Eurasian and Indian plates is the Sunda Trench.

Parallel
to this in Sumatra is the right-lateral strike-slip Suma-
INDONESIA, GEOLOGY tran Fault, which results from the partitioning of oblique
plate convergence into normal convergence at the trench
ROBERT HALL
and trench-parallel movement further north. Most active
Royal Holloway University of London
deformation in Sumatra occurs between the trench and the
Sumatran fault. In contrast, east of Java, active deformation
Indonesia is a geologically complex region situated at the occurs within a complex suture zone up to 2000 km wide,
southeastern edge of the Eurasian continent. It is bordered including several small plates and multiple subduction
by tectonically active zones characterized by intense seis- zones; plate boundaries (Fig. 1) are trenches and another
micity and volcanism resulting from subduction. Western major strike-slip zone, the left-lateral Sorong Fault, which
Indonesia is largely underlain by continental crust, but in runs from New Guinea into Sulawesi. Global Positioning
eastern Indonesia there is more arc and ophiolitic crust, System (GPS) measurements indicate very high rates of
and several young ocean basins. The Indonesian archipel- relative motions, typically more than several centimeters
ago formed over the past 300 million years by reassembly per year, between tectonic blocks in Indonesia.
of fragments rifted from the Gondwana supercontinent
that arrived at the Eurasian subduction margin. The Volcanism and Seismicity
present-day geology of Indonesia is broadly the result of The subduction zones are mainly well dened by seismic-
Cenozoic subduction and collision at this margin. ity extending to depths of about 600 km (Fig. 3) and by
volcanoes (Fig. 1). There are at least 95 volcanoes in Indo-
PRESENT-DAY TECTONIC SETTING nesia that have erupted since 1500, and most are situated
Indonesia is an immense archipelago of more than 18,000 between 100 and 120 km above descending lithospheric
islands extending over 5000 km from east to west between slabs. Thirty-two have records of very large eruptions
95 and 141 E, and crossing the equator from 6 N to 11 S with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of greater than 4;
(Figs. 1 and 2). It is situated at the boundaries of three major 19 have erupted in the last 200 years, including Tambora
plates: Eurasia, India-Australia, and Pacic-Philippine Sea in 1815 (VEI = 7) and Krakatau in 1883 (VEI = 6). Tam-
(Fig. 1). In western Indonesia, the boundary between the bora, on the island of Sumbawa, is known for its impact

FIGURE 1 Geography of Indonesia and surrounding regions showing present-day tectonic boundaries and volcanic activity. Indonesia is shaded
green, and neighboring countries are shaded in pale grey. Bathymetric contours are at 200 m, 1000 m, 3000 m, 5000 m, and 6000 m. The loca-
tion of the three most famous explosive eruptions known from Indonesia are shown in red text. Red arrows show plate convergence vectors for the
Indian plate (IND-EUR) and the Philippine Sea plate (PSP-EUR) relative to Eurasia, and for the Australian plate relative to the Pacic plate (AUS-
PAC). There is little thrusting at the Timor trough. The Seram trough and Flores-Wetar thrusts are the sites of active thrusting.

454 INDONESIA, GEOLOGY

FIGURE 2 Digital elevation model showing topography and bathymetry of the Indonesian region. Compare to Fig. 1 for tectonic and geographic features.

on global climate, and its 1815 eruption resulted in the graphically low, areas of Sumatra and Kalimantan (Indo-
Northern Hemispheres 1816 year without a summer, nesian Borneo), is largely free of seismicity and volcanism
when crops failed, causing famine and population move- (Figs. 1 and 3). This tectonically quiet region forms part
ments. The eruption of Toba on Sumatra 74,000 years of the continental core of the region known as Sundaland
ago was even bigger (estimated VEI of 8) and is the largest (Fig. 4).
eruption known on Earth in the last 2 million years. Sundaland extends north to the Thai-Malay Peninsula
and Indochina, and formed an exposed landmass during
Sundaland the Pleistocene. Most of the Sunda Shelf is shallow, with
The interior of Indonesia (Fig. 2), particularly the Java water depths considerably less than 200 m (Fig. 2), and
Sea, Sunda Shelf, and surrounding emergent, but topo- its lack of relief has led to the misconception that it is a

FIGURE 3 Seismicity in the Indonesian region between 1964 and 2000. Bathymetric contours are shown at 200 m and 6000 m.

