VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

h ed
pu T
is
After reading this chapter, you would be able to:
re R
understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other,
learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes,

bl
explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour,
E
learn how psychologists assess intelligence to identify mentally challenged
and gifted individuals,
understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, and
be C

understand the difference between intelligence and aptitude.

o N

Introduction
Individual Differences in Human Functioning
Assessment of Psychological Attributes
Intelligence
Theories of Intelligence

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-
successive Model of Intelligence
Individual Differences in Intelligence
CONTENTS Variations of Intelligence
Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1)
Culture and Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence
Key Terms
Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent
tt

Summary
Persons (Box 1.2)
Special Abilities Review Questions
Aptitude : Nature and Measurement Project Ideas
no

Creativity Weblinks
Pedagogical Hints
 If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how they
differ from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, as
also in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences can
be noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious.
Introduction In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are applied
to understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ,
what brings about these differences, and how such differences can be
assessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychology
has been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. This

ed
chapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individual
differences.
One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been of
interest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other in
their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from

h
experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles.

pu T
In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions

is
re R of intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations in
the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities
or aptitudes.

bl
E
exemplifies a typical combination of
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN
various traits. The question which you may
FUNCTIONING
like to pose is how and why people differ.
be C

Individual variations are common within This, in fact, is the subject matter of the
and across all species. Variations add study of individual differences. For
psychologists, individual differences refer to
o N

colour and beauty to nature. For a

moment, think of a world around you distinctiveness and variations among
where each and every object is of the same peoples characteristics and behaviour
colour, say red or blue or green. How would patterns.
the world appear to you? Certainly not a While many psychologists believe that

beautiful one! Would you prefer to live in our behaviours are influenced by our
such a world? In all likelihood, your personal traits, some others hold the view
answer will be no. Like objects, people too that our behaviours are influenced more by
possess different combinations of traits. situational factors. This latter view is
Variability is a fact of nature, and known as situationism, which states that
individuals are no exception to this. They situations and circumstances in which one
vary in terms of physical characteristics, is placed influence ones behaviour. A
such as height, weight, strength, hair person, who is generally aggressive, may
colour, and so on. They also vary along behave in a submissive manner in the
tt

psychological dimensions. They may be presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes,

intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive, the situational influences are so powerful
creative or not so creative, outgoing or that individuals with differing personality
withdrawn, etc. The list of variations can traits respond to them in almost the same
no

be endless. Different traits can exist in ways. The situationist perspective views
varying degrees in an individual. In this human behaviour relatively more as a
sense, each one of us is unique as s/he result of influence of external factors.

2
Psychology
 her/his family and neighbourhood, we
ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
may consider assessing her/his
ATTRIBUTES
personality characteristics. For a poorly
Psychological attributes are involved in motivated person, we may assess her/his
very simple phenomena like in time taken interests and preferences. Psychological
to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time, assessment uses systematic testing
and also in highly global concepts like procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours,
happiness. It is difficult to count and and personal qualities of individuals.
specify the number of psychological

ed
attributes that can be assessed. Some Domains of Psychological
Assessment is the first step in Attributes
understanding a psychological attribute. Psychological attributes are not linear or
Assessment refers to the measurement of unidimensional. They are complex and

h
psychological attributes of individuals and expressed in terms of dimensions. A line
their evaluation, often using multiple is a mere aggregate of many points. A point

pu T
methods in terms of certain standards of occupies no space. But think of a box. It

is
comparison. Any attribute will be said to
re R occupies space. It can be described only in
exist in a person only if it can be measured terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length,
by using scientific procedur es. For width, and height. Similar is the case with

bl
example, when we say, Harish is psychological attributes. They are usually
E
dominant, we are referring to the degree multi-dimensional. If you want to have a
of dominance in Harish. This statement is complete assessment of a person, you will
based on our own assessment of need to assess how s/he functions in
be C

dominance in him. Our assessment may various domains or areas, such as

be informal or formal. Formal assessment cognitive, emotional, social, etc.
is objective, standardised, and organised. We will discuss in this chapter some
o N

On the other hand, informal assessment important attributes that are of interest to
varies from case to case and from one psychologists. These attributes ar e
assessor to another and, therefore, is open categorised on the basis of varieties of tests
to subjective interpretations. Psychologists used in psychological literature.

are trained in making formal assessment 1. Intelligence is the global capacity to

of psychological attributes. understand the world, think rationally,
Once assessment is done, we can use and use available resources effectively
this information to predict how Harish will when faced with challenges. Intelligence
probably behave in future. We may predict tests provide a global measure of a
that Harish, if given a chance to lead a persons general cognitive competence
team, will most likely be an authoritarian including the ability to profit from
leader. If the predicted consequence is not schooling. Generally, students having
what we want, we may want to intervene low intelligence are not likely to do so
to effect a change in Harishs behaviour. well in school-related examinations, but
tt

The attribute chosen for assessment their success in life is not associated
depends upon our purpose. In order to only with their intelligence test scores.
help a weak student per form well in 2. Aptitude refers to an individuals
no

examinations, we may assess her/his underlying potential for acquiring skills.

intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If Aptitude tests are used to predict what
a person fails to adjust with members of an individual will be able to do if given

3
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
 proper environment and training. A used for the purposes of clinical
person with high mechanical aptitude diagnosis, guidance, personnel
can profit from appropriate training and selection, placement, and training.
can do well as an engineer. Similarly, Besides objective tests, psychologists
a person having high language aptitude have also developed certain projective
can be trained to be a good writer. tests, especially for the assessment of
3. Interest is an individuals preference for personality. You will learn about them
engaging in one or more specific in Chapter 2.
activities relative to others. Assessment Interview involves seeking information

ed
of interests of students may help to from a person on a one-to-one basis. You
decide what subjects or courses they may see it being used when a
can pursue comfortably and with counsellor interacts with a client, a
pleasure. Knowledge of interests helps salesperson makes a door -to-door
us in making choices that promote life survey regarding the usefulness of a

h
satisfaction and performance on jobs. particular product, an employer selects
4. Personality refers to relatively enduring

pu T
employees for her/his organisation, or a
characteristics of a person that make

is
journalist interviews important people
her or him distinct from others.
re R on issues of national and international
Personality tests try to assess an importance.
individuals unique characteristics, e.g. Case Study is an in-depth study of the

bl
whether one is dominant or submissive, individual in terms of her/his
E
outgoing or withdrawn, moody or psychological attributes, psychological
emotionally stable, etc. Personality history in the context of her/his
assessment helps us to explain an psychosocial and physical environment.
be C

individuals behaviour and predict how Case studies are widely used by
she/he will behave in future. clinical psychologists. Case analyses of
5. Values are enduring beliefs about an the lives of great people can also be
o N

ideal mode of behaviour. A person highly illuminating for those willing to

having a value sets a standard for lear n from their life experiences.
guiding her/his actions in life and also Case studies are based on data
for judging others. In value assessment, generated by different methods, e.g.
we try to determine the dominant interview, observation, questionnaire,

values of a person (e.g., political, psychological tests, etc.

