Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development AJAERD

Vol. 3(3), pp. 279-292, November, 2017. [Link]. ISSN: XXXX-XXXX

Review Article

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision

Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to
Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
*Halimatu Sadiyah Abdullahi1, Ray E. Sheriff2
1,2Faculty of Engineering & Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom

This study investigated the adoption of precision farming (PF) technology with research into the
possible implementation of the technology for increased productivity in a maize plantation in
Nigeria. The research understands the nature of the challenges and highlights the possibility of
implementing PF technology to Nigerian Agriculture. The methodology uses simple image
analysis with fuzzy classification to determine the degree of spatial and temporal variability of the
field to develop a treatment plan for an equally fertile and fully productive yield. The results
showed that implementing precision agriculture (PA) will yield high productivity with the aid of
remote sensing to obtain an aerial view of the farm. Simple PA technologies, such as using the
information to determine and test soil nutrient availability to enable land preparation to obtain a
uniform field, can help make the managerial decision on the farm efficiently. There is a great
chance to optimize production on the field, minimise input resources, cost and maximising profit
while preserving the natural environment. By using machine vision technology with fuzzy logic
for decision making, not only the shape, size, colour, and texture of objects can be recognised
but also numerical attributes of the objects or scene being imaged.

Keywords: Precision Agriculture, classification technique, feature extraction, Image analysis, Decision making, variability.

INTRODUCTION
With the potential of the space agency in Nigeria, aerial Research into the agricultural sector shows that satellite
surveillance for constantly monitoring an agricultural services are very important and yet to be explored in
plantation using satellites and other remote sensing Nigeria (Unoosa, 2016) (Asian Development Bank, 2014)
technologies has improved and made possible the (Meera, Jhamtani, and Rao, 2004) (Vergragt, 2006). With
adoption of precision agriculture for the optimized these potential, the use of remote sensing can be explored
production of food (Valente et al., 2011). The National to monitor agricultural plantation, detect early onset of the
Space Research and Development Agency in Nigeria, for effect of pests and diseases, determine the harvest period,
example, has successfully launched five (5) satellites and prepare soil before planting to ensure maximum
are planning to launch more to replace others reaching production with minimal losses of products, minimize
their estimated life-cycle (Nasrda, 2008). These Nigerian losses on the field by providing exact harvest dates,
satellites have contributed in addressing some the nations reduction in addition to input resources and also deliver the
challenges in areas like the recent flooding(Nema, 2014) right amount of nutrient resources on the field (Mengistu
in providing: early warning signs and provision of and Salami, 2007).
contingency plans; and images of the Sambisa forest,
where the kidnapped Chibok girls were believed to be held
(Adams, 2014). Also, Nigerian SAT 1 was part of the first
satellite to return pictures of the east coast of the United *Corresponding author: Halimatu Sadiyah Abdullahi,
States following the Hurricane Katrina and has provided Faculty of Engineering & Informatics, University of
some images for mapping and development of certain Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom. E-mail:
areas (Paul Osas, 2013). h.s.abdullahi1@[Link]

