Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

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Palaeozoic and Mesozoic tectonic evolution and palaeogeography of

East Asian crustal fragments: The Korean Peninsula in context
I. Metcalfe
Asia Centre, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia

Received 1 February 2005; accepted 12 April 2005

Available online 9 January 2006

Abstract

East and Southeast Asia comprises a complex assembly of allochthonous continental lithospheric crustal fragments (terranes) together with
volcanic arcs, and other terranes of oceanic and accretionary complex origins located at the zone of convergence between the Eurasian, Indo-
Australian and Pacific Plates. The former wide separation of Asian terranes is indicated by contrasting faunas and floras developed on adjacent
terranes due to their prior geographic separation, different palaeoclimates, and biogeographic isolation. The boundaries between Asian terranes are
marked by major geological discontinuities (suture zones) that represent former ocean basins that once separated them. In some cases, the ocean
basins have been completely destroyed, and terrane boundaries are marked by major fault zones. In other cases, remnants of the ocean basins and
of subduction/accretion complexes remain and provide valuable information on the tectonic history of the terranes, the oceans that once separated
them, and timings of amalgamation and accretion. The various allochthonous crustal fragments of East Asia have been brought into close
juxtaposition by geological convergent plate tectonic processes. The Gondwana-derived East Asia crustal fragments successively rifted and
separated from the margin of eastern Gondwana as three elongate continental slivers in the Devonian, Early Permian and Late Triassic Late
Jurassic. As these three continental slivers separated from Gondwana, three successive ocean basins, the Palaeo-Tethys,. Meso-Tethys and Ceno-
Tethys, opened between these and Gondwana. Asian terranes progressively sutured to one another during the Palaeozoic to Cenozoic. South China
and Indochina probably amalgamated in the Early Carboniferous but alternative scenarios with collision in the Permo Triassic have been
suggested. The Tarim terrane accreted to Eurasia in the Early Permian. The Sibumasu and Qiangtang terranes collided and sutured with Simao/
Indochina/East Malaya in the Early Middle Triassic and the West Sumatra terrane was transported westwards to a position outboard of Sibumasu
during this collisional process. The Permo Triassic also saw the progressive collision between South and North China (with possible extension of
this collision being recognised in the Korean Peninsula) culminating in the Late Triassic. North China did not finally weld to Asia until the Late
Jurassic. The Lhasa and West Burma terranes accreted to Eurasia in the Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous and proto East and Southeast Asia had
formed. Palaeogeographic reconstructions illustrating the evolution and assembly of Asian crustal fragments during the Phanerozoic are presented.
D 2005 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: East Asia; Palaeozoic Mesozoic; Crustal fragments; Tectonic evolution; Palaeogeography; Korean Peninsula

1. Introduction cases, remnants of the ocean basins have been completely

destroyed and lost, and terrane boundaries are marked by major
East and Southeast Asia comprises a complex assembly of fault zones. In other cases, remnants of the ocean basins and of
allochthonous continental lithospheric crustal fragments (ter- subduction/accretion complexes remain and provide valuable
ranes, blocks, massifs) together with volcanic arcs, and other information on the tectonic history of the terranes and the
terranes of oceanic and accretionary complex origins (Fig. 1). oceans that once separated them. The various allochthonous
These crustal fragments are located at the zone of convergence crustal fragments of East Asia have been brought into close
between the Eurasian, Indo-Australian and Pacific Plates. The juxtapopsition by geological convergent plate tectonic process-
boundaries between Asian terranes are marked by major es. The former wide separation of terranes of the region are
geological discontinuities (suture zones) that represent the sites indicated by contrasting faunas and floras developed on
of former ocean basins that once separated them. In some adjacent terranes due to their prior geographic separation,
different palaeoclimates, and biogeographic isolation. Two
E-mail address: [email protected]. remarkable biogeographic boundaries are recognised, a Late
1342-937X/$ - see front matter D 2005 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2005.04.002
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 25

Fig. 1. Distribution of principal continental terranes and sutures of East and Southeast Asia. WB = West Burma; SWB = Southwest Borneo; S = Semitau Terrane;
HT = Hainan Island terranes; L= Lhasa Terrane; QT = Qiangtang Terrane; QS = Qamdo Simao Terrane; SI = Simao Terrane; SG = Songpan Ganzi accretionary
complex; KL= Kunlun Terrane; QD = Qaidam Terrane; AL= Ala Shan Terrane; KT = Kurosegawa Terrane.

Palaeozoic Gondwana Cathaysia Divide (see Figs. 1 and 2) of the allochthonous lithospheric crustal fragments of the
and the extant Wallaces Line. The Late Palaeozoic Gond- region, and the evolution of the various ocean basins that once
wana Cathaysia Divide forms the boundary between high- separated them. All of the East Asian continental crustal
latitude, cold climate, southern hemisphere Gondwanaland fragments are here interpreted to have had their origin on the
faunas and floras, and equatorial and northern hemisphere, Indo-Australian Early Palaeozoic margin of eastern Gondwana.
warm climate, sub-tropical and tropical Cathaysian faunas and They rifted and separated from Gondwana as three successive
floras. The ancient Wallaces Line separates Eurasian faunas collages of terranes (as three elongate continental strips) in the
and floras to the northwest from Australasian faunas and floras Devonian, late Early Permian, and Late Triassic Late Jurassic.
to the southeast and was recognised by and named for Alfred In this paper, I provide an overview review of the tectonic
Russel Wallace, now regarded as the Father of Biogeography. evolution of these terranes in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic and
The regional geology of East and Southeast Asia is funda- some snapshot palaeogeographic reconstructions, including the
mentally underpinned by the kinematic history and framework specific context of the Korean Peninsular in this evolution.
26 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

Fig. 2. Distribution of continental blocks, fragments and terranes, and principal sutures of Southeast Asia. Numbered microcontinental blocks: 1. Hainan Island
terranes, 2. Sikuleh, 3. Paternoster, 4. Mangkalihat, 5. West Sulawesi, 6. Semitau, 7. Luconia, 8. Kelabit Longbowan, 9. Spratley Islands Dangerous Ground, 10.
Reed Bank, 11. North Palawan, 12. Paracel Islands, 13. Macclesfield Bank, 14. East Sulawesi, 15. Bangai Sula, 16. Buton, 17. Obi Bacan, 18. Buru Seram, 19.
West Irian Jaya. C M = Changning Menglian Suture.

In order to work out the tectonic evolution of the east 2.1. South China Block
Asian terranes, evidence for their origin and original
continental attachment, for the timing of rifting and separa- The South China Block is a composite terrane. Some
tion from parent continents, evidence for timing, direction authors (e.g., Hsu et al., 1988, Hsu et al., 1989) recognise two
and rates of drift, and evidence for timing and nature of component terranes, the Yangtze and Huanan Blocks separated
suturing (collisions amalgamation/accretion) must be assem- by the Xiangganzhe Mesozoic suture. Alternatively, Li et al.
bled. Table 1 shows the principal types of evidence and (1995) recognise two terranes, the Yangtze and Cathaysia
constraining data for the origins and the rift/drift/suturing of terranes, separated by a Neoproterozoic (Grenville) age suture.
terranes. A more complex four terrane model has been proposed by
Chen et al. (1993) who recognise four component blocks for
2. Principal East Asian crustal fragments and their South China, from NW to SE, the Yangtze, Xianggui,
boundaries Cathaysia and Dongnanya blocks, separated by Palaeozoic to
Jurassic melange zones. Hoe and Rangin (1999) proposed a
The principal East Asian crustal fragments are shown in three terrane model with the Yangtze, N. Indochina SE
Figs. 1 and 2 and are discussed individually below. China (extending into N. Vietnam, Laos and Yunnan) and
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 27

Table 1
Multidisciplinary constraining data for the origins and the rift/drift/suturing of terranes (after Metcalfe, 1998)
Origin of terranes Age of rifting and separation Drifting (palaeopositions of Age of suturing (amalgamation/accretion)
terranes)
Indicated by: Indicated by: Indicated by: Indicated by:
* Palaeobiogeographic constraints * Ocean floor ages and magnetic * Palaeomagnetism (palaeolatitude, * Ages of ophiolite and ophiolite obduction ages
(fossil affinities with proposed stripe data orientation) (pre-suturing)
parent craton)
* Tectonostratigraphic constraints * Divergence of Apparent Polar * Palaeobiogeography (shifting * Melange ages (pre-suturing)
(similarity of gross stratigraphy Wander Paths (APWPs) indicates from one biogeographic province
with parent craton, presence of separation to another due to drift)
distinctive lithologies characteristic
of parent craton, e.g., glacials)
* Palaeolatitude and orientation * Divergence of palaeolatitudes * Palaeoclimatology (indicates * Age of Fstitching_ plutons (post suturing)
from palaeomagnetism consistent (indicates separation) palaeolatitudinal zone)
with proposed origin
* Provenance studies, e.g., ages of * Age of associated rift volcanism * Age of collisional or post-collisional plutons
detrital zircons in sedimentary and intrusives (syn to post suturing)
units.
* Mantle signatures, e.g., lead * Regional unconformities (formed * Age of volcanic arc (pre-suturing)
isotopes. during pre-rift uplift and during
block faulting)
* Major block-faulting episodes * Major changes in arc chemistry
and slumping (syn-collisional)
* Palaeobiogeography * Convergence of Apparent Polar Wander Paths
(development of separate (APWPs)
biogeographic provinces after
separation)
* Stratigraphy rift sequences in * Loops or disruptions in APWPs (indicates
grabens/half grabens rapid rotations during collisions)
* Convergence of palaeolatitudes (may indicate
suturing but no control on longitudinal
separation)
* Age of blanketing strata (post suturing)
* Palaeobiogeography (migration of continental
animals/plants from one terrane to another
indicates terranes have sutured)
* Stratigraphy/ sedimentology (e.g., provenence
of sedimentary detritus from one terrane on to
another)
* Structural geology (age of deformation
associated with collision)

