SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS

(Basics, introduction &applications)

A SEMINAR REPORT
Submitted

In the partial fulfilment of the requirements for

The award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

By

XXXXXXXXXXX
(B15EC000)

Under the supervision of

Smt A.Vijaya
Associate professor

Estd.1980

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE
(An Autonomous Institute under the Kakatiya University, Warangal)
WARANGAL 506015
2017-2018

KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

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 (An Autonomous Institute under the Kakatiya University, Warangal)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Estd.1980

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that seminar report entitled SATELLITE

COMMUNICATIONSembodies the original work done by N.VAIDEHI bearing

the Roll Number B15EC000 studying V Semester in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of degree of the Bachelor of Technology in Electronics &
Communication Engineering from KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &
SCIENCE, WARANGAL during the academic year 2017-2018.

Supervisor Head of the Department:

Smt A.Vijaya Dr. G.Raghotham Reddy

Associate Professor Professor & Head, Dept. of ECE
Dept. of ECE KITS, Warangal.
KITS, Warangal

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my Seminar Supervisor

Smt A.Vijaya, Assoc. Professor, KITS-Warangal, for valuable support in making the
seminar complete in time.

I sincerely thank the Seminar Convener, Smt. A.Vijaya, Associate professor, &
Seminar Coordinator, Sri S.Pradeep Kumar, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE for timely
conduction of seminars.

I heart fully thank Dr. G. Raghotham Reddy, Professor & Head, Dept. of ECE for
his constant support and encouragement.

I cordially thank Dr. P.Venkateshwar Rao, Principal, KITS, Warangal, for his
kind gesture and support.

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Y.Manohar, Director, KITS, Warangal, for

being a source of strength.

Finally, I thank all those people who are responsible for making this report
possible through meaningful contribution.

(XXXXXXX)
B15EC000

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 ABSTRACT

Communication in the whole of the World is revolutionized with the advent of

Satellites.
SatelliteCommunication has served mankind in many ways e.g. to predict weather,
storm warning, provide wide range of communication services in the field of relaying
television programs, digital data for a multitudes of business services and most recent
in telephony and mobile communication. It may not surprise world community, if
satellite communication links may be used for voice and fax transmission to Aircraft on
International routes in near future. GPS Navigation, Global telephony, Multimedia
video and internet connectivity, Earth Imaging through Remote sensing satellites for
resource monitoring, Telemedicine, Tele-education services etc. are other feathers in
Satellite communication applications.
Satellite communication system has entered transition from point-to-point high cost,
high capacity trunks communication to multipoint -to-multipoint communication with
low cost. Satellite Communication has moved in many steps ahead like frequency reuse,
interconnecting many ground terminals spread over the world, concept of multiple spot
beam communications, Laser beam based communication through satellites and use of
networks of small satellites in low earth orbit.
In this presentation satellite history, orbital model, how the satellites stay in orbits
and orbit types, components of satellite, how satellites work, satellite communication
advancement, different application aspect present and future is discussed. Satellite
communication has many application and market if we can pool our resources, come up
with innovative and low cost solutions for world community.

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4
5
 INDEX

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 5
1.1 Basics 5
1.2 History 7
CHAPTER-2 STRUCTURE 8
2.1 Components &devices 8
2.2 Material 9
CHAPTER-3 WORKING 11
3.1 Up linking &downlinking 11
CHAPTER-4 TYPES OF ORBITS 12
4.1 Geostationary orbit 12
4.2 Medium earth orbit 13
4.3 Low earth orbit 13
CHAPTER-5 TYPES OF SATELLITES 15
5.1 Passive satellites 15
5.1.1 Natural satellites 15
5.1.2 Artificial satellites 16
5.2 Active satellites 16
CHAPTER-6 APPLICATIONS 17
6.1 Advantages 17
6.2 Disadvantages 17
6.3 Applications 18
6.4 Television satellite 19
6.5 Weather satellite 21
CHAPTER-7 CONCLUSION 24
7.1 Services provided 24
7.2 Conclusion 25
7.3 Reference 25

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 1. INTRODUCTION

The outer space has always fascinated people on the earth and communication through
space evolved as an offshoot of ideas for space travel. The earliest idea of using artificial
satellites for communications is found in a science fiction Brick Moon by Edward Evert
Hale, published in 1869-70.

While the early fictional accounts of satellite and space communications bear little
resemblance to the technology as it exists today, they are of significance since they
represent the origins of the idea from which the technology eventually evolved.