INDONESIA, GEOLOGY 455

 FIGURE 4 Growth of the Indonesian region. Collision between the Sibumasu and East Malaya-Indochina blocks occurred in the Triassic. Additional
crust has been added to this Sundaland core, largely by later collisions of continental blocks. The present-day zone of active deformation is shaded
yellow. Grey areas within this complex plate-boundary zone are areas underlain by Cenozoic ocean crust.

stable area. Sundaland is often described as a shield or nesia, there is a high velocity anomaly, suggesting the
craton, but geological observations, heat ow, and seismic accumulation of subducted lithosphere.
tomography show that this is not the case. There has been These features are the consequence of long-term sub-
signicant deformation during the Cenozoic with the for- duction at the Indonesian margins. The active margins
mation of deep sedimentary basins and the localized but are the site of magmatism, heating, and weakening, but
widespread elevation of mountains. Unlike well-known the region of weak lithosphere extends many hundreds of
shields or cratons (e.g., Baltic or Canadian), Sundaland kilometers from the volcanic margins. The character of
is not underlain by a thick, cold lithosphere formed in the lithosphere has been a major inuence on the devel-
the Precambrian. Its interior has high surface heat ow opment of Indonesia, combined with repeated collisions
values, typically greater than 80 mW/m2. At the Indone- at the subduction margins that have led to continental
sian margins, high heat ows reect subduction-related growth.
magmatism, but the hot interior of Sundaland appears
to be the consequence of high upper-crustal heat ow PRE-CENOZOIC HISTORY OF INDONESIA
from radiogenic granites and their erosional products, the Western Indonesia, notably the islands of Sumatra and
insulation effects of sediments, and a high mantle heat Borneo, contains most of the oldest rocks in Indonesia.
ow. P- and S-wave seismic tomography show that Sun-
daland is an area of low velocities in the lithosphere and Sumatra: Basement
underlying asthenosphere, in contrast to the colder and Sumatra represents the geological continuation of the
thicker Indian and Australian continental lithosphere to Malay Peninsula and contains the most extensive out-
the northwest and southeast. Such low mantle velocities crops of Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. The oldest rocks
are commonly interpreted in terms of elevated tempera- at the surface are Carboniferous sediments, but possible
ture, and this is consistent with regional high heat ow, Devonian rocks have been reported from petroleum bore-
but they may also partly reect a different composition or holes in the Malacca Straits, and granites from boreholes
elevated volatile contents. in central Sumatra have been dated as Silurian. Xenoliths
in dykes, granite clasts in sediments, and various high-
Consequences of Long Subduction History grade metamorphic rocks from different parts of Sumatra
The upper mantle velocities and heat ow observations suggest a pre-Carboniferous crystalline basement similar
suggest the region is underlain by a thin and weak litho- to that beneath the Malay Peninsula, which is Proterozoic
sphere. In contrast, in the lower mantle beneath Indo- at depth.