religious, social or economic). Observation involves employing
systematic, organised, and objective
Assessment Methods procedures to record behavioural
Several methods are used for psychological phenomena occurring naturally in real
assessment. You have learnt about some time. Certain phenomena such as
of these methods in Class XI. Let us recall mother-child interactions can be easily
their key features. studied through observation. The major
Psychological Test is an objective problems with observational methods
tt

and standardised measure of an are that the observer has little control
individuals mental and/or behavioural over the situation and the reports may
characteristics. Objective tests have suffer from subjective interpretations of
been developed to measure all the the observer.
no

dimensions of psychological attributes Self-Report is a method in which a

(e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.) person provides factual information
described above. These tests are widely about herself/himself and/or opinions,

4
Psychology
 beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such we discuss some important theories of
infor mation may be obtained by intelligence.
using an interview schedule or a
questionnaire, a psychological test, or Activity
Discovering the Attributes of
a personal diary. 1.1
Intelligent Persons
1. Who is the most intelligent of your
INTELLIGENCE classmates? Think of her/him in
your minds eye, and write down
Intelligence is a key construct employed to a few words/phrases describing

ed
that person.
know how individuals differ from one
2. Think of 3 other persons in your
another. It also provides an understanding immediate environment, whom
of how people adapt their behaviour you consider intelligent, and write
according to the environment they live in. down a few words/phrases

h
In this section, you will read about describing the attributes of each.
intelligence in its various forms. 3. Judge the newer additions with

pu T
reference to what you wrote in item
Psychological notion of intelligence is

is
no. 1.
quite different from the common sensical 4. Make a list of all the attributes you
re R
notion of intelligence. If you watch an
intelligent person, you are likely to see in
consider as manifestations of

bl
intelligent behaviours. Using these
her/him attributes like mental alertness, attributes, try to frame a definition.
E
5. Discuss your report with your
ready wit, quickness in learning, and
classmates and the teacher.
ability to understand relationships. The 6. Compare it with what the
Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as researchers have to say about
be C

the power of perceiving, learning, intelligence.

understanding, and knowing. Early
intelligence theorists also used these
o N

attributes in defining intelligence. Alfred

Binet was one of the first psychologists THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
who worked on intelligence. He defined
Psychologists have proposed several
intelligence as the ability to judge well,

theories of intelligence. Theories can be

understand well, and reason well. broadly classified as either representing a
Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most psychometric/structural approach or an
widely used, understood intelligence in information-processing approach.
terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for The psychometric approach considers
adaptation to environment. He defined it as intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It
the global and aggregate capacity of an expresses the individuals performance in
individual to think rationally, act terms of a single index of cognitive abilities.
purposefully, and to deal effectively with On the other hand, the information-
her/his environment. Other psychologists, processing approach describes the
tt

such as Gardner and Sternberg have pr ocesses people use in intellectual

suggested that an intelligent individual not reasoning and problem solving. The major
only adapts to the environment, but also focus of this approach is on how an
no

actively modifies or shapes it. You will be intelligent person acts. Rather than
able to understand the concept of focusing on structure of intelligence or its
intelligence and how it has evolved, when underlying dimensions, infor mation-

5
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
processing approaches emphasise independent of the others. These primary
studying cognitive functions underlying abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension
intelligent behaviour. We will discuss (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and
some representative theories of these ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and
approaches. accuracy in numerical and computational
We mentioned above that Alfred Binet skills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualising
was the first psychologist who tried to patterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed
formalise the concept of intelligence in (speed in perceiving details), (v) Word
terms of mental operations. Prior to him, Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly),

ed
we find the notion of intelligence described (vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling
in general ways in various philosophical information), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning
treatises available in different cultural (deriving general rules from presented
traditions. Binets theory of intelligence facts).
was rather simple as it arose from his Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical

h
interest in differentiating more intelligent model of intelligence consisting of abilities

pu T
from less intelligent individuals. He, operating at two levels, called Level I and

is
therefore, conceptualised intelligence as
re R Level II. Level I is the associative learning
consisting of one similar set of abilities in which output is more or less similar to
which can be used for solving any or every the input (e.g., rote learning and memory).

bl
problem in an individuals environment. Level II, called cognitive competence,
His theory of intelligence is called Uni or involves higher-order skills as they
E
one factor theory of intelligence. This transform the input to produce an effective
theory came to be disputed when output.
be C

psychologists started analysing data J.P. Guilford proposed the structure-

of individuals, which was collected using of-intellect model which classifies
Binets test. intellectual traits among three dimensions:
o N

In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a operations, contents, and products.

two-factor theory of intelligence Operations are what the respondent does.
employing a statistical method called factor These include cognition, memory
analysis. He showed that intelligence recording, memory retention, divergent
consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and production, convergent production, and

some specific factors (s-factors). The evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of
g-factor includes mental operations which materials or infor mation on which
are primary and common to all intellectual operations are performed.
performances. In addition to the g-factor, These include visual, auditory, symbolic
he said that there are also many specific (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g.,
abilities. These are contained in what he words) and behavioural (e.g., information
called the s-factor. Excellent singers, about peoples behaviour, attitudes, needs,
architects, scientists, and athletes may be etc.). Products refer to the form in which
high on g-factor, but in addition to this, information is processed by the respondent.
tt

they have specific abilities which allow Products are classified into units, classes,
them to excel in their respective domains. relations, systems, transformations, and
Spearmans theory was followed by Louis implications. Since this classification
Thurstones theory. He proposed the (Guilford, 1988) includes 656 categories,
no

theory of primary mental abilities. It therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell
states that intelligence consists of seven is expected to have at least one factor or
primary abilities, each of which is relatively ability; some cells may have more than

