eee wy oon tnegiaen a htt FL ALY Reinforced Concrete an N. Krishna Raju R.N. PraneshCopyright ©2003, New Age Intemational (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers First Edition : 2003 Reprint: 2008 Alll rights reserved. ‘No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the copyright owner. ISBN : 81-224-1460-5 Rs. 250.00 C-08-03-2345 5678910 Printed in India at Nagari Printers, Delhi. PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEWAGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newngepublishers.com The book is dedicated to The pioneers and research workers, Isaac Johnson, Thaddeus Hyatt, Koenen, Coignet Whitney, Emperger, Jenson, Chambaud, Hognestad Baker, Evans, Neville, Fintel, Johanssen, Wood, Jones, Regean, Bresler, Park, Paulay, Gerwick, Murashev, Collins, Taylor, Newmark and a host of others wio toiled incessantly for the development and widespread use of Reinforced ConcretePreface ‘The widespread use of reinforced concrete in a variety of structural mem- bers in the construction industry has necessitated a proper understanding of the design and detailing procédures adopted” by civil and structural engineers. The first Indian standard code of practice for plain and rein- forced concrete was published in 1953 and revised in 1964 with major emphasis on working stress design. The third revision published in 1978 incorporated the limit’state design in conjunction with the working stress design. In recent years valuable information regarding the various aspects of rein- forced concrete such as durability, fire resistance, type of concrete, quality assurance and limit state criteria, has been gathered and hence the recently revised fourth edition of the Indian standard code IS: 2000 incorporates the latest developments and design practices accumulated during the last three dccades and also based on the various national codes such as the British code BS: 8110, the American code ACI: 319, the German code DIN: 1045, the Buropean concrete committee (CEB-FIP) model code of 1990, the Canadian code CAN-A23.3 and the Australian code AS: 3800. This text book entitled "REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN (IS: 456-2000) is a modern comprehensive text meetirig the requirements of lergraduate students of civil engineering and as a reference book for civil engineering teachers and practicing structural engineers. The material covered in the book comprises the first course forming the foundation for the theory and design of reinforced concrete structures and is class tested over several years of teaching by the authors. ‘The book is spread over seventeen chapters covering the fundamental top- ics in reinforced concrete design generally taught in the first course of BE and B-Tech (Civil enginecring) curriculum in Indian universities to be covered in a time frame of 50 hours. . In the first Introductory chapter, the evolution of reinforced concrete as a structural material for domestic industrial, highway, marine, environmen- tal and storage structures is highlighted and prominent landmarks in the development of the material during the 20th century is examined in the light of continuous research by various investigators about the different properties of structural material. The second and third chapters present a comprehensive description of the various properties of concrete and types of reinforcement used in structural concrete along with the relevant Indian Standard code specifications.* Preface - Blastic Theory of Reinforced concrete sections in flexure is presented in Chapter-4 along with some numerical examples of analysis of structural elements. ‘The concepts of Limit State Method of design which includes the various limit states of collapse and serviceability such as deflections and cracking is presented in Chapter-5. In chapter-6, the ultimate strength of structural concrete members in flex- ure, shear, compression and torsion and their combinations followed by their serviceability requirements at working loads is presented in Chapter-7 The limit state method of designing, slabs, columns, footings, and retain- ing walls is presented in a logical sequence in Chapters 8 to 1. Typical Design examples are worked out using the Indian Standard Code: 456-2000 equations and also checked by the use of design aids such as SP: 16, generally used in design office to save time. ‘The limit state design of different types of staircases such as doglegged, open well, and tread-riser configurations are presented in Chapter-12 fol- lowed by the design of corbels and nibs in Chapter-13, The theory and design of pile and raft foundations are detailed in Chapter-14. The traditional working stress method of design extensively used in the first half of the 20th century is presented in Chapter-15 with some numer- ical design examples. Chapter-16 deals with detailing aspects of reinforcements in structural concrete members to be followed to achieve adequate strength and ser- viceability. A large number of figures are presented to illustrate the wrong and right methods of detailing of reinforcements in various structural concrete members. Chapter-17 deals with the Principles of earthquake resistant design. The Indian standard codal recommendations regarding the detailing of mem- bers in seismic zone is presented. Each chapter is fortified with a variety of worked numerical examples and a large number of practice examples are included at the end of each chapter (o help the students preparing for university and competitive examinations. In keeping with the spirit of ‘drawing is the language of the engineer’, numerous figures have been included which it is hoped will heip in a clearer understanding of the subject matter. S.I units have been adopted throughout the text for all design examples, Finally, the authors welcome constructive criticisms and useful sug- gestions, which will immensely help in updating and improving the con- tents of the book. N. Krishna Raju Bangalore. RUN. Pranesh January 2003 Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the following societies, journals, associations, building standards of various countries and several authors for the reproduction of salient design data, charts, tables, figures and refer- ence material mentioned throughout