, 316
Summerbell roofs, 182 school buildings, 372
supply feed, electrical, 217 silo buildings, 394
surface-to-mass ratio, 14 split level homes, 304
survivable spaces, 264, 268, 271 stadium/arena buildings, 382
suspended beams, 34 steel manufacturing/warehouse buildings, 348
suspended ceilings, 55, 151152, 236 tenement homes, 314
suspended loads, 12 21st century buildings, 364
suspended particle display windows, 131132 Victorian/Queen Anne and Cape Cod homes, 298
switches, electrical, 218219 wooden manufacturing/warehouse buildings, 352
synthetics, 82, 96 taxpayer buildings, 62, 333334
temperature
for failure of steel, 21, 179
T for human life threshold, 271, 285n1
for melting of glues, 168, 177
T-11 plywood sidings, 156 for plate or annealed glass failure, 205
tactical concerns tempered glass, 96, 205
attended care facilities, 378 tenement homes, 313314
auditorium/theater buildings, 384 tension forces, 13
big-box buildings, 344 theater buildings, 383384
block/masonry buildings, 346 thermal bridging, 132133
brownstone homes, 312 thermal effect of radio frequency waves, 247
center hallway structure homes, 320 thermal imaging cameras (TIC), 6, 7, 131
church buildings, 388 thermoplastic compounds, 205
Colonial and Georgian homes, 296 tie plates and rods, 39, 92, 159, 183, 233, 236237
concrete tilt-up buildings, 350 tied arched roofs
converted mill buildings, 354 bowstring compared to, 182183
Craftsman and American Four Square homes, 230 identification tips for, 183
detention (jail) facilities, 376 trusses in, 36, 162
fast food buildings, 340 tilt-up concrete buildings, 349350
garden apartment homes, 322 tilt-up concrete slab construction
high rise-1st generation buildings, 366 basics of, 23, 42
high rise-2nd generation buildings, 368 parapet walls of, 64, 229
high rise-3rd generation buildings, 370 rakers (support jacks) and, 163
historical buildings-commercial, 398 Type II buildings with, 58, 59
historical buildings-dwelling, 396 wall collapse of, 59, 61
hospital buildings, 374 wall connections of, 162163
industrial/legacy strip style buildings, 336 timber trusses, 166167
kit buildings, 392 timber trusses (older)
legacy townhome/condo/apartment homes, 328 alteration issues of, 188
lightweight townhome/condo/apartment homes, 330 dimensional size and component connection issues, 187
manufactured (mobile) homes, 310 failure potential of, 187188
McMansion homes, 308 location issues of, 188
meeting hall buildings, 386 mass issues of, 188
mega-box buildings, 342 offensive operations in, 189190
modern lightweight homes, 306 parallel chord and gable, 186187
modern strip-style stores, 338 size issues of, 188
pole barns, 390 visual identifiers of, 187
post-WWII low rise buildings, 362 time. See fireground clock
prairie style homes, 302 titanium, 22
pre-WWI ordinary commercial buildings, 332 toe-up, 126
pre-WWII low rise buildings, 360 tongue and groove (T&G), 4041, 67, 77
pre-WWII ordinary (taxpayer) buildings, 334 torsion loads, 13
project housing-high density homes, 326 toxicity, of adhesives and glues, 17, 18, 20
project housing-low density homes, 324 traditional wood products, 1618