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
Abdullahi and Sheriff 280

The Nigerian economy solely depends on oil for the The technological development in agriculture serves to
provision of its resources, funds, payment of wages and in lessen the human labour involved in farming. Technology
general, the Countrys running costs. This contributes less is playing a very significant role in the primary, secondary
than 40% of GDP despite its dependence and has created and even in (tertiary) marketing these days which is critical
a lot of problems with unemployment, and an uneven or to the agricultural-industry companies (Lopes, 2010) (Dr.
unequal distribution of wealth among a certain small William C. Motes, 2010). It is only with large production
percentage of individuals, leading to extreme poverty in being aided by the available recent technology and
the hands of the majority (Otiotio, 2015). exhaustive marketing that the farmer exploits both the
local market and the global market to its full extent
Individuals with access to oil had automatic tickets to (Product, 2008).
becoming rich within a short period without much hard The application of technology to agricultural production is
work required, this has a negative effect and leads to broadly classified into two (2) broad sub-mains namely:
discouragement in the Agricultural sector previously one of yield technology and the ICT technology. Figure 2 shows
the major sources of revenue (70% GDP) generation the classification as well as other aspects required for
before the oil boom in 1970 (Pettinger, 2015a). Recently, better management and improvement of the agricultural
due to the shortfall in the price of crude oil(Pettinger, sector.
2015b), the agricultural sector is the other sector that is
being explored to bring a long lasting solution to the Yield technology is commonly referred to as the
economic situation (extreme poverty, unemployment, technology that aids the growth of the plantation from pre-
starvation etc.) by providing increase in GDP and leading planting to post-harvest, while ICT refers to the services
to more job opportunities creation with abundant food that help with the implementation of the technology use like
supply. the software, internet facility and communications tools.
With technology, Agriculture or farming is fast translating
The Strength, Weakness, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) to a more and more information-based industry in the
analysis were carried out on the Nigerian economy to reaction to an economic and environmental considerations
justify the need for the research. Figure 1 shows the to help meet the requirements for the observational data
SWOT analysis for agricultural development in Nigeria. obtained with the use of the aircraft, UAV, balloons and
satellite through remote sensing which is playing a long-
Technology application to agricultural development is fast drawn-out role in farm management through precision
increasing and broadly practised in so several parts of the agriculture(Deere, 2007). Figure 3 shows the role played
world where agriculture is as a major source of income and by each of the technologies as highlighted.
livelihood (Diouf et al., 2002). Technology int his contaxt The system requirements as shown in figure 3 refers to
refers to the application of scientific knowledge for data management and processing involving the overall
practical drives or the use of machinery to enhance, process of data acquisition, data analysis and
facilitate a process and reduce the rigorous manual labour dissemination of the data for use by the farmers. This is all
involved in agricultural production (Rada and Valdes, about obtaining relevant data and ensuring its delivery at
2012). These applications to the agricultural sector helps the right time and to the right source. This technology is
to eliminate the stress and hectic manual intensive labour referred to as Precision Agriculture (PA) (Pet al., 2011).
involved in agriculture. It also tends to optimize yield and
aids proper management of farm input resources
translating into output (Wei and Balasubramanyam, 2015). LITERATURE REVIEW
In Nigeria, food security is at the heart of economic and
social development priorities, which will lead to political To study and understand the nature of Nigerian
and economic stability in the country by making more food Agriculture, the total mass of land available to agriculture
available, improving its quality and making it readily with the percentage of arable land is represented below
accessible to more people (Steer, 2008). This will serve to according to World Bank indicators (The World Bank,
bridge the very wide gap between the rich and poor. 2016) is represented in table 1.

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
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Figure 1: SWOT Analysis for Agricultural Development in Nigeria

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
Abdullahi and Sheriff 282

Figure 2: Classification of Agricultural Technology

Figure 3: Impact of Technology on Agriculture.

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
 J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 283

TABLE I: World Bank indicators of the percentage of arable land in Nigeria

World Bank Indicators
Year 1990 2000 2005 2010 2012
Agricultural acreage (sq. km) in Nigeria 720740 718500 762000 742000 760000
Agricultural land (%) of land area available in Nigeria 79.11 78.90 84.0 81.8 83.7
Arable land inhectares in Nigeria 29539000 30000000 34200000 34000000 36000000
Arable land (hectares per person) in Nigeria 0.30 0.20 0.25 0.22 0.22
Arable land (%) of land area in Nigeria 32.4 32.9 38.7 37.0 39.2
Permanent yieldland (%) of land area available in Nigeria 2.8 2.9 3.3 3.3 3.5
Forest area (sq. km) in Nigeria 172340.0 131370.0 110000.0 90410.0 70435.0
Forest area (% of land area) in Nigeria 18.9 14.4 12.20 9.9 9.5