6
Psychology
one factor. Each factor is described in high on this intelligence can easily
terms of all three dimensions. represent the spatial world in the mind.
The above mentioned theories are Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters,
representations of psychometric approach architects, interior decorators, and
to understand intelligent behaviour. sur geons are likely to have highly
developed spatial intelligence.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms
and patter ns) : It is the capacity to
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of
produce, create and manipulate musical

ed
multiple intelligences. According to him,
patterns. Persons high on this intelligence
intelligence is not a single entity; rather
are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations,
distinct types of intelligences exist. Each
and in creating new patterns of sounds.
of these intelligences are independent of
Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or
each other. This means that, if a person
portions of the body flexibly and

h
exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not
creatively) : This consists of the use of the

pu T
necessarily indicate being high or low on
whole body or portions of it for display or

is
other types of intelligences. Gardner also
construction of products and problem
put forth that dif ferent types of
re R
intelligences interact and work together to
solving. Athletes, dancers, actors,
sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons

bl
find a solution to a problem. Gardner are likely to have such kind of intelligence.
studied extremely talented persons, who Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle
E
had shown exceptional abilities in their aspects of others behaviours) : This is the
respective areas, and described eight types skill of understanding the motives, feelings
of intelligence. These are as follows:
be C

and behaviours of other people so as to

Linguistic (skills involved in the bond into a comfortable relationship with
production and use of language) : It is the others. Psychologists, counsellors,
capacity to use language fluently and
o N

politicians, social workers, and religious

flexibly to express ones thinking and leaders ar e likely to possess high
understand others. Persons high on this interpersonal intelligence.
intelligence are word-smart, i.e. they are Intrapersonal (awareness of ones own
sensitive to dif ferent shades of word feelings, motives, and desires): This refers

meanings, are articulate, and can create to the knowledge of ones inter nal
linguistic images in their mind. Poets and strengths and limitations and using that
writers are very strong in this component knowledge to effectively relate to others.
of intelligence. Persons high on this ability have finer
Logical-Mathematical (skills in sensibilities regarding their identity,
scientific thinking and problem solving) : human existence, and meaning of life.
Persons high on this type of intelligence can Philosophers and spiritual leaders present
think logically and critically. They engage in examples of this type of intelligence.
abstract reasoning, and can manipulate Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features
tt

symbols to solve mathematical problems. of the natural world) : This involves

Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely complete awareness of our relationship
to be strong in this component. with the natural world. It is useful in
Spatial (skills in forming visual images recognising the beauty of different species
no

and patterns) : It refers to the abilities of flora and fauna, and making subtle
involved in for ming, using, and discriminations in the natural world.
transforming mental images. The person Hunters, far mers, tourists, botanists,

7
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
zoologists, and bird watchers possess Experiential Intelligence: Experiential or
more of naturalistic intelligence. creative intelligence is involved in using
past experiences creatively to solve novel
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence problems. It is reflected in creative
Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the performance. Persons high on this aspect
triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg integrate different experiences in an
views intelligence as the ability to adapt, original way to make new discoveries and
to shape and select environment to inventions. They quickly find out which
accomplish ones goals and those of ones information is crucial in a given situation.

ed
society and culture. According to this
theory, there are three basic types of On the Practical Track Activity
intelligence: Componential, Experiential, 1.2
and Contextual. The elements of the You have just been admitted into a

h
triarchic theory of intelligence are shown school/college. You will take three
in Figure 1.1. examinations during the entire year.

pu T
Componential Intelligence : Compo- You sincerely want to receive high

is
marks in the course. How likely are you
nential or analytical intelligence is the
re R to engage in each of the following
analysis of information to solve problems. actions? Rank the following courses of
Persons high on this ability think

bl
action. Match your answer with that
analytically and critically and succeed in of your classmates.
E
schools. This intelligence has three Attend classes regularly.
components, each serving a different Create study groups with your
friends for weekly discussions.
function. First is the knowledge acquisition
be C

Take detailed notes in the class.

component, which is responsible for Join a tutorial/coaching centre.
learning and acquisition of the ways of Prepare written notes for each
doing things. The second is the meta or a chapter.
o N

higher order component, which involves Read the textbook chapters

planning concerning what to do and how thoroughly.
Solve the questions of the last three
to do. The third is the per for mance
years.
component, which involves actually doing Talk to your teacher after the class.

things.
tt
no

Fig.1.1 : Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

8
Psychology
 Contextual Intelligence : Contextual you perceive the relations among various
or practical intelligence involves the ability concepts and integrate them into a
to deal with environmental demands meaningful pattern for comprehension. For
encountered on a daily basis. It may be example, in Ravens Progressive Matrices
called street smartness or business sense. (RPM) Test, a design is presented from
Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to which a part has been removed. You are
their present environment or select a more required to choose one of the six options
favourable environment than the existing that best completes the design.
one, or modify the environment to fit their Simultaneous processing helps you in

ed
needs. Therefore, they turn out to be grasping the meaning and relationship
successful in life. between the given abstract figur es.
Ster nbergs triar chic theory of Successive processing takes place when
intelligence represents the information- you remember all the information serially
pr ocessing approach to understand so that the recall of one leads to the recall

h
intelligence. of another. Learning of digits, alphabets,

pu T
multiplication tables, etc. are examples of

is
Planning, Attention-arousal, and successive processing.
Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model Planning : This is an essential feature
re R
of Intelligence of intelligence. After the information is

bl
attended to and processed, planning is
This model has been developed by J.P. activated. It allows us to think of the
E
Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). possible courses of action, implement them
According to this model, intellectual to reach a target, and evaluate their
activity involves the inter dependent effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is
be C

functioning of three neurological systems, modified to suit the requirements of the

called the functional units of brain. These task or situation. For example, to take the
units are responsible for arousal/attention, test scheduled by your teacher, you would
o N

coding or processing, and planning have to set goals, plan a time schedule of
respectively. study, get clarifications in case of problems
Arousal/Attention : State of arousal is and if you are not able to tackle the
basic to any behaviour as it helps us in chapters assigned for the test, you may

attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention have to think of other ways (e.g., give more
enable a person to process information. An time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your
optimal level of ar ousal focuses our goals.
attention to the relevant aspects of a These PASS processes operate on a
problem. Too much or too little arousal knowledge base developed either formally
would inter fere with attention. For (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or
instance, when you are told by your informally from the environment. These
teacher about a test which s/he plans to processes are interactive and dynamic in
hold, it would arouse you to attend to the nature; yet each has its own distinctive
specific chapters. Arousal forces you to functions. Das and Naglieri have also
tt

focus your attention on reading, learning developed a battery of tests, known as the
and revising the contents of the chapters. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It
Simultaneous and Successive consists of verbal as well as non-verbal
tasks that measure basic cognitive
no

