ee ec NUCLEI eee > PARTICLES Cecene=cl cae SN Toei apathy pUzIETIONN | Seco: ee iNuclei and Particles An Introduction to Nuclear and Subnuclear Physics ~ ‘SECOND EDITION Completely revised, reset, enlarged EMILIO SEGRE Professor of Physics (Emeritus) University of California, Berkeley we (FEF ast 197 W. A. Benjamin, inc. ADVANCED 800K PROGRAM Reading, Massachusetts London Amsterdam Don Mills, Ontario » Sydney - TokyoNUCLEI AND PARTICLES First edition, 1964 Second edition, completely revised, reset, enlarged, 1977 ACCESSION No. 131189 NCU ES . 27 JUNI979_ | _ NT CAiEGoRt é SE ena Seg, Emilio. ‘Nuclei and particles, Bibliography: p. includes indexes Nuclear physics. 2. Particles (Nuclear physics) 1. Title, QcTI6s4 1977 5397,“ 7.10845 ISBN: 0:8053-8601-7 Foreign language versions of the fist edition: Malian: N. Zanichell, Bologna 1966 Japanese: Yoshioka Shoten, Kyoto 1975 Spanish: — Eaivorial Reverté, Barcelona wn Copyright © 1977 by W. A. Benjamin, Inc. Published simultaneously in Canada ‘Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, Stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any ‘means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying. recording. or otherwise, ‘without the prior written permission ofthe publisher, W. A. Benjamin, Inc, ‘Advanced Book Program, Reading, Massachusets 01867 ‘Mansfactured in the United States of America ABCOEFGHLJ-HA-7967Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Selected Bibliography CHAPTER 1 HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION IL Units 1-2 Terminology and Definitions Bibliography Problems Part! Toots CHAPTER 2 THE PASSAGE OF RADIATIONS THROUGH MATTER 2-1 Introduction 2-2 Rutherford Scattering 2:3. Energy Loss due to Ionization 2-4 Energy Loss of Electrons 2-5 Polarization Effects—Cerenkov Radiation 2-6 Ionization in Gases and Semiconductors 2-7 Multiple Scattering 2-8 Stragaling 2-9 Passage of Gamma Rays through Matter 2-10 Radiation Loss by Fast Electrons 10 12 15 15CONTENTS 241 212 CHAPTER 3 31 32 33 35 36 37 39 3-10 Bll 312 313 31d CHAPTER 4 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4-10 (CHAPTER 5 Sl 52 53 35 Positron Annihilation Polarization Phenomena Bibliography Problems DETECTION METHODS FOR NUCLEAR RADIATIONS. Classification Ionization Chambers and Solid-State Detectors, Proportional and Geiger-Milller Counters Scintillation Counters Cerenkov Counters Photographic Emulsions Nuclear Tracks in Solids Cloud Chambers Bubble Chambers ‘Spark Chamber and Streamer Chamber Electronics ‘Complex Nuclear Instruments Charged-Particle Spectrometers Gamma-Ray Spectrometers Bibliography Problems PARTICLE ACCELERATORS Introduction and Classification Potential-Drop Accelerators The Betatron The Cyclotron Phase Oscillations and Stability The Synchrotron and Proton Synchrotron Strong Focusing Linear Accelerators Colliding Beams Beam-Transport Apparatus Bibliography Problems RADIOACTIVE DECAY Continuum Theory—One Substance Continuum Theory—More Than One Substance Branching Some Units Used in Radioactivity; Dosimetry Fluctuations in Radioactive Decay—General Theory 1 "4 78 82 86 88 97 101 los 107 109 2 4 7 120 23 126 128 128 130 130 135 136 141 143 149 149 153 156 161 166 167 168 169 170 175 176 18037 58 59 Part It (CHAPTER 6 61 62 64 65 66 68 69 6-10 611 6-12 CHAPTER 7 1 72 13 14 CHAPTER 8 82 83 CONTENTS Fluctuations in Radioactive Decay—Applications Method of Maximum Likelihood Methods of Measuring Decay Constants Chronological and Geological Applications Bibliography Problems ‘The Nucleus ELEMENTS OF THE NUCLEAR STRUCTURE AND SYSTEMATICS Charge Mass ‘Nuclear Radii Mesic and Exotic Atoms Nuclear Statistics The Nucleus as a Fermi Gas The Liquid Drop Model Electric Moments of Nuclei Spin and Magnetic Moments I Spin and Magnetic Moments (Measurements) II Nuclear Polarization Values of Spin, Magnetic Moments, and Quadrupole ‘Moments Shell Model ‘The Pairing Interaction Collective Nuclear Model Rotational Levels Concluding Remarks Bibliography Problems ALPHA EMISSION Introduction: Barrier Penetration Fine Structure of Alpha Spectra Systematics of Alpha Decay Virtual Binding Bibliography Problems “1 GAMMA EMISSION Introduction toed Selection Rules 18> Transition Probabilities aig 8 189 193 195 200 202 202 207 208 21 219 27 232 236 240 249 254 265 m 24 279 287 293, 31 313, 314 319 319 328 334 339 340 341 34 351 355vii CONTENTS 84 85 86 87 88 CHAPTER 9 1 93 94 95 97 9-8 99 9-10 9-11 ‘CHAPTER 10 10-1 10-2 103 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 (CHAPTER 11 1 11-2 13 1d 1s 16 na Internal Conversion Nuclear Isomerism Angular Correlations in Gamma Emission Coulomb Excitation Nuclear Fluorescence Bibliography Problems BETA DECAY Introduction Experiments on the Neutrino Energetics of Beta Decay Classification of Interactions. Parity Fermi’s Theory of Beta Decay Matrix Element Further Experiments on the Weak Interaction Theory of the Beta Interaction Quantitative Study of Some Matrix Elements Conservation of Leptons Universal Fermi Interaction Bibliography Problems ‘THE TWO-BODY SYSTEMS AND NUCLEAR FORCES The deuteron Low-Energy Neutron-Proton Scattering Proton-Proton System and Scattering Charge Independence of Nuclear Forces—Isotopic Spin Spin-Dependent and Tensor Forces Nucleon-Nucleon Forces; Exchange Forces Polarization; High-Energy Nuclear Scattering Capture of Slow Neutrons by Hydrogen Photodisintegration of the Deuteron Bibliography Problems NUCLEAR REACTIONS Introduction General Features of Cross Sections Inverse Reaction—Detailed Balance Reaction Mechanisms. The Compound Nucleus (Qualitative) Formal Developments—Scattering Matrix Resonances Optical Model 362 369 373 375 377 388 388 391 391 395 410 421 426 431 436 443 445 447 450 455 458 469 4a 481 491 496 498, 498 501 501 505 510 512 526 53518 19 1-10 1-1 1-12 1-13 (CHAPTER 12 21 122 123 4 125 126 127 28 Ro 12-10 2 12-12 12-13 12-14 12-15 12-16 2-17 12.18 Part tlt CHAPTER 13 134 132 133 1B 13S 136 13-7 CONTENTS ‘Compound Nucleus—Level Density Direct Reactions ‘The Fission Process Heavy-lon Nuclear Reactions Photonuclear Reactions “Intermediate Energy” Reactions Bibliography Problems NEUTRONS Neutron Sources Slowing Down of Neutrons Energy Distributions of Neutrons from a Monoenergetic Source Mean Distance from a Point Source vs. Energy Diffusion Theory—Introduction The Age Equation Diffusion of Thermal Neutrons Chain-Reacting Pile Pile Kinetics Breeding and Converting Fusion Reactions Erfect of Chemical Binding of Hydrogen Scatterer Low-Energy Scattering from Complex Nuclei Determination of Scattering Lengths Scattering in Ortho- and Parahydrogen Interference Phenomena in Crystals Index of Refraction Polarization of Slow-Neutron Beams Bibliography Problems Particles INTRODUCTION To PARTICLE PHYSICS General Ideas, Nomenclature, and Catalogue of Particles Associated Production; Strangeness Interactions; Conservation Laws Some New Symmetries and Selection Rules CPT Theorem Crossing Relations Experiments on Mass, Life, and Other Particle Properties Bibliography Problems 636 638 649 652 657 659 665 670 673 675 675 681 681 696 704 701 n2 113 716 ns nsx CONTENTS (CHAPTER 14 141 142 143 144 15-1 15.2 15.3 154 15-5 15.6 15-7 15-8 15.9 15-10 CHAPTER 16 16-1 16-2 16-3 CHAPTER 17 m1 172 173 14 ITS 17-6 177 CHAPTER 18 18-1 132 LEPTONS Neutrinos Muon Production and Decay Muon Capture Spin and Magnetic Moment of Muons Bibliography Problems PIONS AND OTHER BOSONS ‘The Yukawa Interaction Spin of the Pions Intrinsic Parity Isotopic Spin of Pions Pion-Nucleon Scattering and Resonances Nuclear-Collision Production and Photoproduction of Pions ‘The p, «, and Other Strongly Decaying Bosons Dalitz Plots ‘The 9 and K Mesons Peripheral Collisions Bibliography Problems BARYONS: Baryon Generation Baryon Spin Measurements Hyperfragments Bibliography Problems CLASSIFICATION OF HADRONS, QUARKS, AND SU (3) Sakata’s Model; Quarks ‘Combination of Quarks Mass Formulas Cross-Section Predictions by SU (3) and Quarks Regge Recurrences Charm Color Bibliography Problems FORM FACTORS AND e“e~ COLLISIONS Form Factors for Nucleons Electron-Proton Inelastic Scattering 70 BI 732 BI 740 741 747 748 748 154 157 163 161 ™ 719 184 790 795 798 801 801 809 810 814 814 816 816 819 824 829 329 832 836 839 841 841CONTENTS x 