456 INDONESIA, GEOLOGY

Sumatra: Cathaysian and Gondwana Blocks plutons, associated with volcanic rocks, intrude the meta-
In western Sumatra there are Paleozoic sediments that morphic rocks in the Schwaner Mountains of southwest-
range in age from Carboniferous to Triassic, and Permian ern Borneo. To the north, the northwestern Kalimantan
volcanic rocks with Cathaysian afnities. These are inter- domain, or Kuching zone, includes fossiliferous Car-
preted to form part of an IndochinaEast Malaya block boniferous limestones, Permo-Triassic granites, Triassic
(Fig. 4) that separated from Gondwana in the Devonian marine shales, ammonite-bearing Jurassic sediments, and
and by the Carboniferous was in warm tropical low lati- Cretaceous melanges. In Sarawak, Triassic oras suggest
tudes where a distinctive ora developed. Cathaysian afnities and correlations with Indochina.
In contrast, in eastern Sumatra, Carboniferous sedi- The Kuching zone may mark a subduction margin con-
ments include pebbly mudstones interpreted as diamic- tinuing south from East Asia, at which ophiolitic, island
tites that formed in a glacio-marine setting. These indicate arc, and microcontinental crustal fragments collided and
cool Gondwana afnities. The Carboniferous rocks and were deformed during the Mesozoic.
associated Permian and Triassic sediments belong to the
Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi: Cretaceous
Sinoburmalaya or Sibumasu block (Fig. 5), which was at
Active Margin
high southern latitudes during the Carboniferous, sepa-
rated from Gondwana in the Permian, and collided with A Cretaceous active margin is interpreted to have run the
the IndochinaEast Malaya block, already amalgamated length of Sumatra into western Java and then continued
with the South and North China blocks, in the Triassic. northeast through southeastern Borneo and into western
Sulawesi, as suggested by the distribution of Cretaceous
Sumatra: Triassic Collision high pressurelow temperature subduction-related meta-
The collision of the Sibumasu and IndochinaEast Malaya morphic rocks in central Java, the Meratus Mountains of
blocks was the rst stage in the geological development of southeastern Kalimantan and western Sulawesi. Western
Indonesia. The widespread Permian and Triassic granites Sulawesi and eastern Java (Fig. 4) are underlain in part
of the Thai-Malay tin belt extend into western Indonesia by Archean continental crust, and geochemistry and zir-
and are the products of subduction and post-collisional con dating indicates derivation of this crust from the west
magmatism associated with this event. Australian margin. Subduction ceased in the Late Creta-
ceous following collision of this block with Sundaland.
Sumatra: Mesozoic
The Mesozoic sedimentary record is very limited but sug- Sundaland: Cretaceous Granites
gests that much of Sundaland, including most of its Indo- Cretaceous granites are widespread in the Schwaner
nesian margin, was emergent. During the Mesozoic, there Mountains, in western Sarawak, on the Sunda Shelf, and
is interpreted to have been reorganization of Sumatran on the Thai-Malay Peninsula. They have been interpreted
crustal blocks, possibly by strike-slip faulting at an active as the product of Andean-type magmatism at active mar-
margin. Isotopic dating in Sumatra indicates that there gins but are spread over a large area and are far from any
were several episodes of granite magmatism, interpreted likely subduction zones. They probably represent post-
to have occurred at an Andean-type margin, during the collisional magmatism following Cretaceous addition of
Jurassic and Cretaceous. Marine sedimentary rocks were continental fragments in Borneo, eastern Java, and west-
deposited in an intra-oceanic arc that collided with the ern Sulawesi.
Sumatran margin in the Middle Cretaceous. The colli-
sion added arc and ophiolitic rocks to the southern mar- CENOZOIC HISTORY OF INDONESIA
gin of Sumatra. Cenozoic rocks cover most of Indonesia. They were
deposited in sedimentary basins in and around Sunda-
Borneo: Mesozoic Collisions land. There are products of volcanic activity at subduc-
Southwestern Borneo (Fig. 4) may be the eastern part tion margins, and there are ophiolites, arc rocks, and
of Triassic Sundaland, or it could be a continental block Australian continental crust added during collision.
added in the Early Cretaceous, at a suture that runs south Little is known of the Late Cretaceous and Paleocene
from the Natuna Islands. The Paleozoic is represented because of the paucity of rocks of this age. From Sumatra
mainly by Carboniferous to Permian metamorphic rocks, to Sulawesi, the southern part of Sundaland was prob-
although Devonian limestones have been found as river ably mostly emergent during the Late Cretaceous and
boulders in eastern Kalimantan. Cretaceous granitoid Early Cenozoic, and there was widespread erosion; the