From table 1, is evident that in Nigeria, there is a huge the constantly changing factors in the fields that affects the
problem of misuse of agricultural land (Advameg, 2010) yield map. The yield map is a confirmation of data of what
that can be averted by making it necessary to adopt the tis available to the farmers, by simply taking an aerial
techniques of remote sensing processes, Geographical images of the farm in consideration. Remote sensing used
Information system (GIS) and Global Positioning system in realizing the technology have platforms with satellites,
(GPS) technology. This process allows the acquisition of aircraft, balloons and helicopters, with a variety of sensors
real-time data and facts which can then be used in like the optical, near-infrared sensors and RADAR (Radio
managerial decision-making process on the plantation. All Detection and Ranging) fitted on these platforms for its
of these processes are centred on PF. uses. Analytical information obtained from the images
dowloaded from these onboard sensors, like the biomass,
PF is a technology that influences the whole production Leaf Area Index (LAI), disease, water stress and lodging,
process from extension services to managerial functions can now effectively assist in crop management, yield
on the farm. It is largely a data technology based farm prediction, and environmental protection and safety
management framework, and it includes a process of (Zhang and Kovacs, 2012)(Haboudane et al., 2004). The
data/image collection, data and information mapping, data cycle of precision agriculture application is shown in figure
analysis and location-specific treatment (Abdullahi, 4 as discussed above.
Mahieddine, and Sheriff, 2015). Precision agriculture
provides information about the nutrient content and soil The cycle of obtaining high resolution images involves the
quality available across a particular field or plantation. use of a low-cost multi hi-resolution imagery sensor
PF technology which also includes farm product mapping, mounted on a mobile ground receiving station and
and the variable rate of nutrient application, can analysis centre with internet based georeferencing and
significantly increase the effectiveness of the required farm GIS processing (Sharma, 2007). The electromagnetic
operations. Precision agriculture (PA) is majorly (EM) scans are used in identifying the different soil types,
concerned with two simple technologies: GIS and GPS and the layer of images or data obtained are used to create
technology utilising different kinds of sensors, displays, variable rate seed maps for improving crop production.
and controllers for guiding farms equipment during Farm equipment like tractors use auto-steer systems with
operation (Cox, 2002). the information available. The sprayers attached to the
tractors also have an auto section control and auto boom
The components of PA are Spatial referring, plants and soil height for regulation during operation (Rickatson, 2012).
monitoring, Decision support system and Differential PA has successfully been used since 2007, specifically
action systems. The cycle of PF comprises taking images after yield maps and target soil sampling have been in use.
to analyse for creating map yields, weeds,before the They are used to create instruction take-off maps for farm
application of the input resources like herbicides, fertilizer, input nutrients like phosphate and potash to apply to
water to obtaining results for carrying out theoperations crops, while the Yara-N sensors are used in applying a
(Deavis, Baillie and Schmidt, 2009)(Goddard T, 1997). variable rate of nitrogen to the farm (University of
Precision agriculture revolves around data analysis and NebraskaLincoln, 2015).
evaluation with its use in precision soil preparation,
precision seeding, precision crop management and No Current study is available presently that shows the
precision harvesting. Figure 5 shows all details process of adopting and using PA in Nigeria but has been
(opportunities, technologies, processes) involved with studied in several parts of the country where PA
precision agriculture (Horne, 2014). Agriculture has been adopted like in the USA, Brazil,
Russia, South Africa by different researchers. Most people
Prior to an agriculturist starting the process of PF, a smart argue that adopting PA costs a lot but research has shown
idea and comprehension of the soil types, hydrology, that PA effects cuts across a long period with an increase
microclimates and aerial photography of the farm sites are in production and savings in resources over the period. A
required (Mulla, 2013), and also as an understanding of research conducted to determine how farmers are willing

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
Abdullahi and Sheriff 284

Figure 1: The Cycle of Precision Agriculture

Figure 5: All about Precision Agriculture

to adopt the technology showed that Forty-three percent Other research conducted in Brazil to determine the extent
of the participants made profits from using precision to which PA technologies are used and the advantages
services, thirty percent thought they broke even from and challenges encountered was investigated on a sugar-
covering only the fixed and variable costs of proposing ethanol industry in Sao Paulo that produces sixty percent
the services in Australia. Researchers continue to expect of the countrys domestic sugarcane. They are adopting
growth in the practise of PA, and this growth is reported PA and have recorded a seventy- eight percent increase
to be very substantial in the Midwest when compared with in yield and also had findings that the major problems
other states. Griffin et al. (2004) did a research on data hindering the adoption of the technology are the high costs
on the adoption of PA technology in the USA, and of services, technologies and lack of skilled staff to
according to the research, about ninety percent of the implement the technology (Silva, de Moraes and Molin,
worlds yield monitors are there (Mar and Mar, 2002). 2011).