the text, Bureau of Indian standards, American Concrete Institute, British Standards Institution, German Standards Institution, Canadian Standards Associ- ation, American Society of Civil Engineers, Australian Standards Associ- ation, National Building Code of Canada, European Concrete Committee, Institution of Engineers (ndia), Institution of Civil Engineers (London) Structural Engineer (London), Torstcel Research Foundation, Cement & Concrete Association (London), Structural Engineering Research Centre Roorke), Magazine of Concrete Research (London). John Wiley & Sons (New York), Mir Publishers (Moscow), McGraw Hill Publishers (New York), Prentice Hall of India (New Delhi), Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co (New Delhi), Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs (New Jersey), Narosa Publishing House (New Delhi), Pitman (Australia), Asia ~ Publishing House (New Delhi), C.B.S, Publishers & Distributors (New Delhi), Oxford & LB.H. Publishing Co (New Delhi), Khanna Publishers (New Delhi), Chatto and Windus (London). In addition to the above publishers, the authors are deeply indebted to the following research workers and professors for freely using their published work in compiling this book. Professors A.M. Neville, R.H.Evans, P.C. Verghese, R.H. Wood, L.L. Jones, R.E.Rowe, S.Unnikrishna Pillai, Devdas Menon, V. Murashev, MP. Collins, K.T.S. Iyengar, R.F.warner, B.V. Rangan, A.S.Hall, P.Purv- shothaman, K.W. Johansson, B. Bresler, R. Park, T.Paulay, M.R. Kalgal, K.S. Jayasimha, M.S. Sudarshan, N.M. New Mark, A.K. Jain, M. Fintel, ER. Khan and several other research workers. The complete details of the source material used for the preparation of the text matter are presented in the form of references at the end of the book. ‘The authors wish to record their gratitude to Pradeep for preliminary com- pilation of the master copy of the text on a computer floppy and Master B. Srikanth, for incorporating the various mathematical equations in the textviii Acknowledgements using the Microsoft Windows soft ware. Thanks are also due to V.B. Pra- sad for preparing the master tracings of the large number of figures pres- ented in the book. Finally, the authors also express their gratitude to their collegues, students, friends and family members for their kind encouragement, co-operation and timely help extended during the preparation of the text book. : List of Symbols Cross sectional area Lever arm Breadth of beam, or shorter dimension of a rectangular.colummn. Effective width of slab . Effective width of flange . Breadth of web or rib mo Overall depth of beam or slab or diameter of column; dimension Of a rectangular column in the direction under consideration Thickness of flange Dead toad Effective depth Depth of compression reinforcement from the highly compressed face Modulus of elasticity of concrete Barth qnake foad Modulus of elasticity of steel Eccentricity Resisting force Characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete : Modulus of rupture of concrete (Flexural strength of concrete) Split tensile strength of concrete Design strength Characteristic strength of stecl Gravity load or dead load Overall height of retaining wall Height of stem Second moment of area or moment of inertia Effective moment of inertia Moment of inertia of gross section excluding reinforcement Moment of inertia of cracked section a Bee lever arm factor osWL List of Symbols Stiffness of member Constant or coefficient or factor Development length Live load Length of a beam or column between adequate lateral restraints Or the unsupportediength of a column Effective span of beam or slab Length of shorter side of slab Length of longer side of slab Effective span length alongX-X axis Effective span length along Y-¥ axis Clear span face to face of supports Span in the direction in which moments are determined, c/c of supports Span transverse to L1, centre to centre of supports Distance between points of zero moments in a beam Bending moment | Moment of resistance Modular ratio Neutral axis depth Actual neutral axis depth Critical neutral axis depth Axial load on a compression member Safe bearing capacity of soil or intensity of pressure Percentage reinforcement in tension Percentage reinforcement in compression Live load Design coefficient Radius Spacings of stirrups Torsional moment Shear force Distributed load per unit area Total load or concentrated load Wind load Neutral axis depth Modulus of section ‘List of Symbols xi Displacement Partial safety factor for load Partial safety factor for material Coefficient of friction or coefficient of orthotropy Permissible stress in concrete in bending compression Permissible stress in concrete in direct compression Permissible stress in steel in compression Permissible stress in steel in tension Permissible tensile stress in shear reinforcement Design bond stress Shear stress in concrete Maximum shear stress in concrete with shear reinforcement Noninal shear stress Diameter of bar Shrinkage curvature Strain in concrete Strain in steel Creep coefficient Poisson's Ratio Angles or RatioT-Tamie ARAGAN Contents Preface v Acknowledgements vit List of Symbols . ix 1, INTRODUCTION 1 1,1 Basic Concepts of Reinforced Concrete 1 1,2 Historical Development 1 1.3 Philosophy of Structural Design 3 1.4 Applications of Reinforced Concrete 4 1.5. Reinforced Concrete Structural Systems 5 1.6 Design Codes and Hand Books 10 1.7 Loading Standards 11 2. MATERIALS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE 15 2.1 Concrete 15 2.2 Steel Reinforcement 25 REINFORCEMENT SPECIFICATIONS FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE MEMBERS 29 3. 3.1 Reinforcements in Slabs 29 3.2 Reinforcements in Beams 29 3.3 Reinforcements in Columns 30 4, ELASTIC THEORY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SECTIONS IN FLEXURE 33 4,1 Blastic Theory of Reinforced Concrete Sections 33 4.2. Neutral Axis Depth and Moment of Resistance of Sections 33 4.3 Balanced, Under Reinforced and Over Reinforced Sections 37 44 Analysis Examples of R.C. Sections 46 4.5 Examples for Practice 52Contents ‘5, LIMIT STATE METHOD OF DESIGN 54 5.1 Philosophy of Limit State Design 54 5.2 Limit State Design and Classical Reliability Theory 54 5.3 Limit States 55 5.4 Safety Factors 56 5.5 Characteristic and Design Strengths and Partial Safety Factors 56 5.6 Characteristic and Design Loads 57 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SECTIONS 60 6. 