CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Since the origin of human civilization on earth, medicinal plants have been used in the treatment

of diseases and infection, including viral infections (Mukhtar et al, 2008).

In many developing countries, 70% to 80% of the population have some form of alternative or

complementary medicine. This population also depends on traditional medicine for primary health

care (WHO, 2008). Traditional medicine has increased significantly in industrialised countries,

due to the fact that many prescription drugs have originated from the tropical flora (Nelson-

Harrison et al., 2002).

Nigeria is endowed with many medicinal plants, both domesticated and wild. Like every other

developing country, majority of its population depend on these plants to meet their health needs

(Oladunmoye and Kehinde 2011). The medicinal uses of the plants may vary from one community

to another or even from one culture to another.

Ethnobotany was defined by Kim (2007) as the study of how people of particular cultures and

regions make use of the plants in their local environments. These uses can include as food,

medicines, fuel, and shelter and in many cultures, in religious ceremonies.

The aim of ethnobotany is to document, describe and explain complex relationships between

culture and uses of plants for food, clothing, currency, ritual, medicine, cosmetics etc across human

societies (Acharya and Shrivastava, 2008).

Ethnomedicine is a subfield of Ethnobotany that deals with the study of traditional medicines

especially, for those whose practice and knowledge has been orally passed down from generation

to generation (Acharya and Shrivastava, 2008).

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A great deal of information about traditional use of plants are still intact with the tribal. (Sood,

2001) However, the native healers are often reluctant to accurately share their knowledge with an

outsider.

2.1 Economic and medicinal importance of Fabaceae

Fabaceae is second only to Poaceae in terms of their agricultural and economic importance. They

are used as pulses, vegetables, as natural fertilizers, source of timber, gums, and tannins. Legumes

are important to agronomy due to their symbiotic capacity for biological nitrogen fixation. Their

roots possess tubercles containing bacteria which are responsible for their nitrogen fixing bacteria

properties (Robert et al., 2001; Dutta, 2005; James et al.,2006).

Medicinally, plants belonging to Fabaceae such as Entada phaseoloides, Butea manosperma, and

Bauhinia forticata have been reported in scientific literature for their antidiabetic and

antinociceptive activities (Richa, 2010; Tanzila et al., 2012). Several species of the family

including Alysicarpus species, Crotalaria species, Cassia sieberiana and Lephrosa species are

been utilized traditionally for treatment of skin eruptions, rheumatic pains, and in treatment of

syphilis, gastritis, cough, fever, ringworm, leprosy, epilepsy, dysentery, mouth ulcers, as vermicide

and contraceptive (Obidah et al., 2009; Rahmatullah et al., 2010; Gupta et al., 2013). Other plants

such as Medicago sativa, Glycyrihiza glabra, Indigo tinctoria, Albizzia lebbek, and Cassia fistula

among others are been utilize in treatment of haemorrhage, diuretic, bronchitis, hypertension,

diabetes, typhoid and malarial fever, dysentery, expectorant, skin diseases, inflammation, asthma,

ulcers, cramp and colic antitussive, stomach pains and ulcers, as blood tonic, antifertility, laxatives,

in treatments of fevers, arthritis, and cardiac conditions (Fennel et al., 2004; Alesiani et al., 2007;

Lalchhandama, 2011; Seyedeh et al., 2011; Stella et al., 2011; Annie and Muthulingam, 2012;

Meghendra and Ashwani, 2013; Shaheen et al., 2013). Parkia species have been reported to

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possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, gastro protective and hypertensive effects. Generally, species

of fabaceae are known to yield resins, balsams and dyes with few possessing astringent, narcotic,

emetic, purgative, tonic and restorative properties (Meghendra and Ashwani, 2013; Vivianne et

al., 2013).

