Introduction: Approach [7/29/2017 ]

Saturday, July 29, 2017 2:22 PM

It Differs from an ordinary microscope, in the sense that is has two polarizing elements and few
other accessories.
The polarizing element may be a "Polaroid filters" or nicol prisms
The Nicol below the Condenser is called Polarizer
The Nicol above the Condenser is called Analyzer
There may be a Bertrand lens, which is useful, but not essential.

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General Routine of mineral Identification

A general sequence of identifying a mineral under the microscope can be followed:
1. Form and crystallographic properties
a. Crystal Form if developed
b. Cleavage, parting, or fracture: number of cleavages and angular relationships to one
another, perfection of cleavage, characteristics of parting and fracture
c. Shape of grain, if distinctive (Fibrous, acicular, bladed, radiating, platy, reticulate,
tabular)
d. Inclusions, intergrowths, alteration, association with other minerals
e. Twinning
2. Optical Properties
a. Opaque minerals : Color by reflected light
b. Transparent or translucent minerals:
i. Color and pleochroism
ii. Relative index and relief
c. Examination under cross nicols
i. Isotropic or anisotropic
ii. In anisotropic minerals, interference colors and determination of
birefringence
iii. Extinction angle
iv. Determination if length-slow or length-fast
d. Information from interference figure
i. Uniaxial or biaxial; sign, whether positive or negative
ii. If Biaxial; optical angle, dispersion, orientation of optic plane, determination of

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 ii. If Biaxial; optical angle, dispersion, orientation of optic plane, determination of
pleochroism formula
Unaxial minerals - procedures for determining optical properties
GodlyMind

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Properties: Physical
Crystal Form
Amphiboles show a notably prismatic form; although completely closed crystals rarely
form
In 2D cross section, isometric minerals may appear in different shapes
Ex: An Apatite may appear as a hexagon, a rectangle, or even a square

Cleavage and Parting

Very important property in identification of any mineral
One plane of cleavage: Mica, Chlorite, topaz, sillimanite etc.
Two planes of cleavage: Hornblende (56 ), Orthoclase(90 )
One thing to note is that, even if a mineral has more than one cleavage, due to orientation
of any grain, it may only show one cleavage plane

Shape of Grains, Inclusions and Intergrowths

It is characteristic of some minerals, Zeolites (natrolite) have a radiating shape
Perthitic Intergrowths for distinguishing between ash and sodic feldspar; Micrographic and
myrmekitic intergrowths in quartz-alkali Feldspar

Twinning
Important in identification of of minerals as microline, plagioclase, cordierite etc

Properties: Optical [ Under plane polarized light ]

Relative Index/Relief
Becke Test:
Medium-power objective with Substrage Diagphram partially closed
Mineral grain's boundary will be found to be marked by a very narrow line of
brightness, known as Becke line.

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 brightness, known as Becke line.
When the tube of microscope is moved upwards,
the Becke line moves inwards the mineral if higher index than the surroundings.
In other words, Becke line moves towards the mineral which has higher index.
Relief:
It is the distinctness with which a mineral stands out from the embedding medium
when observed in plane light under the microscope. Depends on the difference in
index between the mineral and the medium

Properties: Optical [Under Crossed Nicols]