Indocathaysia blocks. Formation of South China in the China/Vietnam, respectively. Early Palaeozoic shallow marine
Mesozoic by amalgamation of the Yangtze and Huanan blocks faunas of South China have affinities with those of northeast
(Hsu et al., 1988, Hsu et al., 1989) has been challenged by Gondwanaland and belong to the Asia Australian and Austral
Rogers (1989), Rowley et al. (1989), and Li et al. (1995), and realms in the Cambrian and Ordovician, respectively (Yang,
geochronological data from Anhui and Jiangxi Provinces 1994; Li, Zhiming, 1994). These faunal affinities, together with
suggest that the suture recognised by Hsu et al. (1989) is in stratigraphic comparisons suggest that South China may have
fact of Proterozoic age (Chen et al., 1991). Structural and had its origin on the Himalaya Iran region of the Gondwana-
geochronological work (Charvet et al., 1999) indicate that the land margin (Burrett et al., 1990; Nie et al., 1990; Nie, 1991;
Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks amalgamated along the Jiangnan Metcalfe, 1996a,b). The Early Palaeozoic placement of South
suture around 950 900 Ma. A nucleus of Late Archaean (2800 China adjacent to the Himalaya Iran region is consistent with
Ma) basement is known to be present in the Yangtze Block of the palaeomagnetic evidence which places South China in mid-
the South China terrane but most other basement ages are southern palaeolatitudes in the Ordovician (Lin et al., 1985;
Proterozoic, ranging from 1800 to 800 Ma. South China Burrett et al., 1990; Metcalfe, 1990; Zhao et al., 1996). Another
(excluding Hainan Island) is here regarded as a single tectonic alternative and cogently argued hypothesis places South China
unit since the Palaeozoic following the arguments of Rogers as the missing link between Eastern Australia and Laurentia
(1989), Rowley et al. (1989), Chen et al. (1991), Li et al. in the Neoproterozoic (Li et al., 1995; Li et al., 1996). If one
(1995) and Charvet et al. (1999). Its boundaries with North accepts this placement, South China must have separated from
China and the Indochina Block are the Qin Lin Dabie and Rodinia by Early Cambrian times and this would probably
either the Song Ma or Danang Zhejiang Suture in South preclude it forming part of Early Palaeozoic Gondwanaland.
28 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

The recent proposition that the main suture between Indochina have yielded the oldest basement ages with Archaean Sm Nd
and South China is the Danang Zhejiang Suture of Early ages of 3263 and 3046 Ma and U Pb zircon ages from
Devonian age and that the Song Ma suture represents short- granitoids in the same region have yielded Palaeoproterozoic
lived subduction of a back-arc basin in the Devonian (Hoe and (2300 1800 Ma) ages (Wang, 1994; Li et al., 1996).
Rangin, 1999) may support this view. However, the Early Palaeoproterozoic rocks are also found around the other
Palaeozoic stratigraphy of South China is unlike that of Eastern margins of the block. Early Palaeozoic shelly faunas and
Australia but seems to show similarities to that of the India conodonts of the Tarim Block are similar to those of the South
Himalaya region of Gondwanaland suggesting proximity to China and North China block and suggest an origin on the
that region. The Early Palaeozoic faunal affinities of South northeast margin of Gondwanaland, proximal to both North
China also seem to suggest such a connection which is and South China (Chen and Rong, 1992). Silurian brachiopods
preferred here pending further studies of critical areas of of the western Tarim Block belong to the marginal Gondwana-
Vietnam, Laos and Yunnan. land Sino Australian Province (Rong et al., 1995). The central
part of the Tarim Block is covered by Cenozoic sediments but
2.2. North China Block (Sino Korean Craton) an east west trending magnetic high in the central part of
Tarim and other magnetic highs in the southern part have led to
The North China Block (or Sino Korean Craton) is speculation of an Archaean nucleus to the block. The Archaean
bounded to the north by the Xiliao He suture (Sengor, 1987) and Palaeoproterozoic rocks of the block are overlain
and to the south by the Qin Lin Dabei suture and the Tan Lu unconformably by Mid-Proterozoic low-grade metamorphosed
Fault. A probable suture now recognised as the western Ordos shallow-marine clastics and carbonates that are in turn overlain
thrust belt forms the western boundary of the North China unconformably by a Neoproterozoic littoral to shallow-marine
Block and its boundary with the Ala Shan terrane. The North clastic and carbonate succession. Sinian deposits are known
China Block has a basement comprising several Late Archaean along the northern and western margins of the block. A
(2800 Ma) nuclei, with some metamorphic basement rocks dominantly carbonate Cambrian Ordovician sequence discon-
being as old as >3.8 Ga (Liu et al., 1992) surrounded by formably overlies the Sinian. Interestingly, the Middle Late
Palaeoproterozoic orogenic belts of about 1800 Ma which are Cambrian of the Tarim Block contains phosphates and
overlain by Mesoproterozoic and Late Proterozoic shallow- evaporites at similar stratigraphic levels to those of the North
marine siliciclastics and carbonates. The Late Proterozoic and South China blocks and Australia. There is a major
sequences of North China have been interpreted as rift-related stratigraphic break in the Palaeozoic sequence of the Tarim
and a possible consequence of rifting from the supercontinent Block from Upper Silurian through to Lower Carboniferous
Rodinia. Sinian rocks are rare on North China except around its and this is believed to be related to the rifting and separation of
margins and the Proterozoic rocks are succeeded by Lower the block from Gondwanaland. Marine sedimentation in the
Palaeozoic sedimentary sequences. Carboniferous, gives way to largely continental deposition in
Early Palaeozoic fossils of this block (particularly trilobites the Permian following the collision of Tarim with the Tien
and brachiopods) strongly suggest proximity, and probable Shan/Kazakhstan.
continental connection to Australian Gondwanaland during the
Early Palaeozoic (Burrett et al., 1990). The Palaeozoic 2.4. Ala Shan (Alxa) Block
sequence shows marked constrast to that of South China, and
contains a massive stratigraphic break with Late Ordovician This small block is bounded by the Tian Shan Ying Shan
Lower Carboniferous rocks being essentially absent. Gross suture to the north, and the Qilian suture to the south, which
stratigraphical comparisons between North China and the converge westwards, and the western Ordos thrust belt in the
Arafura Basin of North Australia, suggests that North China east which forms the boundary between the Ala Shan Block
may have been attached to North Australia, adjacent to the and the North China Block. Some authors regard the Ala Shan
Arafura Basin, during the Early Palaeozoic (Nicoll and Block to be an extension of North China and contiguous with
Totterdell, 1990). This placement is also supported by the Tarim Block (e.g., Golonka et al., 1994; Yin and Nie,
palaeomagnetic data (Klootwijk, 1996a,b,c). Carboniferous 1996). Further work is required to determine if the Ala Shan
and younger faunas and floras of North China show no Block originally formed part of the North China Block, the
affinities to Gondwanaland. Tarim Block, or is a separate small terrane now juxtaposed
between North China and Tarim.
2.3. Tarim Block
2.5. Qaidam Block
The northern boundary of the Tarim Block is formed by the
Tien Shan Range and the Late Palaeozoic Aibi Xingxing (or This small continental block is bounded by the Altun Tagh
Southern Tien Shan) suture (Windley et al., 1990; Allen et al., Fault zone to the north west, the Qilian suture to the north east,
1991; Chen and Rong, 1992), and its southern boundary is and the Kun Lun suture and Songpan Ganzi accretionary
formed by the Kun Lun suture which separates this block from complex to the south. The basement of the block is formed by
the Qaidam, Kunlun and Ala Shan blocks to the south and east. Early Proterozoic metamorphic rocks with a Late Proterozoic
Amphibolite and gneiss along the northeast margin of the block Palaeozoic sedimentary cover which is similar that of the Tarim
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 29