18.3. Electron-Positron Collisions 851 18-4 The y-Particles 854 Bibliography 860 Problems 860 CHAPTER 19 WEAK INTERACTIONS REVISITED 861 19-1 Conserved Current 862 19-2 Selection Rules in Strange Decays; Cabibbo’s Theory 866 19-3. Neutral Currents; Unification of Electromagnetism and Weak Interactions sm 19-4 Intermediate Bosons 874 19-5 Some Further Examples of Weak Decays 875 19-6 The K°-K° Doublet 880 19-7 CP Violation in K Decay 887 Bibliography 889 Problems 889 CHAPTER 20 HIGH-ENERGY COLLISIONS OF HADRONS so 20-1 Introduction 801 20-2 Statistical Theory of High-Energy Collisions 895 20-3 Main Features of High-Energy Collisions 897 20-4 Diffraction Scattering 902 20-5 Exchange Collisions; Regge Poles 907 20-6 Inclusive Reactions; Scaling 910 Bibliography 918 Problems 919 APPENDIX A Scattering from a Fixed Center of Force 920 APPENDIXB Effective Range 926 APPENDIXC Description of Polarized Beams (Spin 1) 929 Problem 935 APPENDIXD Kinematics of Binary Collisions 936 Bibliography 938 Problems 939 APPENDIXE Composition of Angular Momenta 942 ‘Author Index 949 ‘Subject index 959Preface to the Second Edition ‘The second edition preserves the goals, level, and spirit of the first. In the last decade nuclear and particle physics have become increasingly technical, and both theory and experiment have grown more complicated. This is an unavoidable trend that tends to increase the gap between textbooks and origi- nal research literature in the journals, which often is intelligible to only a very restricted circle of initiates. However, the student should somehow be given a alimpse of what the specialists are doing before joining them and should ‘acquire an idea of the forest before concentrating on the tree. One of the aims of this book is to convey such a general, but not superficial, view of the subject. It gave me great pleasure to find out that colleagues often consulted the first edition for orientation in areas remote from their specialty, and to dis- ‘cover that in several physics libraries the book looks soiled and worn from the ‘use it has had. 1 fully realize that one cannot do justice to many important ideas sketched in the text without a heavier theoretical equipment than is used here, but I decided not to change the theoretical level because doing so would have completely altered the character of the book. Thave revised the whole text, updating numerical data and improving derivations and writing style. I have added or replaced many figures, and @ study of the illustrations should be rewarding for the inquisitive student. The bibliographies have been modernized, especially by the addition of easily accessible review articles that are known to me for their quality and clarity. Problems have been added and changed. I have tried not to increase the length of the book and, whenever possible, subjects that are common knowl- edge or are usually taught in other courses have been omitted.xv PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Occasionally I have been able to shorten some chapters, especially in Part 1 ("Tools”). In Part 2 (“The Nucleus”), Chapter 6 (“Elements of the Nuclear Structure and Systematics”) attempts to give an idea of modern trends in nuclear mod- els without becoming too technical. Chapter 9 (“Beta Decay”) has been corre- lated with Chapter 19 (“Weak Interactions Revisited”). The parts of Chapter 11 (“Nuclear Reactions”) that deal with fission and heavy-ion reactions have been rewritten. I have entirely reorganized Part 3 (“Particles”) to take into account the substantial progress, including the recent developments on ‘quarks, that has taken place in this area. Many friends and colleagues have helped me materially by explaining certain subjects to me and by reading or improving sections of the book. In particular I am indebted to W. Chinowsky, E. Commins, D. Jackson, D. Judd, L. Moretto, D. Prosperi, A. Rindi, G. Shapiro, H. Shugart, M. Suzuki, and G. Temmer. CERN, LBL, SLAC, FNAL, and other laboratories are ‘among those that graciously supplied illustrations. 1 especially thank Gary Lum for the questions, suggestions, and comments he made while valiantly helping to ferret out errors and check the proofs. E, SeortPreface to the First Edition This book is addressed to physics students, chemists, and engineers who want to acquire enough knowledge of nuclear and subnuclear physics to be able to work in this field. The book is definitely an introduction. The coverage is rather broad, but the treatment has been kept as simple as possi- ble, compatible with a professional understanding of the subject. ‘While I have tried to convey as much as possible an intuitive understand- ing of the phenomena encountered, it is nonetheless impossible to discuss nuclear physics without a moderate use of quantum mechanics; and it is assumed that the person who wishes to become acquainted with nuclear physics is also willing to acquire the background in physics necessary to an understanding of this specialized subject. In my opinion, the presentation of nuclear physies at the introductory level should be the same for both the future theoretical physicist and the future experimental physicist. This account should be useful to a beginner regardless of his intended specializa~ tion. ‘The book aims at the same level as Rasett’s Elements of Nuclear Physics and Fermi’s notes collected by Orear, Rosenfeld, and Schluter. I have drawn liberally from the latter. In the selection of materials I have followed my personal preferences. This may have resulted in an emphasis on some parts of nuclear physies better known to me, at the expense of others equally im- portant. Furthermore most of my own work has been experimental, and this necessarily affects my outlook. The permissible length of such a book and my own knowledge of the subject are some of the limiting factors. However, I hope that some loose ends will provide food for thought to interested students and stimulate them to further reading.yvi_ PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION The bibliography appended to every chapter lists for the most part review articles and monographs suited to more detailed study. Little of the original literature is included. Although many important and exciting papers are thus omitted, the references selected are probably the most profitable for a be- ginner. The Selected Bibliography gives the catalog of a small, basic, personal library for a research worker in the area covered by this book. Problems vary considerably in difficulty. Some are simple numerical ap- plications, and others contain interesting supplements to a discussion in the text. In teaching an undergraduate course in nuclear physics, I have found it possible to cover in two semesters a large portion of the material in this book. For a shorter course one might omit completely Part I (which is of interest mainly to prospective experimental nuclear physicists and which contains fewer fundamentals) and reduce drastically the content of some of the other chapters. In general, I have tried to make the individual chapters relatively independent of each other, even at the risk of repetition. Sections beginning, and ending with a heavy black dot may be omitted in the first reading; these often require a deeper knowledge of quantum mechanics on the part of the student than does the rest of the book. T want to acknowledge gratefully the help of numerous colleagues who have read sections of this book and often have given me valuable advice. In particular, I want to thank Drs. Chamberlain, Fano, Frauenfelder, Gold- berger, Judd, Rasmussen, Rosenfeld, Shafer, Steiner, Telegdi, Trilling, and Wu. The responsibility for any errors in this text is, of course, entirely mine. My thanks also go to Mrs. Patricia Brown, who patiently typed the manuscript, and to my wife Flfriede Segré, who compiled the indexes. E, Seoré Berkeley, California July 1964Selected Bibliography ‘The following selected bibliography lists books covering a wider range of subjects than the works cited at chapter ends. In referring to this bibliography wwe shall use an abbreviated form of the last name(8) of the author(s) and the year of publication of the book. For example, (Ra 56) means Ramsey, N. F. Molecular Beams, Oxford