INDONESIA, GEOLOGY 457

 oldest Cenozoic rocks typically rest unconformably on marking an important boundary between Asian and Aus-
Cretaceous or older rocks. There is little evidence of sub- tralasian faunas, follows the Makassar Straits south to pass
duction, although there was minor volcanic activity in between the islands of Bali and Lombok.
southern Sumatra and Sulawesi. At the beginning of the
Cenozoic, there were probably passive margins around Miocene: Continental Collisions
most of Indonesia. At the beginning of the Miocene, ophiolites were
emplaced by collision between the Australian and the
Eocene Subduction Initiation Sundaland continents in Sulawesi, and between the Aus-
India moved north during the Cretaceous to collide tralian continent and the Halmahera arc much further
with Asia in the Early Cenozoic but passed to the west to the east in the Pacic. The ophiolites of Sulawesi are
of Sumatra. Australia began to move rapidly northward remnants of fore-arc and oceanic crust between Sunda-
from about 45 million years ago, in the Eocene. At this land and the Australian plate, whereas those of the North
time, northward subduction resumed beneath Indonesia, Moluccas are fragments of Philippine Sea plate arcs. Later
producing widespread volcanic rocks at the active margin. in the Early Miocene, there was collision in north Borneo
The Sunda arc stretched from Sumatra, through Java and with the extended passive continental margin of South
the north arm of Sulawesi, and then continued into the China. These collisions led to mountain building in east-
western Pacic. From the Eocene to the Early Miocene, ern Sulawesi and in Borneo. The rst Australian conti-
the Halmahera arc was active in the western Pacic, far nental crust was added in eastern Indonesia (Fig. 5), but
north of Australia, above a north-dipping subduction as northward movement of Australia continued, there was
zone. a change in eastern Indonesia to extension, complicated
Also in the Eocene, southward subduction of the by minor collisions as microcontinental blocks moved
protoSouth China Sea began on the northern side of along strike-slip faults. In the Sunda arc, volcanic activity
Sundaland. Sediment carried north from southwestern declined in Java for a few million years before a late Mio-
Borneo was deposited in deep marine fans at this active cene increase from Sumatra to the Banda arc.
margin. Early Cenozoic volcanic activity in Kalimantan is
not well dated or characterized but appears to be related Neogene: Java-Sumatra
to this subduction. In the JavaSulawesi sector of the Sunda arc, volcanism
greatly diminished during the Early and Middle Mio-
Eocene Rifting cene, although northward subduction continued. The
In the interior of Sundaland, widespread rifting began at decline in magmatism resulted from Australian collision
a similar time as subduction and led to the formation of in eastern Indonesia, causing rotation of Borneo and Java.
numerous sedimentary basins. These basins, some more Northward movement of the subduction zone prevented
than 10-km deep, are lled with Cenozoic sediments and replenishment of the upper mantle source until rotation
are rich in hydrocarbons. The largest of these are in Suma- ceased in the late Middle Miocene. Then, about 10 million
tra, offshore Java, and eastern Kalimantan. In southeastern years ago, volcanic activity resumed in abundance along
Sundaland, Eocene rifting led to the separation of Borneo the Sunda arc from Java eastward. Since the Late Mio-
and western Sulawesi, forming the Makassar Straits (Fig. cene, there has been thrusting and contractional defor-
2), and by the Oligocene, much of eastern Kalimantan and mation in Sumatra and Java related to arrival of buoyant
the straits was an extensive area of deep water. In western features at the trench, or increased coupling between the
Sulawesi, shallow water deposition continued, and there overriding and downgoing plates. Both islands have been
are extensive platform limestones in the south arm. The elevated above sea level in the last few million years.
southern part of the straits is relatively shallow (about 1
km) and underlain by continental crust. The northern Neogene: Borneo
straits are connected to the oceanic Celebes Sea, but it The rise of mountains on Borneo increased the output
is not known whether they are underlain by oceanic or of sediment to circum-Borneo sedimentary basins. In
stretched continental crust because there is up to 14 km of eastern Kalimantan, thick Miocene to recent sediments
sediment below the 2.5-km-deep sea oor. The Makassar lled accommodation space created during Eocene rift-
Straits are today a major passageway for water and heat ing. Most was derived from erosion of the Borneo high-
from the Pacic to the Indian Ocean and have been an lands and inversion of older parts of the basin margins to
important inuence on biogeography. The Wallace Line, the north and west, which began in the Early Miocene.