In the area of satellite communications, the technology has been responsive to the
imaginative dreams. Hence it is also expected that technological innovations will lead
the evolution of satellite communications towards the visions of today.

In little more than a generation, the launching of a satellite has gone from stopping the
nation's business to guaranteeing that it runs like clockwork. Today, satellites, like
clocks, telephones, and computers, are commonplace tools of technology. They help us
navigate, communicate, monitor the environment, and forecast weather. Appropriately,
the word satellite means an "attendant."

The sense of discovery has muted over time as we became accustomed to the
miracles of space travel. The launching of a Space Shuttle mission may not even come
up in a class discussion of current events, yet satellites bring those same students the
ability to watch the Olympics, the weather, and news of other events from around the
world that are considered "newsworthy."

1.1 BASICS

Satellites orbit around the earth. Depending on the application, these orbits can be
circular or elliptical. Satellites in circular orbits always keep the same distance to the
earths surface following a simple law:
The attractive force Fg of the earth due to gravity equals
Fg=mg (R/r) 2.----------(1)
The centrifugal force Fc trying to pull the satellite away equals
Fc=mr2.-----------(2)
The variables have the following meaning: m is the mass of the satellite; R is the radius of
earth with R = 6,370 km; ri s the distance of the satellite to the center of the earth; g is the
acceleration of gravity with g = 9.81 m/s2; is the angular velocity with = 2f, f is
the frequency of the rotation. To keep the satellite in a stable circular orbit, the following
equation must hold: Fg = Fc, i.e., both forces must be equal. Looking at this equation the
first thing to notice is that the mass m of a satellite is irrelevant (it appears on both sides

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of the equation). Solving the equation for the distance r of the satellite to the center of
the earth results in the following equation:
The distancer = (gR2/(2f)2)1/3 ------(3)
From the above equation it can be concluded that the distance of a satellite to the earths
surface depends on its rotation frequency.

Important parameters in satellite communication are the inclination and elevation angles.
The inclination angle (figure 1.1) is defined between the equatorial plane and the
plane described by the satellite orbit. An inclination angle of 0 degrees means that the
satellite is exactly above the equator. If the satellite does not have a circular orbit, the
closest point to the earth is called the perigee.

Fig.1.1.Angle of inclination:

Fig.1.2.Angle of elevation:

The elevation angle (figure 1.2) is defined between the center of the satellite beam and
the plane tangential to the earths surface. A so called footprint can be defined as the
area on earth where the signals of the satellite can be received.

WHAT IS A SATELLITE?

A satellite doesn't necessarily have to be a tin can spinning through space. The word
"satellite" is more general than that: it means a smaller, space-based object moving in a

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loop (an orbit) around a larger object. The Moon is a natural satellite of Earth, for
example, because gravity locks it in orbit around our planet.

The tin cans satellites are actually artificial (human-built) satellites that move in
precisely calculated paths, circular or elliptical (oval), at various distances from Earth,
usually well outside its atmosphere.

The satellites are kept in space to overcome the various limitations of Earth's geography
it helps to step outside the Earth-bound lives. To make a phone call from the North
Pole fire a signal into space and back down again, using a communications satellite as a
mirror to bounce the signal back to Earth and its destination. To survey crops or ocean
temperatures, this could be done from a plane, but a satellite can capture more data
more quickly because it's higher up and further away. Similarly, to drive somewhere
unknown, study maps or ask random strangers for directions, or can use signals from
satellites to guide instead. Satellites, in short, help us live within Earth's limits precisely
because they themselves sit outside them.

1.2 HISTORY

Arthur C. Clark wrote the first well-known article on communication satellites. "Extra-
Terrestrial Relays" was published in Wireless World in 1945. In the article, Clark
discussed geosynchronous earth orbit and the possibility of covering the earth with
three satellites.
The actual journey into space began October 4, 1957, when the Soviet Union launched
Sputnik 1, the world's first orbital spacecraft, which orbited the world for three months.
A month later the Soviets launched Sputnik 2 and its passenger Laika, a dog who has
the distinction of being the first known living creature to escape earth and enter outer
space. The space race was on, and in February of 1958, the United States launched
Explorer 1.
The first communication satellite was launched on December 18, 1958. Signal
Communication by Orbital Relay (SCORE), which broadcasted a Christmas message
from President Eisenhower - "Peace on Earth, Good will toward men" - orbited the earth
for 12 days until the batteries failed. The main purpose of the SCORE project was to
prove that an atlas missile could be put into orbit.
Combined, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. launched six satellites in 1958, 14 satellites in 1959, 19
in 1960 and 35 in 1961. In 1962, the United Kingdom and Canada launched satellites of
their own, along with the 70 satellites launched by the U.S. and U.S.S.R.