Istropic and Anisotropic Minerals:
Isotropic Minerals-
These minerals become dark when the nicols are crossed, and remain completely
dark, as the stage is rotated.
Minerals such as glass, Canada Balsam, opal, cliachite, collophone etc., show this
property
Anisotropic Minerals-
Most minerals will transmit light when nicols are crossed.
This is caused because, a ray of light traversing the mineral is in general refracted
into two rays, that vibrate in perpendicular planes to one another.
Anisotropic Minerals can be divided into two groups
Uniaxial -
possesses one optic axis; In these minerals,
light traversing along the optic axis (corresponding to c), doesn't get
doubly refracted, although the light ray is converted into Extraordinary
ray and Ordinary Ray .
With Normal Incidence, there is no double refraction of the two rays.
With Inclined Incidence, double refration results and the extraordinary
and ordinary rays follow different paths
Uniaxial minerals are termed as positive when the orfinary index is less
than the extraordinary index (ordinary's velocity is greater) and vice
versa.
Biaxial -
Two optic axes that intersect in a place, called optic plane. Seperated by optic
angle.
Extinction:
Under cross nicols, if a microscope stage is turned, each anisotropic grain will
get dark four times. This phenomena is called, extinction.
If extinction takes place when a prominent crystal face, form or cleavage is
parallel to the cross hairs, the extinction is called parallel.
If the extinction takes place in inclined position, the extinction is said to be
oblique/inclined
If extinction bisects the angle between cleavages or crystal faces, the
extinction is said to be symmetrical.
Interference colours:
Except for extinct position, the min

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Properties under PPL [Gribble]
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 7:01 PM

Properties to look for in plane polarized light:

1. Colour
a. Mineral can be colourless (Qtz, Spars) to coloured minerals (Brown biotite, green
hornblende)
b. Some minerals can be opaque in nature
2. Pleochroism
a. Some minerals change colour between two 'extremes' when the microscope stage is
rotated (in PPL). Such minerals are called pleochroic.
b. Ferromagnesian minerals such as amphiboles, biotite, staurolite of the common rock
forming silicates possess this property
c. It occurs due to unequal absorption of light by the mineral in different orientations.
3. Habit
a. Shape of any particular mineral; it may be Euhedral, anhedral, prismatic, platy etc
4. Cleavage
a. These are planes of weakness in the minerl's atomic structure, along which the mineral
can be cleaved.
b. Quartz and garnet possess no cleavage; others may have one, two, three or four
cleavages.
c. Poorly developed cleavage is called Parting
5. Relief
a. The greater the difference of RI between the resin and the mineral grain, the rougher
the grain will appear
b. Becke Test:
i. Medium-power objective with Substrage Diagphram partially closed
ii. Mineral grain's boundary will be found to be marked by a very narrow line of
brightness, known as Becke line.
iii. When the tube of microscope is moved upwards,
the Becke line moves inwards the mineral if higher index than the surroundings.
iv. In other words, Becke line moves towards the mineral which has higher index.
RI Description of relief
1.40 - 1.50 Moderate
1.50 - 1.58 Low
1.58-1.67 Moderate
1.67-1.76 High
>1.76 Very high
6. Alteration
a. In thin section, alteration (say feldspar being replaced by clay minerals due to reaction
with water) occurs as cloudiness within the transparent feldspar grain.
b. The alteration may be very advanced and hence completely replacing the parent mineral

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Properties under XPL [Gribble]
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 7:18 PM

1. Isotropism
a. Minerals with a cubic system are isotropic, and appear dark under XPL. All other systems
are anisotropic and hence appear coloured and go into extinction every 90 degrees.
b. Tetragonal, trigonal and hexagonal minerals, cut perpendicular to c axis are also
isotropic
2. Birefringence
a. Under XPL, colour of most anisotropic minerals vary; Qtz may vary from grey to white,
olivine may show a whole range of colours from grey to red to blue to green.
Order Colours
First Grey, white, yellow, red
Second Violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, red
Third Indigo, green, blue, yellow, red, violet
Fourth and above Pale pinks and green

b. These interference colours depend on the thickness of the thin section of mineral and
the birefringence (difference between two Ris of the anisotropic mineral grain)
3. Interference figures
a. Shown by all minerals except cubic minerals
b. Uniaxial figures:
i. An isotropic section (grain which appears near dark even when stage is rotated) of
a mineral is first selected under XPLs.
ii. High power objective (x40) is used, with substage convergent lens in position,
and diaphragm open
iii. When the Bertrand lens is inserted into the optical train, a black cross will appear
in the field of view.
iv. The first order red accessory plate is then inserted into the optical train in such a
way that the length slow direction marked on it points towards the centro of the
black cross.
v. The colour in the NE quadrant of the cross is noted
1) Blue means the mienral is +ve