University Press, New York, 1956. INTRODUCTORY BM 56. Bethe, H. A., and Philip Morrison, Elementary Nuclear Theory, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1956. Co 71” Cohen, B. L., Concepts of Nuclear Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York, i971, E166 Elton, L. R. B, Introductory Nuclear Theory, Saunders, Philadelphia, 1966. Fe$0_ Fermi, Enrico, Nuclear Physies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1950. Fr 66 Frazer, W. R., Elementary Particles, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, LJ, 1966. FKM 64 Friedlinder, G., J. W. Kennedy, and J. Miller, Nuclear and Radio- chemistry, Wiley, New York, 1964. Le 73 Leon, M., Particle Physics: An Introduction, Academic Press, New York, 1973. Meyerhof, W. E., Elements of Nuclear Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967. Pe 72 Perkins, D., Introduction to High Energy Physics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1972.will SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY MORE ADVANCED TEXTS BW 52 Blatt, J. M., and V. F. Weisskopf, Theoretical Nuclear Physics, Wiley, New York, 1952. BM @ Bohr, A., and B. R. Mottelson, Nuclear Structure, Volumes I and I, Benjamin, New York, 1969-75. De Benedetti, S., Nuclear Interactions, Wiley, New York, 1964. Feld, B. T., Models of Elementary Particles, Blaisdell, Waltham, Mass., 1969. Gasiorowicz, S., Elementary Particle Physics, Wiley, New York, 1966. Ka 64 Kallén, G., Elementary Particle Physics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1964. Nishijima, K., Fundamental Particles, Benjamin, New York, 1965. 71 Omnis, R,, Intraduction to Particle Physics, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1971 P 62. Preston, M. A., Physics of the Nucleus, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1962. Se 59 Segré, Emilio, (ed.), Experimental Nuclear Physics, Wiley, New York, 1953-1959, W 71 Williams, W. S. C., An Introduction to Elementary Particles, 2nd ed., ‘Academic Press, New York, 1971. IMPORTANT MONOGRAPHS. AS 60 Ajzenberg-Selove, Fay, Nuclear Spectroscopy, Parts A and B, ‘Academic Press, New York, 1960. BH §5 Bethe, H. A., and F. de Hoffmann, Mesons and Fields, Row, Peter- son, Evanston, Ill, 1955. Com 73 Commins, E. D., Weak Interactions, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973. Dewitt, C., and M. Jacob (ed.), High Energy Physics, Gordon & Breach, New York, 1965, En 62 Endt, P. M., and P. B. Smith (cds.), Nuclear Reactions, North-Hol- land, Amsterdam, 1962. Fe 51 Fermi, Enrico, Elementary Particles, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1951. Fey 61 Feynman, R., The Theory of Fundamental Processes, Benjamin York, 1961 GES2_ Glasstone, Samuel, and M. C. Edlund, The Elements of Nuclear Reac- tor Theory, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1952. GW 64 Goldberger, M. L., and K. M. Watson, Collision Theory, Wiley, New York, 1964. H63_ Hagedorn, R., Relativistic Kinematics, Benjamin, New York, 1963. Haissinsky, M., Nuclear Chemistry and Its Applications, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1964. NewSELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY xix Hey 48 Hevesy, G., Radioactive Indicators, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1948 Hu 53 Hughes, D. J., Pile Neutron Research, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1953. Ko 58 Kopfermann, Hans, Nuclear Moments, Academic Press, New York, 1958. La 66 Lamarsch, J. R., Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, Addison- Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1966. Livingston, M. S., and J. P. Blewett, Particle Accelerators, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962. MS 55 “Mayer, M. G., and J. H. D. Jensen, £1 Shell Siructure, Wiley, New York, 1955. Persico, E., E. Ferrari, and S. E. Segre, Principles of Particle Accelerators, Benjamin, New York, 1968. Ra 56 Ramsey, N. F., Molecular Beams, Oxford University Press, New York, 1956. Ro $3. Rossi, Bruno, High Energy Particles, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1952. Si 65 Siegbahn, Kai, Beta- and Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy, North-Holland, ‘Amsterdam, 2nd ed., 1965. Sm46_ Smyth, H. D., Atomic Energy for Military Purposes, Princeton Univer- sity Press, Princeton, N.J., 1946. WW 58. Weinberg, A. M., and E. P. Wigner, The Physical Theory of Neutron ‘Chain Reactors, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1958. W 6 Wilkinson, D. H. (ed.), Isospin in Nuclear Physics, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1969, WM 66 Wu, C.S, and S. A. Moszkowski, Bera Decay, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1966. smentary Theory of Nuclear ATLASES General Electric Co., Nuclear Chart, Schenectady, N-Y., 1972. GMLB 54 W. Geniner, H. Maier-Leibnitz, and W. Bothe, An Atlas of Typi- cal Expansion Chamber Photographs, Pergamon Press, London, 1954. LHP 67 Lederer, C. M,, J. M. Hollander, and I. Perlman, Table of Isotopes, 6th ed., Wiley, New York, 1967. PEP §9 Powell, C.F. P. H. Fowler, and D. H. Perkins, The Study of Ele- ‘mentary Particles by the Photographic Method, Pergamon Press, London, 1959, RW 52 Rochester, G. D., and J. G. Wilson, Cloud Chamber Photographs of the Cosmic Radiation, Pergamon Press, London, 1952. RPP_ Particle Data Group, “Review of Particle Properties.” Published annu- ally in Ree. Mod. Phys. or Phys. Letters.x SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY In addition to these books, there are excellent review articles in Annual International Conference on High Energy Physics (RoC). Annual Reviews of Nuclear Science (Ann. Rev. Nucl. Sci). Progress in Elementary Particle and Cosmic Ray Physics (Progr. Elem. Par- ticle Cosmic Ray Phys.). Progress in Nuclear Physics (Progr. Nucl. Phys.). Reviews of Modern Physics (Rev. Mod. Phys.). and in many summer schools, such as Les Houches, or Varenna. Almost none of the publications listed above are completely up to date, and the year of publication must always be kept in mind in consulting them. The list is by no means complete but should be sufficient as a starting point for finding more detailed bibliographical data ‘A set of notes on quantum mechanics 10 be used for reference is Fe 61 Fermi, Enrico, Notes on Quantum Mechanics, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1961 Standard books on quantum mechanics are, eg Kae 65 Kampffer, F. A., Concepis in Quantum Mechanics, Academic Press, New York, 1965. Ma 57 Mandl, F., Quantum Mechanics, 2nd ed., Butterworth, London, 1957. Me 61 Messiah, Albert, Quantum Mechanics, 2 vols,, Wiley, New York, 1961-1962. Se 68 Schiff, L. 1, Quantum Mechanics, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968. As a reference for electromagnetism, we suggest Ja 75_ Jackson, J. D., Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1975, General references on many subjects are CO 67 Condon, E. U., and H. Odishaw, Handbook of Physics, MeGraw- Hill, New York, 1967, FIE Fluegge, S., Encyclopedia of Physics, Springer, Berlin, 1955. ‘The “constants” of physies, including masses of particles, etc., are in a continuous process of revision, as measurement precision improves. A recent list of physical constants is given in Rev. Mod. Phys. 41, 477 (1969), and in RPP.Nuclei and Particles Second EditionISBN 0:6053-8061-7 CHAPTER 1 History and Introduction Although speculation on the nature of matter appears at the very dawn of Greek philosophy, a scientific study of this subject, in the modern sense, was not initiated until the sixteenth century, when experiment and mathematical analysis, which together constitute what we today call the “scientific method,” were first used in conjunction with each other. However, simpler and easier problems had to be solved before the structure of matter could be investigated scientifically. It is true that the original steps in the kinetic theory of gases, employing strictly atomic models, were taken by Daniel Bernoulli in the eighteenth century (1738). But the branch of science in which atomic concepts first assumed a fundamental importance was chemistry. The tremendous success of the atomic hypothesis (Dalton, 1803) in explaining both qualitatively and quantitatively the innumerable facts of chemistry, the construction of tables of atomic weights, the discovery of Avogadro's law (1811) and of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis (1833) are ail major achievements of the first part of the nineteenth century. They made the atomic hypothesis highly credible, and it is surprising, perhaps, that the very existence of atoms should have remained the subject of a deep skepticism lasting into the early years of the twentieth century. It must be pointed out, however, that an explanation of all the facts of chemistry then known required only a very general hypothesis, one almost Emilio Seré, Nuclei and Particles: An Inroduetion to Nucl Edition Copyright © 1977 by Addivon-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Advanced Book Program. All rights reserved, No part ofthis publication may be reprodvced, stored in a retrieval system, of transmitted, in any form of by any means, eleconie, mechanical photocopving, recording, of ‘otherwise, without the prior permission ofthe publisher. 