2. STRUCTURE

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2.1 Components & devices:

Satellites are amazingly complex and expensive machines with tons of electronic bits
and pieces jammed into them. The basic idea is very simple.

The original numbers are on the diagram. Since some are obvious and some are
duplicates of others. The most interesting bits are the fold-out solar panels that power
the satellite, the sending and receiving antennas that collect signals coming up from
Earth and send them back down, and the motors and engines that keep the satellite in
exactly the right position at all times:

1, 2 and 3: represents the outer metal.

4: represents large parabolic dish antenna for sending/receiving signals.

5: represents Small parabolic dish antenna for sending/receiving signals.

6:represents Lower solar "battery" of four solar panels.

7:represents Upper solar "battery" of four more solar panels.

8:represents Supports fold out the lower solar panels once the satellite is in orbit.

9:represents Supports fold out the upper solar panels.

10:represents Main satellite rocket motor.

11, 12, 15, and 17: representssmall control engines keep the satellite in its precision
position, spin, and orbit.

Communications satellites are "space mirrors" that can help us bounce radio, TV,
Internet data, and other kinds of information from one side of Earth to the other.

Fig.2.1.structure of satellite

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2.2 Material:

An object that is continually moving in and out of the suns direct heat is in constant
temperature flux, which can cause it to expand and contract. As a result, scientists
consider a materials ability to maintain its size and shape despite temperature changes,
which is known as dimensional stability

Material used in space shuttle thermal protection systems:

Structures in space also need to be able to withstand its uniquely harsh environment.
This is considered a materials environment stability. In space this means that the
material can remain stable in despite the presence of radiation and the vacuum of space.
The most important properties of a new material which will be used in space are
strength and stiffness. When an object is in orbit around the Earth it will be subjected to
incredible forces that will tear apart weaker structures. The launch alone can put a
material under up to three times the force of gravity, meaning that each component will
weigh up to three times as much as it would on Earth. The material must maintain its
integrity and not break or bend under immense forces or the satellite will not function
once it reaches space.

What's Inside a Satellite?

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Satellites have a great deal of equipment packed inside them. Most satellites have seven
subsystems, and each one has special work to do.

1. The propulsion subsystem includes the rocket motor that brings the spacecraft to its
permanent position, as well as small thrusters (motors) that help to keep the satellite in
its assigned place in orbit. Satellites drift out of position because of solar wind or
gravitational or magnetic forces. When that happens, the thrusters are fired to move the
satellite back into the right position in its orbit.

2. The power subsystem generates electricity from the solar panels on the outside of the
spacecraft. The solar panels also store electricity in storage batteries, which can provide
power at times when the sun isn't shining on the panels. The power is used to operate
the communications subsystem. The entire communications subsystem can be operated
with about the same amount of power as would be used by 10 light bulbs.

3. The communications subsystem handles all the transmitting and receive functions. It
receives signals from the Earth, amplifies them, and transmits (sends) them to another
satellite or to a ground station.

4. The structures subsystem helps provide a stable framework so that the satellite can be
kept pointed at the right place on the Earth's surface. Satellites can't be allowed to jiggle
or wander, because if a satellite is not exactly where it belongs, pointed at exactly the
right place on the Earth, the television program or the telephone call it transmits to you
will be interrupted.

5. The thermal control subsystem keeps the active parts of the satellite cool enough to
work properly. It does this by directing the heat that is generated by satellite operations
out into space, where it won't interfere with the satellite.

6. The attitude control subsystem points the spacecraft precisely to maintain the
communications "footprints" in the correct location. When the satellite gets out of
position, the attitude control system tells the propulsion system to fire a thruster that
will move the satellite back where it belongs.