Block. It seems most probable that the Qaidam Block Suture Zone (Metcalfe, 2000) and to the south by the Median
originally formed part of the Tarim terrane and reached its Sumatra Suture. The eastern and northern boundaries are
current relative position to the Tarim Block by strike slip difficult to place precisely. The tectonostratigraphy, and the
displacement along the Altun Tagh fault zone during the latest Tethyan faunas and Cathaysian floras of this block are
Cretaceous to Early Cenozoic (Allen et al., 1994). extremely similar to Indochina (see Metcalfe, 1988, 1996a,b,
2005 for details) and this similarity led me to include this block
2.6. Kun Lun Block as part of the Indochina terrane in a number of recent papers
(e.g., Metcalfe, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002). However, more
The small Kun Lun Block is sandwiched between the Tarim, recent studies of macrofossil biogeography (Sone et al., 2003)
Qaidam and Qiangtang Blocks and is bounded by the Altyn and a reassessment of the tectonic framework of SE Asia have
Tagh Fault zone to the north and the Jinshjiang suture to the indicated that East Malaya may well have been an independent
south (Fig. 1). The metamorphic rocks and Early Middle Cathaysian terrane at times in the Late Palaeozoic. Indochina,
Proterozoic basement of the block correlate well with similar East Malaya and West Sumatra, may be disrupted blocks of a
basement rocks of the Qaidam Block (Wu, 1999). This small single large Late Palaeozoic Cathaysian terrane. Further work
terrane may well represent an accretionary wedge constructed is required to resolve this issue.
on the southern margin of the Tarim Qaidam terrane.
2.9. West Sumatra Block
2.7. Indochina Block
The narrow elongate West Sumatra Block (Barber and
This block is bounded to the northeast by the Song Ma Crow, 2003) is bounded to the northeast by the Medial Sumatra
suture zone and to the west by the Uttaradit Nan Sra Kaeo Tectonic Zone (Median Sumatra Suture) and to the southeast
sutures in Thailand and Malaysia, respectively. Its eastern and by the Woyla Suture and Nappe. Its eastern termination against
southern boundaries are poorly defined and constrained. The the Southwest Borneo Block is obscure. The block is
basement of the block comprises a Precambrian core (Kontum characterised by low-latitude Visean faunas in the Kuantan
massif) of granulite facies rocks exposed in Vietnam, and it has limestones, Early Permian volcanics and Early Permian
been suggested that this may have originally formed part of the Cathaysian floras (Jambi Flora) and Tethyan (Cathaysian)
Gondwanaland granulite belt (Katz, 1993). Nd depleted mantle faunas (Barber and Crow, 2003; Metcalfe, 2005, Fig. 10).
model ages of 1.2 to 2.4 Ga indicate crustal formation in the These characteristics indicate that this block has strong
Palaeoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic (Lan et al., 2003) and affinities to the Cathaysian Indochina and East Malaya blocks
subsequent Permo Triassic Indosinian (254 Ma) granulite and it may well have formed part of a larger Late Palaeozoic
facies metamorphism is indicated by U Pb SHRRIMP zircon terrane. However, the current position of the West Sumatra
dating studies (Nam et al., 2001). Early to Middle Palaeozoic Block, outboard of the Sibumasu Block, requires that it has
rocks are rare and restricted to the marginal areas of the block. been translated to its present position by westwards transport,
Silurian brachiopods from Central Vietnam belong to the probably during Permo Triassic collision between Sibumasu
Sino Australian Province (Rong et al., 1995) indicating and Indochina/East Malaya.
Gondwanaland connections in the Silurian. Devonian fish,
including a yunnanolepiform antiarch previously known only 2.10. West Burma Block
from the South China Block, recently reported from central
Vietnam (Thanh et al., 1996) indicate close proximity/ Formerly known as the Mount Victoria Land Block
continental connection with South China in the Early to (Mitchell, 1989). Mitchell (1993) has reinterpreted Western
Middle Devonian. The Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic faunas Burma (together with the Woyla Group of Sumatra and the
and floras of Indochina are Cathaysian/Tethyan types, have Meratus ophiolite of Borneo as an Early Cretaceous mafic
affinities to those of South and North China, and show no arc, produced by southwest directed subduction, which was
relationship to Gondwanaland (Metcalfe, 1986, 1988). Recent then thrust on to the Asian margin in the Late Lower
field structural data and Ar Ar isotopic dating have led to the Cretaceous. Following Metcalfe (1990), I prefer to regard
proposition that the Indochina East Malaya region was an Western Burma as a probable continental fragment now
archipelagic zone comprising microcontinents and marginal largely obscured by younger sediments and volcanic rocks.
basins, much akin to modern day SE Asia (Lepvrier et al., This block has a pre-Mesozoic schist basement overlain by
2004). An Early Triassic tectono-thermal event seen in Ar Ar Triassic turbidites and Cretaceous ammonite-bearing shales
ages of 250 240 Ma is also interpreted by these authors to and limestones in the Indoburman Ranges and by a Late
represent Early Triassic Indosinian collision between these Mesozoic Cenozoic arc association in the Central Lowlands
micro-blocks and with South China and Sibumasu. of Burma. There is as yet no direct evidence for the origin of
this block but it sutured to Sibumasu in Cretaceous times. The
2.8. East Malaya Block West Burma Block is considered (Metcalfe, 1990) a good
candidate for part of the continental sliver that provided a
The East Malaya Block of Stauffer (1974, 1983) and source for sediments derived from the northwest in Timor
Metcalfe (1988) is bounded to the west by the Bentong Raub during the Triassic, and which must have rifted from Gond-
30 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

wanaland in the Late Jurassic. This interpretation however zones and to the east and south by the Jinshajiang, Ailaoshan
remains speculative. and Nan Uttaradit suture zones (Figs. 1 and 2).
The basement rocks of this terrane are buried beneath thick
2.11. Qiangtang terrane Palaeozoic Mesozoic sequences. High grade metamorphic
rocks sporadically outcropping in Qinhai may represent a
The Qiangtang terrane is bounded to the south by the Precambrian crystalline basement (Chang et al., 1989). The
Banggong Suture and to the north by the Lancangjiang suture. oldest sedimentary rocks that crop out are Lower Ordovician
The basement of the block is largely buried beneath Palaeozoic low grade metasedimentary rocks including slates, phyllites,
and Mesozoic sediments but exposures do occur in fault quartzites and meta-limestones. The Ordovician is unconform-
bounded blocks where the rocks include schists, marbles and ably overlain by Middle Devonian basal conglomerates and
meta-andesites of possible Precambrian age. The basement shallow-marine sediments followed by Carboniferous to
rocks are unconformably overlain by Silurian and Devonian Permian shallow-marine, paralic and continental sediments
sediments. The Upper Palaeozoic sequence includes Upper with coal measures in places, and Lower and Middle Triassic
Carboniferous and Lower Permian glacial marine and glacial shallow-marine clastics and carbonates. Permian faunas and
deposits and Lower Permian cold-water faunas and Gondwana- floras of this terrane are Tethyan and Cathaysian, respectively
land floras and faunas. These pass up into Upper Permian and there are no known Lower Permian glacial marine
shallow-marine deposits with Cathaysian faunas and floras. deposits on this terrane. Disconformities are common in the
Lower Triassic marls unconformably overly the Upper Permian Late Permian and Triassic. Upper Triassic red continental
and these are in turn unconformably overlain by Middle clastics overly these sediments. Recently, Ueno and Hisada
Jurassic clastics and carbonates. The northern boundary of the (1999) and Ueno (1999, 2000, 2003) have equated the
Qiangtang Block has previously been regarded as the Changning Menglian Belt with the Inthanon Zone of
Jinshajiang suture (eg. Chang et al., 1986; Dewey et al., Thailand (Barr and Macdonald, 1991) which equates with part
1988). However, although the Qiangtang Block also exhibits of the Sukhothai Fold Belt and suggested that these
Late Palaeozoic glacial-marine sediments and cold-water represent the Palaeo-Tethys. I agree with this interpretation
faunas with Gondwanaland affinities, these occurrences are and have suggested (Metcalfe, 2002) that the main Palaeo-
restricted to the region southwest of the Lancangjiang Suture Tethys ocean is represented by the oceanic rock-association
(Wang and Mu, 1983; Metcalfe, 1988; Chen and Xie, 1994). In distributed in the Chiang Dao Chiang Mai area of west
the region between the Lancangjiang and Jinshajiang sutures, Thailand and that this association should be termed the
Cathaysian faunas and floras have been reported, and there are Chiang Mai Suture as introduced in figures, but not
no glacial marine deposits or cold-water faunal indicators. discussed in the text, by Cooper et al. (1989, Figs. 1 and 6)
This region is now recognised as a separate block forming part and Charusiri et al. (1997) in an extended abstract. There is no
of the Simao terrane (see below). The Qiangtang terrane is here firm evidence for a separate Chiang Mai Malacca Micro-
regarded as being contiguous with the Sibumasu terrane to the plate as advocated by Chonglakmani (1999) who mistakenly
south and as having formed part of the Cimmerian continental interpreted the sea mount carbonates NW of Chiang Mai as
strip that separated from northeast Gondwanaland in the late continental platform facies. Charusiri et al. (1997) did
Early Permian. recognise the Simao Block in their tectonic reconstruction
but called this the Lampang Chiang Rai Block which they
2.12. Simao Terrane considered to have separated from the Sibumasu Terrane by
back-arc spreading during Carboniferous Permian times. This
This terrane includes what has previously been variously interpretation is not tenable in view of the unequivocal Lower
referred to as the Lanpin Simao, and Qamdo Simao Permian Tethyan/Cathaysian biogeographic affinities of the
blocks of Tibet and which some authors have termed the block, and lack of typical Gondwanaland stratigraphy in the
North Qiangtang Block (eg., Jin, 2002, Bian et al., 2004) or Lower Permian.
Eastern Qiangtang Block (Zhang et al., 2002) and the Simao
Block of SW China first proposed by Wu et al. (1995). I 2.13. Lhasa Block
previously regarded this terrane as a probable extension of the
Indochina Block, and some authors still hold this view (e.g., The Lhasa Block is bounded by the Indus Yarlung
Jin, 2002), but new information on the Ailaoshan and Nan Tsangpo suture to the south, and the Bangong suture to the
Uttaradit suture zones in SW China and Thailand, respectively, north. An Early Proterozoic basement is indicated by inherited
indicating that these sutures probably represent a marginal zircon ages of about 2000 Ma from the Yangbajain granite. The
back-arc basin (Wang et al., 2000; Ueno and Hisada, 1999), oldest sedimentary rocks are Ordovician limestones and shales
and identification of the main Tethys ocean suture in the which pass upwards into Silurian, and Devonian dolomitic and
Chiang Mai Chiang Dao area of NW Thailand (Metcalfe, oolitic limestones and shales. The Carboniferous strata are
2002), suggests that the Simao Block is a separate terrane mainly shallow-marine sandstones, siltstones and minor
derived from South China by back-arc spreading in the Early limestone with glacial-marine diamictites (with dropstones)
Carboniferous. The terrane is bounded to the west by the and glacial deposits (with striated pebbles) in the Upper
Chiang Mai, Changning Menglian and Lancangjiang suture Carboniferous. The Permian rocks comprises mainly shallow-
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 31

