An Introduction to Data Mining

Prof. S. Sudarshan
CSE Dept, IIT Bombay

Most slides courtesy:

Prof. Sunita Sarawagi
School of IT, IIT Bombay
Why Data Mining
Credit ratings/targeted marketing:
Given a database of 100,000 names, which persons are
the least likely to default on their credit cards?
Identify likely responders to sales promotions
Fraud detection
Which types of transactions are likely to be fraudulent,
given the demographics and transactional history of a
particular customer?
Customer relationship management:
Which of my customers are likely to be the most loyal,
and which are most likely to leave for a competitor? :
Data Mining helps extract
such information
Data mining

Process of semi-automatically
analyzing large databases to find
patterns that are:
valid: hold on new data with some
certainity
novel: non-obvious to the system
useful: should be possible to act on the
item
understandable: humans should be able
to interpret the pattern
Applications
Banking: loan/credit card approval
predict good customers based on old customers
Customer relationship management:
identify those who are likely to leave for a competitor.
Targeted marketing:
identify likely responders to promotions
Fraud detection: telecommunications,
financial transactions
from an online stream of event identify fraudulent
events
Manufacturing and production:
automatically adjust knobs when process parameter
changes
Applications (continued)

Medicine: disease outcome, effectiveness

of treatments
analyze patient disease history: find
relationship between diseases
Molecular/Pharmaceutical: identify new
drugs
Scientific data analysis:
identify new galaxies by searching for sub
clusters
Web site/store design and promotion:
find affinity of visitor to pages and modify
The KDD process
Problem fomulation
Data collection
subset data: sampling might hurt if highly skewed data
feature selection: principal component analysis,
heuristic search
Pre-processing: cleaning
name/address cleaning, different meanings (annual,
yearly), duplicate removal, supplying missing values
Transformation:
map complex objects e.g. time series data to features
e.g. frequency
Choosing mining task and mining method:
Result evaluation and Visualization:
Knowledgediscoveryisaniterativeprocess
Relationship with other
fields

Overlaps with machine learning, statistics,

artificial intelligence, databases,
visualization but more stress on
scalability of number of features and instances
stress on algorithms and architectures
whereas foundations of methods and
formulations provided by statistics and
machine learning.
automation for handling large, heterogeneous
data
Some basic operations

Predictive:
Regression
Classification
Collaborative Filtering
Descriptive:
Clustering / similarity matching
Association rules and variants
Deviation detection
Classification
(Supervised learning)
Classification

Given old data about customers and

payments, predict new applicants
loan eligibility.
Previouscustomers Classifier Decisionrules
Salary>5L
Age Good/
Salary Prof.=Exec
bad
Profession
Location
Customertype
Newapplicantsdata
Classification methods

Goal: Predict class Ci = f(x1, x2, .. Xn)

Regression: (linear or any other
polynomial)
a*x1 + b*x2 + c = Ci.
Nearest neighour
Decision tree classifier: divide decision
space into piecewise constant regions.
Probabilistic/generative models
Neural networks: partition by non-linear
boundaries
Nearest neighbor

Define proximity between instances,

find neighbors of new instance and
assign majority class
Case based reasoning: when
attributes are more complicated
Pros Cons
than real-valued.
+Fasttraining Slowduringapplication.
Nofeatureselection.
Notionofproximityvague
Decision trees

Tree where internal nodes are simple

decision rules on one or more
attributes and leaf nodes are
predicted class labels.
Salary<1M

Prof=teacher Age<30

Good Bad Bad Good

Decision tree classifiers
Widely used learning method
Easy to interpret: can be re-represented
as if-then-else rules
Approximates function by piece wise
constant regions
Does not require any prior knowledge of
data distribution, works well on noisy
data.
Has been applied to:
classify medical patients based on the disease,
equipment malfunction by cause,
loan applicant by likelihood of payment.
Pros and Cons of decision
trees
Pros Cons
+ Reasonable training Cannot handle complicated
time relationship between
+ Fast application features
+ Easy to interpret simple decision boundaries
+ Easy to implement problems with lots of
missing
+ Can handle large
data
number of features
Moreinformation:
http://www.stat.wisc.edu/~limt/treeprogs.html
Neural network
Set of nodes connected by directed
weighted edges AmoretypicalNN
BasicNNunit
x1 n x1
w1
x2 o = ( wi xi ) x2
w2 i =1
x3
x3 w3 1 Outputnodes
( y) =
1 + e y Hiddennodes
Neural networks