1 and Subnuclear Physics, Second 12 1. HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION completely lacking any details of the specific properties of atoms, such as their mass, size, and shape. Detailed knowledge of atomic structure was acquired only after 1910. In the early history of this last development, chem- istry, kinetic theory, and the study of electrical discharges in gases played a very important role, With the advent of quantum theory, spectroscopy be- came the main tool for the exploration of the “outer layers” of the atom. In recent years, the nucleus has come under intense study, and the burgeoning of a subnuclear physics is already apparent. ‘The first experimental discoveries that made possible an attack on the structure of the atom followed each other in rapid succession. In 1895 Rént- gen discovered X rays; early in 1896 Becquerel discovered radioactivity; and a little later Sir J. J. Thomson, Wiechert, and Kaufmann gave proof of the independent existence of the negative electron. These were soon followed by the introduction into physics of the idea of quanta of energy, a concept that developed in a rather roundabout way (Planck, 1900), Quantum concepts, which originated in thermodynamics, were destined to dominate the entire field of the physics of small objects. Together with Einstein's special theory of relativity (1905), they form the foundation on which modern physics rests. While itis impossible to recount here the fascinating history of the interrela- tions of all these lines of inquiry, a single example will not be out of place. Becquerel discovered radioactivity while (at the suggestion of Poincaré) investigating in uranium salts a hypothetical relation between optical fluores- cence and the then recently discovered X rays. This relation proved to be illusory, but the pertinent studies opened the gate to momentous develop- ments, Marie Curie observed that, although the radioactivity of uranium com- pounds taken from pure chemicals was proportional to the uranium content, the ores from which they were extracted showed much more radivactivity than could be accounted for by the uranium content alone. She then per- formed chemical analyses of the ores and measured the radioactivity of the different fractions she had isolated (Fig. 1-1). This method, which was, and still js, fundamental to radiochemistry, led to the discovery of polonium and radium (1898). Surprise followed surprise when it was found that the radioac- tive atoms changed their chemical identity with time, Intense study of the phenomenon led to the theory of radioactive decay (Rutherford and Soddy, 1903; von Schweidler, 1905). According to this theory, radioactive atoms of a certain species will disintegrate spontaneously, the number. that disintegrate per unit time being, on the average, proportional to the total number present but showing fluctuations characteristic of random phenomena. The law is expressed by the differential equation for the average number of atoms or nuclei, N, - dN =AN dt or by its integral N()=N (Oye L-1098-¢508-0 NSEISBN 0.8053-8601-7 1, HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION 3 © ct ile | Figure 1-1 Apparatus used by Mme M. Curie to measure the conductivity of air under the influence of radioactive radiations. 4B, plate capacitor; the radioactive substance is in B; CD, ground connection; £, electrometer: p, battery; Q, piezoelectric quartz; 7, weight, [Mme Curie, 1899] where the “decay constant” d is a characteristic of the nucleus. Investigation of the rays emitted during disintegration led to their classification into three types (Fig. 1-2). Alpha rays are strongly ionizing particles and are absorbed by a few centimeters of air. The deflection of alpha particles in electric and magnetic fields identified them as helium atoms with a double positive charge, or He**. This conclusion was confirmed by a direct experiment in which alpha particles were introduced into an evacuated glass tube. After a sufficient umber had accumulated, an electric discharge in the tube showed the helium spectral lines (Rutherford and Royds, 1908) (see Fig. 1-3). \ Figure 1-2 Deflection of alpha, beta, and gamma rays in a magnetic field. ‘The nomenclature is due to Rutherford (1899). [Mme Curie, Thesis, 1904,]41. HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION Figure 1-3 Radon contained in the thin-walled capillary tube AB expels alpha particles through the walls. Helium accumulates in the evacuated space T and when compressed in the capillary V shows, in an electric discharge, the characteristic spectrum. (E. Rutherford and T. Royds, 1908.] Beta rays penetrate aluminum a few tenths of a millimeter thick and are identical with atomic electrons. They were identified by their deflection in electric and magnetic fields. Gamma rays penetrate several centimeters of lead, are undeflected by lectric or magnetic fields, and are high-energy electromagnetic radiation identical in nature to X rays. Other types of radiation or particles of great importance to nuclear physics, such as the neutron, were discovered much later and were not considered in the early days following the discovery of radioactivity. ‘The changes in chemical identity resulting from the emission of particles by radioactive substances were summarized in the displacement law enun- ciated by Russell, Soddy, and Fajans (1913): A substance is transformed (1) by emission of an alpha particle, into the substance that precedes it by two places in the periodic system; (2) by emission of a beta particle, into the substance that follows it by one place in the periodic system. The atomic weight diminishes by four units in the first case, and remains unchanged in. the second. An alpha disintegration followed by two beta disintegrations {-10ps-¢508-0 NESTISBN 08053-86017 1, HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION 5 should, therefore, result in a substance having a different atomic weight but “occupying the same place” (isotope) in the periodic table as the “parent” substance. The concept of isotope thus developed for radioactive elements was extended by J. J. Thomson and Aston to the ordinary stable elements (0913-1919), The discovery by von Lave, Friedrich, and Knipping (1912) of the diffrac- tion of X rays opened up a new field of spectroscopy. In the hands of Moseley it ted to the concept of atomic number Z and to the clarification of the concept of a chemical element. All atoms having the same atomic number belong to the same element. A little earlier, in 1911, Rutherford in studying the scattering of alpha particles by foils of different materials had found that he could account for the experimental results by planetary model of the atom. The atomic number Z was then interpreted as the charge of the nucleus in units of the same magnitude as the charge of the electron. Applying to this simple model the idea of the quantum, Bohr (1913) accounted for the hydro- gon spectrum with admirable precision. This discovery was the starting point for the tumultuous development of atomic physics that culminated in the late 1920s in the establishment of quantum mechanics (de Broglie, Heisenberg, Born, Schrédinger, Dirac, Pauli, and others). The application of quantum