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
 J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 285

Also, Robertson et al successfully practised precision Images of the maize plantation were taken and an
agricultural technology using variable rate and yield interview guide was set up for the farmers on site to
mapping which on a plantation in Australia and resulted to answer some questions to determine their willingness and
a significant increase in yield. Walton et al also used the opportunities to adopt the technology. Table 2 summarises
same technology to sample soils before planting in the the responses obtained from transcribing the data from the
USA to ensure equal distribution of soil nutrients for an audio/video recordings. In the survey, questions were
optimized yield (Silva, de Moraes and Molin, 2011). designed to inquire about the level of technological
advancement in the farm practices and the immediate
Generally, PA brings about individual gains and with the
threat farmers face. The data obtained were the level of
auto steer systems on the tractors, gives the best
education of the farmer/farm representative, production
advantages with its production efficiency with the operator
characteristics, the size of farmland, current adoption of
the opportunity to concentrate on monitoring the job rather
the technologies, land characteristics, etc. Technologies
than driving. This means that the grid lines to be followed
that were considered include the variable rate application
on the plantation are accurately established and all
(VRT) of nutrients, variable rate application of seeds, field
subsequent passes will be accurate. Variable rate
inspection for insects, pests and diseases, etc.
application (VRT) of fertiliser on a farm land has allowed
some savings on the farm with the fertiliser applied to the
The aim here is to understand the immediate threat or
right areas of the field in the right amount serving as an
challenges faced by Nigerian Agriculture and find out if
advantage to the economic and environment (Joint
precision agriculture will be easily adopted as a solution to
Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission,
the challenges.
2014).
A challenge usually encountered with PA is managing and The pie chart in Figure 6 shows the distribution of farmland
analysing the very large data sets which are currently used in this survey.
saved on cloud systems and to transfer data from one
device or equipment to the other, or mobile devices.
Another feature of PA being used is for weed spotting and
site-specific in-crop treatments that have been efficiently
used for weeds(Goddard T, 1997). PF, also helps to
monitor the vegetations physical and chemical
parameters by placing electrical conductivity, temperature,
nitrates, soil moisture, evapo-transpiration and radiation
sensors (Zhang and Kovacs, 2012). They ensure that the
optimal conditions for plant growth is achieved. The DSS
proposes the best time for watering and in the required
quantity the need to overwhelm the salt substance
because of abundance in the radicular zone, the necessity
to prepare etc. Presenting a PA framework in an everyday
operation of an agrarian misuse, time is saved because of
the up-to-date estimation systems. Information obtained
from the sensors are transmitted to a central database
server, and this can be viewed by using a Smartphone or
Laptop. Alternatively, email or SMS alerts can be modified
to convey to the agriculturist when there is a need to flood,
prepare or address issues in their properties. Also, costs
regarding water, pesticides, and other farm resources are
improved and can unquestionably be decreased
significantly (Rajagopalan and Sarkar, 2008). Figure 6: Pie chart to show land distribution of farm sites
.
Judging from the data gathered from the plantation, there
MATERIALS AND METHODS is a low level of technology usage on the farms due to Lack
of funds or cooperative facility to farmers; inadequate
The study was conducted on five farms with different education/extension workers and Lack of availability pf the
locations in Nigeria. The study sites included: a rice required technology. Other common challenges were;
plantation; vegetable; groundnut; melon and a maize Inadequate recording keeping making it difficult to
plantation located in Abuja and Kwara state (llorin) (River determine profit and losses; constant flooding from water
Niger basin) of Nigeria, but with more focus on the rice and in dams overflowing to plantations especially in the rice
maize plantation, as these two crops are widely consumed plantation; Influence of early onset of pests and diseases;
food, preserved for long-term use and eaten in different inadequate storage facilities; Lack of access to market due
forms. to bad roads and poor storage facilities; high cost of