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 3. WORKING PRINCIPLE

3.1. Uplinks and downlinks

To send something like a TV broadcast from one side of Earth to the other, there are
three stages involved. First, there's the uplink, where data is beamed up to the satellite
from a ground station on Earth. Next, the satellite processes the data using a number of
onboard transponders (radio receivers, amplifiers, and transmitters). These boost the
incoming signals and change their frequency, so incoming signals don't get confused
with outgoing ones. Different transponders in the same satellite are used to handle
different TV stations carried on different frequencies. Finally, there's the downlink,
where data is sent back down to another ground station elsewhere on Earth. Although
there's usually just a single uplink, there may be millions of downlinks, for example, if
many people are receiving the same satellite TV signal at once. While a communications
satellite might relay a signal between one sender and receiver (fired up into space and
back down again, with one uplink and one downlink), satellite broadcasts typically
involve one or more uplinks (for one or more TV channels) and multiple downlinks (to
ground stations or individual satellite TV subscribers).

Fig.3.1.Uplinking downlinking process

Fig.3.1. shows the Communications satellites that bounce signals from one side of Earth
to the other, a bit like giant mirrors in space. A ground-based satellite transmitter dish
beams a signal to the satellite's receiving dish. The satellite boosts the signal and sends
it back down to Earth from its transmitter dish to a receiving dish somewhere else on
Earth. Since the whole process happens using radio waves, which travel at the speed
of light, a "satellite relay" of this kind usually is used.

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 4. TYPES OF ORBITS

Mobile satellite systems (MSS) may be classified according to orbit altitude as follows:

GEO - geostationary earth orbit, approx. altitude: 35,000 km

MEO - mid-altitude earth orbit, approx. altitude: 10,000 km

LEO - low earth orbit, approx. altitude: <1,000 km

4.1 Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed point from
Earth, these satellites appear to be stationary. These satellites are placed in the space in
such a way that only three satellites are sufficient to provide connection throughout the
surface of the Earth (that is; their footprint is covering almost 1/3rd of the Earth). The
orbit of these satellites is circular.

There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites. Lifetime expectancy of
these satellites is 15 years.
1) The satellite should be placed 37,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms) above the
surface of the earth.
2) These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction of
motion of earth, that is eastward.
3) The inclination of satellite with respect to earth must be 0degrees.
Geostationary satellite in practical is termed as geosynchronous as there are multiple
factors which make these satellites shift from the ideal geostationary condition.

1) Gravitational pull of sun and moon makes these satellites deviate from their orbit.
Over the period of time, they go through a drag. (Earths gravitational force has no
effect on these satellites due to their distance from the surface of the Earth.)
2) These satellites experience the centrifugal force due to the rotation of Earth, making
them deviate from their orbit.
3) The non-circular shape of the earth leads to continuous adjustment of speed of
satellite from the earth station.

These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also, these
satellites are operating as backbones for the telephone networks.

Disadvantages of GEO: Northern or southern regions of the Earth (poles) have more
problems receiving these satellites due to the low elevation above a latitude of 60, i.e.,
larger antennas are needed in this case. Shading of the signals is seen in cities due to
high buildings and the low elevation further away from the equator limit transmission
quality. The transmit power needed is relatively high which causes problems for battery

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powered devices. These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones. The biggest
problem for voice and also data communication is the high latency as without having
any handovers, the signal has to at least travel 72,000 kms. Due to the large footprint,
either frequencies cannot be reused or the GEO satellite needs special antennas focusing
on a smaller footprint. Transferring a GEO into orbit is very expensive.

4.2Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

MEOs can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of their
orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages. Using orbits around 10,000 km,
the system only requires a dozen satellites which is more than a GEO system, but much
less than a LEO system. These satellites move more slowly relative to the earths
rotation allowing a simpler system design (satellite periods are about six hours).
Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger populations, so requiring fewer
handovers.

Disadvantages: Again, due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about
7080 ms. the satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller
footprints.

4.3Low-Earth-orbiting satellites (LEO)

These satellites are mainly used in remote sensing a providing mobile communication
services (due to lower latency).

Disadvantages: The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites
if global coverage is to be reached. Several concepts involve 50200 or even more
satellites in orbit. The short time of visibility with a high elevation requires additional
mechanisms for connection handover between different satellites. The high number of
satellites combined with the fast movements resulting in a high complexity of the whole
satellite system. One general problem of LEOs is the short lifetime of about five to eight
years due to atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt1. Assuming
48 satellites and a lifetime of eight years, a new satellite would be needed every two
months. The low latency via a single LEO is only half of the story. Other factors are the
need for routing of data packets from satellite to if a user wants to communicate around
the world. Due to the large footprint, a GEO typically does not need this type of
routing, as senders and receivers are most likely in the same footprint.