Useful for learning complex data like

handwriting, speech and image
recognition
Decisionboundaries:

Linearregression Classificationtree Neuralnetwork

Pros and Cons of Neural
Network
Pros Cons
+Can learn more Slow training time
complicated Hard to interpret
class boundaries Hard to implement:
+ Fast application trial
+ Can handle large number and error for choosing
of number of nodes
features
Conclusion: Use neural nets only if
decision-trees/NN fail.
Bayesian learning

Assume a probability model on generation of

data. p(d | c j ) p(c j )
predicted class : c = max p( c j | d ) = max

c j cj p(d )

Apply bayes theorem ton find most likely class

p(c j )
as: c = max
cj
p(ai | c j )
p(d ) i =1

Nave bayes: Assume attributes conditionally

independent given class value
Clustering or
Unsupervised Learning
Clustering

Unsupervised learning when old data with

class labels not available e.g. when
introducing a new product.
Group/cluster existing customers based on
time series of payment history such that
similar customers in same cluster.
Key requirement: Need a good measure of
similarity between instances.
Identify micro-markets and develop
policies for each
Applications
Customer segmentation e.g. for targeted
marketing
Group/cluster existing customers based on
time series of payment history such that
similar customers in same cluster.
Identify micro-markets and develop policies for
each
Collaborative filtering:
group based on common items purchased
Text clustering
Compression
Distance functions

Numeric data: euclidean, manhattan

distances
Categorical data: 0/1 to indicate
presence/absence followed by
Hamming distance (# dissimilarity)
Jaccard coefficients: #similarity in 1s/(# of 1s)
data dependent measures: similarity of A and
B depends on co-occurance with C.
Combined numeric and categorical data:
weighted normalized distance:
Clustering methods

Hierarchical clustering
agglomerative Vs divisive
single link Vs complete link
Partitional clustering
distance-based: K-means
model-based: EM
density-based:
Agglomerative
Hierarchical clustering

Given: matrix of similarity between every

point pair
Start with each point in a separate cluster
and merge clusters based on some
criteria:
Single link: merge two clusters such that the
minimum distance between two points from
the two different cluster is the least
Complete link: merge two clusters such that all
points in one cluster are close to all points in
the other.
Partitional methods: K-
means
Criteria: minimize sum of square of
distance
Between each point and centroid of the
cluster.
Between each pair of points in the cluster
Algorithm:
Select initial partition with K clusters:
random, first K, K separated points
Repeat until stabilization:
Assign each point to closest cluster
center
Collaborative Filtering
Given database of user preferences,
predict preference of new user
Example: predict what new movies you will
like based on
your past preferences
others with similar past preferences
their preferences for the new movies
Example: predict what books/CDs a person
may want to buy
(and suggest it, or give discounts to
tempt customer)
Collaborative
recommendation
Possibleapproaches:
Averagevotealongcolumns[Samepredictionforall]
Weightvotebasedonsimilarityoflikings[GroupLens]

RangeelaQSQT
RangeelaQSQT 100 daysAnand Sholay Deewar Vertigo
Smita
Vijay
Mohan
Rajesh
Nina
Nitin ? ? ? ? ? ?
Cluster-based approaches
External attributes of people and movies to
cluster
age, gender of people
actors and directors of movies.
[ May not be available]
Cluster people based on movie preferences
misses information about similarity of movies
Repeated clustering:
cluster movies based on people, then people
based on movies, and repeat
ad hoc, might smear out groups
Example of clustering

Rangeela
Anand QSQT Rangeela
QSQT 100 daysAnand Sholay
100 days VertigoDeewar
DeewarVertigo
Sholay
Smita
Vijay
Vijay
Rajesh
Mohan
Mohan
Rajesh
Nina
Nina
Smita
Nitin
Nitin ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ??
Model-based approach