Processing : You can integrate the

information into your knowledge system functions presumed to be independent of
either simultaneously or successively. schooling. The battery of tests is meant for
Simultaneous processing takes place when individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.

9
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
The results of assessment can be used intelligence while rich nutrition, good
to remedy cognitive deficits of children family background, and quality schooling
with learning problems. increases intelligence. There is a general
This model represents the information- consensus among psychologists that
processing approach to intelligence. intelligence is a product of complex
interaction of heredity (nature) and
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE environment (nurture). Heredity can best be
viewed as something that sets a range
Why are some people more intelligent than within which an individuals development is

ed
others? Is it due to their heredity, or is it actually shaped by the support and
due to the influence of environmental opportunities of the environment.
factors? You have already read about the
influence of these factors in the Assessment of Intelligence

h
development of an individual in Class XI. In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon,

pu T
made the first successful attempt to
Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and

is
formally measure intelligence. In 1908,
Nurture
when the scale was revised, they gave the
re R
The evidence for hereditary influences on concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a

bl
intelligence comes mainly from studies on measure of a persons intellectual
twins and adopted children. The development relative to people of her/his
E
intelligence of identical twins reared age group. A mental age of 5 means that
together correlate almost 0.90. Twins a childs performance on an intelligence
separated early in childhood also test equals the average performance level
be C

show considerable similarity in their of a group of 5-year olds. Chronological

intellectual, personality and behavioural Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
characteristics. The intelligence of identical A bright childs MA is more than her/his
o N

twins reared in different environments CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA.
correlate 0.72, those of fraternal twins Retardation was defined by Binet and
reared together correlate almost 0.60, and Simon as being two mental age years below
those of brothers and sisters reared the chronological age.

together correlate about 0.50, while In 1912, William Stern, a Ger man
siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25. psychologist, devised the concept of
Another line of evidence comes from the Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to
studies of adopted children, which mental age divided by chronological age,
show that childrens intelligence is more and multiplied by 100.
similar to their biological rather than
MA
adoptive parents. IQ = 100
CA
With respect to the role of environment,
studies have reported that as children grow The number 100 is used as a multiplier
tt

in age, their intelligence level tends to move to avoid the decimal point. When the MA
closer to that of their adoptive parents. equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is
Children from disadvantaged homes more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ
adopted into families with higher socio- becomes less than 100 when the MA is less
no

economic status exhibit a large increase in than the CA. For example, a
their intelligence scores. There is evidence 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12
that environmental deprivation lowers would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 100),

10
Psychology
 intellectual disability, while persons with
Activity Intelligent Numbers IQ above 130 are considered to have
1.3 (Computing IQ)
exceptional talents. The IQ score of a
Find out the IQ of a 14-year-old
child with a mental age of 16. person can be interpreted by referring to
Find out the mental age of a 12- Table 1.1.
year-old child with an IQ of 90.
Table 1.1 : Classification of People on the
Basis of IQ
whereas the same child with an MA of 7
IQ Range Descriptive Label Per cent in the
would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 100). The

ed
Population
average IQ in the population is 100,
irrespective of age. Above 130 Very superior 2.2
IQ scor es ar e distributed in the 120 130 Superior 6.7
population in such a way that the scores
110 119 High average 16.1

h
of most people tend to fall in the middle
range of the distribution. Only a few 90 109 Average 50.0

pu T
people have either very high or very low 80 89 Low average 16.1

is
scores. The frequency distribution for the
re R 70 79 Borderline 6.7
IQ scores tends to approximate a bell- Below 70 Intellectually disabled 2.2
shaped curve, called the normal curve.

bl
This type of distribution is symmetrical
E
around the central value, called the mean. All persons do not have the same
The distribution of IQ scores in the form intellectual capacity; some are
of a normal distribution is shown in exceptionally bright and some are below
be C

Figure 1.2. average. One practical use of intelligence

The mean IQ score in a population is test is to identify persons at the extremes
100. People with IQ scores in the range of of intellectual functioning. If you refer to
o N

90110 have normal intelligence. Those Table 1.1, you will notice that about 2 per
with IQ below 70 are suspected to have cent of the population have IQ above 130,
tt
no

Fig.1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of IQ Scores in the Population

11
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
and a similar percentage have IQ below to those who cannot be trained and
70. The persons in the first group are require institutional care throughout their
called intellectually gifted; those in the lives. You have learnt earlier that the
second group are termed intellectually mean IQ score in the population is 100.
disabled. These two groups deviate These figures are used to understand the
considerably from the normal population categories of intellectually disabled. The
in respect of their cognitive, emotional, different levels of intellectual disability are:
and motivational characteristics. mild (IQs 55 to approximately 70),
Variations of Intelligence moderate (IQs 3540 to approximately 50

ed
55), severe (IQs 2025 to approximately
Intellectual Deficiency 3540), and profound (IQs below 2025).
On the one hand are the gifted and Although the development of people with
creative persons we discussed briefly mild disability is typically slower than that

h
earlier. On the other hand, there are of their peers, they can function quite
independently, hold jobs and families. As

pu T
children who face enormous difficulty in
the level of disability increases, the

is
learning even very simple skills. Those
children who show intellectual deficiency
re R difficulties are strongly marked. The
are termed as intellectually disabled. As people with moderate disability lag behind
their peers in language and motor skills.

bl
a group, there is wide variation among the
intellectually disabled. The American They can be trained in self-care skills, and
E
Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) simple social and communication skills.
views intellectual disability as They need to have moderate degree of
significantly sub-average general supervision in everyday tasks. Individuals
be C

intellectual functioning existing with profound and severe disability are

concurrently with deficits in adaptive incapable of managing life and need
behaviour and manifested during the constant care for their entire lives. You
o N

developmental period. This definition will read more about the characteristics
points to three basic features. First, in of the intellectually disabled in Chapter 4.
order to be judged as intellectually
disabled, a person must show significantly Intellectual Giftedness

sub-average intellectual functioning.