6.1 Introduction 60 6.2 Ultimate Flexural Strength of Rectangular Sections 60 6.3 Ultimate Flexural Strength of Flanged Sections 84 6.4 Ultimate Flexural Strength of Doubly Reinforced Concrete Sections 109 6.5 Ultimate Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Sections 126 6.6 Torsional Strength of Reinforced Concrete Sections 147 6.7 Bond and Anchorage in Reinforced Concrete Members 172 6.8 Examples for Practice 191 7, SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS 195 ‘ 7.1 Introduction 195 1.2 Codified Deflection Limits 196 7.3 Deflection Control in Beams and Slabs (Empirical Method) 196 74 Deflection Computations (Theoretical Method) 201 7.5 Control.of Cracking in R.C. Members 203 7.6 Examples 209 7.7 Examples for Practice 218 8. LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF BEAMS 220 8.1 Introduction 220 8.2 Guidelines for Selection of Cross Sectional Dimensions and detailing of Reinforcements 220 8.3 Design of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 221 Contents xv 8.4 Design of Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 227 8.5 Design of Flanged Beams 233 8.6 Design of Cantilever Beams 246 8.7 Design of Continuous Beams 249 8.8 Examples for Practice 254 9. LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF SLABS 256 9.1 Introduction 256 9.2 Design of One Way Slabs 256 9.3 Design of Two Way Slabs 259 9.4 Design of Cantilever Slabs 272 9.5 Design of Continuous Slabs 275 9.6 Design of Flat Slabs 279, 9.7 Yield Line Analysis of Slabs 287 9.8 Examples for Practice 318 10. LIMIT-STATE DESIGN OF COLUMNS AND FOOTINGS 321 10.1 Introduction 321 10.2 Classification of Columns 321 10.3 Effective Length of Columns 323, 10.4 Design of Short Columns Under Axial Compression 330 10.5 Design of Short Columns Under Compression with Uniaxial Bending 336 10.6 Design of Short Columns Under Compression and Biaxial Bending 345 10.7 Design of Slender Columns 352 10.8 Design of Footings 361 10.9 Examples for Practice 382 11, LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS 384 11.1 Introduction 384 11.2 Types of Retaining Walls 384 1L.3 Forces Acting on Retaining Walls 385 11.4 Stability Requirements 388 1L.5 Proportioning and Design of Retaining Walls 390 11.6 Design Examples 392 11.7 Examples for Practice 405xvi Contents ~ 12, DESIGN OF STAIR CASES 12.1 Introduction 408 12:2 Types of Staircases 409 12.3 Loads on Staircases 414 12.4 Design Examples 420 12.5 Examples for Practice 428 13. DESIGN OF CORBELS (BRACKETS) AND NIBS 13.1 Introduction 430 13.2 Shear Span/Depth Ratio and Shear Resistance 431 13.3 Dimensioning of Corbels 431 13.4 Analysis of Forces in a Corbels. 432 13.5 Design Procedure of Corbels 434 ~ 13.6 Design of Nibs (Beam Shelves) 436 13.7 Design Examples 439 13.8 Examples for Practice 445 14, PILE AND RAFT FOUNDATIONS 14.1 Introduction 446 14.2 Design of Pile Foundations 447 14.3 Design of Pile Caps 448 14.4 Design Examples of Piles and Pile Caps 453 14.5 Design of Raft Foundations 463 14.6 Design Example 463 14.7 Examples for Practice 468 15, WORKING STRESS METHOD OF DESIGN 15.1 Introduction and Permissible Stresses. 470 15.2 Design of Slabs 473 15.3 Design of Beams 477 15.4 Design of Columns and Footings 483 15.5 Design of Retaining Walls 486 15.6 Design of Staircase 492 15.7 Design of Water Tanks 494 15.8 Examples for Practice $17 408 430 446 470 Contents — xvii 16, REINFORCEMENT DETAILING IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE MEMBERS 521 16.1 Introduction 521 16.2 Structural Distress and Collapse 522 16.3, Common Shapes of Reinforcements in Slabs 522 16.4 Detailing of Reinforcements in Slabs 524 16.5 ng of Reinforcements in Beams 528 16.6 Detailing of Reinforcements in Columns 531 16,7 Detailing of Reinforcements in Foundations and Walls 533° 16.8 Detailing at Junctions 535 16.9 Detailing in Corbels 543 16.10 Lapping, Splicing and Welding of Reinforcements 545 16.11 Bundling of Reinforcing Bars 548 16.12 Cover to Reinforcement and Reinforcement supports 549 16.13 Expansion Joints in Concrete Structures 550 16.14 Do's and Dont’s in Detailing of reinforcements 553 17, EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN AND DETAILING 567 17. Introduction 567 17.2 Earthquake Forces 568 17.3 Duetility of Reinforced Concrete Members “569 17.4 Design Principles and Code Provisions 576 17.5 Indian Standard Code Provisions for Earthquake Resistant Design 579 ; 17.6 Isolation Concepts in Barthquake resistant Design 588 REFERENCES 592 SUBJECT INDEX 603 AUTHOR INDEX 610CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE Reinforced-concrete is basically concrete in which steel bars of desirable magnitude, are introduced in the casting stage so that the resulting com- posite material resist the stresses developed due to the external loads. In flexural members ‘the steel reinforcement is generally provided near the tension face to resist the tensile stresses since the tensile Strength of con- crete is hardly one tenth Of its compressive strength, In the case of com- pression members, the.steel reinforcement is distributed uniformly in the cross section to resist the compressive stresses developed due to the external loads. 5 . : ‘The revolutionary engineering concept of reinforcing the weak tensile zone of conerete by steel reinforcement was developed in mid-nineteerith Century, The early 20th century witnessed significant improvements in the development and use of reinforced concrete mainly due to the production . of good quality concrete. with improved strength and improved quality of Steel with surface characteristics suitable to develop good bond ‘between concrete and steel. . : oe ‘The success of reinforced concrete as a revolutionary material for use in various types of structures is mainly due to the improved quality of Conerete and stcel over the years and also the improved bond characteris- tics between the two in, gredients, . 1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT The present state of development in the field of reinforced concrete is due {0 the continuous research done by scientists and engineers in this field during the last 150 years. 