PFs report PHOENIX CHILDREN'S Hospital 1919 East TM seis, AZ A8018 IAlgphone: 2-546-342 | Faa ue 33 A ful copy ofthe report avalable for download at itpd/Wwnphoenixchildrens com Ee a! So aAre Children Who Are Physically Punished Better Behaved? arents use physical punishment primarily to reduce undesirable child behavior in the presentand to increase desirable child behavior in the future. The empirical findings on the short-term effectiveness of physical punishment in achieving child compliance are mixed. A meta-analysis, (which is a method of research synthesis that statistically combines existing data to discern the average strength of the findings) of five studies examining children's immediate compliance with physical Punishment found a positive effect on average.” However, the findings were highly inconsistent in that one of the studies found no effect and another found that children were less likely to comply when physically punished. In one of these studies, the authors concluded that “there was no support for the necessity of the physical punishment” to Contrary to parent: change children’s behavior.” Eee The research to date also indicates that physical punishment the more eae does not promote long-term, intemalized compliance. Most (85 percent) of the studies included in a meta-analysis found Seon TUR ISLLSaLE physical punishment to be associated with less moral internalization of norms for appropriate behavior and long- term compliance.” Similarly, the more children receive and aggressive their physical punishment, the more defiant they are” and the less likely they are to empathize with others,” the more disobedient tall Celg amNY Ine) Parents often use physical punishment when their children have behaved aggressively, such as hitting a younger sibling, oF antisocially, such as stealing money from parents." Thus it is particularly important to determine whether physical punishment is effective in achieving one of parents’ main goals in using it, namely to reduce children's aggressive and antisocial behaviors over time. In a meta-analysis of 27 studies, every study found physical punishment was associated with more, not less, child aggression.” A separate ‘meta-analysis of 13 studies found that 12 of them documented a link between physical punishment and more child antisocial behavior." Similarly, in recent studies conducted around the world, including studies in Canada, China, India, Italy, Kenya, Norway, Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, and the United States, physical punishment has been associated with more physical aggression, ““""* verbal aggression,” physical fighting and bullying,” antisocial behavior,**and behavior problems generally." The conclusion to be drawn from these studies is that, contrary to Parents’ goals when using it, the more parents use physical punishment, the more disobedient and aggressive their children willbe. 28. ss AeAn alternative explanation that has been offered for the findings that physical punishment is associated with more defiance and aggression in children is that itis not physical punishment that causes the aggression, but rather that defiant and aggressive children elicit more physical punishment from their parents." The viability ofthis explanation has been examined in longitudinal studies that compare the extent to which child aggression predicts future parent physical punishment and vice versa, These studies indeed confirm that the more aggressive children are, the more physical punishment parents use in the future, They also find, however, that the more parents use physical punishment, the more aggressive their children become over time even after accounting for children's initial levels of aggression **” Additional strong evidence of the causal role of physical punishment comes from a study that used randomized controlled trials (the highest standard of scientific testing) to evaluate a parenting intervention designed to reduce child problem behaviors. With data from over 500 families, this evaluation revealed that significant reductions in children’s extemalizing behavior problems were a direct result of decreases in parents’ reliance on physical Punishment as a result of program participation.” Taken together, the findings from these research studies support a causal link between parents’ use of physical punishment and increases in childven’s future aggression, over and above the propensity for disobedient and aggressive child behavior to elicit parental physical punishment.Are Children Who Are Physically Punished at Risk for Unintended Negative Side Effects? naddition to showing thatit fails to achieve parents' intended goals, research from the social sciences has confirmed that physical punishment puts children at risk for a range of unintended negative consequences or “side effects.” A meta-analysis of 12 studies found that the frequency or severity with which children experienced physical punishment was associated with increased mental health problems in children in every study.” Subsequent studies, notincluded in the meta-analysis, have confirmed the association of physical punishment with impairments in children’s mental health, such as anxiety and depression,""“"” alcohol and drug use,” and general Psychological maladjustment.” These findings were everity with which consistent across a range of countries, including Hungary, Hong