mechanics to atomic phenomena was particularly fertile because, although the frame of the theory was new and different, the Coulomb law of electricity was all that was needed to explain innumerable phenomena of spectroscopy, chemistry, and solid-state physies and, in general, to give a complete account of the atomic and molecular properties as distinguished from the nuclear ‘ones. In all these studies it was usually sufficient to schematize the nucleus as 4 point charge with a certain mass. For a while the theoretical study of the nucleus profited only slightly from quantum mechanics, for the interaction Jaw governing the nuclear constituents, and even their identity, was unknown. Indeed present knowledge of the interaction law is still far from complete. In 1919 Rutherford succeeded in breaking up nitrogen nuclei by alpha- particle bombardment and in showing that hydrogen nuclei were emitted (Fig. 1-4). For these the word proton (xpsirov = frst) was coined, because it was thought that they were a sort of primordial universal substance, reviving an old hypothesis of Prout (1815). Because protons often appeared in nuclear disintegrations, and some nuclei were known to emit electrons, the most natural hypothesis about the nuclear construction of a complex nucleus was that it consisted of 4 protons and A Z electrons, where 4 is an integer called the mass number. This accounted for the fact that the single isotopes have atomic masses ap- proximately equal to integral multiples of the atomic mass of hydrogen. De- partures from the exact integral numbers were taken to represent the binding energy of the nuclei according to Einstein's relation (1903) E= Ame where E is the binding energy and Am the mass defect, or difference between6 1. HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION A A U Figure 1-4 Apparatus used by Rutherford for disintegrating the nitrogen nucleus. The alpha particles emitted by the source D were absorbed in the gas used to fill the box, When the gas through which the particles passed was nitrogen, scintillations were observed on the sereen F even when the absorbing. matter between the source and the screen was sufficient to stop the primary alpha particles. Rutherford concluded that the scintillations were due to pro- tons ejected with great speed from the nitrogen nucleus by the impact of an alpha particle. (E. Rutherford, 1919.) the sum of the masses of the constituents and the mass of the complex nucleus, However, the hypothesis of a nucleus composed of electrons and protons proved untenable, for reasons that will be discussed later, and was replaced by a model, now universally accepted, according to which the nucleus com- prises Z protons and A — Z neutrons. The neutron, discovered in a dramatic succession of events in which Bothe, Joliot, and Chadwick played a vital part, is neutral and has a mass approximately equal to that of the proton (1932). In 1934 L. Curie and F. Joliot discovered that many stable elements under the bombardment of alpha particles became radioactive isotopes of other commonly stable elements (artificial radioactivity). Soon thereafter Fermi, Amaldi, Pontecorvo, Rasetti, and Segré showed that neutrons could be slowed down to thermal energies and that at low velocities they were partieu- larly effective in disintegrating other nuclei, This discovery was followed by the fission of uranium (Hahn and Strassmann, 1938), a particular reaction in Which neutrons split the uranium nucleus into two large fragments, with the emission of several additional neutrons. This opened the way to the liberation of nuclear energy on a large scale (Fermi, 1942) and to its practical applica- tion Quantum mechanies in the hands of Dirac had predicted the existence of 4 positive electron. The positive electron, or positron, was discovered by C. D. ‘Anderson in 1932 (Fig. 1-5), and the similar antiparticle on the nuclear level, z &ISBN 09053.8601.7 1, HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION 7 Figure 1-8 Positron. A particle travels from the lower to the upper part of a cloud chamber, as indicated by the fact that it loses energy in crossing the central lead plate. Its charge is postive, as indicated by the curvature in the magnetic field applied to the chamber. The curvature and specific ionization indicate that it has electronic mass. [C. D. Anderson, 1932,] the antiproton, was discovered by Chamberlain, Segré, Wiegand, and Ypsi- lantis in 1955. In the early 1930s the first particle accelerators (Cockeroft and Walton, 1931; Lawrence, 1931) were invented and built. Artificial acceleration of par- ticles gave a new dimension to nuclear and particle physics, making possible intensities and energies many orders of magnitude greater than those attain- able with natural sources; it also made possible the use of projectiles that Were not available naturally. It freed particle physics from its dependence on cosmic rays, which, although still unsurpassed as energy, are much less adapt- able to systematic experimentation. Accelerator science is now a chapter of physics in itself, one in which ingenious new ideas, such as phase stability (Veksler, MeMillan, 1945) and strong focusing (Christofilos, 1950; Courant, Livingston, Snyder, 1952), implemented by very advanced technology, make possible the attainment of beam energies and intensities that are limited only by money. The phenomenology of beta decay presented great puzzles, which were in part overcome by Fermi (1933) with the help of the neutrino hypothesis of Pauli (1930). Fermi’s theory introduced a new type of force in Nature, the so-called weak interaction. Later this force was found to be important in many phenomena of particle physics. It reserved a great surprise when Lee@ 1. HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION and Yang (1957) surmised that it might not be invariant with respect to parity transformation, a hypothesis soon confirmed by experiment (Wu, Ambler, Hayward, Hoppes, and Hudson, 1958). This failure of parity conservation was one of the major discoveries of the 1950s. It stimulated many experiments and Jed to the subsequent surprising result that the decay of neutral K’s (a particle) violates not only the conservation of parity but also the combined parity and charge conjugation transformation (Christenson, Cronin, Fitch, and Tuslay, 1964) which is obeyed by beta decay. The origin of this violation is stil a major puzzle. Fermi’s theory also furnished the model that inspired H. Yukawa’s theory of nuclear forces (1935). In his theory Yukawa postulated the existence of a particle (the meson or pion) having a mass intermediate between the mass of the electron and that of the proton. Particles of intermediate mass between that of the proton and of the elec- ‘on were detected in the thirties by several investigators, including Anderson, Neddermeyer, Rossi, Stevenson, and Street. However, they proved to be, not the expected ones (Conversi, Pancini, and Piccioni, 1947), but another unsus- pected type. Nevertheless, the Yukawa meson was ultimately found (Lattes, Occhialini, and Powell, 1947; Fig. 1-6). There promptly followed the dis- covery of several other particles that are still only slightly understood. With the improvement of technical means of production and detection, such as the giant accelerators and the bubble chamber, the subnuclear world has shown a great complexity. Many “particles” have been discovered, each accompanied by its antiparticle. To order this complexity it has become nec- essary 10 introduce a new quantum number, strangeness (Gell-Mann and Nishijima, 1953), and we see now the beginning of a classification based on group theory (Gell-Mann (1962) and Ne’eman (1961) Experiments at Brookhaven National Laboratory and at CERN have demonstrated the existence of two different kinds of neutrinos (1962-63). In 1974, some new particles, different from all known ones because of their relatively long life and high mass have emerged from different reactions at BNL and at SLAC. From the theoretical side we see some speculations that indicate deep relations between weak, electromagnetic, and perhaps even strong interactions. Particle physics is still in a state of flux and many fundamental problems remain