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
Abdullahi and Sheriff 286

Table II: Transcribed Nigerian Farm data obtained from Questionnaires

General Information Public PrivatePrivate Private Private
Farm ownership Types Government Private Company
Family Private Company Private Company
Farm location Ilorin Abuja Ilorin Niger Ilorin
Date of farm visit June 8th, 2016 June 15th, 2016
June 16th, 2016 July 18th, 2016 July 20th, 2016
Farm size 100 hectares 70 hectares
34 hectares 10 hectares 200 hectares
Plantation type Maize intercropped Rice plantation
Vegetables Watermelon Rice
with groundnut (spinach)
Season of planting Rainy season Rainy season Rainy season Rainy season Rainy season
Type of water use Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall dependent Rainfall dependent
(irrigation/rainfall) dependent dependent
Use of fertilisers, manure Extensive use Extensive use Used heavily as a Applied twice during Extensive use in
source of nutrient growth period plantation
Type of farming practised Use of a few Use of machinery Subsistence Use of machinery Use of machinery for land
machinery provided rented farming obtained with preparation obtained with
by the government personal funds personal loan
Maximum yield produce No record No record No record Record of harvests, Predicted that output
purchases kept certainly outweighs the
input
Type of Seeds planted GMO seeds GMO Seeds Best Seeds from Seeds from harvested GMO seeds
previous harvests previous plantation
Soil assessment none No prior soil Soil preparation by Lab soil sampling Pre-processing and
assessment tilling but with no with application of land preparation before
soil assessment gypsum planting.
Animal management None None None None none
Tools used in the farm/ Tractors, Ploughs, Tractors, Ploughs, Traditional tools. Tractors, Ploughs, Tractors, Ploughs,
machinery Harrows, Harrows, Harrows, thresholding Harrows, thresholding
thresholding thresholding machine, sorter, machine, sorter, grader
machinery machinery grader
Maintenance of No routine Yearly routine Quarterly routine Yearly routine Yearly routine
equipments maintenance maintenance maintenance of maintenance maintenance
equipment
Transportation of products Within the region of Sold within the Sold within 10 Sold within the area Some products are
cultivation region where miles from harvest of harvest packaged and sent out
product is for sale to other
cultivated locations while some
are sold at the local site
of harvest.
Farmers standardof Below standard: Very low standard Barely make Farm owners make Farm owners make a
living/ health most farmers barely of farmers enough to feed a decent living from decent living from their
get enough products their family their harvest, but the harvest, but the farmers
to sell or feed their farmers dont have dont have enough.
family or educate enough.
their family.
Accessibility to data The Internet and Internet No previous data Crowdsourcing/Inter Internet/survey
local record keeping survey used. net
of some farms
Pest management Direct and equal Direct and equal Direct and equal Direct and equal Direct and equal
application across application across application across application across application across fields
fields fields fields fields
Scouting for pests and Manually Normal detection Detection with eyes Manually Manually
diseases with eyes and discolouration
in plants
Farmer Education level The majority of local Majority of local Majority of local Majority of local Majority of local farmers
farmers are farmers are farmers are farmers are are uneducated with no
uneducated with no uneducated with uneducated with uneducated with no prior knowledge of
prior knowledge of no prior no prior prior knowledge of agriculture
agriculture. Few knowledge of knowledge of agriculture
educated farmers agriculture agriculture
Years of experience in 10 25 40 28 13
farming
Farmers employment Part-time Full-time farmers Full-time farmers Full-time farmers Full-time farmers
status employment with a
government firm
Age (farmers age (years) 46 58 47 65 53