People and movies belong to unknown

classes
Pk = probability a random person is in
class k
Pl = probability a random movie is in class
l
Pkl = probability of a class-k person liking
a class-l movie
Gibbs sampling: iterate
Pick a person or movie at random and assign
Association Rules
Association rules
T
Milk,cereal
Given set T of groups of items Tea,milk
Example: set of item sets Tea,rice,bread
purchased
Goal: find all rules on itemsets of
the form a-->b such that
support of a and b > user
threshold s
conditional probability (confidence)
of b given a > user threshold c cereal
Example: Milk --> bread
Purchase of product A -->
Variants

High confidence may not imply high

correlation
Use correlations. Find expected
support and large departures from
that interesting..
see statistical literature on contingency
tables.
Still too many rules, need to prune...
Prevalent Interesting
1995 Milkand
Analysts already cerealsell
know about together!
prevalent rules
Interesting rules
are those that
1998 Milkand
deviate from prior Zzzz...
cerealsell
expectation
together!
Minings payoff is
in finding
surprising
phenomena
What makes a rule
surprising?
Does not match Cannot be trivially
prior expectation derived from
Correlation between simpler rules
milk and cereal Milk 10%, cereal
remains roughly 10%
constant over time Milk and cereal 10%
surprising
Eggs 10%
Milk, cereal and
eggs 0.1%
surprising!
Applications of fast
itemset counting

Find correlated events:

Applications in medicine: find
redundant tests
Cross selling in retail, banking
Improve predictive capability of
classifiers that assume attribute
independence
New similarity measures of
categorical attributes [Mannila et al,
Data Mining in Practice
Application Areas

Industry Application
Finance Credit Card Analysis
Insurance Claims, Fraud Analysis
Telecommunication Call record analysis
Transport Logistics management
Consumer goods promotion analysis
Data Service providersValue added data
Utilities Power usage analysis
Why Now?

Data is being produced

Data is being warehoused
The computing power is available
The computing power is affordable
The competitive pressures are strong
Commercial products are available
Data Mining works with
Warehouse Data
Data Warehousing provides
the Enterprise with a
memory

Data Mining provides the

Enterprise with
intelligence
Usage scenarios

Data warehouse mining:

assimilate data from operational sources
mine static data
Mining log data
Continuous mining: example in process
control
Stages in mining:
data selection pre-processing:
cleaning transformation mining
result evaluation visualization
Mining market
Around 20 to 30 mining tool vendors
Major tool players:
Clementine,
IBMs Intelligent Miner,
SGIs MineSet,
SASs Enterprise Miner.
All pretty much the same set of tools
Many embedded products:
fraud detection:
electronic commerce applications,
health care,
customer relationship management: Epiphany
Vertical integration:
Mining on the web

Web log analysis for site design:

what are popular pages,
what links are hard to find.
Electronic stores sales enhancements:
recommendations, advertisement:
Collaborative filtering: Net perception,
Wisewire
Inventory control: what was a shopper
looking for and could not find..
OLAP Mining integration

OLAP (On Line Analytical Processing)

Fast interactive exploration of multidim.
aggregates.
Heavy reliance on manual operations for
analysis:
Tedious and error-prone on large
multidimensional data
Ideal platform for vertical integration of
mining but needs to be interactive instead
of batch.
 State of art in mining OLAP
integration

Decision trees [Information discovery, Cognos]

find factors influencing high profits
Clustering [Pilot software]
segment customers to define hierarchy on that
dimension
Time series analysis: [Seagates Holos]
Query for various shapes along time: eg. spikes,
outliers
Multi-level Associations [Han et al.]
find association between members of dimensions
Sarawagi [VLDB2000]
Data Mining in Use

The US Government uses Data Mining to

track fraud
A Supermarket becomes an information
broker
Basketball teams use it to track game
strategy
Cross Selling
Target Marketing
Holding on to Good Customers
Weeding out Bad Customers
Some success stories
Network intrusion detection using a combination
of sequential rule discovery and classification
tree on 4 GB DARPA data
Won over (manual) knowledge engineering approach
http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~sal/JAM/PROJECT/ provides
good detailed description of the entire process
Major US bank: customer attrition prediction
First segment customers based on financial behavior:
found 3 segments
Build attrition models for each of the 3 segments
40-50% of attritions were predicted == factor of 18
increase
Targeted credit marketing: major US banks
find customer segments based on 13 months credit
balances