Persons having IQs below 70 are judged Intellectually gifted individuals show
to have sub-average intelligence. The higher performance because of their
second relates to deficits in adaptive outstanding potentialities. The study of
behaviour. Adaptive behaviour refers to a gifted individuals began in 1925, when
persons capacity to be independent and Lewis Terman followed the lives of about
deal effectively with ones environment. 1500 children with IQs of 130 and above
The third feature is that the deficits must to examine how intelligence was related
be observed during the developmental to occupational success and life
adjustment. Although the terms talent
tt

period, that is between 0 and 18 years

of age. and giftedness are often used inter -
Individuals who are categorised as changeably, they mean different things.
having intellectual disability show Giftedness is exceptional general ability
no

significant variation in their abilities, shown in superior performance in a wide

ranging from those who can be taught to variety of areas. Talent is a narrower term
work and function with special attention, and refers to remarkable ability in a

12
Psychology
specific field (e.g., spiritual, social, These may include life enrichment
aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are programmes that can sharpen childrens
sometimes called prodigies. skills in productive thinking, planning,
It has been suggested by psychologists decision-making, and communication.
that giftedness from the teachers point of
view depends on a combination of high Types of Intelligence Tests
ability , high creativity, and high Intelligence tests are of several types. On
commitment. the basis of their administration procedure,
Gifted children show early signs of

ed
they can be categorised as individual or
intellectual superiority. Even during
group tests. They can also be classified as
infancy and early childhood, they show
either verbal or performance tests on the
larger attention span, good recognition
basis of the nature of items used.
memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity
Depending upon the extent to which an
to environmental changes, and early

h
intelligence test favours one culture over
appearance of language skills. To equate

pu T
another, it can be judged as either culture-
giftedness with brilliant academic

is
fair or culture-biased. You can choose a
performance is not correct. Athletes who
test depending on the purpose of your use.
re R
show superior psychomotor ability are
also gifted. Each gifted student Individual or Group Tests

bl
possesses different strengths, personalities
and characteristics. Some important An individual intelligence test is one which
E
characteristics of gifted children are : can be administered to one person at a
Advanced logical thinking, questioning time. A group intelligence test can be
be C

and problem solving behaviour. administered to several persons

High speed in processing information. simultaneously. Individual tests require
Superior generalisation and discri- the test administrator to establish a
o N

mination ability. rapport with the subject and be sensitive

Advanced level of original and creative to her/his feelings, moods and expressions
thinking. during the testing session. Group tests,
however, do not allow an opportunity to be
High level of intrinsic motivation and
familiar with the subjects feelings.

self-esteem.
Individual tests allow people to answer
Independent and non-confor mist
orally or in a written form or manipulate
thinking.
objects as per the testers instructions.
Pr eference for solitary academic
Group tests generally seek written answers
activities for long periods.
usually in a multiple-choice format.
Performance on intelligence tests is not
the only measure for identifying the gifted.
Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests
Many other sources of information, such as
teachers judgment, school achievement An intelligence test may be fully verbal,
record, parents interviews, peer and self- fully non-verbal or fully performance-
tt

ratings, etc. can be used in combination based, or it may consist of a mixture of

with intellectual assessment. To reach their items from each category. Verbal tests
full potential, gifted children require special require subjects to give verbal responses
no

attention and different educational either orally or in a written form.

programmes beyond those provided to Therefore, verbal tests can be administered
normal children in regular classrooms. only to literate people. The non-verbal tests use

13
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
pictures or illustrations as test items. is asked to arrange the blocks within a
Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is time period to produce a given design. A
an example of a non-verbal test. In this major advantage of performance tests is
test, the subject examines an incomplete that they can be easily administered to
pattern and chooses a figure from the persons from different cultures.
alternatives that will complete the pattern.
A specimen item from RPM is given in Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests
Figure 1.3.
Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or

ed
culture-biased. Many intelligence tests
show a bias to the culture in which they
are developed. Tests developed in America
and Europe represent an urban and
middle class cultural ethos. Hence,

h
educated middle class white subjects

pu T
generally perform well on those tests. The

is
items do not respect the cultural
perspectives of Asia and Africa. The norms
re R for these tests are also drawn from western

bl
cultural groups. You may be already
familiar with the concept of nor ms
E
Fig.1.3 : An Item from Ravens Progressive discussed in Class XI.
Matrices Test It is nearly impossible to design a test
that can be applied equally meaningfully in
be C

Performance tests require subjects to all cultures. Psychologists have tried to

manipulate objects and other materials to develop tests that are culture-fair or
perform a task. Written language is not culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does not
o N

necessary for answering the items. For discriminate against individuals belonging
example, Kohs Block Design Test contains to different cultures. In such tests, items
a number of wooden blocks. The subject are constructed in a manner that they

Box Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests

1.1
You might have learnt by now that intelligence tests serve many useful purposes such as
selection, counselling, guidance, self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trained
investigator, they may be misused either intentionally or unintentionally. Some of the ill-
effects of intelligence testing by naive testers are:
Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby adversely
affect their performance and self-respect.
The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders in the
society.
Administering a test biased in favour of the middle class and higher class populations
tt

may underestimate the IQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society.
Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence,
and they also do not relate much to success in life. Intelligence can be a potential factor
for achievement in various spheres of life.
no

It is suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices associated with
intelligence tests and take the help of trained psychologists to analyse an individuals
strengths and weaknesses.