Molniya satellites
Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on
the horizon as the receiver gets the farther from the equator. This will cause problems
for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causing multipath

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(interference caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna).
For areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear
below the horizon. Therefore Molniya orbit satellite have been launched, mainly in
Russia, to alleviate this problem.
Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases. The Molniya orbit is
highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the
northern portion of the orbit. (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the
horizon. Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly
overhead has elevation of 90 degrees.)
The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time
over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly.
Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted
region for six to nine hours every second revolution. In this way a constellation of three
Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage.

5. TYPES OF SATELLITES

5.1 Passive satellites:

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The principle of communication by passive satellite is based on the properties of
scattering of electromagnetic waves from different surface areas. Thus an
electromagnetic wave incident on a passive satellite is scattered back towards the earth
and a receiving station can receive the scattered wave. The passive satellites used in the
early years of satellite communications were both artificial as well as natural.

Although passive satellites were simple, the communications between two distant
places were successfully demonstrated only after overcoming many technical problems.

The large attenuation of the signal while traveling the large distance between the
transmitter and the receiver via the satellite was one of the most serious problems. The
disadvantages of passive satellites for communications are:

1. Earth Stations required high power (10 Kw) to transmit signals strong enough to
produce an adequate return echo.

2. Large Earth Stations with tracking facilities were expensive.

3. Communications via the Moon is limited by simultaneous visibility of the Moon

by both the transmitting and the receive stations along with the larger distance
required to be covered compared to that of closer to earth satellite.

4. A global system would have required a large number of passive satellites

accessed randomly by different users.

5. Control of satellites not possible from ground.

5.1.1Naturalsatellites:

1. The natural Satellites are celestial bodies that orbit a Planet or any other Celestial
body.
2. These are formed by nature.
3. The most well-known Natural Satellite is the Earth's Moon.
4. The natural satellites are objects that orbit the earth such as the moon.
5. The natural satellites like Planets are opaque bodies with no light of their own. They
also receive heat and light from sun.
6. This are the satellite that are natural in space and are not used officially by the
scientist.
7. The natural satellite is made up of natural material, rock, minerals, water, dust etc.
8. The natural satellites are normally massive enough to stay in orbit under the
influence of gravity indefinitely.
9. The natural satellites cannot communicate on earth or with other planets.

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10. The orbital properties and compositions of natural satellites provide us important
information on the origin and evolution of the satellite system. Especially a system of
natural satellites orbiting around a gas giant can be regarded as a miniature solar
system that contains precious clues for studying the formation of solar systems.

5.1.2 Artificial Satellites:

1. The artificial satellite is a device placed in orbit around the earth, moon, or another
planet.
2. The artificial satellites are manmade.
3. The first artificial satellite was Sputnik I.
4. The artificial satellites are objects humans propel through the earth's atmosphere in
order to orbit around the earth.
5. The electrical power required by satellite is provided by panels of solar cells and
small nuclear reactors.
6. These are used and controlled by the astronomers and are used up to their will.
7. The artificial satellite is made out of metal and electronics material.
8. The artificial satellites dont have the advantage like natural satellites which are
normally massive enough to stay in orbit indefinitely. They experience decay of orbit as
the Earths gravity slowly reasserts its hold on them until they eventually slow down
and crash back to Earth.
9. The artificial planet can communicate with instruments on earth.
10. Artificial satellites have many uses, including relaying communication signals,
making accurate surveys and inventories of the earth's surface and weather patterns,
and carrying out scientific experiments.

5.2 Active Satellites

In active satellites, which amplify and retransmit the signal from the earth have several
advantages over the passive satellites.
The advantages of active satellites are:
1. Require lower power earth station.
2. Less costly.
3. Not open to random use.
4. Directly controlled by operators from ground.

Disadvantages of active satellites are:

1. Disruption of service due to failure of electronics components on-board the
satellites.
2. Requirement of on-board power supply.
3. Requirement of larger and powerful rockets to launch heavier satellites in orbit.

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 6. APPLICATIONS

Satellite Communication is one of the most impressive spin-off from space programs,
and made a major contribution to the international communication. Satellite plays a
very important role in telephone communication, TV and radio program distribution
and other certain communications.
This is the major field of study and has intensive literature. These communication
systems are now become an integral part of major area telecommunication networks
through the world.