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
 J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 287

traditional sampling making it difficult to determine the Comparison of the reflectance and the absorbance at the
appropriate quantity of farm inputs required. All of the two different wavelengths, a green vegetation is obtained.
challenges are easily attirubtable to lack of adequate NDVI correlates with photosynthetic efficiency, leaf area
policies governing the practise of Agruiculture in Nigeria to index and plant biomass, all of which can predict
control and minimize them but our major concern is agricultural productivity, increase yield and prevent
addressing the problem of non-uniformity and intra and pollution (Labus et al., 2002).The use of satellite sensors
inter-field variability on the field leading to poor production have more advantages of covering a larger field to detect
Pictures of the maize plantation were taken alongside the variability. The green band 520600 nm, red 630 nm, and
interview with a high-resolution camera (Samsung Galaxy Near Infrared Bands (NIR) bands 760900 nm are key for
S6 edge+, model number; SM-G928F) identifying and differentiating water and Nitrogen
deficiency in both the visible and the near infra-red bands.
A simple colour image of the maize plants acquired by a Ground pictures clearly show a variation on the field
high pixel digital camera was selected to develop a cheap making the plantations good for the applications of PF
solution for predicting the nitrogen content of a leaf using technology. A few ground control points were placed to
its electromagnetic reflectance. In the colour image, it is capture the exact location and coordinates of the part of
not possible to distinguish the plant from soil because it the field where the data was obtained. The resolution of
has only the visible RGB spectra, which cannot distinguish the images would be better with the use of hyperspectral
between the reflectance of plant and soil. But with the use and multispectral sensors using UAVs as a sensor hook.
of a constant black background, a pure image can be UAVs are the latest technology used to obtain and in
separated from the soil image. The spectral bands for analysing images on the farm. The UAVs take the aerial
chlorophyll estimation are based on both the NIR in the view of the farms with high resolution making it possible to
700 nm range and the green region in about 500 to 550 assess the condition of the plantation, reveal the state of
nm. With the RGB camera, plants usually absorb the larger health of the plant, plant/soil moisture, soil composition,
part of the red and blue colour and do not absorb anything flowering stage, pest infestation, etc.
in the NIR region, but with a multispectral or hyperspectral
camera, the plant reflects more of the NIR spectrum and The analysis illustrates the significance and importance of
absorbs the red spectrum accordingly. geo-informatics technique to make a strong case for the
adoption of the PF technology in Nigeria with the high
variability observed on the field.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Some of the images from the camera were stitched
Based on this principle (Red and NIR spectrum absorption together for the analysis using auto stitch works and SIFT
and reflection), sensors were built to accurately match this algorithm as seen in Figure 7.
specification for remote sensing in those regions.

Figure 7: Auto-stitched images of the maize plantation: (a,) healthy, (b) unhealthy plants

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
Abdullahi and Sheriff 288

Analysis 1: Analysis using simple colour image using Steps:

fuzzy classifier Convert image into digital format/ array of numbers;
Identify rows and columns with highest numbers;
The images were analysed using single image analysis Calculate the difference between the higher numbers
algorithms in Matlab with visual techniques, and direct and the lower numbers;
estimation using fuzzy classification. With the maize Create a new table with the difference of the numbers;
plantation, the colour effect shows the chlorophyll content, Equate the highest numbers to zero;
while the height of the plantation determines its rate of Zero means no change;
growth. A 3D model taking measurements of the plantation The numbers suggest the quantity of the input resource
over a period will estimate the rate of growth of the maize be added;
plantation using a crop surface model. A simple algorithm Check to be sure the additions are appropriate;
was developed to fully analyse the maize plantation health Make a decision/end.
and define the specific amount of requirements in the plots,
which can be used in the application maps. The steps The flow chart of the algorithm is represented in figure 8;
involved in generating the algorithm are written as follows:

Figure 8: Flow chart used in formulating treatment plans from UAV images

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
 J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 289