1 Isane Johnson! first made the prototype of modern cement in 1845, by burning a mixture of clay and chalk until clinkering, so that reactions nec- - @ssary for the formation of strong cementatious compounds are complete. Early 20" century witnessed the development of mass production of good quality cement. At present Ordinary Portland cement of various strengths designated as C-33, C-43, and C-53 are available for use in different types Of structures. Different types of cements with specific properties have becn2 Reinforced Concrete De ate in the cons uction of highways, marine structures, mul- und industrial uctures. jnforeed masonry during first century B.C, Lambot of France constructed a Fow boat 3.3m. long by nlastering Roque. fort cement on it keleton networ! ot iron and wire. Coignet? of France and his contemporul in England filed the first patents for the use of cre 5 seinforeed concret developed for use tistorey bul ding! Roman we around 1855. | in 1855, Wilkinson sec\ ed a patent in England for a concrete arch floor reinforeed with tie bar Many scientists around this time obtained son reinforced com rol different types of structures in various tent . an . boul In the Later part of 19" century, reinforced concrete passed through a pried! of patents fel by several specialists. during the early part of 20" century resulted Significant developments fe in improved quality of ‘concrete and steel. Cement was mass-produced with quality control and improved method of proportioning concrete mixes resulted 1) concrete of desired compressive strength ranging from 15 7 Némnv’ to 60 Némar. ; / Barly Investigntors worked on the theoretical basis to explain the structural behavior of reinforced concrete as early as the end of the nine- teenth century. . ° In 1877, ‘Phaddeus Hyatt, a0 American lawyer established tHe basis of analysis of stress in reinforced anerete by explaining the concept of bond $s LOnereles between steel ‘ads and GOncTe ; Later Koenen of Germany developed the design rules of analysis of reinforced concrele seetions in 1880. Coignet of France also published the principles ofelastic design ‘of reingewed concrete during the same period, rly 20" centucy wvimessed the end of patents in this field when the Prussian regulations ‘comprising 1 complete set of design rules of rein- forced eonerele appeared in 1907, While the French commission on rein- foreedd concrete Tact formulated the design rules in 1906, professional like the Ame! jenn, Conerete Institute (ACI) and the American Soviety of Civil Engineers casceY introduced the first joint code on rein- foreed concrete it 1909. ‘Tho first major appli mainly due 10 the economy’ method of desiga was TE “phe rebuilding: of brides sovivti ieation vf reinforced concrete was in bridges jn comparison with steel bridges. The elastic qaplished and widely used during this oe ih i buildings during the post war periods resulted in establishing reinfonees SONCTELE as an economical structural material for use in different typessestructures. Howoves, the inadequacy of the elastic or working load design in pre- Jonds af a SiAeue paved the way for the ultimate load dicting the ultimate eores and design daged On NIRTALE Toads computed by applying load factors to the working loads. Several Investigators’ like Emporger (1936) Whitney (1937) Jenson (1943), Chambaud (1949) and Hognestad (1951) developed the ultimate load theory based on different types of stress blocks. Reinforced concrete structures designed solely on the basis of ultimate load theory resulted fin. slender structural elements and their serviceability characteristics (deflec- tions and cracks) under working loads were not within the codified accept- able limits. The ultimate load method of design ensures the safety of the structures against the collapse limit state only and as-such does not give any infor- mation about the behaviour of the structure at service loads and the range between service and collapse loads, The inadequacy of the ultimate load method in not ensuring the serviceability of the structure resulted in the development of fimit State design. ° The philosophy of limit state dosign*** was first incorporated in the Russian code in’ 1955. Basically, limit state design is a method of design- ~ ing structures based on @ statistical concept of safety and the associated . statistical probability of failure. Limit state design is based on the concept of probability and comprises the application of the method of statistics to the variations that occur in practice in the loads acting on the structure and “the strength of the materials. The Limit state design overcomes the inadequacies of the working stress and ultimate load methods and ensures the safety of the structure against excessive deflections and cracking under service loads and also provides for the desirable load factor against failure. Hence, the British Code’, American Code®, Australian Code? and German Code" and the recently revised Indian Code!’ have adopted the limit State design con- cepts. 4.3 PHILOSOPHY OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN ‘The main objective of reinforced conerete structural design is to comply + with the following essential requirements. 1) Structures designed should satisfy the criterion,of desirable ultimate strength, in flexure, shear, compression, tension dnd torsion developed under a given system of loads and their combinations. In addition, the stresses developed in the structure under the given system of loads should be within the safe permissible limits under service loads. 2) The structure designed should satisfy the criterion of serviceability, which Jimits the deflections and cracking to be within acceptable lim- its. The structure shoutd also have adequate durability and imperme- ability, resistance to acids, corrosion, frost etc.4 Reinforced Concrete Design 3) The structure should-have adequate stability against overturning, slid- ing, buckling, and vibration under the action of loads. A satisfactory stcuctural design should ensure the three basic criteria of strength, serviceability and stability. In addition, the structural designer should also consider aesthetics and economy. The structural designer and the architect should co ordinate so that the structure designed is not only aesthetically superior, but also strong enough to safely sustain the designed loads without any distress during the life time of the structure. 