14
Psychology
assess experiences common to all cultures (NCER T) has documented Indian tests.
or have questions in which language usage Critical reviews of Indian tests are
is not required. Non-verbal and published in the for m of handbooks.
performance tests help reduce the cultural NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in
bias usually associated with verbal tests. the ar ea of intelligence, aptitude,
personality, attitudes, and interests.
Intelligence Testing in India Table 1.2 lists some tests developed in
S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in India. Among these, Bhatias Battery of
constructing an intelligence test in Hindi Performance Tests is quite popular.

ed
Table 1.2 : Some Tests Developed in India
Verbal Performance

h
CIE Verbal Group Test of Intelligence by CIE Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence

pu T
Uday Shankar Bhatias Battery of Performance Tests

is
Group Test of General Mental Ability by Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak
S. Jalota

re R
Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta
Adaptation of Wechsler Adult Performance
Intelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy

bl
The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin
E
Group Test of Intelligence by Bureau of
Psychology, Allahabad
Indian Adaptation of Stanford-Binet Test
be C

(Third Edition) by S.K. Kulshrestha

Test of General Mental Ability (Hindi) by
M.C. Joshi.
o N

in the 1930s. C.H. Rice attempted to CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

standardise Binets test in Urdu and
Punjabi. At about the same time, A major characteristic of intelligence is that

Mahalanobis attempted to standardise it helps individuals to adapt to their

Binets test in Bengali. Attempts were also environment. The cultural environment
made by Indian researchers to develop provides a context for intelligence to
Indian nor ms for some western tests develop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
including RPM, WAIS, Alexanders has argued that culture provides a social
Passalong, Cube Construction, and Kohs context in which people live, grow, and
Block Design. Long and Mehta prepared a understand the world around them. For
Mental Measurement Handbook listing out example, in less technologically developed
103 tests of intelligence in India that were societies, social and emotional skills in
tt

available in various languages. Since then, relating to people are valued, while in
a number of tests have either been technologically advanced societies,
developed or adapted from wester n personal achievement founded on abilities
cultures. The National Library of of reasoning and judgment is considered
no

Educational and Psychological T ests to represent intelligence.

(NLEPT) at the National Council of From your previous reading you know
Educational Research and T raining that culture is a collective system

15
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and others in the society. Some non-western
achievements in art and literature. A societies value self-reflection and
persons intelligence is likely to be tuned collectivistic orientation as opposed to
by these cultural parameters. Many personal achievement and individualistic
theorists have regarded intelligence as orientation.
attributes specific to the person without
regard to their cultural background. The Intelligence in the Indian Tradition
unique features of culture now find some Contrary to technological intelligence,
representation in theories of intelligence. intelligence in the Indian tradition can be

ed
Ster nbergs notion of contextual or termed as integral intelligence, which
practical intelligence implies that gives emphasis on connectivity with the
intelligence is a product of culture. social and world environment. Indian
Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like thinkers view intelligence from a holistic
individuals, have a life of their own; they

h
perspective where equal attention is paid
grow and change, and in the process to cognitive and non-cognitive processes as

pu T
specify what will be the end-product of well as their integration.

is
successful intellectual development. The Sanskrit word buddhi which is
According to him, while elementary mental
re R
functions (e.g., crying, attending to
often used to represent intelligence is far
more pervasive in scope than the western

bl
mothers voice, sensitivity to smells, concept of intelligence. Buddhi, according
walking, and running) are universal, the
E
to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental
manner in which higher mental functions effort, determined action, feelings, and
such as problem solving and thinking opinions along with cognitive competence
be C

operate are largely culture-produced. such as knowledge, discrimination, and

Technologically advanced societies understanding. Among other things,
adopt child rearing practices that foster buddhi is the knowledge of ones own self
skills of generalisation and abstraction,
o N

based on conscience, will and desire. Thus,

speed, minimal moves, and mental the notion of buddhi has affective and
manipulation among children. These motivational components besides a strong
societies promote a type of behaviour, cognitive component. Unlike the western
which can be called technological views, which primarily focus on cognitive

intelligence. In these societies, persons parameters, the following competencies are

are well-versed in skills of attention, identified as facets of intelligence in the
observation, analysis, performance, speed, Indian tradition :
and achievement orientation. Intelligence Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to
tests developed in western cultures look context, understanding, discrimination,
precisely for these skills in an individual. problem solving, and ef fective
Technological intelligence is not so communication).
valued in many Asian and African Social competence (respect for social
societies. The qualities and skills regarded order, commitment to elders, the
tt

as intelligent actions in non-western young and the needy, concern

cultures are sharply different, though the about others, recognising others
boundaries are gradually vanishing under perspectives).
the influence of western cultures. In Emotional competence (self-
no

addition to cognitive competence that is regulation and self-monitoring of

very specific to the individual, the non- emotions, honesty, politeness, good
western cultures look for skills to relate to conduct, and self-evaluation).

16
Psychology
 Entrepreneurial competence information accurately and efficiently. To
(commitment, persistence, patience, know the characteristics of persons who
hard work, vigilance, and goal-directed are high on emotional intelligence, read
behaviours). Box 1.2.
Emotional intelligence is receiving
increasing attention of educators for
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE dealing with students who are affected by
The notion of emotional intelligence stresses and challenges of the outside
broadens the concept of intelligence world. Programmes aimed at improving

ed
beyond the intellectual sphere/domain and students emotional intelligence have
considers that intelligence includes beneficial ef fects on their academic
emotions. You may note that it builds on achievement. They encourage cooperative
the concept of intelligence in the Indian behaviour and reduce their antisocial
tradition. Emotional intelligence is a set activities. These programmes are very

h
of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, useful in preparing students to face the

pu T
expression, and regulation of emotions. It challenges of life outside the classroom.

is
is the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ
and scholastic record is not enough to be SPECIAL ABILITIES
re R
successful in life. You may find many

bl
people who are academically talented, but Aptitude : Nature and Measurement
are unsuccessful in their own life. They
E
experience problems in family, workplace By now you have learnt enough about
and interpersonal relationships. What do intelligence. You may recall that
they lack? Some psychologists believe that intelligence tests assess a general mental
be C

the source of their difficulty may be a lack ability. Aptitude refers to special abilities
of emotional intelligence. This concept was in a particular field of activity. It is a
first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who combination of characteristics that indicates
o N

considered emotional intelligence as the an individuals capacity to acquire some

ability to monitor ones own and others specific knowledge or skill after training. We
emotions, to discriminate among them, and assess aptitude with the help of selected
to use the information to guide ones tests. The knowledge of aptitude can help

thinking and actions. Emotional Quotient us to pr edict an individuals future

(EQ) is used to expr ess emotional performance.
intelligence in the same way as IQ is used While assessing intelligence,
to express intelligence. psychologists often found that people with
In simple terms, emotional intelligence similar intelligence differed widely in
refers to the ability to process emotional acquiring certain knowledge or skills. You

Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons Box

1.2
Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
tt

Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body
language, voice and tone, and facial expressions.
Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving
problems and taking decisions.
no

Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions.
Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and
others to achieve harmony and peace.