The processes required in producing the colour map with pixels. The image is sliced with the slicing function created
its corresponding numbers in the colour map matrix are with codes created and imported into Matlab. Image slicing
explained in the below paragraph. takes in two functions; the image and the number of slices.
The function used is the Nested for loop which performs
The raw images are set to the cameras time and are iteration upon iteration, i.e. row by row then column by
calibrated with each pixel representing the reflectance column. Note that while cropping, the images are stacked
value and not the colour value. Dark pictures are not a up. All of these processes is known as segmentation, and
cause for concern during the analysis because of the the result of the image is fed into the classifier to provide
image reflectance. An orthomosaic of the images is the specific treatment plan with the fuzzy rule-based
stitched together to contain all individual images taken. classifier. Feature Extraction is the next function to be
The images should be stitched together using location tags executed, using the segmented image, there are three (3)
as identification before being used to create a map. The channels RGB (colour channel). All patches are not
next step is to create patches of the image in Matlab, then uniform. Hence the mean of the intensity of the image
crop the image into a square, an equal number of columns patch is computed. Each operation is repeated in each
and rows (225 *225 matrix), and the image size can be patch with the same instruction used above.
created to suit its specific needs. This is subject to the
image dimension required, for this image, the image is In computing the intensity of the patches, the nitrogen
read from 1 to 224 making it a total of 225 pixels. Then, translates to the chlorophyll content in the different
convert the image to an unsigned integer by using the patches on the field and the intensity is tracked for the
double function. This function scales the RGB image most productive region in the field, which will be used as a
intensity from 0 [Link] dimension of the image is 25 by reference to other field patches. The image classification
25 with 81 blocks of 9 by 9 rows and column, next, is slicing generated using a fuzzy classifier approach is represented
the image into grids, the image has 255 pixels, obtained in Figure 9 and 10.
by using the Matlab function to highlight the number of

Figure 9 Figure 10
Figure 9: Sliced and segmented image into its 81 grids Figure 10: Results of reverse slicing showing possible
showing plantation with colour maps treatment plans

The resulting values for the intensities are all saved up in other areas highlight the required treatment quantity to
a cell array in the string function, with each intensity being make other grids as fertile as the most fertile region of the
computed, the result is compared with the maximum field.
intensity. With these classification results, grey areas are easily
The reverse slicing is performed to produce the treatment seen and treatment plans can be easily formulated for farm
plan required, which gives the exact quantity of nutrient management decisions in the shortest time possible
required to make the specific patch as productive as the alongside other factors to be considered to accurately
most productive patch on the field. The results are predict results for the solution required in the plantation
displayed to include the text superimposed on the image. such as the region, the weather, the soil type, stages of
pests and disease infection, soil nutrient availability, soil
Areas labelled with 0 values are the most productive areas water requirements, etc. for maximum production across
requiring no addition since they are very fertile while the the entire field grid.