2.2 Botanical Description of Genus Acacia

The second largest and economically richest genus of the Fabaceae and the largest of the

Mimosoideae subfamily is the Acacia comprising more than 13, 000 species occurring in all

habitats. They are indigenous to tropical and subtropical savannah and widespread in Australia,

Africa, Asia and the America. About 700-800 of the species occur in Australia,

129 in Africa, and a few in Asia with 200 species distributed in the rest of the world. The genus

consists of three subgenera including Acacia, Aculeiferum and Phyllodineae (Duarte and Wolf,

2005; Mokoboki et al., 2005; Saurabhi et al., 2012; Sakinah et al., 2012).

Leaves of Acacia are compound and pinnate, with leaflets suppressed. The petioles becomes

the tendrils which serve as the leaves in some species, while in other species, modified leaf-like

photosynthetic stem called the cladodes are present. The flowers possess very small petals with

long stamens that are arranged in dense globular or cylindrical clusters. They range in colour from

yellow, white, red, purple, or cream. Stipules may be spinescent or non spinescent with exine

outline broken or continous (Singh, 2004; James et al., 2006).

2.3 Economic and medicinal importance of genus Acacia

Plants from the genus Acacia have been reported to be of great importance in industries, rural

development and conservation. In agriculture, they act as nodulation inducers as most of their roots

have been found in symbiotic association with rhizobium in the soil. Gums of Acacia are utilized

extensively in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and confectionery industries. These gums are used as

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binders in solid oral dosages, formulations in pastilles and lozenges (James et al., 2006; Shittu

et al., 2010).

The genus Acacia has medicinal uses in the treatment of diarrhea, urinary tract infections, throat,

gastritis, headaches, skin, stomach and tooth problems (Duarte and Wolf, 2005). Pharmacological

studies revealed that some members have antitumor, cytotoxic, antimutagenic, antimicrobial

antiameobic, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, gastrointestinal disorders and antiparasitic activity

(Jesus et al., 2007; Gaara et al., 2008; Napar et al.,

2012; Saurabhi et al., 2012). Traditionally, different parts or whole plant of the Acacia species are

utilized extensively for treatment of various ailments. Several species such as A. nilotica, A.

leucophloea, and A. albida are utilized for the treatment of cold, congestion, hemorrhage, small

pox, syphilitic and oral ulcers, tuberculosis, diarrhea, pneumonia, sexual disorders, tumors of

ear and eyes, dysentery, sterility, skin diseases, toothaches, vomiting, arthritis, diabetic, vaginal

douche, malaria, gastrointestinal disorders, constipation, and convulsion (Mokoboki et al., 2005;

Gupta et al, 2010; Lalitha et al., 2012; Lawal et al., 2012; Saurabhi et al., 2012; Saba et al.,

2012; Saad et al., 2013).

2.4 Reported Phytochemical Constituents of Acacia species

Flavonoids such as 3,4-dihydrobenzoic acids, 7,8.3,4-tetrahydroxy-4-methoxyflavan-3- ol,

7,8,3- trihydroxy-3,4-dimethoxyflavone, and 7,3,4-trihydroxyflavone have been identified from

the heartwood of genus Acacia. Others include stigmasterol, -sitosterol, - sitosterol-3-O--D-

glucoside, stigamasterol-3-O--D-glucoside, lupenone, taraxerone, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin,

gallic acid (9), erythrodiol, salicylic acids, gallic acid methylester (10), gallocatechin-3-gallate,

naringenin (11), catechol, (+)-catechin (12), 2-O-- Arabinofuranosyl, flavan-3-ol-gallate and

nilobamate (13) were isolated from A. cochliacantha, A. confusa. and A. nilotica among other

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species (Chalk et al., 1968; Muhaisen et al., 2002; Jyh-horng et al., 2005; Bala, 2006; Jesus et

al., 2007; Jyh-horng et al., 2008; Valentine et al., 2012; Sakinah et al., 2012).