marine limestones and shales and these are overlain by coarse Indochina, Japan and the Philippines (Kimura, 1984; Kobaya-
terrigenous Triassic sediments with abundant basic and shi and Tamura, 1984; Hayami, 1984). There does not appear
intermediate volcanics, followed by Jurassic and Cretaceous to be any Gondwanaland connections in the faunas and floras
shallow-marine clastics and limestones with calc-alkaline of these two blocks. A South China/Indochina origin seems
volcanics in the south and coal measures in the north. The likely as proposed by Rammlmair (1993) but reconciliation
Upper Carboniferous sediments contain a low-diversity Gond- between substantial progressive counter-clockwise rotation of
wanaland fauna (Chang et al., 1986; Chang et al., 1989). The southwest Borneo during the Cenozoic with the various
Lower Permian rocks continue to contain Gondwanaland tectonic models is required. The only Cenozoic plate tectonic
faunas and floras and cold-water faunal elements. model for Southeast Asia which takes into account both the
clockwise rotation of the Philippine Sea Plate and the counter
2.14. Songpan Ganzi accretionary complex clockwise rotation of Borneo is that of Hall (1996, 2002).

This terrane represents a giant suture knot and comprises 2.16. Japanese Islands terranes
huge thicknesses of accretionary complex rocks and volcanic
arc rocks constructed over trapped remnant Palaeo-Tethyan The Japanese Islands are composed of a rifted Asian
oceanic lithosphere and underthrust continental lithosphere of basement (e.g., Hida Block) and a huge accretionary complex,
the surrounding crustal blocks. The rocks filling the ancient produced by long-lived westwards subduction of the Pacific and
basin comprise some Permian deep-sea sedimentary rocks but Philippine Sea plates beneath Asia, over which the volcanic arc
are largely Triassic ophiolitic melange, flysch and molasse. The has migrated eastwards. A number of accreted terranes have
Permo Triassic sequence represents a basin filling and been recognised within the accretionary complex including
shallowing sequence culminating in latest Triassic paralic oceanic (seamount) terranes (e.g., Akiyoshi Limestone terrane)
deposits (Gorur and Sengor, 1992). It has been suggested and continental allochthonous terranes. The Kurosegawa
(Nie et al., 1995) that exhumation of the Qinlin Dabei continental terrane is a highly attenuated and disrupted
orogenic zone contributed huge amounts of Triassic sediment composite terrane of predominantly Palaeozoic age now
to the Songpan Ganzi basin. sandwiched between two Mesozoic terranes in the Chichibu
Belt of SW Japan. It comprises an Early Palaeozoic basement of
2.15. Southwest Borneo and Semitau blocks igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks, Silurian Devonian
volcaniclastic sediments with carbonate blocks, serpentinite, a
These two blocks are bounded to the north by the Lupar Late Palaeozoic Mesozoic chaotic complex and well-bedded
suture, to the southeast by the Meratus and Luk Ulo sutures of Upper Palaeozoic-Lower Mesozoic cover sediments (Aitchison
SE Borneo and Java, and to the southwest by the Woyla suture et al., 1991). Early and Middle Palaeozoic faunas and floras
and are separated from each other by the Boyan melange belt, have affinities with Australia and suggest a north Australian
which I have interpreted as a separate suture zone. Other Gondwanaland margin origin for this exotic terrane (Yoshikura
workers regard these two blocks as forming a single SW et al., 1990; Aitchison, 1993). Studies of chromium spinels from
Borneo terrane. The boundary of these blocks with the serpentinites of the terrane (Hisada et al., 1994) suggest that the
Indochina terrane is cryptic. Poorly exposed schists and serpentinites were emplaced in a forearc setting during the
hornstones may represent the crystalline basement of these Devonian. The precise location of the terrane in Silurian
blocks but further work is required to provide age constraints Devonian times is at best speculative but a position adjacent to
and confirmation of this. The origins of these two blocks, eastern South China, on the Gondwanaland margin, has been
separated by the Boyan suture, are poorly constrained. The suggested (Saito, 1992; Hisada et al., 1994). The precise site of
oldest dated rocks are Devonian limestones with corals of the original attachment to Gondwanaland and the drift history of
Old Slates Formation that appears to form part of a melange this terrane, however, remains largely unknown. The South
unit accreted to the NE margin of SW Borneo. The oldest dated Kitakami terrane (Yoshida and Machiyama, 2004) in northeast
autochthonous rocks are Upper Carboniferous and Lower Japan is a stratigraphic terrane with Silurian to Lower
Permian limestones with fusulinids and conodonts. The Lower Cretaceous sedimentary rocks resting on a pre-Silurian base-
Permian microfossils are similar to South and North China and ment. Permian deposits are particularly well developed and rest
do not have affinities with those of west Malaya or Thailand on Carboniferous strata unconformably. It is interpreted to have
(Vachard, 1990). Middle and Upper Permian and Early Triassic had its origin along the margin of the North China Block.
sedimentary rocks appear to be absent. The Middle and Upper
Triassic is represented by basal conglomerates overlain by 3. Origins of the E and SE Asian terranes
marine volcaniclastics with Daonella and Halobia bivalves.
The latest Triassic and Early and Mid-Jurassic appear to be By utilising multidisciplinary data, all the E and SE Asian
absent. Upper Jurassic and Lower to Middle Cretaceous continental terranes are interpreted to have had their origin on
sediments are represented by shallow-marine limestones, the margin of Gondwanaland, and probably on the India N/
clastics and volcaniclastics (Metcalfe, 1988). Latest Cretaceous NW Australian margin. It has long been known that Cambrian
and Tertiary continental sandstones overly the earlier rocks. and Ordovician shallow-marine faunas of the North China,
Jurassic floras and faunas have affinities with South China, South China and Sibumasu terranes have close affinities with
32 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