1.4 APPLICATIONS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE Reinforced concrete is well established, as an important construction imaterial often preferred to steel construction mainly due to its versatility, adaptability, and resistance to fire and corrosion resuiting in negligible maintenance costs. Development of better quality cements during the last decade has resulted in stronger and more durable concrete for use in dif- ferent types of structures. Reinforced concrete is ideally suited for the construction of floor and roof slabs, columns and beams in residential and commercial structures. ‘The present trend is to adopt reinforced concrete for bridges of small, medium and long spans resulting in aesthetically superior and economical structures in comparison with steel bridges. Typical use of reinforced concrete in earth retaining structures Includes abutments for bridges and retaining walls for éarthen embankments. Reinforced concrete is ideally suited for water retaining structures like ground and overhead tanks and hydraulic structures like gravity and arch dams. The material is widely used for the construction of large domes for water tanks and sports stadiums and conference halls. Reinforced concrete grid floors comprising beams and slabs are widely used for covering large areas like conference halls where column free space is an essential requirement. For aircraft hangers, reinforcement concrete shells comprising of thin circular slabs and deep edge beams provide an economical solution. Reinforced concrete folded plate construction has been used for indus- trial structures where large column free space is required under the roof. In coastal areas where corrosion is imminent due to humid environment, reinforced concrete is ideally suited for the construction of marine structures like wharfs, quay walls, watchtowers, and lighthouses. For warehouses in coastal areas, reinforced concrete trusses are preferred to steel trusses. a Keinforced concrete poles have almost replaced steel poles for power transmissions, Tall towers for T.V.transmission are invariably constructed using reinforced concrete. seen cgege ~ ‘Introduction. 5 Multistorey reinforced concrete buildings are routinely adopted for both residential and office complexes. For heavy-duty floors.in factories, reinforced concrete is ideally suited due to its resistance to wear and tear and improved durability. In atomic structures, reinforced concrete is preferred to steel for pres- sure vessel construction due to the superior radiation absorption character- istics of high strength and high density concrete. Reinforced concrete piles, both precast and cast in sites have been in use for foundations of structures of different types likes bridges and build- ings. Another novel application of reinforced concrete is in the construction of pavements for highways and airport runways. ‘The Twentieth century has witnessed reinforced concrete as a revolu- tionary material suitable for the construction of most simple to complex structures. With significant improvements in the quality of cement and steel, reinforced conerete will continue to find néw applications and wide- spread use in the 21st century. 1.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS Any type of structure may be considered as an assemblage of various structural elements, which perform a predetermined function of resisting various types of forces. Basically a structure can be built up using struc- tural and non-structural elements", The structural elements (beams, stabs columns etc,) have the primary function of resisting the external loads, while the nonstructural elements (partitions, false ceiling, doors ete.) do not support the external loads. Basically, the structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional elements (Ex: beams, columns, arches etc) or two-dimensional elements (Ex: slabs, plates, shells ete.) and three-dimensional elements (thick pipes, walls of nuclear reactor vessels, domes etc.) Circular girders generally used in water tanks are subjected combined flexure, shear and torsion while the corner columns in a multistorey framed structure is subjected to biaxial bending, a) One Way Slab Systems Fig. 1.1(a) shows the floor system comprising ‘a one-way slab supported at the edges by walls or beains and supports dead and live loads. The slabs are subjected primarily to maximum flexure at centre of span along the shorter dircction and maximum shear at supports under gravity loads.Kemsforcea Concrete Design Fig 1.1(b) shows a cantilever slab generally used in chajjas Projecting from lintel beans. Fig 1.1(c) shows a continuous slab, supported on beams generally used ina building complex. Slab ‘Support (a) One Way Slab Walt Lintel beam (b) Cantitever Stab Slab (c) Continuous Slab Fig. 1.1 Types of Refnforced Concrete Slab System b) Two Way Slab floor Systems Fig 1.2. shows a typical two-way slab floor system commonly used in buildings. In this case the slab is supported at the edges and it is subjected to flexure in two principal directions while resisting gravity loads, ¢) Beam and Siab floor systems Fig 1.3 shows a typical beam and slab floor system generally used in resi- sential and commercial building structures. In this case the Sravity loads are resisted by flexure of slab and beams, Introduction 7 Section-yy ¥ lob Section- xx Fig-1.2 ‘Two Way Slab Floor System Section- Section- xx Fig. 1.3 Beam and Slab Floor System @) Flat Slab floor System Fig 1.4 shows a flat slab floor system in which the slab is supported on columns directly without any beams. This type of floor system is generally Preferred for large span office complexes, commercial buildings and garages, where headroom is less, ¢) Grid Floor system Fig 1,5 shows a typical grid floor system comprising beams spaced at short intervals running in perpendicular directions and supports a thin slab. ThisSection- yy Section-xx Column Fig. L4 Flat Slab Floor System {ype of roof is generally used for large conference halls and commercial buildings requiring coluzon free space. The grid floor is supported at the calyes on solid walls or columns at regular intervals. 