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 1) Blue means the mienral is +ve
2) Yellow means that the mineral is -ve
vi. Some accessory plates are length fast and the microscope may not allow more
than one position of insertion; in case the length fast direction will point towards
the centre of the black cross and the colours and signs given would be reversed. It
is hence essential to appreciate whether the accessory plate is length fast or slow
and how the fast or slow directions of the accessory plate relate to the
interference figure after insertion
4. Extinction angle
a. Anisotropic minerals go intro extinction four times during a complete 360 degrees
rotation of a mineral section.
b. All Uniaxial minerals possess straight or parallel extinction; Extinction when the
cleavage/trace of a crystal face edge is parallel to E-W direction (for analyser in N-S
setting)
c. Biaxial minerals possess either straight or oblique extinction
d. The angle through which the mineral has then to be rotated to bring the cleavages
parallel to the crosswire, is called the extinction angle
5. Twinning
a. This property is present when areas with differing extinction orientations within the
same mineral grain have planar contacts.
b. Seen extensively in plagioclase spars.
6. Zoning
a. Compositional variation within a single mineral may be expressed in the terms of
changes in birefringence; or by change in natural color; or by change in extinction
orientation.
b. These changes maay be abrupt, gradational and commonly occur as a sequence from
the core of a mineral grain

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Stuff to write about
Tuesday, August 8, 2017 8:53 PM

Facies Pelitic Calcareous Mafic

Zeolite Interlayered smectite/chlorite Calcite Laumonite, thompsonite, calcite,
100-200 C Calcite interlayered smectite/chlorite
Prehnite- Prehnite, Pumpellyite, Calcite, Calcite Prehnite, Pumpellyite, calcite, Individual minerals:
Pumpellyite Chlorite, Albite chlorite, albite - Chlorite --
150 - 300 C - Calcite --
- Pumpellyite
Greenschist Muscovite, Chlorite, Quartz, Calcite, Dolomite, Quartz, Albite, Chlorite, Quartz, Epidote,
- Albite --
300 - 450 C Albite, Biotite, Garnet Epidote, Tremolite Actinolite, Sphene
- Muscovite --
Epidote Muscovite, Biotite, Garnet, Calcite, Quartz, tremolite, Albite, Epidote, Hornblende, Quartz - Quartz --
Amphibolite Albite, Quartz Epidote, Diopside - Biotite --
450 - 550 C - Garnet --
Amphibolite Garnet, Biotite, Muscovite, Calcite, Diopside, Quartz, Hornblende, Plagioclase, Garnet, - Dolomite
500 - 700 C Quartz, Plagioclase, Wollastonite Quartz, Sphere, Biotite - Epidote
Staurolite, Kyanite or - Tremolite - Actinolite
Silimanite - Sphene
- Diopside
Granulite Garnet, K-spar, Silimanite or Calcite, Quartz, Plagioclase, Plagioclase, Augite, Hypersthene,
- Hornblende --
700 - 900 C kyanite, quartz, plagioclase, Diopside, Hypersthene Hornblende, Garnet, Olivine
- Plagioclase --
Hypersthene
- Staurolite
Blueschist Jadelite, Albite, Quartz, Aragonite, White Mica Glaucophane, Albite, Lawsonite, - Silimanite
150 - 350 C Lawsonite, Aragonite, Sphere, +- Garnet - Wollastonite
p > 5-8 Kbar Paragonite - K-feldspar --
Eclogite Coesite, Kspar, Sillimanite, Aragonite, Quartz, Plagioclase, Omphacite (px), Pyrope Garnet - Kyanite
350 - 750 C Plagioclase Diopside, Hypersthene - Olivine
P > 8-10 Kbar - Aragonite
- Glaucophane
- Pyrope garnetf