17
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
may observe in your class that there are (vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling, and
certain areas in which some intelligent (viii) Language Usage. J.M. Ojha has
students do not do well. When you have a developed an Indian adaptation of DAT.
problem in mathematics, you may turn to Several other aptitude tests have been
Aman for help, and with similar difficulties developed in India for measuring scientific,
in literature you may consult Avinash. You scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching
may request Shabnam to sing for your aptitudes.
annual function, and may turn to John
when facing a problem with your bike.
CREATIVITY

ed
These specific skills and abilities are called
aptitudes. With proper training these In the foregoing sections, you have read
abilities can be considerably enhanced. that there are variations in psychological
In order to be successful in a particular attributes like intelligence, aptitude,
field, a person must have both aptitude

h
personality and so on. Here, you will learn
and interest. Interest is a preference for that there are differences in the potential

pu T
a particular activity; aptitude is the for creativity across individuals and the

is
potentiality to perform that activity. A
re R manner in which creativity is expressed.
person may be interested in a particular Some are highly creative and others are not
job or activity, but may not have the so creative. Some may express creativity in

bl
aptitude for it. Similarly, a person may writing, still others in dance, music, poetry,
have the potentiality for performing a job,
E
science and so on. Manifestations of
but may not be interested in doing that. creativity can be observed in a novel
In both cases, the outcome will not be solution to a problem, an invention,
be C

satisfactory. A student with high composition of a poem, painting, new

mechanical aptitude and strong interest in chemical process, an innovation in law, a
engineering is more likely to be a breakthrough in preventing a disease and
o N

successful mechanical engineer. the like. Despite differences, one common

Aptitude tests are available in two element among these is the production of
forms: independent (specialised) aptitude something new and unique.
tests and multiple (generalised) aptitude We generally think of creativity in terms
tests. Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical

of creative persons like Tagore, Einstein,

Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing C.V. Raman, Ramanujan etc. who have
Aptitude are independent aptitude tests. made outstanding contributions in
Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form different spheres. In recent years, our
of test batteries, which measure aptitude understanding of creativity has broadened.
in several separate but homogeneous Creativity is not just limited to a selected
areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), few the artist, the scientist, the poet or
the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), the inventor. An ordinary individual who is
and the Ar med Services Vocational engaged in simple occupations like pottery,
Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known carpentry, cooking, etc. can also be
tt

aptitude test batteries. Among these, creative. However, it has been said that
DAT is most commonly used in they are not working at the same level of
educational settings. It consists of 8 creativity as an eminent scientist or a
independent subtests: (i) Verbal Reasoning,
no

writer. Hence, we can say that individuals

(ii) Numerical Reasoning, (iii) Abstract vary in terms of the level and the areas in
Reasoning, (iv) Clerical Speed and which they exhibit creativity and that all
Accuracy, (v) Mechanical Reasoning, may not be operating at the same level.

18
Psychology
Einsteins theory of relativity is an you have already read in Class XI about
example of the highest level of creativity strategies to enhance creativity.
which implies bringing out altogether
new ideas, facts, theory, or a product. Creativity and Intelligence
Another level of creativity is working on One important debate in understanding
what has already been established the variations in creativity has been the
earlier by way of modifications, by putting relationship of creativity with intelligence.
things in new perspectives or to new use. Let us take an example of two students
Resear ch literature suggests that in a class. Sunita is regarded by her

ed
children begin to develop their imagination teachers as an excellent student. She does
during the early years of childhood but her work on time, scores the highest
they express creativity mostly through grades in her class, listens to instructions
physical activities and in non-verbal ways. with care, grasps quickly, reproduces
When language and intellectual functions

h
accurately but she rarely comes out with
are fully developed and store of knowledge ideas which are her own. Rita is another

pu T
is adequately available, creativity is student who is just average in her studies

is
expressed through verbal modes too. Those
re R and has not achieved high grades
who are outstanding in their creativity may consistently. She prefers to learn on her
give an indication about the direction in own. She improvises new ways of helping

bl
which their creativity lies through their her mother at home and comes up with
E
self-chosen activities. In some cases, new ways of doing her work and
however, opportunities need to be provided assignments. The former is considered to
before they can manifest their hidden be more intelligent and the latter as more
be C

potential for creativity. creative. Thus, a person who has the

How do we explain variations in the ability to learn faster and reproduce
potential for creativity? As in the case of accurately may be considered intelligent
o N

other mental and physical characteristics, more than creative unless s/he devises
such variations can be attributed to the new ways of learning and doing.
complex interaction of heredity and Terman, in the 1920s, found that
environment. There is no disagreement persons with high IQ were not necessarily

that creativity is deter mined by both creative. At the same time, creative ideas
heredity and environment. Limits of the could come from persons who did not have
creative potential are set by heredity, a very high IQ. Other researches have
envir onmental factors stimulate the shown that not even one of those identified
development of creativity. How much of the as gifted, followed up throughout their
creative potential can be realised, when adult life, had become well-known for
and in what specific form and direction is creativity in some field. Researchers have
largely deter mined by environmental also found that both high and low level of
factors such as motivation, commitment, creativity can be found in highly intelligent
family support, peer influences, training children and also children of average
tt

opportunities, etc. Although no amount of intelligence. The same person, thus, can be
training can transform an average person creative as well as intelligent but it is not
to the level of Tagore, Shakespeare, etc. necessary that intelligent ones, in the
no

but it is also true that every individual can conventional sense, must be creative.
raise her/his level of creative potential Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not
beyond its present level. In this context, ensure creativity.