unsolved. For instance, one cannot relate the quantization of the elee- trie charge to other phenomena, nor does one know why the proton is stable ‘or what determines the mass difference between muon and electron. This extremely sketchy historical outline has touched only on the mile- stones in the development of nuclear physics, without regard to applications or techniques. It cannot be emphasized enough that the whole development bears a resemblance to the evolution of a living being. All parts are deeply and vitally interelated, and the development of highly abstract theories is as necessary to progress as the construction of gigantic accelerating machines. {-1908-€508°0 NESTISBN 0-8053-806t 1, HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION Figure 1-6 A pion from cosmic rays seen in a photograph emulsion. (a) First observation of the decay of a pion. [Lattes, Muirhead, Occhialini, and Powell, 1947.] (b) An carly observation of the n-y-e decay. The particles travel in the direction of increasing ionization. The range of the jis 600 microns. [Courtesy Prof. C.F. Powell] °10 1,_ HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION ‘The influence exerted on other branches of science by the unfolding of nuclear physics has been deep and powerful: In chemistry artificial elements have been created (Segré, 1937), and the periodic table has been extended considerably (McMillan, Seaborg, and others). The use of isotopes (Hevesy and Paneth, 1913) as tracers in chemistry and biology has added a tool to these sciences probably comparable in importance with the use of the balance and the microscope. Similarly, the medical sciences have been benefited greatly, and even geology and archaeology have felt the effect of nuclear methods. And, of course, the tremendous technological possibilities, in both peace and war, that nuclear physics has opened up are obvious. 14 UNITS. ‘Nuclear physics employs several systems of units particularly suited to its problems. In order (0 be able to use them freely as the occasion arises, we shall mention them briefly. The widely used egs system comes first, but since it is often numerically inconvenient, different branches of physics have devel- oped their own systems. The quantity e?/he = a= 1/"137"= 1/137 +0360, being dimensionless, has the same numerical value in all of them and is called the Sommerfeld fine-structure constant. In atomic physics Hartree provided a system of “atomic units” in which the charge of the electron, 1.8032 x 10" esu = 1.6022 x 10" coulomb (1) is the unit of charge; the rest mass of the electron, ‘m= 9.1095 x 10-8 151100 MeV (1.2) is the unit of mass; and Planck’s constant divided by 2=, b= h/2s 1.0546 x 10-7” erg sec = 6.5822 x 10"? MeV sec (1-13) is the unit of angular momentum or action. In this system the unii of length is the radius of the first Bohr orbit in hydrogen, if the mass of the proton were infinite 4g =H? /me? = 0.52918 x 10-8 em (14) ‘The unit of velocity is the electron velocity in this orbit, ro e/h (1-15) L-Love-£508-0 NESTISBN 0-8053-8061-7 11 UNITS 14 and the unit of energy is twice the ionization potential of hydrogen, me* /1P = 4.3598 x 10-"' erg = 27.2116 eV (1-16) In practical nuclear physics lengths are sometimes expressed in fermis (or femtometers, F), 10 em, and nuclear eross sections are generally measured in barns, 10~* em?. Energies are expressed in eV or MeV (electron volts, million electron volts), 1 eV = 1.60219 x 10°? erg (1.7) Masses may also be measured in MeV by using mc* in place of m. For instance, the rest mass m of the electron is 0.51100 MeV, because numerically ‘me? expressed in MeV takes that value. Similarly, momenta may be measured in MeV/c. To do this, multiply the momentum by the velocity of light. The result has the dimensions of energy and can be expressed in MeV. This number then gives the measure of the momentum in MeV/c. The relativistic relation between total energy £ (including rest energy) and. momentum p is cp + mich = B? (1-18) With the two limiting cases E=me?+(p/2m) nonrelativistic, or n.r. (I-19) E=cp extreme relativistic, or e.r. (1.10) In the e-r. case, the energy in MeV is numerically equal to the momentum in MeV/c. In the nur, case, calling E,;, the kinetic energy, we have P= QmE gn)? (eta) and the momentum in MeV/c is given numerically by this relation if the energy and the mass are expressed in MeV, as indicated above. Velocities are often measured by taking the velocity of light ¢ = 2.997925 x 10" cm/sec (1-112) as the unit. They are then indicated by the dimensionless quantity Beo/e (41.13) The quantity —1_. any? (lta) is also important,42 1. HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION In theoretical work a system of units in which fiecel (e115) is frequently used. If the mass m of some important particle, such as the electron or the proton, is chosen as unit of mass, the length /me, called the Compton wavelength, has the numerical value 1; itis thus the unit of length. Similarly, the time f/ me? has the numerical value 1 and is the unit of time. The energy me? has the numerical value | and is the energy unit, ete. In Table 1-1 we give the cgs value of some units for A= c= 1 and m, = 1 orm, = 1. TABLE 1-1 UNITS FOR f= mol Length ame. 380 x10" em Time Ayre 1.288 x10" see Mass m 91109 10-7" 1.6726 x 10-* g Energy met 8187 x10-? eg 1503 10°? erg 05110 Mev 93826 MeV In the same units the charge of the electron is (1/“137™)" 8.542 x 10? and the Fermi constant of beta decay (see Chap. 9) is 1.025 x 10-5/m2. Another unit of length often used is the classical radius of the electron, 62 /me? = ry = 2.81794 x 10° em (1.16) The classical radius of the electron, its Compton wavelength, and the first Bohr radius are related according to the equations ay, /a™ ro/a® Q-1.17) In mass-spectrographic work the unit of mass was one-sixteenth the mass of 0. In 1961 it was changed to one-twelfth the mass of °C (see Chap. 5). We shall use these different units according to convenience and, when necessary, shall specify them in detail. For utmost precision in numerical values of physical constants and errors, see the current RPP. 1.2. TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS. De-es08-0 NUS] A few terms that may not be familiar from elementary physics are defined briefly below, ‘A nucleon is a neutron or a proton. A nuclide is a certain species ofISBN 0-8053-8061-7 1.2 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 13 nucleus characterized by the atomic number Z and the mass number 4. The terms nucleus and nuclide can often be interchanged without confusion. All nuclides with the same Z are isotopes; all nuclides with the same 4 are iso- bars; all nuctides with the same A ~ Z are isotones. Nuclides that have the same A and Z but different states of excitation are called isomers. One of the most important concepts in nuclear physics is that of cross section. Consider a beam of intensity Z, a beam of protons, for example, for which 1 protons em-? sec~' cross a region containing target nuclei. The target contains N nuclei cm~? of material. A thickness dx of target will con- tain N dx nuclei cm~*, and the beam crossing it will be attenuated by colli- sions. If df is the change in the intensity, we expect dl to be proportional to 7 and to N dx. dl = ~I0N dx (12.1) The proportionality factor 0, which has the dimensions of area, is called the ‘nuclear cross section of the target for the particles of the beam. The reason for this name is that if we think of the target as extremely magnified and look at it from the direction of the impinging beam, we see a picture like that in Fig. 1-7. The irregularly disposed spots represent the nuclei of the target. Their number is N dx per square centimeter. The fractional area they occupy is ON dx, and if the particles hitting them are removed from the beam, the variation of the intensity is indeed given by Eq. (1-2.1). Integration of Eq. (1-2.1) gives, for « constant, T(x) = 1(Oje- = (1-22) where 7(0) is the incident intensity and x is the thickness traversed. The quantity op (123) oe ae oe @ eT a= Nae e ° | a N* o, where N° is the number of nuclei per unit area and a is the nuclear eross section; N* = (number of nuclei per unit volume) x (thickness of