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Kyanite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 9:31 PM

Chemical
Formula
Crystal Triclinic
Structure
Colour Colourless - Blue
Pleochroism Weak;
: Colourless
, : Blue
Habit Subhedral prisms in Metamorphic;
Prisms are blade like
*Cleavage {100} and {010} very good; Parting present on {001}
*Relief High
Alteration As Andalusite; Occurs as large 'knots' of micaceous minerals;
It can also invert to sillimanite with increasing temperature
Birefringenc Low
e
*Extinction Oblique on cleavages; ~30
Twinning Multiple twinning occurs on {100}
Other The higher birefringence and excellent {100} cleavage, intersected by the {001}
Features parting on the prism face, help to distinguish kyanite from andalusite and other index
minerals

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Silimanite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 9:48 PM

Chemical
Formula
Crystal Orthorhombic
Structure
Colour Colourless
*Habit It occurs as elongate prisms in two habits:
1. As small fibrous crystals found in regionally metamorphosed schists and gneisses
2. Small prismatic crystals growing from andalusite in thermal aureoles
*Cleavage {010} perfect: Basal section of sillimanite, which is diamond shaped, has cleavages
parallet to the long axis
Relief Moderate
Alteration Rare
*Birefringen Moderate
ce
*Extinction Straight on single cleavage trace
*Other In High frade regionally metamorphosed rocks, the fibrous sillimanite is usually found
features associated with biotite, appearing as long thin fibres growing within the mica crystal

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Tremolite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 9:54 PM

Chemical Formula
Crystal Structure Monoclinic
Colour Colourless - Pale green
*Pleochroism : Pale yellow
: Yellowish green
: greenish blue
Related to Iron content, More iron rich, more pleochroic
Habit Elongate prismatic with aggregates of fibrous crystals also present
*Cleavage Usual prismatic cleavages {110} and intersecting at 56 on the basal plane
Relief Moderate- High
Alteration Common
Birefringence Moderate
*Extinction 21 to 11 depending on Mg:Fe ratio
*Twinning Simple twinned with {100} as twin plane
Multiple twinning on {100}

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Hornblende
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:00 PM

Chemical
Formula
Colour Variable; Light brown - Green; Darker in iron rich
*Pleochroism Variable;
: Pale brown-green; Iron rich - Yellow brown-green
, :brown green; Iron rich - Deep green, blue green, dark
green
Habit Prismatic crystals; Elongate
*Cleavage 56 intersection of two cleavage planes. Partings parallel to
{100} and {001} may exist
Relief Moderate - High
Birefringence Moderate; can be masked by body colours
*Extinction ~30

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Glaucophane
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:16 PM

Chemical Formula
Crystal Structure Monoclinic
*Colour Lavender Blue - Colourless
*Pleochroism Common;
: Colourless
: Lavender Blue
: Blue
Habit Tiny blule prismatic crystals
Relief Moderate - High
Birefringence Low-Moderate
*Extinction Angle 6-9
Twinning Can be simple or repeating

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Chlorite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:21 PM

Chemical Formula
Crystal Structure Monoclinic
*Colour Colourless - Green
Pleochroism Green varieties:
\: Pale green - colourless
\, : darker green
Habit Tabular crystals with pseudo-hexagonal structure
*Cleavage Perfect {001}
Relief Low - Moderate
Alteration Oxidation of Iron in Chlorite may occur (sign changes from +ve to -ve)
*Birefringence Very weak, usually with anomalous deep Berlin Blue colour
Extinction Straight to cleavage but can be oblique with small angle (<5 )
Twinning In Micas; Rare

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Epidote
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:28 PM

Chemical Formula
Crystal Structure Monoclinic
Colour Colourless - Pale yellowish green
*Pleochroism Slightly Pleochroic;
\: Colourless - pale yellowish green
\: greenish
\: Yellowish
Habit Aggregates of elongate prismatic
crystals with pseudo-hexagonal cross
section
Cleavage {001} perfect
*Relief High
Alteration None
*Birefringence Moderate - High; Low second order to
upper thirf order colours
Extinction Oblique to cleavage in pseudo
hexagonal sections; Otherwise straight
Other features Lamellar twinning