458 INDONESIA, GEOLOGY

Sedimentation continues today in the Mahakam delta it led to formation of the Neogene Banda volcanic arc and
and in the offshore deepwater Makassar Straits. the opening of the North Banda Sea, the Flores Sea, and
In parts of central Kalimantan, there was some Mio- later the South Banda Sea. About 34 million years ago,
cene magmatism and associated gold mineralization, the volcanic arc collided with the Australian margin in
but volcanic activity largely ceased in Kalimantan after Timor, causing thrusting. Remnants of the Asian mar-
collision. Minor Plio-Pleistocene basaltic magmatism gin and Paleogene Sunda arc are found in the uppermost
in Borneo may reect a deep cause such as lithospheric nappes of Timor and other Banda islands.
delamination after Miocene collisional thickening. After collision, convergence and volcanic activity
ceased in the Timor sector, although volcanic activity
Neogene: Sulawesi continued to the west and east. New plate boundaries
Sulawesi is inadequately understood and has a complex developed north of the arc between Flores and Wetar
history still to be unraveled. In eastern Sulawesi, collision (Fig. 1), and to the north of the South Banda Sea, associ-
initially resulted in thrusting of ophiolitic and Australian ated with subduction polarity reversal. The Banda region
continental rocks. However, contractional deformation is now contracting. During the last 3 million years, there
was followed in the Middle Miocene by new extension. have been signicant shortening and probable intra-con-
There was Miocene core complex metamorphism in north tinental subduction at the southern margins of the Birds
Sulawesi, extensional magmatism in south Sulawesi, and Head microcontinent south of the Seram trough (Fig. 1).
formation of the deep Gorontalo Bay and Bone Gulf
basins between the arms of Sulawesi. Neogene: North Moluccas
Compressional deformation began in the Pliocene, In eastern Indonesia, the Halmahera and Sangihe arcs (Fig.
partly as result of the collision of the Banggai-Sula micro- 1) are the only arcs on Earth currently colliding. Both of the
continent in east Sulawesi, which caused contraction and currently active volcanic arcs formed during the Neogene.
uplift. Geological mapping, paleomagnetic investigations, The Sangihe arc is constructed on Eocene oceanic crust
and GPS observations indicate complex Neogene defor- and initially formed at the Sundaland margin in the Early
mation in Sulawesi, including extension, block rotations, Cenozoic. The modern Halmahera arc is built upon older
and strike-slip faulting. There are rapidly exhumed upper arcs, of which the oldest is a Mesozoic intra-oceanic arc that
mantle and lower crustal rocks, and young granites, near formed in the Pacic. Early Miocene arcAustralian conti-
to the prominent Palu-Koro strike-slip fault (Fig. 1). Dur- nent collision terminated northward subduction, and the
ing the Pliocene, coarse clastic sedimentation predomi- north Australian plate boundary became a major left-lateral
nated across most of Sulawesi as mountains rose. The strike-slip zone in New Guinea. Volcanism ceased, and there
western Sulawesi fold-thrust belt has now propagated west was widespread deposition of shallow marine limestones.
into the Makassar Straits. At present, there is southward Arc terranes were moved westward within the Sorong fault
subduction of the Celebes Sea beneath the north arm of zone. At the western end of the fault system, there was sub-
Sulawesi and subduction on the east side of the north arm duction beneath the Sangihe arc and collision in Sulawesi of
of the Molucca Sea toward the west (Fig. 1). continental fragments sliced from New Guinea.
Initiation of east-directed Halmahera subduction
Neogene: Banda probably resulted from locking of strands of the left-lat-
The Banda arc is the horseshoe-shaped arc that extends eral Sorong fault zone at its western end in Sulawesi. The
from Flores to Buru, including Timor and Seram, with present-day Molucca Sea double subduction system was
islands forming an outer non-volcanic arc and an inner initiated in the Middle Miocene, and volcanism began
volcanic arc. It is an unusual region of young extension in the Halmahera arc about 11 million years ago. The
that developed within the Australian-Sundaland collision Molucca Sea has since been eliminated by subduction at
zone and formed by subduction of an oceanic embayment both its eastern and western sides. The two arcs rst came
within the northward-moving Australian plate. into contact about 3 million years ago, and this contact
In the Middle Miocene, Jurassic ocean lithosphere was followed by repeated thrusting of the Halmahera
of the Banda embayment began to subduct at the Java fore-arc and back-arc toward the active volcanic arc. Col-
Trench. The subduction hinge rolled back rapidly to the lision has formed a central Molucca Sea (Fig. 1) melange
south and east, inducing massive extension in the upper wedge, including ophiolite slices from the basement of
plate. Extension began in Sulawesi in the Middle Mio- the Sangihe arc. There are small fragments of continental
cene. As the hinge rolled back into the Banda embayment, crust between splays of the Sorong fault.