target).141. _HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION is sometimes used and is called the absorption coefficient; its reciprocal is the mean free path A. The number I(x) /1(0) = (12.4) is often called attenuation. Not alll radiation is attenuated according to Eq. (1-2.2), because when the ‘beam changes its properties (e.g., energy) in crossing the target, o may depend on x. In such cases we cannot speak of an absorption coefficient. ‘We may also make finer distinctions in the cross section. For instance, we may consider whether the collision is elastic or inelastic, designating the cor- responding cross sections 04, and digg. By elastic collision is meant a collision in which projectile and target before and after the collision are the same and hhave the same energy in the center-of-mass (c.m.) system. To illustrate, a proton and an aluminum nucleus upon collision are deflected from their trajectories in the c.m, system without change of energy and spin orientation; the collision is then elastic. If the proton produces a transmutation or leaves the aluminum in an excited state, the collision is inelastic. ‘The number of particles per unit area unit time scattered elastically is given by Ig = Tog dx (2.5) ‘The corresponding number undergoing inelastic processes is given by Ag = Hogg de (126) ‘The total attenuation will be ~ dl = Aly + Alga = 104+ Oma A (27) and we write Ou Pina + (128) ‘We may also consider in which direction the particles are scattered and may define a differential scattering cross section in the direction (8, @) by considering the number of particles scattered in the infinitesimal solid angle des in the direction (0, ¢). do(0, 9) do dy, into de in direction (0, 9) IN dx de (1-2.9) In the case of inelastic scattering, we may consider the energy of the scattered particle and may define a differential scattering cross section in the energy E-1908-£508-0 Nastinterval between E and E+ a, dincnergy itera d= 2 1N de de (1.210 From these examples itis clear how to define d6/ dE de for particles Scattered in a certain direction and ata certain energy. It must be pointed out that occasionally differential eross sections are written, not as do/ de, but simply a8 0(0, 4). ‘Cross sections are often measured in barns (10-™ cm?) and differential eros sections correspondingly in barns per steradian, BIBLIOGRAPHY Beyer, R. T. (ed.), Foundations of Nuclear Physics, Dover, New York, 1949. Birks, J.B, Rutherford at Manchevier, Benjamin, New York, 1963, Boorse, H.’A., and L. Motz (ed.), The World af the Atom, Basic Books, New York, 1966. Curie, Bve, Madame Curie, Doubleday. New York, 1937. Curie, Marie, Ocwores de Marie Sklodowska Curie, Paistwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, ‘Warsaw, 1954, Eve, A. S,, Rutherford, Macmillan, London, 1939 Fermi, E, Colleced Papers of Enrico Fermi, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1962-65. Fierz, M, and V. Weisskopf (eds), Theoretical Physics in the Twentieth Centwy, Wiley. terstience, New York, 1960 Frisch, O. R. (ed. Trends in Atomic Physics, Wiley-Intercience, New York, 1959. Joliot-Curie, Fréderic et Irtne, Oeueres scientifiques complies, Presses Universitaires de France, 1961, ‘Les Prix Nobel, Imprimerie Royale, P. A. Norstedt and Séner Publishers, Stockholm, 1902 present. Millikan, R. A., The Ausbiography of R. A. Milikan, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J, 1986. Planck, M., Physikalische Abhandlungen und Vortrige, P. Vieweg, Braunschweig, 1958. Rozental, 8. (ed), Niels Bohr, Wiley, New York, 1967. Rutherford, E., The Colleced Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson, Vols. I-11, Wiley-Inter- science, New York, 1962-65. Searé, E. Enrico Fermi, Physicist, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1970, Thomson, J.J, Recollections and Reflections, G. Bell, London, 1936. Whittaker, E.'T., A History of Theories of Aether and Elecirity, 2 vols, Harper Torchbooks, New York, 1960, Yokawa, H., and K. Chihiro, “Birth of the Meson Theory,” Am. J. Phys. 18, 154 (1950), PROBLEMS 4-1. In the system of units f= c= 1 we may further assume an arbitrary unit of mass. For instance, the mass of the electron is often taken as a unit. Other derived units are then given by g Fe ee ene ner neuer eee ee ICE 3 Taramany g nataton Vae 3 eewenedy z im16 1. HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION Gastomary Novation Meaning ‘notation Value m Frequency meth Vm Time Rime ym Length ame é Finesstucture eine isto Classical radius &/me? ‘of electron Bobs radius age /me? Fill in the last column, using the units you prefer. For instance, you may use MeV for energy, MeV/¢ for momentum, fermis for length, et 4-2 Make universal curves of p/m, E/me?, and E,s4/me, using a table of hyperbolic functions with = o/c as the independent variable. The argument of the hyperbolic func- tions d is connected to f by tanh A~= 8, Show that the relativistic addition of velocities corresponds to the formula for tanh(\y +A.) as funetion of tanh Ay, tanh As “13. Calculate the mean free path corresponding to the cross section of 1b per nucleon in iguid hydrogen, air at STP, Al, Ca, and Pb. “4 Plot a graph of energy in MeV versus momentum in MeV/c for electrons, pions, protons from E = 10~* to 10" MeV. ‘15 A beam of protons of 1 MeV energy containing 10* protons per second falls on a silver fol 0.05 mg em thick and is scattered at 45 deg. How many protons per second fall fon a detector 10 cm? in area located | m from the fol. For the scattering cross section use Eq, 22.17. “148 A beam of neutrons has a momentum equal to 10 GeV /e. How far do the neu trons have to travel before 50% have decayed? (Mean life of the neutron, 1013 sec.) {-1098-£508-0 NASTv > __TooLsCHAPTER The Passage of Radlations through Matter Although this subject is really a part of atomic physics rather than of nuclear physics, the effects of the passage of “radiations” through matter are of paramount importance to all nuclear experiments; in fact, a thorough knowledge of these effects is absolutely indispensable to the experimental nuclear physicist. Many arguments treated in this chapter are primarily ap- Plications of electromagnetism; for these (Ja 75) is an excellent reference. 2.1 INTRODUCTION The radiations we consider can be divided into uncharged particles (neu- trons, neutrinos) and those subject to electromagnetic interaction. For neu- trons see Chap. 12. For neutrinos of energy up to several MeV the weak interaction, the only one to which they respond, gives mean cross sections of the order of 10~* cim?; thus even the whole earth is transparent to them. The radiations for which electromagnetic phenomena are important are of three ‘main types: charged heavy particles of mass comparable with the nuclear mass, electrons, and light quanta. For all of these we must consider the en- ergy loss produced by the electromagnetic interaction, the only appreciable ‘one for electrons and muons, In addition to the electromagnetic energy loss, Emilio Sepré, Nuclei and Particles: An Introduction to Nuclear and Subnuclear Physies, Second Eaition Copyright © 1977 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Ine. Advanced Book Program. All Fights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, of lwansmitted. in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, oF ‘otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. i : 1920 2. THE PASSAGE OF RADIATION THROUGH MATTER which is the most important one up to energies of the order of 100 MeV, there is for protons and other particles subject to nuclear forces an energy loss due to nuclear collisions. Roughly speaking, this loss gives rise to an exponential absorption with a mass absorption coefficient of 100 cm? g~' for both pro- tons and neutrons. A striking difference in the absorption of the three types of radiation is that only heavy charged particles have a range. That is, a monoenergetic beam of heavy charged particles, in traversing a certain amount of matter, will lose energy without changing the number of particles in the beam. Ultimately they will all be stopped after having crossed practically the same thickness of absorber. This minimum amount of absorber that stops a particle is its range: e.., the range of