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Albite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:34 PM

Colour Colourless with opaque patches if alteration to clay

minerals has taken place
Habit Euhedral Prismatic in high temperature porphyritic
to
Anhedral in plutonic intrusive rocks
Cleavage Two, {001} and {010} meeting nearly at right angles;
Several partings may be present
Relief Low
*Alteration Commong, Usually to clay minerals with K-Spar altering
in presence of a limited amount of water;
Clay minerals found occur as discrete tiny particles held
within the feldspar crystal.
Birefringen Low, First order grey-white are max colours
ce
Extinction Varies
*Twinning Simple twins are common.
Cross hatched type of twinning common in
metamorphic rocks and large plutonic acid intrusions
*Perthites These intergrowths of a Na-Plagioclase in a K-feldspar
host are found in low temperature alkali feldspars

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Plagioclase
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:41 PM

End Albite:
Members Anorthite:
Crystal Triclinic
Structure
Colour Colourless; May be opaque due to clay formation
Habit Subhedral Prismatic in plutonic
Euhedral prismatic or tabular in extrusive
Cleavage Two perfect at {001} and {010} meeting at nearly right angles
Relief Low
*Alteration Can alter to Montmorillonite in limited water conditions;
Kaoline, in excess of water
Birefringenc Low; Interference colours varying from frist order greys (Ab) to first order yellows
e (An)
*Twinning Characteristic Feature; Albite twin lamellae
Other twins such as Carlsbad and pericline can occur
*Zoning Commong in plag feldspars from ectrusive rocks; Zoning shows up as a continuous
change in composition from Ca rich core to Na rich margin.

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Wollastonite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:52 PM

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Garnet + Pyrope
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:52 PM

Chemical Formula
Pyrope :
Colour Colourless, Pale brown - pale pink, dark
green - brown
*Habit Euhedral Crystals of garnet; Showing six
or eight sided sections
*Cleavage No cleavage exists but crystals are often
fractured
*Relief High to very high
Alteration Fe-Mg bearing garnets typically alter to
chlorite
*Other features Garnet occasionally exhibits
compositional zoning, and in
metamorphic medium grade rocks,
garnet frequently contains inclusions of
Qtz and Micas.

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Quartz
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 5:55 PM

Chemical
Formula
*Colour Colourless
Habit Euhedral qtz crystals are prisms with hexagonal cross sections; can occur as
shapeless interstitial grains in igneous and metamorphic rocks
*Cleavage None
Relief Low
*Alteration None
*Birefriengen Low, amx interference colours are first order white or pale yellow
ce

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Sphene
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:27 PM

Chemical Formula
Colour Colourless, Pale brown, Dark Brown
Pleochroism -> yellow or colourless, -> pinkish,
yellow brown, -> pink, yellow,
orange brown
*Habit Anhedral to euhedral, often occuring
as small lozenge or diamond shaped
crystals
*Cleavage {110} good
*Relief Extremely high
*Birefringence Extreme; But colours may be masked
by body colour and high relief of
mineral
*Twinning Single twins with {100} twin plane
common

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Biotite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 10:58 PM

Chemical
Formula
Colour Brown to yellowish; Occasionally green
*Pleochroism Common; Strong;
\: Yellow
\, : Dark brown
It however cannot be detected in a basal section, a prism
section showing a cleavage is best
*Habit Tabular, subhedral hexagonal plates
*Cleavages {001} perfect
Relief Moderate
*Alteration Common under hydrothermal alteration; It alters to
Chlorite with potash being released in reation.
Opposite occurs in progressive metamorphism
*Birefringenc High - Very high, but can be masked by body colour
e
Extinction Nearly straight on cleavage. Speckled effect is seen near
the extinction position
Twinning Extremely rare