INDONESIA, GEOLOGY 459

 Neogene: New Guinea
In New Guinea, there was rifting from the Late Triassic
onward to form a Mesozoic northern passive margin of
INSECT RADIATIONS
the Australian continent, on which there was widespread DIANA M. PERCY
carbonate deposition during the Cenozoic. To the north of University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
the passive margin were a number of small oceanic basins
and arcs developed above subduction zones; the region
was probably as complex as the western Pacic today. At Insect radiations on islands are the evolutionary product
the beginning of the Miocene, the arcAustralian conti- of diversication within an insect lineage on an island or
nent collision began emplacement of arc and ophiolite a series of islands forming an archipelago. Radiations, by
terranes, which then moved west in a complex strike-slip denition, represent in situ diversication and are often
zone. The Halmahera arc was one of these. Today, north- characterized by evolutionarily novel adaptations. Island
ern New Guinea is underlain by these arc and ophiolitic radiations are one of the most important natural phe-
rocks, fragmented by faulting. In the Pliocene, subduc- nomena for evolutionary biologists, and, like other ani-
tion probably began at the New Guinea Trench (Fig. 1), as mal and plant groups, insects on islands have undergone
there is now a poorly dened slab dipping south that has radiations that range from a modest diversication of spe-
reached depths of about 150 km. There was isolated, but cies to explosive radiations over a short period of time.
important, magmatism associated with world-class cop- Insect radiations vary not only in the numbers of species
per and gold mineralization including the Grasberg and but in the rates of speciation and in the diversity of adap-
Ertsberg complexes. The rise of the New Guinea main tive traits that evolve.
ranges accelerated, and mountains reached their pres-
COLONIZATION, ESTABLISHMENT, AND
ent elevations with peaks more than 5-km high (Fig. 2)
DIVERSIFICATION
capped by glaciers.
Island radiations are by denition the product of in situ
SEE ALSO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES diversication and the evolution of multiple species from
Earthquakes / Eruptions, Laki and Tambora / Indonesia, Biology / a founding ancestor, producing a lineage of closely related
Island Arcs / New Guinea, Geology / Philippines, Geology island endemics. All islands represent habitable patches
surrounded by uninhabitable environments. These can be
FURTHER READING terrestrial habitat islands such as shifting sand dunes in
Barber, A. J., M. J. Crow, and J. S. Milsom, eds. 2005. Sumatra: geology, Namibia, where a lineage of Scarabaeus dung beetles has
resources and tectonic evolution. Geological Society London Memoir 31. radiated into 12 endemic species, or sky islands in the
Bijwaard, H., W. Spakman, and E. R. Engdahl. 1998. Closing the gap
between regional and global travel time tomography. Journal of Geo- Rocky Mountains, where Melanoplus grasshoppers have
physical Research 103: 30,05530,078. radiated into 37 species after isolation in multiple glacial
Bock, Y., L. Prawirodirdjo, J. F. Genrich, C. W. Stevens, R. McCaffrey, refugia. More commonly, islands represent terrestrial habi-
C. Subarya, S. S. O. Puntodewo, and E. Calais. 2003. Crustal motion
in Indonesia from global positioning system measurements. Journal of
tats surrounded by water.
Geophysical Research 108: doi:10.1029/2001JB000324. Insect radiations on islands necessarily begin with a
Hall, R. 2002. Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE stepwise process involving dispersal from a source popu-
Asia and the SW Pacic: computer-based reconstructions, model and
lation, establishment of a viable population upon colo-
animations. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20: 353434.
Hall, R., and D. J. Blundell, eds. 1996. Tectonic evolution of SE Asia. Geo- nization, and diversication into multiple species within
logical Society of London Special Publication 106. an island or between islands in an archipelago. In many
Hall, R., and C. K. Morley. 2004. Sundaland basins, in Continent-ocean cases, the distances between source populations on con-
interactions within the East Asian marginal seas. P. Clift, P. Wang, W.
Kuhnt, and D. E. Hayes, eds. American Geophysical Union, Geophys- tinental land masses and remote oceanic islands (islands
ical Monograph 149, 5585. that are formed de novo and are not terrestrial fragments
Hamilton, W. 1979. Tectonics of the Indonesian region. US Geological Sur- separated from a once-larger land mass) are great enough
vey Professional Paper 1078.
Hutchison, C. S. 1989. Geological evolution of South-East Asia. Oxford Mono-
that active dispersal by insects (e.g., by ying) is ruled
graphs on Geology and Geophysics, Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. out and passive dispersal methods (e.g., by wind cur-
Metcalfe, I. 1996. Pre-Cretaceous evolution of SE Asian terranes, in Tec- rents, attachment to migrating birds, or rafting with tidal
tonic evolution of SE Asia. R. Hall, R. Blundell, and D. J. Blundell, eds.
debris) are considered more plausible means for insects to
Geological Society of London Special Publication 106, 97122.
van Bemmelen, R.W. 1949. The geology of Indonesia. The Hague, Nether- have traveled the distance. Four endemic ightless insect
lands: Government Printing Ofce, Nijhoff. genera, including large ightless beetles, cave crickets,

460 I N S E C T R A D I AT I O N S