1 Mallistorey Vertical Framing System Vig 1.6 shows the multistorey vertical frame-comprising columns beams and slabs forming three-dimensional structure. The gravity loads are trans- Mitted from slab to beams which in turn transfer the loads to columns and finally to the foundations. The rigid column and beam frame can resist lateral loads due to wind. Introduction Section-xx Fig. 1.5 Grid Floor System a column Fig. 1.6 Multistorey Vertical Freimiing System Section- 9.10 Reinforced Concrete Design g) Slicar Wall System ‘This system consists of solid concrete walls covering the full height of the building. Generally the shear wail box is located at the liftstaircase regions. Sometimes the shear walls are located as exterior or interior walls placed along the transyerse direction of the tall building to resist lateral loads due to wind. A typical shear wall provided at-the core of a tall struc- ture is shown in Fig 1.7, RCC. Wall N 1 Wy [> Floor slabs Fig. 1,7 Shear Wall System 1.6 DESIGN CODES AND HAND BOOKS ‘) Objective of Codes Based on extensive research and practical knowledge, various countries have evolved their national codes, which serve as guidelinés for the design of structures. The main objectives of the codes are 1) To provide adequate structural safety by ensuring strength, service- ability and durability. . 2) To specify simple design procedures, design tables and formulae for easy computations. 3) To provide legal validity and to protect structural engineers form any liability due to failures of structures caused by inadequate design and improper materials and lack of proper supervision during construc- tion. 4) To provide a uniform set of design guide lines to be followed by vari- ous structural designers in the country. National building codes are periodically revised to reflect the improve- ments in the quality of materials and design procedures evolved as a result of comprehensive research investigations conducted. in the various institutions in the country-and abroad. Introduction 11 b) Design Codes and Handbooks All reinforced concrete structural design in our country should confotm to the recently revised Indian Standard Code 1S:456-2000 Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete (Fourth Revision). The corresponding national codes of other countries, which are often referred to, are the Aunerican Concrete Institute Code ACI-318 and the British Code BS: 8110. The design examples presented in this book conform to the Indian standard code. The Bureau of Indian standards have released over the years several handbooks to facilitate reinforced concrete structural designers to design routine structural elements quickly by referring to the various tables and graphs presented in the handbooks. The following handbooks will serve as useful design aids for structural conerete designers. 1) SP: 16-1980". Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS: 456. 2) SP: 24-1983". Explanatory Handbook on IS: 456. o 3): SP: 34-1987'*- Handbook on Concrete Reinforcement and Detailing. 4); SP: 23-1982". Hand book on Concrete Mixes (Based on Indian Stan- dards) 1,7, LOADING STANDARDS Reinforced concrete structures are clesigned to resist the following types of Toads: - a) Dead Loads These are loads that will not change with respect to time. The dead loads acting on the structure include the self-weight of the structural elements, partitions, and finishes, which depends upon the type of material used in the structure. The Indian standard code IS: 875(Part-1) - 1987'7 prescribes the unit weight of building materials and stored materials to be used in the design. Salient dead loads of most common materials used in structural elements are presented in Table 1.1 Table 1.1 Dead Louds of Materials H Erica Masonry 18.85 to 22 Plain Concrete 22,00 to 23.60 Beinforced concrete 22.75 to 26.60 Stone Masonry 21 1027 Tenber 60 10 (Contd...)12:. - Reinforced Concrete Design ‘Table 1.4. Dead Loads of Materials (Contd...) Cement Mortar 20.4 Lime Mortar 15.7 to 18.50 Steel 785 Ftoor Finishes 0.6 to 1.2 Roo! Finishes 02012 ‘Stoel work for Rooting 0.16 10. 0.23 02 ‘Cement plaster - 10mm thick Concrete Tile flooring 25 mm thick 05 Terrazzo, 10mm thick 02 Brick Wall, 100mm thick 4.91 b) Live Loads ‘These are loads that change with respect to time. Live or imposed loads include the loads due to people occupying the floor and those duc to mate- rials stored or vehicles in garage floors, The imposed floor and roof loads for different occupancies are specified in IS 875 (Part-2) - 1987'*. Some of ive loads encountered in the design of buildings are compiled the common in Table 1.2 ‘Table 1.2 Live or Tesposed Loads : Loading Types of Floors Minimura Live Class. Load kN/im? 2 Floors in dwolling houses, tenements, hospital wards, 2 Bedrooms and private sitting coms in hostels and dormi- tories. 25 Office floors other than entrance hall lors of ight work 25-40 rooms. 3.0 | Floors of banking halls, office entrance halls and reading 30 rooms 5 ROOFS Live Load in plan Types of Root kN? 40 ‘Shop floors used for display and sale of merchandise, 4.0 floors of work rooms, floors of class rooms, restaurants, machinory halls power stations etc, where nol occupied by plant or equipment. 50 Floors of warehouses, workshops, factories and other ‘buildings of paris of building or similar category for light weight loads, office lloors for storage and filling purposes. 50 ‘Assembly floor space without fixed saating, public rooms in hotels, dance halls and waiting halts. (Contd.) ; yess, Introduction «13 ‘Table 1.2 Live or Imposed Loails, (Contd...) : 75 Floors of warehouses, workshops, factories and ‘other buildings or paris of buildings of similar category for 75 heavy weight loads, floors of bookstores and iibrarie 10.0 Floors of ware houses, work shops, factorias and other buildings of parts of buildings of similar catogory for 10.0 heavy woight loads, floors of book stores and libraries Garages (light) Floors used for garagos for vehicles not exceading 25 kN Sigs Be gross walght, Slabs 4.0 Bea 25 ms. __| Garages (Heavy) ° Floors used for garages for vehictes not exceoding 40 KN 75 ‘gross weight, Staircases Stairs, landings and corridors for class 2 but not liabto to 3.0 over crowding, Balcony Balconies not liable to over-crowding for class 2 loading Loading for other classes 3.0 Balconies liable to over crowding 5.0 5.0 Flat, Stoping or Curved roof with slopes up to and includ ing to degrees. ja) “Access provided. 