6.1 Advantages

Because of its unique geometry and its inherently a broadcast medium with an ability
to transmit simultaneously from one point to an arbitrary number of other points with
in its coverage area. Thus satellite Communication possesses several advantages which
are as follows:
1) Point to multipoint communication is possible whereas terrestrial relay are point
to point, this is why satellite relay are wide area broadcast.

2) Circuits for the satellite can be installed rapidly. Once the satellite is in position,
Earth Station can be installed and communication may be established within
some days or even hours.

3) During critical condition each Earth Station may be removed relatively quickly
from a location and reinstalled somewhere else.

4) Mobile communication cab be easily achieved by satellite communication

because of its flexibility in interconnecting mobile vehicles.

5) As compared to fiber cable, the satellite communication has the advantage of the
quality of transmitted signals and the location of Earth Stations. The sending and
receiving information independent of distance.

6.2 Disadvantages

Apart from advantages Satellite Communication also possess some disadvantages that
are as follows:
1) With the Satellite in position the communication path between the
terrestrial transmitter and receiver is approximately 75000 km long.
2) There is a delay of sec between the transmission and reception of a
signal because the velocity of electromagnetic wave is 3* 10^5
Km/second.

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 3) The time delay reduces the efficiency of satellite in data transmission and
long file transfer, which carried out over the satellites.

4) Over-crowding of available bandwidth due to low antenna gains is

occurred.

5) High atmosphere losses above 30 GHz limit the carrier frequency.

6.3 Satellite applications

Astronomical satellites - these satellites are used for the observation of distant stars and
other objects in space. Placing an observation point in space removes the unwanted
effects of the atmosphere and enables far greater levels of detail to be seen than would
be possible on earth where many observatories are placed on mountain tops that
experience low levels of cloud. The most famous astronomical satellite is the Hubble
Telescope. Although now reaching the end of its life it has enabled scientists to see
many things that would otherwise not have been possible. Nevertheless it did suffer
some major design setbacks that were only discovered once it was in orbit.
Communications satellites - these satellites possible form the greatest number of satellites
that are in orbit. They are used for communicating over large distances. The height of
the satellite above the Earth enables the satellites to communicate over vast distances,
and thereby overcoming the curvature of the Earth's surface.
Even within the communications field there are a number of sub-categories. Some
satellites are used for point to point telecommunications links, others are used for
mobile communications, and there are those used for direct broadcast. There are even
some satellites used for mobile phone style communications. Even though these
satellites did not take the market in the way that was originally expected because
terrestrial mobile phone networks spread faster than was originally envisaged, some
mobile phone satellite systems still exist.
Earth observation satellites - these satellites are used for observing the earth's surface and
as a result they are often termed geographical satellites. Using these satellites it is
possible to see many features that are not obvious from the earth's surface, or even at
the altitudes at which aircraft fly. Using these earth observation satellites many
geographical features have become obvious and they have even been used in mineral
search and exploitation.
Navigation satellites - in recent years satellites have been used for accurate navigation.
The first system known as GPS (Global Positioning System) was set up by the US DoD
and was primarily intended for use as a highly accurate military system. Since then it
has been adopted by a huge number of commercial and private users. Small GPS
systems are available at costs that are affordable by the individual and are used for car
navigation, and they are even being incorporated into phones in a system known as A-

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GPS (Assisted GPS) to enable accurate location of the phone in case of emergency.
Further systems are planned for the future.
Reconnaissance satellites - these satellites, are able to see objects on the ground and are
accordingly used for military purposes. As such their performance and operation is
kept secret and not publicized.
Weather satellites - as the name implies these satellites are used to monitor the weather.
They have helped considerably in the forecasting of the weather and have helped
provide a much better understanding not only of the underlying phenomena, but also
in enabling predictions to be made.

6.4 BASICS OF TELEVISION SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION
Satellite Television has brought about revolution in the in the Television system today.
Satellite Television enables one to watch Distanced stations of interest. The satellite
receiver system for television are often referred to as television receive only (TVRO)
because they only receives signalsnot transmitting.There are different types of
Television satellite in use today.

The satellite Dishes come in different sizes; the very large dishes and the more recent
smaller ones.

The satellite Television communication system are used by Television cable companies
to receive signals from distanced channel, they are also used by individuals directly.