424
 Index

transformers, electrical, 218 wall collapse in, 59

transoms, 91 Type III (221 or 200) ordinary construction
triaging building fires alterations and concealed spaces/voids in, 64
incident safety officer, role in, 275 aspects of, 62, 103
Joes Building Fire Triage Program for, 276277 attics, cocklofts, and truss lofts in, 6364
trusses case studies of, 66
arched, 3638, 182184 cornices on, 65
bar, 3536 facades of, 66
bowstring, 3638, 182, 183, 184185 legacy era buildings, 9596
bridge roof, 180181, 189 mini- and strip malls as, 62
chords in, 3536, 186187 parapet walls in, 6465
craftsman-built, 79 post-WWII era buildings, 9596
in engineered wood platform (lightweight) construction, taxpayer buildings as, 62
80, 8182, 98 vertical extensions of, 6263
glued connections of, 177 Type IV (2HH) heavy timber/mill construction
legacy platform type, 77 American Institute of Timber Construction regarding,
lightweight, 166, 177 6768
loft, 6364, 167 aspects of, 67, 103
open web, 3435 case studies, 69
in post-WWII legacy era construction, 97 collapse, areas of, 69
in pre-WWII era buildings, 94 doors in, 6869
rigid (rib) arch, 3637, 183184 fire loads in, 69
in stacked log buildings, 71 fire size in, 69
tied, 36, 162 girders in, 67
timber, 166167 incident scope, 70
timber (older) roofs, 186190 legacy era buildings, 96
triangular, 35, 167 openings, shafts, and voids in, 6869
in Type III building lofts, 6364 renovations and concealed spaces/voids in, 68
tubular daylight devices (TDD), 241 tongue and groove planks in, 67
21st century office/hotel buildings, 363364 Type V (111 or 000) wood frame construction
two-four-six method, 104105 aspects of, 7071, 103
type (of building) considerations, 102103 balloon frame in, 7375, 154155
Type I (442 or 332) fire resistive construction case studies of, 8081
aspects of, 103 conventional platform construction, 7677
case studies of, 5657 engineered wood platform (lightweight) in, 7982
center core/center hallway floor plans of, 55 foundations in, 141
concrete spalling and heat retention of, 54 legacy platform construction, 7779
curtain wall construction of, 55, 56, 60 post and beam, 7273
forcible entry of, 5657 renovations in, 70
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems of, stacked log, 7172
5455 western platform construction, 7576
identification of, 57 wood framing in, 7082
interstitial areas of, 55
legacy buildings, 95
open areas of, 54
primary hazards of, 54
U
as sealed buildings, 57 ultraviolet rays (UV), 18, 206
shafts in, 56 Underwriters Laboratory (UL), 2, 271
steel framing, protected in, 5354 uninterruptible power supply (UPS), 219, 246247
ventilation of, 57 unoccupied buildings, 265266
Type II (222, 111, or 000) noncombustible construction unprotected materials, 52, 5859
aspects of, 103 unreinforced brick walls
case studies of, 6061 bond beam caps on, 158, 160
contents of, as primary hazard in, 5960 collapse safe areas in, 160
fire extension and by-products of, 60 king row in, 158, 160
girders in, 58 metal straps on roofs of, 159
legacy era buildings, 95 post-1933, 158
steel framing, as unprotected in, 5859 post-1959, 159
tilt-up concrete slab construction in, 58, 59 post-1971, 159160

425
The Art of Reading Buildings

pre-1933, 158
water-soluble mortar in, 91, 158 W
weight bearing in, 161
walkout basements, 143
window frames in, 160, 207
walk-up basements, 143
wythes in, 157158, 160, 161
wall columns, 31, 140, 154
unreinforced masonry (URM)
wall-bearing construction, 42
construction of, 157
wallboard. See drywall
wall collapse of, 59
walls. See also collapse; tilt-up concrete slab construction
uses of buildings (occupancy types)
adjoining, 152, 153, 154
changes in and to, 99100
balloon frame exterior, 7375, 154155
International Building Code regarding, 101102
brick noggin in, 153
NFPA 5000 codes regarding, 101102
buttresses on, 32, 36, 162
size-up reports regarding, 101
concrete, 162163
types of, 101102
defined, 140
utility and miscellaneous buildings, 101102
division, 64, 152, 153, 195
utility chases, 94
drywall in, 153
utility systems. See also electrical utilities; gas utility systems
exterior, masonry, 157161
communications/data systems, 223
exterior, siding of, 155156
freshwater systems, 223
exterior, wood framing of, 154155
wastewater (sewer) systems, 223
fire blocking in, 76, 154
fire division, 152, 153, 195

V flat panel, 123, 124

foundation, 3031
grid block, 123, 124
vacant buildings, 265
insulated concrete forms in, 123124
veneer, masonry, 24, 41, 156, 157158, 161
interior, 152154
vent pipes, 198
knee, 64, 80, 94, 235
ventilation
of lightwells, 240241
aerial devices for, 171, 182
masonry, types of, 157158
horizontal and vertical, 57
masonry veneers, 24, 41, 156, 157158, 161
hot mop roof issues of, 193
occupancy division walls, 153
impact-resistant windows and, 212
offset, 152, 154
in lightweight concrete roofs, 180
parapet, 6465, 158, 159, 160, 229230
of metal roofs, 194
partition, 41, 152, 153
of monitor roofs, 171, 172
party, 41, 153154
rain roofs and, 191
post and beam, exterior, 72, 73, 123124
roof ducting and, 199
reinforced brick, 160161
in sealed buildings, 57
shear, 41
of single-ply roofs, 195
spreaders and exterior plates on, 92
size-up considerations of, 270271
straw bale, 126127
skylights as, 241
tie plates on, 39, 92, 159, 233
solar panels hindering, 224, 226
types of, 41
of Type I buildings, 57
unreinforced brick, 157, 158160
ventilators, 198, 199
weight bearing of masonry, 161
vents
wythes in, 157158, 160, 161
attic, 197, 198, 233, 267
wastewater (sewer) systems, 223
crawl space, 142, 143, 145146
water-soluble mortar, 91, 158
vertical ventilation, 57, 74
western platform construction, 7576
Victorian homes, 297298
windows. See also glass
vinyl sidings, 156
air conditioners in, 208
void spaces
air-blast resistant, 206
alterations and renovations resulting in, 64, 68, 238
barricaded, 207
in balloon frames, 74, 154155
basement escape, 145
fire spread in, 94
bucks in, 126
interstitial and plenum, 151, 152
clues based on, 204, 235
pipe chases as, 64, 198
covered, as renovated, 236
steel decorative enhancements and, 122
electrochromic smart glass, 131132
in Type III buildings, 64
frames, 204
in Type IV buildings, 68
glazing, 204