polonium alpha particles, of energy 5.30 MeV, 3.84 em of air at STP (15°C and 760 mm Hg). For electromagnetic radiation, on the other hand, the absorption is exponential. Energy is removed from the ‘beam and degraded; ic., the intensity decreases in such a way that ~ tapas enn where I is the intensity of the primary radiation, 1 is the absorption coefficient, and de is the thickness traversed. Electrons exhibit a more com plicated behavior. They radiate electromagnetic energy easily because they have a large value of e/m and hence are subject to violent accelerations under the action of electric forces. Moreover, they undergo scattering to such an extent that they follow irregular trajectories. We shall now define a few terms which recur frequently in this chapter Consider a parallel beam of monoenergetic particles (e.g, protons) moving through an absorber. As they travel, they lose energy. The energy lost per unit path length is the specific energy loss and its average value is the stopping power of the absorbing substance. The specific ionization is the number of ion Pairs produced per unit path length. The specific energy loss and the specific ionization are subject to fluctuations; hence we define a mean specific energy loss, a mean specific ionization, etc. The fluctuations in energy loss also pro- dduce fluctuations in range (straggling). A plot of the number of particles in the beam penetrating to a certain depth gives the curve of Fig. 2-1. The abscissa Ry of the point passed by half the particles is called the mean range. The abscissa R,, the intersection of the x axis with the tangent at the point of steepest descent, is called the extrapolated range. The difference between the extrapolated and mean range is sometimes called the siraggling parameter. The curve showing the specific ionization as a function of the residual range is known as a Bragg curve. It is necessary to distinguish between the Bragg curve of an individual particle (Fig. 2-2) and the average Bragg curve for a beam of particles (Fig. 2-3. The thickness is often measured in grams per square centimeter (g em~?) of absorber. One then speaks of a mass absorption coefficient, mass stopping, {1-1908-£505-0 NESTISBN 0:9053.4061.7 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2 aE Mowe 241 Range cue showing te gumber of parties io beam Pobung ton th ep ee || | ip | GR 0 residual range (cm of ait STP) Figure 2.2 Bragg curve of an individual alpha particle. Ionization of an alpha particle in ion pairs per millimeter, as a function of its residual range, according to experiments by M. G. Holloway and M. S. Livingston. [Phys Rec., $4, 29 (1938), In experiment py, = 1.184 mg em~> (15°C, 760 mm Hs). power, etc. The relation between the absorption coefficient 4 and the mass absorption coefficient x’ is found by noting that the thickness x (in cm) is related to the thickness ¢ (in g em~?) by px=t (212) where p is the density of the medium. Consequently, we = u/p= yt @13) and hence the mass absorption coefficient is w=n/p Qa)22 2, THE PASSAGE OF RADIATION THROUGH MATTER —— At ~ 92b ———— OS FE F101 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 range (em of air) Figure 2-3. Specific ionization for a beam of protons as a function of range. In experiment p= 1.166 mg em~>. Ordinate scale arbitrary. [R. R. Wilson, Cornell University,] The atomic absorption coefficient 4, is sometimes employed when thick- nesses are measured in atoms per square centimeter; we have then, by an argument similar to the previous one, He H/N Qs) wtiere N is the number of atoms per cubic centimeter. 22 RUTHERFORD SCATTERING Consider a particle of charge ze traversing matter of atomic number Z, for instance, a proton traversing a piece of aluminum. Occasionally the proton will collide elastically with an aluminum nucleus and will undergo “Rutherford scattering”; ie., the electrostatic repulsion from the nucleus will deflect it Elastic nuclear collisions give rise to large changes in the direction of the impinging particle but not, on the average, to significant energy losses. In a cloud-chamber picture (Fig. 2-4) a nuclear collision is easily distinguishable. In addition there are collisions with the extranuclear electrons. These con- stitute the main cause of energy loss at energies below several hundred MeV, although they produce only an extremely small scattering of heavy particles. Inelastic nuclear collisions are treated in Chap. 11. ‘The effect of a nuclear collision can be calculated classically as follows Assume that the scattering center has an infinite mass (in other words, is fixed) and that it exerts a repulsive electrostatic force on the impinging pro- ton, given by Ze?/P, This force, which has a potential vine te ean {L-1098-£508-0 NestISBN 0-8052.8601-7 22 RUTHERFORD SCATTERING 23 . » . a Figure 2-4 Cloud-chamber tracks of alpha rays showing delta rays. The first picture is in air, the last three in helium; the gas pressure in the chamber is such that the tracks cross about 10- g em™? of air equivalent, Note nuclear collisions in the section on the right. [T. Alper, Z. Physik, 67, 172 (1932) Produces a motion whose orbit lies in the plane of the fixed center and the initial velocity vector. If ris the radius vector from the force center (located at the origin) to the proton and p= mi, the proton’s momentum, Newton's sec ond law of motion gives Ze be (22.2) Multiplying both sides vectorially by r, we have ° (223) ‘Thus angular momentum L=rxp (224) is a constant of the motion, since its time derivative is zero. The total energy e Im * E (225) is another constant of the motion,ISBN 0-4053.8061-7 24 2, THE PASSAGE OF RADIATION THROUGH MATTER ‘The “Lenz” vector =siixp+t 2-26 Ze’m ran i » which les in the plane of motion, isa third constant of the motion as can be Verified by caleulating & according to Eq. 2-22), and the formula for the vector triple product, Scalar multiplication of Eq. 2-2.6) on both sides by x, by using the for- mula for the mixed triple product, gives B one 2-22) me"Z ¢ dy ‘This equation can be easily interpreted by using polar coordinates with the polar axis in the direction of ¢. Equation (2-2.7) then reads er cos p= +r 228) meZ or =L?/me*Z €c05 which for € > 1 is the equation of a hyperbola of eccentricity ¢ The angle between the asymptotes not containing the hyperbola (Fig. 2-5) defines the deflection of the particle 6. It is found by determining the dif- ference between the values of p= + g, for which the denominator is zero ‘and taking the supplementary angle to this difference. One finds 0s gy = 1/e= sin (8/2) (22.9) Ze?/2Eb = tan (0/2) (22.10) where b= L/(2mE)'/ is the impact parameter, defined as the distance be- tween the center of force and the limiting line of flight of the particle for large values of r. ‘We can now calculate the probability of a deflection @ for protons cross- ing a foil of a substance of atomic number Z. We assume that the deflection is the consequence of a single nuclear collision. This is the case for large deflections, Small deflections are generally the result of the combined action2.2 RUTHERFORD SCATTERING 25 * Figure 2-8 Orbit of a particle undergoing Rutherford seattering. (Original from E. Rutherford, Phil. Mag., 21, 672 (1911).] Note that @ and p of this figure are , and 6 of our text of many collisions, as will be seen later. We shall thus evaluate the nuclear scattering cross section do/de and the probability of scattering through an angle between @ and @ + d@ in crossing a foil of thickness x of a material containing N nuclei per unit volume. The probability P (8) dus for scattering through angle 8 into an element of solid angle dw is given by P(0) do= 2 Nx do (22.11) Consider one nucleus of the scatterer and an incident beam containing one Proton per unit surface area. If a proton has an impact parameter 6 with respect to the scatterer, the deflection is given by (2-210). ‘The number of protons dn having an impact parameter between b and b + db is 2xb db = dn, where, from Eq, (2-2.10), _ Ze o-- 8 oo 22.12) Hence ‘ze2 \? €08(0/2) lanl = 2 22) sary 2-213) This is the number of particles deflected through an angle between @ and 4+ d@. They pass with uniform density between two cones of aperture @ and 1-1058-£508-0 Nast