those of eastern Gondwanaland, and especially Australian al. (1996) to propose that this block had its origin outboard of
Gondwanaland (Burrett, 1973; Burrett and Stait, 1985; the Kimberley region of Australia. Similar comparisons of the
Metcalfe, 1988; Burrett et al., 1990). This is observed in Precambrian of South China however led Li et al. (1995, 1996)
trilobites (Shergold et al., 1988), brachiopods (Laurie and to propose that South China was positioned between eastern
Burrett, 1992), corals and stromatoporoids (Webby et al., 1985; Australia and Laurentia in the Late Proterozoic. This is rather
Lin and Webby, 1989), nautiloids (Stait and Burrett, 1982, different to the Early Palaeozoic position suggested here.
1984; Stait et al., 1987), gastropods (Jell et al., 1984), and Cambrian to Early Permian faunas of the Sibumasu terrane
conodonts (Burrett et al., 1990; Nicoll and Totterdell, 1990; have strong Gondwanaland affinities, and in particular show
Nicoll and Metcalfe, 1994). Some of the fossils that provide close relationships with western Australian faunas (Metcalfe,
Early Palaeozoic links between these terranes and Australian 1988, 1996a,b; Burrett et al., 1990). In addition, Gondwana-
Gondwanaland are shown in Fig. 6 below. In addition, the land plants and spores are also reported from this terrane
Gondwanaland acritarch Dicrodiacroium ancoriforme Bur- (Wang and Tan, 1994; Yang and Liu, 1996). Glacial marine
mann has been reported from the Lower Ordovician of South diamictites with dropstones and associated cold-water faunas
China (Servais et al., 1996). Little is known of Cambrian and sediments, of Late Carboniferous to Early Permian age are
Ordovician faunas of Indochina but Silurian brachiopods, also found distributed along the entire length of Sibumasu and
along with those of South China, North China, Eastern indicate attachment to the margin of Gondwanaland where
Australia and the Tarim terrane belong to the Sino Australian substantial ice reached the marine environment. The most
province characterised by the Retziella fauna (Rong et al., likely region for attachment of this terrane is NW Australia.
1995). Early Palaeozoic sequences and faunas of the Qaidam, Palaeomagnetic data for the Late Carboniferous suggests a
Kunlun and Ala Shan blocks are similar to those of the Tarim palaeolatitude of 42- south (Huang and Opdyke, 1991) which
Block and also to South and North China (Chen and Rong, is consistent with such a placement. Comparison of the gross
1992) and these blocks are regarded as disrupted fragments of a stratigraphy of Sibumasu with the Canning Basin of NW
larger Tarim terrane by Ge et al. (1991). These data suggest that Australia also reveals striking similarities in the Cambrian to
North China, South China, Tarim (here taken to include the Early Permian, and Sibumasu could easily have been posi-
Qaidam, Kunlun and Ala Shan blocks), Sibumasu (with the tioned outboard of the Canning Basin of western Australia
contiguous Lhasa and Qiangtang blocks) and Indochina formed during this time. Both the Qiangtang and Lhasa blocks of Tibet
the outer margin of northern Gondwanaland in the Early exhibit Gondwanaland faunas and floras up to the Early
Palaeozoic. The close faunal affinites, at both lower and higher Permian, and also have glacial-marine diamictites, tilloids, and
taxonomic levels, suggest continental contiguity of these associated cold-water faunas and sediments in the Late
blocks with each other and with Gondwanaland at this time Carboniferous to Early Permian. Thus, all the major E and
rather than mere close proximity. Early Palaeozoic palaeomag- SE Asian continental terranes appear to have had their origins
netic data for the various E and SE Asian terranes is variable in on the margin of Gondwanaland (Table 2).
both quantity and quality and is often equivocal. This makes Carboniferous and younger faunas and floras of the North
reconstructions based purely on palaeomagnetic data both China, South China, Tarim, and Indochina terranes are
difficult and suspect. However, a sufficient body of data exists typically Cathaysian in nature and they show no relationship
to be able in some cases to reasonably constrain palaeolatitudes
(but not always the hemisphere) and in some cases the actual
position of attachment to Gondwanaland. North China data Table 2
Suggested origins for the E and SE Asian continental terranes
(Zhao et al., 1996) provide a Cambrian to Late Devonian pole
Terrane Origin
path segment, which, when rotated about a Euler pole to a
position of fit with the Australian Cambrian to Late Devonian North China N. Australia
South China Himalaya Iran Region of Gondwana
pole path, produces a good fit with North China positioned
Indochina Eastern Gondwana
adjacent to North Australia (Klootwijk, 1996b). This position is East Malaya Eastern Gondwana
consistent with that proposed in reconstructions by Metcalfe West Sumatra Eastern Gondwana
(1993, 1996a,b) and in this paper. Comparisons of the gross Sibumasu N.W. Australia
stratigraphies of North China and the Arafura Basin (Metcalfe, West Burma N.W. Australia
Lhasa Himalayan Gondwana
1996b) show a remarkable similarity in the Early Palaeozoic,
Qiangtang Himalayan Gondwana
also supporting the proposed position for North China. Simao Eastern Gondwana: South China
Positions for South China, Tarim and Indochina are more Kunlun N.E. Gondwana? Originally part of Tarim?
equivocal but latitudes of between 1- and 15- are indicated for Qaidam N.E. Gondwana? Originally part of Tarim?
the Late Cambrian Early Ordovician for the South China Ala Shan N.E. Gondwana? Originally part of Tarim?
Tarim Australian Gondwana?
Block (Zhao et al., 1996). Palaeolatitudes of between 6- and
S.W. Borneo Cathaysialand (South China/Indochina margin)
20- south are indicated for the Tarim Block for the same time Semitau Cathaysialand (South China/Indochina margin)
period that is broadly consistent with a position on the Hainan N.E. Gondwana?
Gondwanaland margin between the North and South China Kurosegawa (Japan) Australian Gondwana?
bocks. Comparisons of the Precambrian sequence on the South Kitakami North China margin
northeast margin of the Tarim Block with Australia led Li et Sikuleh Australian Gondwana?
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 33

with Gondwanaland (Metcalfe, 1988). These terranes were and eastern Indonesia. There is however little direct evidence to
also situated at palaeolatitudes that indicate they were no support this, apart from stratigraphic similarities between the
longer attached to the margin of Gondwanaland from the Sikuleh Block and the NW Australian shelf and limited
Carboniferous onwards (Zhao et al., 1996). This indicates palaeomagnetic data showing this block to be derived from
that these terranes rifted and separated from Gondwanaland the south in the Mesozoic (Haile, 1979; Gorur and Sengor,
in the Devonian as previously suggested by Metcalfe (1994, 1992). The Kurosegawa disrupted, composite terrane of Japan
1996a,b). Sibumasu, Qiangtang and the Lhasa terranes, is believed derived from Gondwanaland and a position adjacent
continued to remain on the margin of Gondwanaland until the to eastern South China in the Silurian/Devonian has been
Permian, with the Lhasa terrane remaining attached to speculated (Saito, 1992, Hisada et al., 1994).
Gondwanaland possibly until the Late Triassic but Sibumasu Carboniferous and Permian faunas of the Southwest Borneo
and Qiangtang separating in the late Early Permian. The Lower and Semitau blocks do not appear to have any affinities with
Palaeozoic stratigraphy and fossils (in particular Cambrian those of Sibumasu, but are very similar to those of South and
trilobites and Ordovician conodonts) of Hainan Island suggest North China (Vachard, 1990). Triassic and Jurassic floras and
that the small terranes that make up the Island were originally faunas have affinities with South China, Indochina and Japan
located on the Gondwanaland margin. Reports of Lower and a South China/Indochina origin seems likely.
Permian glacial marine diamictites and Upper Palaeozoic
fossils with Gondwanaland affinities are now, following field 4. Structural and tectonic framework of the Korean
investigations of these rocks, regarded as erroneous by the Peninsula
author. Lower Permian bivalves of the Island have also been
shown to have South China Cathaysian affinities. Hainan Island The Korean Peninsula can be divided into five tectono
therefore probably rifted away from Gondwanaland together structural units or terranes (Fig. 3), from south to north, the
with North and South China, Tarim and Indochina in the Yeongnam massif, Okcheon (Ogcheon) Belt, Gyeonggi (Kyo-
Devonian. nggi) massif, Imjingang Belt, and Nangrim massif/Pyeongnam
The continental sliver which was located immediately basin. A brief description of these follows:
outboard of NW Australia in the Triassic, and which must
have rifted and separated in the Late Triassic Jurassic is here 4.1. Nangrim massif and Pyeongnam basin
considered to have comprised West Burma, and perhaps the
small Sikuleh Block, together with small continental fragments This terrane includes the basement Nangrim massif com-
(West Sulawesi, Mangkalihat) that now form parts of Borneo, prising Late Archaean Early Proterozoic high grade gneisses

Fig. 3. Crustal blocks and massifs of the Korean Peninsula and adjacent northeast Asia. NM: Nangrim massif; PB: Pyeongnam basin; IB: Imjingang Belt; GM:
Gyeonggi massif; OB: Okcheon Belt; YM: Yeongnam massif. After Jeong and Lee (2000).
34 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

and schists, and supracrustal sequences of Proterozoic metase- and Lee et al. (2000) have suggested that the Gyeonggi
dimentary schists, quartzites, marbles, calc-silicates and massif is correlative with the Yangtze craton of the South
amphibolites of the Pyeongnam basin. This terrane is regarded China Block.
to have formed an integral part of the North China Block since
the Proterozoic. 4.4. Okcheon (Ogcheon) Belt

4.2. Imjingang Belt The Okchon (Ogcheon) Belt is a NE trending fold-and-

thrust belt sandwiched between the Kyonggi massif to the
This belt forms the boundary between the Nangrim north west and the Yeongnam massif to the south east. The belt
massif to the north and the Gyeonggi massif to the south. has been divided into two zones, a southern Okchon basin
The belt is an east-trending fold and thrust belt comprising (zone) and a northern Taebaeksan basin (zone). The Okchon
Archaean Proterozoic basement rocks overlain by Silurian, zone comprises generally unfossiliferous low- to medium-
Devonian and Carboniferous siliciclastic and carbonate grade metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks. Rare, poorly
metasedimentary sequences. It has been suggested, on the preserved fossils (Archaeocyathids, conodonts and trilobites,
basis of structural, petrological and geochronological data, indicate Cambrian Ordovician ages). Isotopic ages of meta-
that this belt is the eastwards extension of the Qinling morphic rocks range from Late Proterozoic to Cretaceous with
Dabei Sulu collisional belt between South and North the majority being of Jurassic age but with Pb Pb metamor-
China (Ree et al., 1996; Chough et al., 2000) and that phic ages suggesting Late Permian Early Triassic (Chough et
exhumation of underthrusted basement rocks occurred in al., 2000) or Early Permian (Cheong et al., 2003) ages of peak
the Permo Triassic (Lee et al., 2000) indicating temporal metamorphism. The metasedimentary rocks of this zone
coincidence with exhumation along the Qinling Dabei include slightly sheared diamictite that was originally inter-
Sulu Belt. preted as Precambrian tillites, but more recently suggested to
be Permian tillites. These diamictites (Fig. 4) comprise mud/silt
4.3. Gyeonggi (Kyonggi) massif supported limestone, mudstone and granite clasts. Limestone
clasts yield Lower Ordovician conodonts, granite clasts have
The Gyeonggi (or Kyonggi) massif is a metamorphic yielded Permian ages, and micas from the matrix have been
terrane comprising predominantly Proterozoic gneisses and isotopically dated as Triassic. All clasts in the diamictite are
schists which have experienced at least three phases of locally derived and since this part of Korea almost certainly
folding (Kim et al., 2000). The boundary with the belonged to either North or South China in the Late Palaeozoic,
Imjingang Belt is marked by an E W trending ductile a glacial origin for these diamictites seems unlikely and they
shear zone, the Kyonggi Shear Zone that is unconformably probably represent a mass flow deposit.
overlain by Late Triassic Jurassic sediments and which has The Taebaeksan zone comprises fossiliferous Palaeozoic
Late Triassic mylonite ages. Kim et al. (2000) suggest that and Early Mesozoic weakly metamorphosed sedimentary rocks
at least part of the Gyeonggi massif was involved in the which unconformably rest on Precambrian gneiss and metase-
Permo Triassic collision between South and North China dimentary rocks of the Yulli Group of the Yongnam massif