15 0.75 b) Accass not provided, except for maintenance. Sloping rool with slope grealer than 10°:- 0.75 kN/mn? Ic) ess 0.001 kNim? for ovory increase in slope over 10 degrees up to and including 20° and 0.002 kN/m* for ‘every degree increase in slope over 20° Seas Bai ¢) Wind Loads Wind loads have to be considered in the design of multistorey buildings, towers and poles. Wind loads depend upon the intensity of wind prevailing in the locality of the structure. 1S: 875(Part-3) -1987" prescribes basic Wind speeds in various zones by dividing the country into 6 zones. The . design wind pressure is computed as p,=0.6¥2 Where _p, = design wind pressure in N/mm? at a height Z and V, = design wind velocity in m/s at a height Z. Wind Load ‘F acting ina direction normal to the individual structural element or cladding unit is commputed as, Fa(G-G)Ary14 Reinforced Concrete Design ~ Where +-C,, = external pressure coefficient. Cy = inteinal pressure coefficient. A. = surface area of structural clement or cladding unit and Pa = design wind pressure. ‘The values of external and internal pressure coefficients depend upon the type of Structure and are presented in a tabular form in IS 875 (Part-3) - 1987. ‘ d) Snow Loads and Local Combinations Structures subjected to snow loads'have to be designed suitably by consid- ering the snow loads prevailing in the region and also the various load combinations, ‘These are specified in IS 875 (Part-4) and (Part-5) - 1987"° ~respectively. e) Earth Quake Loads Seismic or earthquake forces have to be considered in the design of struc- tures located in seismic zones according to 1$:1893-84". The horizontal seismic force (F,.) is computed as, Fg? (@BAG] Where & = Horizontal seismic coefficient depending on location with values of 0.08, 0.05, 0,04, 0.02, and 0.01 for Zones V, IV, HL, 11, and I. B = A coefficient depending on soil-foundation system ranging from 1.0 to1.5 4 = A coefficient depending upon the importance of the struc- ture varying from 1.5 to!.0 G = Dead load above the section considered. Structures located in Zone Y to IU (Severe earthquake zone) should be designed for seismic forces. CHAPTER 2 Materials For Reinforced Concrete 2,1 CONCRETE Plain Concrete is a composite material composing of cement, aggregate and water, in suitable proportions. Cement reacts‘in thie presence of water to produce complex compounds which gradually harden and bonds the aggregate comprising sand and coarse aggregate into a solid mass with — time. Fresh concrete exhibits plasticity and flowability so that it can be placed irito the moulds of required shape and compacted to form a dense mass. The compacted and hardened concrete is cured in the presence of water so that it gains most of its strength within four weeks, after which the external loads can be applied. 2.1.1 Cement Various types of cements have been developed for use in different types of structures. For a detailed study of the type and properties of different types of cements, the reader may refer to the treatise on properties of concrete authored by Neville. According to IS: 456-2000, the types of cements and their suitability for a specific situation are outlined in Table.2.1. 2.1.2 Aggregates In concrete, aggregate volume is nearly 75 percent of the total volume. Hence, the structural behavior of concrete is significantly influenced by the type of aggregates used. Fine aggicgate comprises of sand dug out from tiverbeds and pits having particle sizes from 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm. Crushed rock and gravel are generally used as coarse aggregates with maximum size of 10 mm, 20 and 40 mm. For reinforced concrete work 10 and 20 mm are commonly used. For mass concrete works like dams, larger Sizes of aggregates upto 150 mm are used. The nominal maximum size of Coarse aggregate should be as large as possible but it should be limited:to one fourth of the minimum thickness of the member. Lightweight and heavy weight aggregates are also used in specific works. The various“116: : Reinforced Concrete Design ‘Table 2.1 ‘Types of Cements und their use [No | Type of Cement 1S:Codo ‘Where used 1 ‘Ordinary Portland Gement ¢-33 Grade Is; 260 All General Concrating works. | C43 Grado 1g: 8112 Multistorey structures. C53 Grade Is: 12269 Bridges-Tall structures “ Prestressed concrete work, 2 Rapid Hardening Portland 1S: 8041 Road works and Repairs. Cement 3 | LowHoat Portland Comant | IS: 12600 ‘Mass Concrete Dams 4 Portland Slag Cement’ 18: 455 ‘Marine Structures. 3 1 portand Pozzolana Cement | IS: 1489 | Mass Concrete = ‘Marine Structure : _|___and General building Works, Marine Structures foundations In ‘Sulphate bearing soils. | Sulphate Resisting Périand -| -1S: 12890 ‘Cement T Hydrophobic Cement 1S: 6043 | Swimming Pools floors of food Pro- cessing plants, 8 High Alumina Cement 18: 6452 Marine Structures, 3 ‘Supersulphated Cement 16:6909 | Marine Structures construction of sewers. s of aggregates like specific gravity, strength, toughness, hard- properties 1g) should comply with the ness, soundness, particle size distribution (gradin; Indian Standard Code: IS: 383-1979”. i Crushed rock and gravel aggregates with specific gravity in the range of 2.5 to 2.7 yields concrete with a density in the range of 23 to 24 kN/mi However special concretes like light weight and high density required for, specific applications can be produced by using suitable aggregates. : Light weight aggregates” generally used to produce structural light’ weight concrete having a density in thy range of 10 to 18 kN/m’, widely used in U.K., U.S.A and Enrope belong to the category of and slates produced in a rotary kiln (Leca, a) Expanded shales, clays, Kermazite) ° b) Expanded shales or clay produced on a sintering grate (Aglite, Aglo- porite) ¢) Slags expanded mechanically or by water jet process (Foamed Slag) 4d) Sintered pulverized fuel ash aggregate (Lytag) Lightweight concrete is now a firmly established building material having extensive applications in most of