19
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
 Researchers have found that the are off-the-beaten track, ability to see new
relationship between creativity and relationships between seemingly unrelated
intelligence is positive. All creative acts things, ability to guess causes and
require some minimum ability to acquire consequences, ability to put things in a
knowledge and capacity to comprehend, new context, etc. This is contrary to the
retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, for tests of intelligence which mostly involve
example, need facility in dealing with convergent thinking. In tests of
language. The artist must understand the intelligence, the person has to think of the
effect that will be produced by a particular right solution to the problem and the focus

ed
technique of painting, a scientist must be is on assessing abilities such as memory,
able to reason and so on. Hence, a certain logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual
level of intelligence is required for creativity ability, and clear thinking. There is little
but beyond that intelligence does not scope for the expression of spontaneity,
correlate well with creativity. It can be

h
originality, and imagination.
concluded that creativity can take many Since expressions of creativity are

pu T
forms and blends. Some may have more of varied, tests have been developed using

is
intellectual attributes, others may have
re R different stimuli like words, figures, action,
more of attributes associated with and sounds. These tests measure general
creativity. But, what are the attributes of
creative thinking abilities like ability to

bl
a creative person? You may like to discuss
think of a variety of ideas on a given topic/
the attributes which are common to all
E
situation, alternative ways of looking at
kinds of creative persons.
things, problems or situations, to guess
Creativity tests came into existence to
causes and consequences, to think of
be C

assess variations in terms of the potential

unusual ideas to improve and to use
for creativity in contrast to intelligence.
common objects, ask unusual questions
A general feature of most of the
and so on. A few investigators have also
o N

creativity tests is that they are open-ended.

They permit the person to think of different developed tests of creativity in different
answers to the questions or problems in areas such as literary creativity, scientific
terms of her/his experiences, whatever creativity, mathematical creativity, etc.
these may have been. These help the Some of the famous psychologists who

individual to go in different directions. have developed creativity tests ar e

There are no specified answers to Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach and
questions or problems in creativity tests. Kogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.
Therefore, there is freedom to use ones Each test has a standardised procedure, a
imagination and express it in original ways. complete set of manual, and interpretation
Creativity tests involve divergent thinking guide. These can be used only after
and assess such abilities as ability to extensive training in administration and
produce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which interpretation of test scores.
tt

Key Terms
Aptitude, Aptitude tests, Case study, Cognitive assessment system, Componential intelligence,
no

Contextual intelligence, Creativity, Emotional intelligence, Culture-fair test, Experiential intelligence,

g-factor, Individual differences, Intellectual giftedness, Intellectual disability, Intelligence, Intelligence
tests, Intelligence quotient (IQ), Interest, Interview, Mental age (MA), Observational method, Planning,
Psychological test, Simultaneous processing, Situationism, Successive processing, Values.

20
Psychology
 Individuals vary in their physical and psychological characteristics. Individual
differences refer to distinctiveness and variations in peoples characteristics and
behaviour patterns.
A wide variety of personal attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, interests,
personality, and values can be assessed. Psychologists assess these attributes
through psychological tests, interviews, case studies, observations, and self-reports.
The term intelligence refers to an individuals capacity to understand the world,
think rationally, and use resources effectively to meet the demands of life. Intellectual
development is the product of a complex interplay of hereditary factors (nature), and
environmental conditions (nurture).

ed
The psychometric approaches to intelligence lay emphasis on studying intelligence
as a constellation of abilities, expressed in quantitative terms such as IQ. The more
recent theories representing information-processing approaches, e.g. Sternbergs
triarchic theory and Dass PASS model describe the processes underlying intelligent
behaviour. Howard Gardner suggests that there are eight different kinds of intelligence.
Intelligence is assessed with the help of specially designed tests. Intelligence tests

h
may be of verbal or performance type; can be administered individually or in groups;
and may be culturally-biased or culturally-fair. At the two extremes of intelligence

pu T
are the intellectually deficient persons and the intellectually gifted.

is
Culture provides a context for intellectual development. Western culture promotes
technological intelligence based on skills of analysis, performance, speed, and
re R achievement orientation. In contrast, non-western cultures value self-reflection, social

bl
and emotional competence as signs of intelligent behaviour. Indian culture promotes
integral intelligence that emphasises connectivity with people and the larger social
E
world.
Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive and manage ones and others
feelings and emotions; to motivate oneself and restrain ones impulses; and to handle
be C

interpersonal relationships effectively.

Aptitude refers to an individuals potential for acquiring some specific skills. Aptitude
tests predict what an individual will be able to do given proper training and
environment.
o N

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel,
appropriate and useful. Certain level of intelligence is necessary to be creative, but a
high level of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly be
creative.

Review Questions
1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?
2. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment
(nurture)? Discuss.
3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
4. How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?
5. Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological
systems. Explain with reference to PASS model.
6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
tt

7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?
8. How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in
their intellectual ability? Explain.
no

10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life
and why?
11. How is aptitude different from interest and intelligence? How is aptitude measured?
12. How is creativity related to intelligence?

21
Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes
 Project 1. Observe and interview 5 persons in your neighbourhood in order to see how they differ
Ideas from each other in terms of certain psychological attributes. Cover all the five domains.
Prepare a psychological profile of each person and compare.
2. Select 5 vocations and gather information about the nature of work done by people in
these vocations. Also analyse these vocations in terms of the types of psychological
attributes required for successful performance. Write a report.

ed
Weblinks
http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/anastasi.shtml
http://www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/intell.html
http://www.humandimensions.org/emotion.htm

h
http://www.emotionaliq.com/Gdefault.htm
http://edweb.gsn.org/edref.mi.intro.html

pu T
http://www.talentsmart.com

is
re R http://www.kent.ac.uk/career/psychotests.com

bl
E
Pedagogical Hints
1. To introduce the topic, teacher can
initiate discussion on psychological
be C

constructs such as intelligence,

personality, aptitude, values, etc.
This would serve to point out the
o N

difficulty in arriving at one single,

universal explanation of these
constructs.
2. Teacher should draw fr om the
experiences of the students to

introduce the different psycho-

logical attributes discussed in the
chapter.
3. Some sample items of various tests
(to be collected by the teacher) can
be given to students to generate
their interest.
4. Encourage students to complete the
activities and also to design
activities on their own either
individually or in groups. Initiate
tt

discussion in the class on

observations made by students on
completion of the activities.
5. Students should be encouraged to
no

relate the concepts to their real-life

experiences.

22
Psychology