Pentacyclic terpenoids and triterpenoids such as (2OX) 3-oxolupane-30al, (2OS) 3- oxolupane-

30al, 30-hydroxylup-20(29)-en-3-one, 30-hydroxylup-20(29)-en-3-ol, methyl-

2-hydroxy-4-hydroxy-3,6-dimethybenzoate, -sitosterol, -O-glucoside and linoleic acids were

isolated from stem bark of A. mellifera (Mutai et al., 2007).

Several other secondary metabolites such as hydrolysable and condensed tannins, terpenes,

cyanogenic glycosides and gums with the occurrence of typtamine alkaloids limited to the genus

Acacia among other genera of the plant family (Constantino and David, 2006; Jesus et al., 2007).

2.5 Botanical description of Acacia sieberiana and Boswellia delzielii

Acacia sieberiana is a perennial savannah tree commonly called white thorn, umbrella thorn, paper

bark thorn, or flat-topped thorn in English. In Africa, it has different local names such as

Papierbasdoring in Afrikaans, Daneji in Fulani, Farar Kaya in Hausa, Mgunga in Swahili, Aluki

in Yoruba, and Umkhaya in Zulu language (Orwa et al., 2009; Christiana et al., 2012). The plant

grows in the savannah, woodland and sometimes along river banks or low grounds, occurring in

the entire Sahel and other semi-arid regions in Africa. It is documented as a tree indigenous to

Africa and occurs in many West African countries including Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroun, Niger

and Benin (Burkill, 1995; Orwa et al., 2009).

The plant is a tree 3-25 m tall, bole straight to 6 m long by 1 m diameter with a rather rounded

crown and trunk 6 m high. The bark is rough and yellowish with grey-brown scales. The branches

bear short to massive 10 cm long straight spines (Orwa et al., 2009).

Kingdom: Plantae Phyllum: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Fabales

Family: Fabaceae Genus: Acacia Species: sieberiana Variety:Woodii

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This classification of Acacia sieberiana is according to the International Legume Database

Information Service (ILDIS, 2013). Leaves are usually sparsely hairy, bunched in to small

clusters. The leaves also possess pairs of pinnae that are densely crowded and overlap with a

common stalk 5 to 10 cm long which ends in a minute spine. The colour of the flowers ranges

from cream, to white or yellow with a whorl of tiny bracts near the apex. Fruits are shiny brown

in colour, straight or slightly falcate with more or less parallel margins. Indehiscent, and release

about 12 seeds which are about 1 cm long, hard, flat and embedded in a yellowish-greenish pulp

(Burkill, 1995; Orwa et al., 2009).

2.6 Economic and medicinal importance of Acacia sieberiana and Boswellia delzielii

Gums from A. sieberiana and Boswellia delzielii are edible and used as chewing gum, in

making ink, for cosmetics, and is included in turbans and head-cloths in Senegal. It is also used

as an astringent and as emulsifier. The flowers are good bee forage as they are used as home for

hives while the pods, leaves and shoots are used as forage for live stocks. The bark and pod are

also utilized in tanning while the wood is used as firewood and charcoal. The wood is used in

making furniture, tool handles and mortars as they are termite resistant. The forked branches are

used in hut-building and form handles for the large bent hoe (Burkill, 1995; Orwa et al., 2009).

The antimicrobial activities of A. sieberiana and Boswellia delzielii leaf and bark extracts have

been reported on Mycobacterium aurum, Bacillus subtilis, Staphyllococcus aureus, Escherichia

coli, Kiebsella pneumonia, and Staphyllococcus epidermis (Rabe and Van Staden, 1997; Eldeen et

al., 2005; Eldeen and Van Staden, 2007). Traditionally, A. sieberiana is utilized by different

communities for the treatment of various ailment including inflammation, tiredness, joint pains,

bilharzia, fever, enemas and taeniasis. The bark and root extract both rich in tannins are used in

treating schistosomiasis, fever, stomach ache, jaundice, opthalmia, cough, sexual impotence,

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erectile dysfunction, hemorrhoids, syphilis, uterine problems and to improve lactation after child

birth (Christiana et al., 2012). The leaves are taken orally for the treatment of urinary tract

disorders, tapeworm, headache, bilharzia, kidney problem, rheumatism, circulatory system

disorders and as a vermifuge. While the pods are utilized as an emollient (Burkill, 2014; Orwa et

al., 2009).