426
 Index

Housing and Urban Development, 207

impact-resistant, 209213
recessed frames of, 160
renovations to, 234235
rooms identified by, 208
sashes, 204
security bars on, 206207
suspended particle display, 131132
types of, 204
in unreinforced masonry construction, 207
wind/snow loads, 12
wired glass, 205
wood
panelized roof system, 178179
shake shingle roof coverings, 193
sheathings, 4041
shingles or shiplap siding, 155156
traditional products of, 1618
wood frame construction. See Type V (111 or 000) wood frame
construction
wood manufacturing/warehouse buildings, 351352
wrought iron, 3738
wythes, 157158, 160, 161

Z
zero-clearance fireplace, 196

427
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dave Dodson,
Battalion Chief
(ret.)
ave Dodson is a 34-year fire service

D veteran25 years on the street

starting his fire service career with the
United States Air Force. After the USAF,
Dave spent almost seven years as a fire
officer and training/safety officer for the
Parker Fire District in Parker, Colorado. He became the first career training officer
for Loveland Fire & Rescue (CO) and spent time as an engine officer, hazmat
technician, duty safety officer, and emergency manager for the city. He accepted
a shift battalion chief position for the Eagle River Fire District in Colorado before
starting his current company, Response Solutions, which is dedicated to teaching
safe and practical incident handling.

Dave is the author of Jones & Bartletts Fire Department Incident Safety
Officer and Fire Engineerings Training DVD series The Art of Reading Smoke.
He continues to develop and deliver classes on firefighter safety and survival
issues and first-due officer procedures.

Chief Dodson has served as the chairman of the NFPA 1521 Task Group (Fire
Department Safety Officer) and served on the Fire Service Occupational Safety
and Health Technical Committee for NFPA. Dave is also a past president of the
Fire Department Safety Officers Association. In 1997, Dave was chosen as the
ISFSI George D. Post Fire Instructor of the Year.

429
The Art of Reading Buildings

John Mittendorf,
Battalion Chief
(ret.)
ohn Mittendorf is a 30-year veteran of

J the Los Angeles City Fire Department

and held the rank of battalion chief
until his retirement in 1993. He has been
a member of the National Fire Protection
Research Foundation on Engineered
Lightweight Construction Technical
Advisory Committee and has provided training programs for the National Fire
Academy, UCLA, and the British Fire Academy in England. He has also acted in
an advisory capacity for five college fire science advisory boards and is the author
of numerous fireground articles for magazines in the United States and Europe.

Chief Mittendorf is the author of the books Ventilation Methods and

Techniques, Truck Company Operations, editions 1 and 2, Facing the Promotional
Interview, and the recently released the DVD program, Ten Commandments of
Truck Company Operations, from Fire Engineering/PennWell. He currently
lectures in the United States and the United Kingdom on strategy and tactics,
truck company operations, fireground operations, ventilation operations, and the
Complete Fire Officer. John is also a member of the editorial advisory board
of Fire Engineering magazine. In 2008, Chief Mittendorf received the Fire
Department Instructors Conference (FDIC) Lifetime Achievement Award.

430
FIREGROUND CONSIDERATIONS
OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
The Art of Reading Buildings focuses on the practical art of reading a building and applying its
positive and negative attributes in developing a size-up for fireground operations that center on
structure fires. First-due company officers, incident commanders, and safety officers will appreciate
the practical street-wise lessons captured in the book. Chief officers, training officers, engineers,
firefighters, and fire science degree candidates will benefit from the wide range of building
construction topics covered in this text.

FEATURES AND BENEFITS

Understand the technical and practical aspects of building construction.
Learn on-the-spot building construction assessment using the authors custom rapid street-read guides.
Develop a quick construction size-up for immediate application to fireground operations.
Recognize firefighter traps in newer and alternative-construction methods.
This text covers objectives for the National Fire Academys Fire and Emergency Services in Higher
Education (FESHE) Building Construction for Fire Protection course.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

John Mittendorf, a 30-year veteran of the Los Angeles City Fire Department, held the rank of
battalion chief until his retirement in 1993. He has authored several books, including Truck Company
Operations, and also the DVD Ten Commandments of Truck Company Operations. He serves on the
advisory board of Fire Engineering magazine.

Dave Dodson is a fire service author, lecturer, and trainer. He is a 34-year fire service veteran, starting
with the U.S. Air Force then serving as a battalion chief, duty safety officer, training officer, and
emergency manager for several Colorado fire departments. Chief Dodson has authored several
books as well as the popular DVD training series The Art of Reading Smoke.

www.FireEngineeringBooks.com