Fig. 4. Sheared diamictite in the Okchon Belt recently suggested to be Permian tillites but here regarded as a mass flow deposit.
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 35

(Chough et al., 2000). The sediments overlying the metamor- amphibolites, and metasedimentary rocks (mica-schists, quart-
phic basement comprise Cambrian Silurian shallow-marine zites and calc-silicate rocks). Rb Sr and Pb Pb whole rock
sediments, followed by Carboniferous ? Triassic marginal- ages for the orthogneisses of the terrane range between 1.6 and
marine to non-marine sediments with important coal measures. 2.2 Ga (Chough et al., 2000). U Pb zircon ages for granite
Cambrian Ordovician trilobite faunas are closely comparable gneisses range from 1.9 to 2.1 Ga. Sm Nd and Pb Pb ages of
to those of China (in particular North China) and Australia garnets and garnet biotite schists indicate that metamorphism
(Chough et al., 2000; Choi et al., 2003) and clearly formed part in the Yeongnam massif occurred slightly younger than the
of the Sino Australian eastern Gondwana faunal province at main felsic magmatism.
that time. Quantitative analysis of Cambrian conodont faunas
either side of the Honam Shear zone in the Okchon Belt by 4.6. Discussion
Jeong and Lee (2000) suggested that these faunas display
higher bioprovincial affinities with North China rather than The suture between the South China and North China
South China and that differences in the faunas represent crustal blocks is marked by the Qinling Dabei Sulu Belt.
differences in depositional setting (shallow vs. deep marine) Ultra-high-pressure rocks, with generally Late Triassic exhu-
rather than being of biogeographic significance. These authors mation ages along this belt indicate that the collision between
go on to suggested that the entire Korean Peninsular formed these two blocks occurred in Permo Triassic times. Various
part of the North China (or Sino Korean) Block in the Early models for the North South China collision (e.g., Yin and
Palaeozoic. Ordovician conodont faunas include the distinctive Nie, 1993; Li, 1994a,b) promoted suggestions that the North
Lower Ordovician conodont Serratognathus, first described China South China collision zone extends into the Korean
from Korea, which again is biogeographically restricted to Peninsula, and in particular, it has been suggested that the
eastern Gondwana. Carboniferous and Permian faunas and Qinling Dabei Sulu Belt extends into Korea along the
floras are clearly Tethyan/Cathaysian (with fusulinids) and Imjingang Belt (Ree et al., 1996) and possibly extends to
show no relation to Gondwana. the Sangun Belt of Japan (Ernst and Liu, 1995). Isotopic data
from the Imjingang Belt (Lee et al., 2000) appear to support
4.5. Yeongnam massif this view. If this scenario is correct, then the Gyeonggi Block
should be correlative with the South China Block. Biogeo-
The Yeongnam massif is a metamorphic terrane to the graphic studies (Jeong and Lee, 2000; Choi et al., 2003)
southeast of the Okchon Belt and is divided into a southern however, seem to indicate that the entire Korean Peninsula
Jirisan complex and a northern Sobaeksan complex. It is partly should be included in the North China Block (or Sino Korean
overlain by the Cretaceous Kyongsang successor basin. The Block) during the Early Palaeozoic. There is clear controversy
terrane comprises predominantly gneisses with minor schists, here regarding the continental affinities of the various crustal

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram showing times of separation and subsequent collision of the three continental slivers/collages of terranes that rifted from Gondwanaland
and translated northwards by the opening and closing of three successive oceans, the Palaeo-Tethys, Meso-Tethys and Ceno-Tethys.
36 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

Table 3
E and SE Asian sutures and their interpreted ages and age constraints
No. on Suture name Colliding lithosperic blocks Suture age Age constraints
Fig. 1
1 Aibi Xingxing Tarim, Kazakhstan Permian Lower Carboniferous ophiolites. Major arc magmatism ceased in
the Late Carboniferous. Late Permian post-orogenic subsidence
and continental sedimentation in Junggar Basin. Palaeomagnetic
data indicate convergence of Tarim and Kazakhstan by the
Permian. Upper Permian continental clastics blanket the suture.
2 Xiliao He North China, Altaid terranes Jurassic Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous deformation and thrust faulting.
Widespread Jurassic Cretaceous granites. Triassic Middle Juras-
sic deep marine cherts and clastics. Upper Jurassic Lower
Cretaceous continental deposits blanket suture.
3 Lancangjiang Suture Qiangtang, Qamdo Simao Early Triassic Suture zone rocks include Devonian and Carboniferous turbiditic
flysch. Ocean-floor basic extrusives of Permian age and Carbo
Permian melange. Carboniferous Permian island arc rocks are
developed along the west side of the suture. Upper Triassic
collisional granitoids are associated with the suture. Suture zone
rocks are blanketed by Middle Triassic continental clastics.
4 Changning Sibumasu, Simao Late Permian Late Triassic Oceanic ribbon-bedded chert shale sequences have yielded
Menglian Suture graptolites, conodonts and radiolarians indicating ages ranging
from Lower Devonian to Middle Triassic. Limestone blocks and
lenses dominantly found within the basalt sequence of the suture
and interpreted as seamount caps, have yielded fusulinids
indicative of Lower Carboniferous to Upper Permian ages.
5 Chiang Mai Suture Sibumasu, Simao Middle Triassic Basic volcanics (including pillow basalts) are dated as
Carboniferous and Permian. Ages of oceanic deep-marine
bedded cherts within the suture zone range from Devonian
to Middle Triassic. Seamount limestone caps are dated as Lower
Carboniferous (Visean) to Upper Permian (Changhsingian) in age.
6 Sra Kaeo Suture Sibumasu, Indochina Late Triassic Suture zone rocks include melange and chert clastic sequences
which include ultrabasics, serpentinites, Carboniferous pillow
basalts, and Early Permian to Late Triassic oceanic sediments
and associated pillow basalts. Limestone blocks in the melange
range from upper Lower Permian to Middle Permian and a granitic
lens has yielded a zircon U Pb age of 486 + / 5 Ma. Imbricate
thrust slices dated as Middle Triassic by radiolarians. Jurassic
continental sandstones blanket the suture zone.
7 Bentong Raub Sibumasu, East Malaya Early Triassic Upper Devonian to Upper Permian oceanic ribbon-bedded
Suture cherts. Melange includes chert and limestone clasts with Lower
Carboniferous to Upper Permian ages. The Main
Range Fcollisional_ FS_ Type granites of Peninsular Malaysia
range from Late Triassic (230 T 9 Ma) to earliest Jurassic
(207 T 14 Ma) in age, with a peak of around 210 Ma. Suture
zone is covered by latest Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous,
mainly continental, overlap sequence.
8 Song Ma Indochina, South China Late Devonian Early Large-scale folding and thrusting and nappe formation in the Early
Carboniferous to Middle Carboniferous. Middle Carboniferous shallow marine
carbonates are reported to blanket the Song Ma suture in North
Vietnam. Pre-Middle Carboniferous faunas on each side of the
Song Ma zone are different whilst the Middle Carboniferous faunas
are essentially similar. Carboniferous floras on the Indochina Block
in Northeast Thailand indicate continental connection between
Indochina and South China in the Carboniferous
9 Qinling Dabie South China, North China Triassic Jurassic Late Triassic subduction-related granite. Late Triassic U Pb dates
of zircons from ultra-high pressure eclogites. Late Triassic Early
Jurassic convergence of APWPs and palaeolatitudes of South
China and North China. Initial contact between South and North
China is indicated by isotopic data in Shandong and sedimento-
logical records along the suture. Widespread Triassic to Early
Jurassic deformation in the North China Block north of the suture.
10 Kunlun Qamdo Simao Kunlun Triassic Permo Triassic ophiolites and subduction zone melange. Upper
Permian calc-alkaline volcanics, strongly deformed Triassic flysch
and Late Triassic granitoids.
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 37