the developing and developed countries. Light Weight concrete is used in the block making industry and also in reinforced and prestressed concrete constructions.” High density concrete with a density, in the range of 30 10 40 kN/m’ required for the construction of biological shields for atomic reactors Materials For Reinforced Concrete 17 made by, using heavy aggregates like Magnetite, Hematite, Limonite and Barytes™, Steel punchings” and shots have been successfully used for producing concrete with a density in the range of 50 to 60 KN/n?, 2.1.3 Concrete Mix Proportions The main objective of eqnerete mix design is to select the optimum pro- portion of the varions ingredients of concrete, which will yield fresh con- crete of desirable workabllity and hardened concrete. possessing the specified: characteristic compressive strength and durability. The mix Propottions should also satisfy the additional requirement of the use of minimum possible cement content so that the maximum economy is achieved in the unit cost of concrete according to the author”. a) Nominal Mix Concrete The Revised indian Standard Code IS: 456-2000, prescribes the propor- tons of ingredients of concrete for nominal mixes of conerete grades lower M-20 which are used for ordinary and small works, as shown in Table ‘Table 2,2 Proportions for Nominal Mix Concrete (Table-9 oF IS: 456-2000) Total Quantity of Dry Aggre- gatos by mass por 50 kg of Proportions of Fine Grace | Cement, to be taken as the sum Aggregate to coarso Quantity of water rele of the individual masses of Fine —--Aggrogale par 50 kg of” and Coarse Aggregates (kg) (By Mass) Cemont (Max) Max litres) 1 2 3 4 ae, 800 Generally 1: 2 but 60 Mrs 625 | subject to an upper 45 Mag 480 Limit of 4:1'% and a 34 20 399 lower limit of 1:24, sa 250 30 b) Design Mix Concrete ror aimporiant works involving large quantities of concrete, it is prefer- to use design mix, which results in considerable economy ensuring the required strength. The design mix uses the following parameters:- 1) Type of cement 2) Aggregate size and grading 3) Water / Cement ratio 4) Aggregate / Cement ratio18 Reinforced Concrete Design «5) Workability of concrete 6): Relation between mean and maximum strength and standard deviation 7) Grade of concrete Over the years, several mix design methods have been developed based ‘on the above parameters, The most prominent, well-established and widely used methods are, 1) The American Conérete Institute Method”, 2) The British Method, developed by Teychenne, Franktin and Erntroy"® 3) The Indian Standard Method”. ‘The above methods are based on extensive experimental investigations in their respective countries. A critical review of the Indian, British and American methods of concrete mix design has been reported by Krishna Reddy” and the author. The salient experimental observations being that the American and British methods resulted in conerete having compressive strength nearly equal to the desired characteristic strength while the Indian Standard method yields significantly higher compressive strength than the desired characteristic strength. Also the concrete mixes designed by’ the Indian Standard Code method utilized the highest cement content for unit volume of concrete in comparison with the American and British methods, For exhaustive information regarding the format of design of. concrete mixes of various types and computer aided design of mixes, the reader may refer to the treatise on ‘Design of Concrete Mixes’ recently revised by the author”. ¢) Properties of Concrete i) Compressive strength The Characteristics strength is defined as the strength of material below which not more than 5 percent of the test results are expected to fall. The concrete mix should be designed for the target strength computed as, Target Strength = (Characteristic Strength) + (1.65 time the Standard deviation) The Indian Standard Code IS: 456-2000 specifies the characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm cubes at the age of 28days as Grades of concrete varying from 15 to 50 N/mm? designated as M-15 to M-50. For Reinforced concrete, the minimum grade of concrete to be used is M-20. ii) Tensile Strength The flexural strength of| concrete generally referred to as Tensile strength is Materials bor Kenijoreeu Conerere ay required to compute the on set of visible cracks in a concrete structure under flexure. For computation of load factor against cracking, knowledge of the flexural strength is required, According to IS: 456-2000, the tensile strength of concrete can be computed from the compressive strength using the empirical relation given by Flexural strength f.= 0.7 Wf, Némm? Where fy = Characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete «Nimm’) iii) Modulus of Elasticity Modulus of elasticity of concrete which is significantly influenced by the type of the aggregates used, type of cement and mix proportions is an important property required for the computations of deflections of struc- tural concrete members which forms an important limit state in the design of concrete members. In the absence of test data, the modulus of elasticity of concrete is normally related to the compressive strength and is com- puted by the empirical relation recommended by IS: 456-2000 code and is expressed as, _ : E,= 5000 Vf, Where E, is the short-term static modulus of elasticity of concrete expressed in N/min*. fa is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete expressed in N/mm? : iv) Shriukage of Concrete The ingredients of concrete and environmental conditions like temperature and humidity influence the total shrinkage of concrete. Water content in concrete significantly affects the shrinkage. The IS: Code 456-2000 rec- ommends the total shrinkage strain as 0.0003 in the absence of test data. Drying shrinkage in plain concrete may result in surface cracks. Shrinkage of concrete also influences the deflections of reinforced concrete members. y) Creep of concrete The inelastic time dependent strain developed in a concrete member under sustained loading is referred to as creep of concrete: Creep of concrete is influenced by cement content, W/C ratio, A/C fe io, temperature and humidity, size, of the structural element, type of loading and’ period of loading. .f