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF TELEVISION SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:

In the conventional satellite Television communication, signals are obtained from a
Television network or a premium channel suppliers. These signals from different source
are multiplexed into just one signal which are then transmitted to a satellite in the
Earths orbit (referred here as orbital satellite) through a process referred to as up
linking. These orbital satellites orbit round the earth in 24 hr. hence essentially
stationary with respect to the earth. The orbital satellite contains transponders, which
are special receivers that pick up the transmitted signals, amplifies it, then converts it
into another frequency (usually to that of lower frequency) before transmitting it back
to the television satellite antenna of a consumer or cable Television company.
(Transmission back to an earth based satellite antenna is known as downlink) The
satellite antenna is designed in such a way that it reflects all incoming signal to its focal
point. The focal point of the satellite dish contains a horn which helps trap the majority
of the signal and process it to a much lower frequency.

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The signal thus generated from the horn is then passed into the decoder which further
process the signal and produces anoutput the Television set can display.

TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS IN TELEVISION SATELLITE:

There are basically two methods of up-linking signals to an orbital satellite. The C-band
and the Ku-band mode.
In both cases the signal transmitted are in the radio wave region of the electromagnetic
Spectrum.

C-BAND:

The C-band is the older mode of transmitting Television signals. The sets of desired
Television programs are used to frequency-modulate a microwave carrier. Since the
normal frequency of the Television programs can't travel over long distances, there is
need for it to be modulated into suitable signal carrier. In this case, the carrier is a
microwave with a frequency range of 5.925-6.425 GHz (the C- band region of satellite
communication). These up-linked signal on getting to the orbital satellite is received by
one of the transponders which amplifies and polarizes the signal horizontally or
vertically and then translate the signal to a frequency range of 3.7-4.2GHz. Since the
frequency with which the signal is transmitted to the satellite antenna is low, there is
need to use large satellite dish for a better reception of signals.

Ku-BAND transmission / Direct broadcast satellite system (DBS):

This is the type of transmission used by the DBS system. The DBS system is a digitized
communication system unlike the old conventional analog system. Here the data to be
transmitted is encoded in digital format specifically in the MPEG2 format.
Hence both the ground uplink stations and the Orbital satellite are equipped with the
capability to handle the digital data.

Since Digital data are involved, the signal need to be transmitted in the Ku band of
satellite communication.

Ku-band transmission features very high frequencies as well as a higher power satellite
transponders. The digital signals containing Television programs are the used to
modulate the up-linking carrier. In this case the carrier is a radio wave of super high
frequency (SHF) within the range of 14.0-14.5 GHz (the Ku-band region). The signal on
getting to the orbital satellite is amplified and processed to a lower frequency range of
10.95-12.75GHz. This signal is the sent to a satellite antenna on earth.
The satellites are installed in such a way that they faces a particular satellite in space.
Since light travels in a straight line, signals from distance orbital satellite are reflected
by the satellites antenna dish to its focal point which contains the antenna horn. The

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horn usually contains the LNBF (Low Noise Block Feed), which process the signal and
converts it to the 950 -2150MHz range. This is then sent to the satellite decoder.

This higher frequencies of transmission of signal are more prone to interference by

atmospheric conditions especially water vapours and fog. This interference results
because water molecule absorbs maximally at this wavelength.

DECODER:
Generally satellite decoders process the signal from the Television satellite antenna in a
way much similar to the cable decoder. The multiplexed analog and digital signals are
processed to a form that can be viewed on the screen.

FREE TO AIR CHANNELS AND SUBSCRIBED CHANNELS.

Many satellite Television companies acquire licenses to broadcast interesting stations

from distanced and nearby television channels. They then uplinks the multiplexed
signals from the source region to an orbital satellite.
They usually employ the services of these commercial orbital satellites to broadcast
their signals to regions where their target audience resides. Since these companies hope
to make money from their services, they usually encrypt these signals so that one has to
subscribe for their services before being allowed to view their programs.

6.5 WEATHER SATELLITES

Weather satellites carry instruments called radiometers (not cameras) that scan the Earth
to form images.
These instruments usually have some sort of small telescope or antenna, a scanning
mechanism, and one or more detectors that detect either visible, infrared, or microwave
radiation for the purpose of monitoring weather systems around the world.

The measurements these instruments make are in the form of electrical voltages, which
are digitized and then transmitted to receiving stations on the ground.
The data are then relayed to various weather forecast centres around the world, and are
made available over the internet in the form of images. Because weather changes quickly,
the time from satellite measurement to image availability can be less than a minute.