Table 3 (continued)
No. on Suture name Colliding lithosperic blocks Suture age Age constraints
Fig. 1
11 Jinshajiang Simao, South China Late Permian Late Triassic Ophiolites are regarded as Upper Permian to Lower Triassic in age.
Melange comprises Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian exotics
in a Triassic matrix. Upper Permian to Jurassic sediments
unconformably overly Lower Permian ophiolites in the Hoh Xil
Range.
12 Ailaoshan Suture Simao, South China Middle Triassic Plagiogranite U Pb ages of 340 T 3 Ma and 294 T 3 Ma indicate
that the oceanic lithosphere formed in the latest Devonian to
earliest Carboniferous. Ophiolitic rocks are associated with deep-
marine sedimentary rocks including ribbon-bedded cherts that have
yielded some Lower Carboniferous and Lower Permian radiolar-
ians. Upper Triassic sediments (Carnian conglomerates and
sandstones, Norian limestones and Rhaetian sandstones) blanket
the suture.
13 Nan Uttaradit Simao, Indochina Middle Triassic Pre-Permian ophiolitic mafic and ultramafic rocks with associated
Suture blueschists. Mafic and ultramafic blocks in the melange comprise
ocean-island basalts, back-arc basin basalts and andesites, island-
arc basalts and andesites and supra-subduction cumulates generated
in Carboniferous to Permo Triassic times. Permo Triassic dacites
and rhyolites associated with relatively unmetamorphosed Lower
Triassic sandstone shale turbidite sequence. Suture zone rocks are
overlain unconformably by Jurassic redbeds and post-Triassic
intraplate continental basalts.
14 Median Sumatra West Burma, Sibumasu ?Early Triassic? No remnants of the ocean basin that once separated West Sumatra
and Sibumasu so far known. It is likely that West Sumatra was slid
into juxtaposition with Sibumasu from east to west along a major
strike-slip fault associated with oblique subduction.
15 Banggong Suture Lhasa, Qiangtang Late Jurassic Early Suture is blanketed in Tibet by Cretaceous and Palaeogene
Cretaceous rocks. Structural data indicate that collision around the Jurassic/
Cretaceous boundary.
16 Shan Boundary West Burma, Sibumasu Early Cretaceous Cretaceous thrusts in the back-arc belt. Late Cretaceous age for the
Suture Western Belt tin-bearing granites.
17 Woyla Suture Sikuleh, Sibumasu/W Sumatra Late Cretaceous Cretaceous ophiolites and accretionary complex material.
18 Indus Yarlung India, Eurasia Late Cretaceous Eocene Jurassic Cretaceous ophiolites and ophiolitic melange with
Zangbo Suture Jurassic Lower Cretaceous radiolarian cherts. Late Cretaceous
blueschists. Eocene collision-related plutons. Palaeomagnetic data
indicates initial collision around 60 Ma. Palaeogene strata blanket
the suture.
19 Lok Ulo Meratus Paternoster, SW Borneo Late Cretaceous Subduction melange of middle-Late Cretaceous age. Ophiolite with
Suture Jurassic ultramafic rocks. Pillow basalts of Jurassic and Early
Cretaceous ages. Oceanic cherts of Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous
ages. Turbiditic flysche of early-Late Cretaceous age. Ophiolite
obducted in Cenomanian. Suture overlain by Eocene strata.
20 Boyan Suture Semitau, SW Borneo Late Cretaceous Upper Cretaceous melange.
For location of sutures see Figs. 1 and 2.

fragments of the Korean Peninsula and ongoing differing fragments, along with North China, South China, Tarim,
opinions and interpretations on the possible extension of the Indochina, East Malaya and West Sumatra, had separated from
Qinling DabeiSulu Belt eastwards into the Korean Penin- Gondwana probably in the Devonian. There seems to be
sula. The significance of the Okchon Belt, separating the emerging evidence that supports an extension of the North
Gyeonggi and Yeongnam crustal fragments is also an ongoing South China collision zone into the Korean peninsula and
problem. Is the Gyeonggi massif correlative with South other papers in this volume will throw new light on this
China? Was the Yeongnam massif also originally part of ongoing debate.
South China or part of North China, or an independent crustal
block? It seems clear from palaeobiogepographic studies that 5. Rifting and separation of east Asian crustal blocks from
the crustal blocks of the Korean Peninsula formed part of the Gondwanaland
Sino Australian province in the Early Palaeozoic and that
they were probably attached to either North or South China The Gondwana-derived east Asia crustal fragments succes-
along the margin of eastern Gondwana. Carboniferous and sively rifted and separated from the margin of eastern
Permian faunas and floras of the Korean crustal blocks are Gondwana as three elongate continental slivers or collages of
Tethyan and Cathaysian and indicate that these crustal terranes in the Devonian, Early Permian and Late Triassic
38 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

Late Jurassic (Fig. 5). As these three continental slivers Sibumasu and Qiangtang terranes, as part of the Cimmerian
separated from Gondwana, three successive ocean basins, the continent, from the Indo Australian margin of Gondwanaland
Palaeo-Tethys, Meso-Tethys and Ceno-Tethys, opened between in the Late Sakmarian. The late Early Permian separation and
these and Gondwana. Middle Upper Permian rapid northwards drift of the Sibumasu
terrane is indicated by palaeolatitude data which indicates a
5.1. Devonian rifting and separation change of latitude from 42- south in the Late Carboniferous to
low northern latitudes by the Early Triassic. In addition, the
South China, North China, Tarim, Indochina, East Malaya Sibumasu terrane faunas show a progressive change in marine
and West Sumatra were attached to Gondwanaland in the provinciality from peri-Gondwanan Indoralian Province faunas
Cambrian to Silurian, but by Carboniferous times were in the Early Permian (Asselian Early Sakmarian), to repre-
separated from the parent craton, suggesting a Devonian rifting senting an endemic Sibumasu province in the Middle Permian
and separation of these blocks. This timing is also supported by and then being absorbed into the equatorial Cathaysian
the presence of a conspicuous Devonian unconformity in South province in the Late Permian.
China, and a subsequent Devonian Triassic passive margin
sequence along its southern margin. Devonian basin formation 5.3. Late Triassic to Late Jurassic rifting and separation
in South China has also been shown to be related to rifting. The
splitting of the Silurian Sino Australian brachiopod province The separation of the Lhasa Block from Gondwanaland
into two sub-provinces and the apparent loss of links between has been proposed by different authors as occurring either in
Asian terranes and Australia in the Early Devonian may be the the Permian or Triassic. A Permian separation is advocated,
result of the northwards movement and separation of these either as a part of the Cimmerian continent or as a Mega-
terranes from Gondwanaland. A counter-clockwise rotation of Lhasa block that included Iran and Afghanistan. Permian
Gondwana in the Devonian about an Euler pole in Australia is rifting on the North Indian margin and in Tibet is here
also consistent with clockwise rotation of the separating Asian regarded as being related to separation of the Cimmerian
terranes and spreading of the Palaeo-Tethys at this time. continental strip that included Iran, Afghanistan and the
Qiangtang Block of Tibet, but not the Lhasa Block.
5.2. Carboniferous Permian rifting and Early Permian Sedimentological and stratigraphical studies in the Tibetan
separation Himalayas and Nepal have documented the Triassic rifting
and Late Triassic (Norian) separation of the Lhasa Block from
There is now substantial evidence for rifting along the northern Gondwanaland. This Late Triassic episode of rifting
northern margin of Gondwanaland in the Carboniferous to is also recognised along the North West Shelf of Australia
Permian accompanied by rift-related magmatism. This rifting where it continued into the Late Jurassic, resulting in the
episode led to the late Early Permian separation of the separation of West Burma.

Table 4
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic events and their ages in Southeast Asia
Palaeozoic evolution
Process Age
Rifting of South China, North China, Indochina, East Malaya, West Sumatra, Tarim and Early Devonian
Qaidam from Gondwanaland.
Initial spreading of the Palaeo-Tethys ocean. Middle/Late Devonian
Amalgamation of South China, Indochina and East Malaya to form Cathaysialand Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous
Development of the Ailaoshan Nan Uttaradit back-arc basin and separation of the Late Early Carboniferous
Simao Terrane by back-arc spreading.
Rifting of Sibumasu and Qiangtang from Gondwanaland as part of the Cimmerian Late Early Permian (Sakmarian)
continent
Initial spreading of Meso-Tethys ocean Middle Permian
Collision and suturing of Sibumasu to Indochina and East Malaya Latest Permian to Early Triassic
Initial collision of South and North China and development of Tanlu Fault Late Permian to Triassic

Mesozoic evolution
Process Age
Suturing of South China with North China and final consolidation of Sundaland Late Triassic to Early Jurassic
Rifting of Lhasa, West Burma and other small terranes Late Triassic to Late Jurassic
Initial spreading of Ceno-Tethys ocean Late Triassic (Norian) in west (North India) and Late Jurassic
in east (NW Australia)
Northward drift of Lhasa, West Burma and small terranes Jurassic to Cretaceous
Collision of the Lhasa Block with Eurasia Late Jurassic earliest Cretaceous
Accretion of West Burma and Sikuleh? terranes to Sibumasu Late Early Cretaceous
Suturing of Semitau to S.W. Borneo Late Cretaceous
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 39