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Abdullahi and Sheriff 290

Recommendation for the Agricultural sector in mechanisation difficult. Also, fertiliser consumption is low
Nigeria. and wrongly applied due to the high variation in the field.
Dynamic cheap soil testing will be suitable to the region
As previously discussed, the nitrogen concentration in the before fertiliser application or planting. Areas of excessive
green vegetation is linked to chlorophyll content and application lead to stress to the area leading to runoff and
translates indirectly to the simplest plant physiological water pollution. Research, data collection, and processing
practises of photosynthesis (Moran et al., 1997), and then, is required, development of a data bank and
the nitrogen loss to farmers represent an economic loss for interconnection of data to available farm users and
farmland owners. The potential benefits of PA are savings development of DSS computer model for making decisions
in cost, more proficient use of production inputs, improved on the farms. At present, there is a representative with the
and better use of information technology to increase the International Society of Precision Agriculture (ISPA), a
size and scope of the farming operations without non-profit professional scientific organisation with the
increasing labour requirements, enhanced site selection mission to improve the science of PA worldwide. Nigeria
with control of production processes that aid in the has a representative that ensures that the following set of
production of higher value or specialty harvests, improved objectives are achieved:
record keeping and production tracking for ensuring food - Organising and conducting conferences related to PA
safety and environmentally safe benefits (Steer, 2008). such as the International Conference on Precision
The most common presumption about the importance of Agriculture, the European Conference on Precision
precision agriculture is that it allows farmers to achieve a Agriculture etc.
uniform and maximum production in the farm, but - Developing and maintaining a web-portal to
optimising input resources for the land with accordance to communicate the latest developments in PA with the
the capability of the land (McLoud P, 2007). PA, helps to world and maintaining a member listserv to
make decisions on resource allocation to match soil and communicate among the society members.
crop requirements better within their field variability. - Gives members the opportunity to publish original
Precision technology is centred on information technology. scientific research in the Society sponsored by peer-
Therefore farmers with lots of experience may argue that reviewed journals on PA.
PA is not relevant with fewer years of experience but
maybe better for young farmers who are less experienced The Nigerian centre located in Ibadan, Oyo state, is
as they are likely to accept and move towards innovations attached to Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (ISPA,
(McBride and Daberkow, 2003). To invest and grow the 2015). With the necessary collaboration of ISPA with farm
agricultural sector, agriculture needs to be taken as a long- holders representatives, precision Agricultural
term certainty with a government that behaves like a technologies can be implemented in farms to achieve its
business. The government has a lot of roles to play benefits as highlighted earlier.
regarding policy, the market, storage facilities. From the
SWOT and PESTLE analysis, the opportunities and
strength of growing the sector are numerous and without CONCLUSION
any doubt can be one of the largest leading producers of
crops and fruits. With most Nigerian farms being mostly disjointed small-
scale farms, it is argued that precision agriculture will cost
This will increase food security, provide more job more than the advantages the technology proposes to
opportunities, contribute to international development offer but previous reports indicate that in some parts of the
while securing the environment. At the moment, world, with precision agriculture, the advantages by far
agriculture is becoming one of the worlds fastest growing surpasses the losses encountered in the field to post-
sectors with a breakthrough in nutrition, genetics, harvest losses, pest and disease attack and non-uniform
informatics, remote sensing, precision farming, etc. plantation and also the reduction in cost of input resources.
Nigerian agriculture depends 90% on fertiliser for nutrients
With the advantage of the Nigerian population estimated applied in equal proportion to every portion of the field. The
to be over 170 million (2013 census) making it the most sample images clearly show areas of variation with the
populous country in Africa with a large market advantage. growth rate in the maize plantation. The treatment plan
Increased production will feed more than half of the formulated can be used to apply herbicides, pesticides,
population while reducing the import of food resources at fertilisers, water at the right amount, at the right time, right
a reduced cost, which can be achieved by mechanisation space giving a great chance for maximum production on
and precision farming. the same field while preserving input resources,
minimising cost and maximising profit. Information about
There is Soft PA (involving soil testing) or hard PA how farmers should use PF to make managerial decisions
(involves preventive measures from over application) both about the relative extent of benefits and costs associated
of which can be practised on any level to farmland. In with the technologies. Also, the data can be used on the
Nigeria, land fragmentation challenges make GPS guided system for application of input resources on

Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation
 J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 291

the farm with the treatment plan generated. Agricultural Guidance you can grow with. Netherlands. Available
research institutes need to work closely with farmers and at: [Link].
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faced by the farmers to develop technology initiative to 2015/2030, Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas para
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larger data set will make simple image analysis 10.1016/S0264-8377(03)00047-4.
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next research for classifying and identifying plant health indices and novel algorithms for predicting green LAI of
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Funding Sources Environment, 90(3), pp. 337352. doi:
10.1016/[Link].2003.12.013.
The research conducted did not receive any grant from Horne, S. (2014) Farm managers give the lowdown on
funding agencies in the public, profitable, or not-for-profit precision technology - Farmers Weekly. Available at:
sectors. [Link]
[Link] (Accessed:
Declaration of Interest 15 March 2015).
ISPA (2015) Proceedings | International Society of
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with Precision Agriculture. Available at:
regards to publishing this paper. [Link] (Accessed: 11 January 2017).
Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission
(2014) Precision Agriculture: an Opportunity for Eu
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Case Study to Investigate the Adoption of Precision Agriculture in Nigeria Using Simple Analysis to Determine Variability on a Maize Plantation