Kong, Jamaica, and the United States. The frequency hildren experience: physical punishment One means by which physical punishment might lead to mental health problems in children is by increasing their stress levels. Frequency of physical punishment has been found to predict self-reported psychological distress among aU 10-16 year olds, even at low rates of physical punishment.” health problems in Toddlers who experience frequent physical punishment show elevated levels of the stress hormone cortisol in reaction cM p AUT? toan anxiety-provoking interaction involving their mothers.” Such findings are markedly similar to those from a large body of research that has linked the experience of physical assault substantiated as abuse with lasting impairments in children ‘neurobiological stress systems.” ‘There is also evidence that the association of physical punishment with impaired mental health persists into adulthood. Physical punishment was associated with a high rate of mental health problems in all eight studies included in a meta-analysis.” Subsequent studies continue to find that mental health Problems such as increased depressive symptoms in adulthood are predicted by levels of physical punishment experienced during childhood.” cOne of the main concerns about physical punishment is that its use will harm parent-child relationships.” If children try to avoid painful experiences, and ifthey see their parents as sources of pain inflicted via physical punishment), they may attempt to avoid their parents," which in tur will interfere with the development of trust and closeness between patent and child."*'Such concerns have in fact been borne out in research findings, with 13 out of 13 studies finding physical punishment to be associated with poorer quality of parent-child relationships.” They also are supported by emerging qualitative research in which children have been interviewed about their experiences with physical punishment. In a New Zealand study of 80 children aged 5 to 14, many reported feeling sad, angry, fearful, and estranged from their AN MATa Parents after being physically punished." Similarly, a recent ‘ longitudinal study of adolescents found that those who were D th physically punished by their parents were less warm toward, poorer quality open with, and close with their parents.” parent-child Een Children carry into their adulthood the lessons they have learned about the acceptability of aggression as a problem- solving measure and as a method of controlling others’ behavior. Youth who have experienced physical punishment are more likely toreport having hita dating Partner than those who have not been physically punished.” ‘The more that men and women report having been physically punished in childhood, the more they report using verbal and physical aggression and ineffective problem-solving behaviors with their Spouses." Research has consistently found that the more individuals were physically punished in childhood, the more likely they are, as adults, to perpetrate violence on their own family members." iAre Children Who Are Physically Punished At Risk of Physical Harm? ecause physical punishment involves hitting or otherwise hurting children, there isan inherent "isk that children can be injured by their parents, Research has found that children who are Spanked by their parents are at seven times greater risk ofbeing severely assaulted (such asbeing Punched or kicked) than children who are not physically punished." It is thus not surprising that children who are spanked by their parents in the past month are 2.3 times as likely to suffer an injury requiring medical attention than children notspanked.” From the earliest days of research on the dynamics of child physical maltreatment, studies have revealed that most physical abuse incidents were the result of parents attempting to punish their children.” Since then, findings have been consistent in demonstrating that most physical abuse takes place in situations where caregivers attempt to correct children’s behavior or! to “teach thema lesson," The 2003 Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect confirmed these findings: three-quarters of substantiated physical abuse cases in Canada involve physical punishment.” A recent meta-analysis found a strong and consistent association (10 out of 10 studies examined) between Parents’ use of physical punishment and the likelihood that the Parent would physically injure the child orbe reported to child protective services.” That physical punishment and physical abuse are points along.a continuum of violence is also evidentin thelr similar effects: adults who were physically punished report the same elevated psychiatric Symptoms as adults who were frequently physically abused, just to a lesser extent, compared with adults who were neither physically punished nor abused.”—.— mE oGeesees aos Why Is Physical Punishment Not Effective as a Discipline Technique? Decades of social science theory and research have generated several explanations for why physical Punishmentislikely to have few intended positiveeffectsand many unintended negative effects. i It does not teach children why their behavior was ‘wrong or what they should do instead.”"