6. Amalgamation and accretion of Asian crustal blocks tectonostratigraphic record of each continental terrane in the
region documents the geological history of that terrane,
The continental terranes of E and SE Asia have progres- including variations in sedimentary environment, climate,
sively sutured to one another during the Palaeozoic to faunal and floral affinities (changes in biogeographic regime),
Cenozoic. Most of the major terranes had coalesced by the latitudinal shift, rifting events, episodes of deformation and
end of the Cretaceous and proto Southeast Asia had formed. plutono volcanic igneous activity.
The age of welding of one terrane to another can be determined
using the various criteria given in Table 1. When these criteria 7. Palaeozoic Mesozoic tectonic evolution of East Asia
are applied to the various sutures and terranes of East and
Southeast Asia the interpreted ages of suturing (amalgamation/ Table 4 provides a summary of the principal geological
accretion) are determined. Table 3 Lists East and Southeast events, and their timings, that have affected the East Asian
Asian suture zones, colliding lithospheric blocks, interpreted region during the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Eras. Continental
ages of suturing, and constraints on the ages of suturing. The collisions (amalgamation or accretion) are dated by the various

Fig. 6. Reconstructions of eastern Gondwanaland for (a) Cambro Ordovician (Tremadoc) and (b) Mid Late Silurian showing the postulated positions of the East
and Southeast Asian terranes, distribution of land and sea, and shallow-marine fossils that illustrate Asia Australia connections at these times. NC = North China;
SC = South China; T = Tarim; I = Indochina/East Malaya/West Sumatra; QI = Qiangtang; L= Lhasa; S = Sibumasu; WB = West Burma; WC = Western Cimmerian
Continent; GI = Greater India.
40 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

suture zones (Table 2). The principal events that have affected 7.3. Carboniferous (354 298 Ma)
the Southeast Asian region during the Phanerozoic are outlined
below chronologically. During the Carboniferous, Gondwanaland rotates clockwise
and collides with Laurentia in the west to form Pangea.
7.1. Cambrian Ordovician Silurian (545 410 Ma) Australia, Sibumasu, Qianghtang, Lhasa and West Burma are
still attached to northeast Gondwanaland, and drift from low
The East and SE Asian crustal fragments formed part of southern latitudes in Tournaisian Visean times to high
Indian Australian Greater Gondwanaland in the Cambrian, southern latitudes in Middle Late Namurian times. The major
Ordovician and Silurian (Fig. 6). Faunas of this age on the Gondwanan glaciation commenced in the Namurian and
Asian blocks and Australasia define Asian Australian palaeo- extended through into the Early Permian. There were major
equatorial warm-climate provinces, for example the Sino global shifts in both plate configurations and climate during
Australian brachiopod province in the Silurian. this time and a change from warm to cold conditions in
Australasia. This is reflected in the change from high to low
7.2. Devonian (410 354 Ma) diversity of faunas in Australasia and especially eastern
Australia where low diversity, endemic faunas developed in
Australian eastern Gondwana continued to reside in low the Upper Carboniferous. North and South China, Indochina,
southern latitudes during the Devonian but rotates counter East Malaya, West Sumatra and Tarim faunas and floras are
clockwise. This counter clockwise rotation mirrors a clock- tropical/sub-tropical Cathaysian/Tethyan types during the
wise rotation of the North and South China, Tarim, Indo- Carboniferous and show no Gondwanaland affinities. These
china, East Malaya and West Sumatra terranes as they terranes had already separated from Gondwanaland and were
separate from Gondwanaland as an elongate continental located in low latitude/equatorial positions during the Carbon-
sliver. Separation of this sliver from Gondwanaland opened iferous (Fig. 8). Indochina and South China collided and
the Palaeo-Tethys ocean (Fig. 7). Devonian faunas on the amalgamated within the Tethys during the Early Carboniferous
Chinese terranes still have some Australian connections. along the Song Ma suture zone now located in Laos and
Early Devonian endemic faunas of South China, including Vietnam. Ice sheets and glaciers extended across much of
some fish faunas and the distinctive Chuiella brachiopod eastern Gondwanaland during the Late Carboniferous and ice
fauna (Fig. 7), are interpreted to be a result of the rifting reached the marine environment of India Australian continen-
process and isolation of South China on the rifting tal shelf of Gondwanaland and glacial marine sediments
continental promontory, and do not necessarily imply (diamictites; pebbly mudstones interbedded with normal
continental separation of South China from the other Chinese marine shales and sands) were deposited on the continental
blocks and Australia at this time. shelf of eastern Gondwanaland. Subduction beneath South

Fig. 7. Reconstruction of eastern Gondwanaland for the Late Devonian to Lower Carboniferous (Tournaisian) showing the postulated positions of the East and
Southeast Asian terranes, distribution of land and sea, and opening of the Palaeo-Tethys ocean at this time. Also shown is the distribution of the endemic Tournaisian
brachiopod genus Chuiella. NC = North China; SC = South China; T = Tarim; I = Indochina/East Malaya/West Sumatra; QI = Qiangtang; L= Lhasa; S = Sibumasu;
WB = West Burma; WC = Western Cimmerian Continent.
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 41

Fig. 8. Palaeogeographic reconstructions of the Tethyan region for (a) Early Carboniferous, (b) Early Permian, (c) Late Permian and (d) Late Triassic showing
relative positions of the East and Southeast Asian terranes and distribution of land and sea. Also shown is the distribution of the Early Permian cold-water tolerant
conodont Vjalovognathus, and the Late Permian Dicynodon locality on Indochina in the Late Permian. SC = South China; T = Tarim; I = Indochina; Em = East
Malaya; WS = West Sumatra; NC = North China; SI = Simao; S = Sibumasu; WB = West Burma; QI = Qiangtang; L= Lhasa; WC = Western Cimmerian Continent.

China/Indochina in the Carboniferous led to the development eastern peri-Gondwanaland cold-water province at this time
of the Ailaoshan Nan Uttaradit back-arc basin (now repre- (Fig. 8). Floral provinces are particularly marked at this time
sented by the Ailaoshan and Nan Uttaradit Suture Zones) and and the distinctive Cathaysian (Gigantopteris) flora developed
separation of the Simao Terrane by back-arc spreading. on North China, South China, Indochina, East Malaya and
West Sumatra which were isolated within the Tethys and
7.4. Early Permian (298 270 Ma) located equatorially (Fig. 8b). During the late Early Permian
(end Sakmarian), the Cimmerian continental sliver separated
During the Permian, Australia remained in high southern from the northeastern margin of Gondwana and the Meso-
latitudes. Glacial ice continued to reach the marine environ- Tethys Ocean opened by sea floor spreading between it and
ment of the northeast Gondwanaland margin and glacial mainland Gondwana (Fig. 8c).
marine sediments continued to be deposited on the Sibumasu,
Qiangtang and Lhasa terranes. Gondwanaland cold-climate 7.5. Late Permian (270 252 Ma)
faunas and floras characterised the Sibumasu, Qiangtang and
Lhasa terranes at this time. In addition, the distinctive cool- By early Late Permian times the Sibumasu and Qiangtang
water tolerant conodont genus Vjalovognathus defines an terranes had separated from Gondwanaland and the Meso-
42 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46

Tethys opened between this continental sliver and Gondwa- China begin to collide during the Late Permian and a
naland (Fig. 8c). The Palaeo-Tethys continued to be connection between mainland Pangea and Indochina, via
destroyed by northwards subduction beneath Laurasia, North South and North China or via the western Cimmerian
China and the amalgamated South China/Indochina/East continent, is indicated by the occurrence of the genus
Malaya terranes. Following separation, and during their Dicynodon in the Upper Permian of Indochina (Fig. 8c).
northwards drift, the Sibumasu and Qiangtang terranes Sibumasu began to collide with Indochina and east Malaya
developed initially a Cimmerian Province fauna and were in the Late Permian and collision continued into the Early
then absorbed into the Cathaysian Province. North and South Triassic. Deformation associated with this event, and with the

Fig. 9. Palaeogeographic reconstructions for Eastern Tethys in (a) Late Jurassic, (b) Early Cretaceous, (c) Late Cretaceous and (d) Middle Eocene showing
distribution of continental blocks and fragments of Southeast Asia Australasia and land and sea. SG = Songpan Ganzi accretionary complex; SC = South China;
QS = Qando Simao; SI = Simao; QI = Qiangtang; S = Sibumasu; I = Indochina; EM = East Malaya; WSu = West Sumatra; L = Lhasa; WB = West Burma;
SWB = Southwest Borneo; SE = Semitau; NP= North Palawan and other small continental fragments now forming part of the Philippines basement; Si = Sikuleh;
M = Mangkalihat; WS = West Sulawesi; PB = Philippine Basement; PA= Incipient East Philippine arc; PS = Proto-South China Sea; Z = Zambales Ophiolite; Rb = Reed
Bank; MB = Macclesfield Bank; PI = Paracel Islands; Da = Dangerous Ground; Lu = Luconia; Sm = Sumba. M numbers represent Indian Ocean magnetic anomalies.
 I. Metcalfe / Gondwana Research 9 (2006) 24 46 43

collision of North and south China is known as the Acknowledgements

Indosinian orogeny in Southeast Asia and China.
I thank Dr. Koji Wakita for his constructive review of the
7.6. Triassic (253 205 Ma) paper and Prof. M. Santosh for helpful comments and support.
The Australian Research Council is gratefully acknowledged
Australia was in low to moderate southern latitudes during for financial support for my research on the tectonics and
the Triassic. The Sibumasu and Qiangtang terranes collided palaeogeography of East and Southeast Asia.
and sutured to the Indochina/South China amalgamated
terrane. The West Sumatra Block is pushed westwards by References
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