Weather satellites are put into one of two kinds of orbits around the Earth, each of which
has advantages (and disadvantages) for weather monitoring. The first is a "geostationary"
orbit, with the satellite at a very high altitude (about 22,500 miles) and orbiting over the
equator at the same rate that the Earth turns. This allows the satellite to view the same
geographic area continuously, and is used to provide most of the satellite imagery you

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see on TV or the internet.

Fig.6.1.weather satellite

The disadvantages of a geostationary orbit are (1) its very high altitude, which requires
elaborate telescopes and precise scanning mechanisms in order to image the Earth at
high resolution (currently, 1 km at best); and (2) only a portion of the Earth can be
viewed.

The other orbit type is called near-polar, sun-synchronous (or just "polar"), where the
satellite is put into a relatively low altitude orbit (around 500 miles) that carries the
satellite near the North Pole and the South Pole approximately every 100 minutes.
Unlike the geostationary orbit, the polar orbit allows complete Earth coverage as the
Earth turns beneath it.

Fig.6.2.weather satellite orbits

These orbits are "sun-synchronous", allowing the satellite to measure the same location
on the Earth twice each day at the same local time. Of course, the disadvantage of this
orbit is that the satellite can image a particular location only every 12 hours, rather than
continuously as in the case of the geostationary satellite. To offset this disadvantage,

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two satellites put into orbits at different sun-synchronous times have allowed up to 6
hourly monitoring.
But because of the lower altitude (500 miles rather than 22,000 miles), the instruments
the polar-orbiting satellite carries to image the Earth do not have to be as elaborate in
order to achieve the same ground resolution. Also, the lower orbit allows microwave
radiometers to be used, which must have relatively large antennas in order to achieve
ground resolutions fine enough to be useful. The advantage of microwave radiometers
is their ability to measure through clouds to sense precipitation, temperature in
different layers of the atmosphere, and surface characteristics like ocean surface winds.

Because of their global coverage, some of the measurements from polar orbiting
satellites are put into computerized weather forecast models, which are the basis
for weather forecasting.

7. CONCLUSION

7.1 Services provided by Satellite:

Satellite Communication has a wide range of services. Applications are in numerous

and broadly classified as follows:
1) In communication such as T.V. telephony, data transfer such as mail and
internet etc. are mostly done through different communication satellites
these days.
2) Remote sensing and Earth observation can be done with the help of lower
Earth Orbits (LEO) Satellite.
3) Metro logical applications such as whether survey to study different
layers and amount of ozones content in the atmosphere.

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 4) Military applications like short distance local communication from any
camp to another, to study the location of the enemy etc.

Other services provided by Satellite Communication is:

1) Fixed satellite service
2) Broadcast satellite service
3) Navigational satellite service
4) Meteorological satellite service
5) Mobile satellite service.

The number of operational and planned satellite communication system is growing

rapidly.

The Future:

The modern day satellites we use today are more efficient and could accommodate
larger data inputs.
Add to that the versatility in which some can even take photos, transmit signals for GPS
devices and even monitor weather conditions.
Truly, the humble beginnings of satellite launching have come a long way to serve
mankind.
Soon, we can expect to acquire transmission services which are tailored to each and
every need of individual users.

The next generation:

NOAA and NASA are now working to launch the next generation of geostationary
weather satellites with the GOES-R series beginning in 2015. Its instruments will allow
researchers to observe cloud and surface changes more rapidly and in greater detail to
help predict weather, as well as to map lightning flashes for early warnings of storm
intensification and to monitor solar radiation for better forecasting of space weather and
early warnings of possible impacts to the Earth environment.

The U.S. program of polar-orbiting weather satellites recently underwent a shakeup. In

February, the White House essentially dissolved the long-troubled National Polar-
orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) that was to suppose to
be the next-generation polar satellite system for monitoring the Earth.

Instead, NOAA and NASA are scheduled to launch another polar-orbiting satellite
called the NPOESS Preparatory Project in late 2011. This will demonstrate the
capabilities of next-generation sensors. NOAA and NASA will also team up to build,
launch and operate two more polar satellites under the Joint Polar Satellite System. The

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satellites, planned to launch in 2015 and 2017, should provide vital information on
climate and weather.

7.2Conclusion:

Limited satellite transmitter power.

Significant path losses.
High gain antennas needed.
Antenna patterns can be shaped as desired.
Location and tracking necessary.
Atmospheric effects can be significant.

7.3 References:
1) www.studymafia.org
2) www.google.com
3) www.wikipedia.com

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