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Muscovite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:04 PM

Chemical Formula
Colour Colourless
Habit Thin Platy crystals; occasionally in aggregates
*Cleavage {001} Perfect
Relief Low - moderate (If iron enters the strcuture)
Alteration Absent
*Birefringence High. Upper second order to third order.
Basal Sections however show a low birefringence of
first order grey
Extinction Straight on cleavage

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Olivine
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:07 PM

Chemical Forsterite:
Formula Fayalite:
Colour Colourless - Pale yellow (If Fe2+ is more)
Pleochroism Rare
Habit Anhedra to subhedral [Plutonic-extrusive respectively]
Cleavage {010} poor with rare {100} imperfect fracture
Relief Variable;
Forsterite is moderate to high
Fayalite is very high
*Alteration Susceptible to hydrothermal alteration, Low grade metamorphism and effects of
weathering.
*Birefringence High, with maximum interference colour in lower third order
Extinction Straight on poor {010} cleavage or prism face
Twinning Rare in most olivines
Other features Zoning is occasionally present but is not a diagnostic feature

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Pumpellyite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:12 PM

Chemical
Formula
*Colour Green - yellow
*Pleochrois Colourless, pale green, yellow, colourless-yellowish
m brown
Relief High
Cleavage {001} and {100} present

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Diopside, Hedenbergite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:16 PM

Chemical Formula Di:

Hed:
Colour Colourless - brownish green
*Cleavage {110} good prismatic cleavages meeting on basal at 87
Relief Moderate to high
*Birefringence Moderate, middle second order greens and yellows common
*Extinction angle Large extinction angle seen in (010) section
Twinning Simple - multiple twins common on {100} and {001}

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Wollastonite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:19 PM

Chemical Formula
Colour Colourless
Habit Columnar or fibrous with rectangular cross sections
*Cleavage {100} perfect and {001} and {102} good
Relief Moderate
Birefringence Low, with max first order yellow
Extinction angle Not relevant
Distinguishing Difficult; It is virtually identical to diopside; however is optically negative
features whereas diopside is positive

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Staurolite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:31 PM

Chemical Formula
*Colour Yellow- Pale yellow
*Pleochroism Always present and distinct in yellows with
colourless, pale yellow, rich golden
yellow
Habit Squat prisms, containing usually inclusions,
particularly qtz
Cleavage {010} moderate
Relief High
*Alteration Rare, but may alter to a green ferric chlorite
Birefringence Low, but interference colours are masked
by the yellow colour of mineral
Extinction Straight on prism edge/cleavage

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Aragonite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:36 PM

Chemical Formula
Colour Colourless
*Habit Thin prismatic or occasionally fibrous crystals
Cleavage {010} prismatic cleavage imperfect
Relief Minimum RI is parallel to c Axis
*Birefringence Extremely high, similar to calcite
Extinction Straight on cleavage or prism edge
Twinning Common; Lamellar twins on {110} parallel to c axis

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Calcite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:39 PM

Chemical Formula
Colour Colourless
Habit Shapeless grain (anhedral)
Cleavage Perfect {1010} rhombohedral cleavage
*Relief Moderate with extreme cariation because of large birefringence.
*Birefringence Extremely high with pale pinks and green of fourth order and higher.
Twinning {0112} common, appearing as multiple twins

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Dolomite
Wednesday, August 9, 2017 11:43 PM

Chemical
Formula
Colour Colourless
*Habit Usually subhedral; Dolomisation of limestones often leads to euhedral crystals
occurring as rhombohedra with curved faces
Cleavage Perfect {1011} rhombohedral, as calcite
Relief Low to moderate
*Birefringence Extremely high, even higher than calcite
*Twinning Similar to calcite, multiple on (0221). Twin lamellae show birefringence of a lower
order than the crystal
Zoning Commonly encountered, Fe2+ substitution of Mg2+

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