* Wt can interfere with parents’ intended message. The pain and fear associated with physical Punishment can interfere with children’s perception and acceptance of Parents’ disciplinary message and thus their internalization: of that message.” i lt teaches children that they should behave in desired ways because if not they will be punished, not betause there are important, positive reasons for behaving appropriately. Consequently, when the threatof punishment isnot present, there is no reason to behave. appropriately.” Wt models for children that itis acceptable to use aggression to get their way, especially if they are bigger or more powerful than the other person.”" i It can increase the likelihood that children will attribute hostile intentions to others in social situations that, in turn, increase the likelihood that they will behave aggressively in social interactions." Mit may cause children to be afraid of their parents. Such fear can erode the parent-child relationship and can cause children to avoid their parents.” W Itmay teach children to link violence with loving relationships."What Are Cultural Perspectives on The Use of Physical Punishment? ultures vary in the extent to which they endorse physical punishment as a way of teaching children or correcting their unwanted behaviors. When parents perceive that their culture approves of, or even encourages, the use of physical punishment, they are more likely to reject the notion that physical punishment is undesirable or harmful and should be abandoned. ""Itis important to avoid stereotyping cultural groups. Within every group there are people who reject physical Punishmentas well as people who support it, and people who use only mild formsas wellas people who Punish children in an abusive way. There has been some debate about whether physical punishment may have less negative, or even Positive, effects on children who are members of cultures in which physical punishment is more accepted.” Research is mixed on this issue. Some research has found that physical punishment has negative effects in families of European descent but notin families of African descent, the latter of which tend to be more in favor of physical punishment,"“""* Other research, however, has found no differences in the extent to which physical punishment predicted negative outcomes among children in European-American, African-American, and Hispanic-American families." Similarly, an international study conducted in six countries outside the USS. found that, although Perceived normalcy of physical punishment somewhat weakened the association between physical Punishment and behavior problems and anxiety, across all six countries more frequent use of heh Physical punishment was associated with more child behavior problems and more anxiety symptoms." ,What Is the Legal Status of Physical Punishment in the United States? Physical punishment by parents is permitted in 49 states by statute or court decision.”""” The exception may be Minnesota, where several statutes taken together indicate that parental physical Punishment is a violation of the criminal law.’ The Supreme Court has not considered whather Parents have a fundamental constitutional right to use physical punishment with their children." The Supreme Court has, however, considered the constitutionality of physical punishment administered by public school personnel atthe elementary and secondary levels, The Court held that school physical punishment does not violate the Constitution's Eighth Amendment prohibition of “crue and unusual punishments.”"" One of the factors persuading the Justices to uphold the constitutionality of physical punishment in this case was that, atthe time of the decision, only two states had banned public school physical punishment, evincing "no trend towatds its elimination e”” In the years following the Ingraham decision, 27 states have joined those original two states in prohibiting all physical punishment in public schools (see Appendix A for a state-by-state analysis).’ In addition, some states that permit public school Physical punishment have delegated authority to local school districts to prohibit the practice. Indeed, school districts in some of the country’s largest cities have prohibited physical punishment, including Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, Memphis, Miami-Dade, and Tucson." Yet even among most states with bans on physical punishment in public schools, the ban usually does not extend to private schools; only two states, lowa and New Jersey, have banned physical punishment in both public and private schools Many, although far from all, states have passed laws that ban physical punishment in non-school settings that care for children (see Appendix A for state by state listings). Physical punishment is Prohibited in all state-regulated center-based child care in 48 states. Within the child weltare system, 49 states prohibit physical punishment in foster care settings. Physical punishment is also benned in juvenile detention facilities in 30 states and in residential care for children, including group homes or institutions, in 44 states. Congress banned physical punishment in facilities for juveniles convicted of federal crimes.' Only 14states have banned physical punishment in all sixof these settings that care for children, with an additional 24 states having banned physical punishment in five of the six settings. In contrast, three States (Indiana, Louisiana, and Mississippi) have banned the practice in only two of these settings (See Appendix A).!