2.7 Chemistry of Acacia sieberiana and Boswellia delzielii

Gums of A. sieberiana were reported to consist of complex carbohydrate polymers of arabinose,

galactose, and traces of protein. Preliminary phytochemical screening of the plant was reported

to show the presence of saponins, tannins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids and anthraquinones

(Burkill, 1995; Anisa, 2010; Mahdi et al., 2013). Cyanogenic glycosides, Acacipetalin (14)

have been reported present in the A. sieberiana with Dihydro-acacipetalin isolated from the leaves

of the plant (Butterfield et al., 1975; Siegler et al., 1975). HPLC profiles of the leaves of the plant

also revealed tentatively the presence of two flavonols and a flavone (Anisa, 2010). Glucosides, 2-

-D- Glucopyranosyloxy-2-methylpropanol and (2R)-2-(-D-Glucopyranosyloxy)-3-hydroxy-3-

methylbutanetrile which correlated with proacacipetalin by oxymercuration and (2S)-2-(6- O--L-

Arabinopyranosyl--D-Glucopyranosyl)oxy]-3-methylbut-3-enenitrile were isolated from the

pods of A. sieberiana (Nartey et al., 1981; Brimer et al., 1981; Brimer et al.,2013).

The seeds of A. sieberiana and Boswellia delzielii were reported to contain 4% concentration of

fixed oils with a composition of 44% oleic acids and 31% palmitic acids. The bark was also

reported to contain about 3.8% of condensed tannins, 4.9% and 5.1% catechin (Shittu et al., 2010;

Mahdi et al., 2013).

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2.8 Enteric Bacteria

Enteric bacteria or enter bacteria are the largest families of gram-negative that are, peritrichously

flagellated or non-motile, facultative anaerobic, straight rods with simple nutritional requirements.

They are all capable of degrading sugar by means of Embden- meyerhof pathways and cleave

pyruvic acids to yield formic acid in formic acid fermentation. Escherichia species, Salmonella

species and Shigella species are among the groups that carry out mixed fermentation to produce

lactate, acetate, succinate, formate and ethanol (Prescott et al., 2005).

Diarrheal diseases are significant causes of morbidity and mortality in most developing countries.

This disease can either be non-inflammatory caused by the production of toxins by the bacteria,

Escherichia coli or it can inflammatory characterised by presence of fever and blood in stool

caused by Salmonella typhi and Shigella dysentriae. E. coli is present in human intestines and has

been established to cause gastrointestinal ailments, nausea, vomiting, coleocystitis, septiceamia

and induces acute and chronic urinary tract infections (Mahady, 2005; Sharif et al., 2009; Mogahid

et al., 2011). While Salmonella typhi is the only bacteria presently associated with typhoid fever,

a disease estimated to have caused 21.6 million illnesses and 216, 500 deaths globally in the

2000, affecting all ages (Bhan et al., 2005).

Another enteric bacterium that is of major health concern worldwide is Helicobacter pylori.

This bacterium is a spiral, gram-negative, micoraerophilic, motile, curved rod organism that

inhabits the gastric mucosa of the stomach. It is reported to have the ability of establishing

infection in the human stomach for decades (Ronita et al., 2009; Nicoline and Roland, 2013).

The bacteria is said to be related with a number of gastro-duodenal pathologies such as chronic

gastritis, peptic ulcers, duodenal ulcers, non-ulcer dyspepsia, mucosal associated gastric cancer and

gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma.