Electric/Magnetic Fields

1. Introduction

The two fundamental concepts used to describe electric phenomena are electric and magnetic
fields. We explore the field concept experimentally by measuring lines of equal electric
potential on carbon paper and then constructing the electric field lines, which connect them. And
by examining magnetic fields by tracing out the field lines of a bar magnet with iron filings.

2. Theory

2.1 Fields

If each point in space can be assigned a numerical value associated with a physical quantity, we
can call that quantity a field. For example, each point in the United States may be assigned a
temperature (that we measure with a thermometer at that position). The temperature as a
function of location is called the “temperature field”.

Electric and magnetic fields are vector fields, because a vector (rather than just a number)
corresponds to each position. At each point in space, the force that would act on a small (unit)
test charge, if placed at this position, is proportional to the electric field. (The force is a vector; it
has a magnitude and direction. So does a field.) Drawing a line that follows the direction of the
field produces a field line.
A field is homogeneous if the field lines are parallel. The potential corresponding to such a field
increases linearly with the distance traveled along the field lines.
2.2 Equipotential Contours for Gravity

How does a moutain appear on a topographical map? You have probably seen on such maps that
there are thin lines specifying contours of the same height, so a mountain may look as follows:

These contours of the same height (h) are equi-height lines or, if you think in terms of potential
energy (U=mgh), they are equipotential lines. That is, every point on the contour has the same
value of U. So as you move along a contour, you don’t change height and therefore you neither
gain nor lose potential energy. Only as you step up or down the hill do you change the energy.

There are a few general properties of equipotential contours:

1. They never intersect. (A single point cannot be at two different heights at the same
time, and so cannot be on two different contours!)
2. They close on themselves. (A line corresponding to constant height cannot stop in the
middle of nowhere!)
3. They are smooth curves, so long as the topography has no sharp discontinuities (like a
cliff).

2.3 Analogy between Electric and Gravitational Potentials

Electric potential is analogous to gravitational potential energy. Of course, gravitational

potential energy arises from any object (with mass), whereas the electric potential arises only
from charges objects.

As in mechanics, the absolute value of potential is not important. The differences in potential are
important and have physical meaning. In a real problem, it is usually best to choose a reference
point which you define as having zero potential, and refer potentials at all other points relative to
the reference point. (For example, topographic height is usually provided relative to the
reference at sea level.)
2.4 Field Lines

Let’s exploit our analogy of mountains and valleys a bit further for electric fields. The
operational definition of the electric field was “Put a test charge at the point of interest and
observe the direction in which it is pulled and measure how strong the pull is.” But this is
similar to saying “Put a marble on the mountain and observe the direction in which it rolls and
how fast it accelerates.” So if we carefully track a marble as we roll it down the hill in small
increments, we get a “field-line.”

What is the characterisitic of a field line? Think about placing a marble on an inclined hillside.
Which way will it roll if you release it? It will always begin rolling in the steepest direction, and
this direction is always perpendicular to the contours of equal height (or equipotential lines).

So it is for the electric case: if we know the equipotential lines, we always draw the field lines
such that they cross every equipotential line perpendicularly. The picture below shows
equipotential lines (dashed lines) and the correspondoing field lines (solid lines).

Single Positive Charge

Field lines and Equipotential lines

 Two Charges of Opposite Sign

Field lines and Equipotential lines

There are also a few rules for field lines:

1. Field lines always begin or end on charges. (They often terminate on material
surfaces, but there are actually charges on those surfaces.)
2. They never intersect (except at electric charges, where they terminate).
3. They are usually smoothly continuous (except if they terminate).
4. They always intersect equipotential lines perpendicularly.

3. Experiments

3.1 Equipotential and Field LInes

We se here pieces of conductive paper, which is only slightly conduct. Two electrodes are
located on the paper with two different electric potentials. We use the small holders, which we
pin to the paper. If we simply pin them to the paper, they act like two point charges. If we then
use the metal paint to draw different shapes on the paper, these will be equipotential curves. By
connecting the pins to areas covered with paint, we can determine the field configurations
between different equipotential shapes.
To measure the potential in the paper, we connect two probes with cables to the
voltagemeasuring device (digital multimeter). One probe is connected to a pin at a "fixed point",
which we use as a reference probe. The other "measurement probe" is connected to a pen-like
measuring instrument. The multimeter then measures the difference in potential (in Volts)
between the two points. As we now move the measurement probe to different locations, you
should see the voltage change on the meter. Whenever you measure zero, the two probes are at
the same potential. At several such positions, you mark the paper.

When you have a sufficient number of marks on the paper, draw a connecting line between the
points. This is the equipotential contour. (Don't connect the single points by straight lines, but try
to get a smooth curve by anticipating the curvature of the lines.)
Now place the reference probe at a new position and repeat the procedure. Several equipotential
curves may be generated.
Finally, since you have several equipotential lines you can draw field lines for this arrangement.
Construct the field lines such that they always cross the equipotential lines perpendicularly.

You should do the experiment for three different configurations:

1. Two oppositely-charged point charges (just the two pins).
2. Two parallel plates (using the paint) at opposite charge.
3. A configuration of your choice.

Hints:
1. You get the best results if you stay at least 1-2 cm away from the edges of the paper.
Also make sure that the pins are always in contact with the paper. (Otherwise the experiment
does not work!) Be careful not to make the holes too big or the pins will no
1. longer be in contact with the paper.
2. Give the metal paint enough time to dry. First paint all the configurations you will use on
the conductive paper. While they dry, get started on the two point-charge arrangement!

4. Step by Step List

4.1 Setup of the Voltage Source

 • Plug in cables from the function generator to the digital multimeter. Connect the cables
so that the black cables from each are connected to each other, and the red poles from each
are connected to each other.
• Make sure that on the function generator, "function" is set to the sin curve and "range" to
100Hz. "Frequency" should be set to ".6". The "volts out" button should be pressed and the
other two buttons should not. The "sweep rate" and "sweep width" knobs should be turned all
the way counter-clockwise.
• On the digital multimeter make sure that the "volts" button is pressed and the range is set
to 200mV on the Volts scale.
• Increase "amplitude" on the function generator until the multimeter gives you a reading
of about 150. This means that your function generator now generates a sinusoidal signal of
about 60Hz with an rms of about 150mV (this means the amplitude is 2 larger, for the
experts).
• Remove the cables. Do not change anything on the function generator for the remainder
of the lab.

4.3 Equipotential and Field Lines

• Connect two cables to the output of the function generator (black and red poles) and two
of the yellow-metallic pins. These are your output pins.
• Take one additional cable and connect one end to the black pole of the multimeter and the
other to a different metallic pin. This is your reference or fixed-point probe. Take the pen-
like pin and plug it into the red pole of the multimeter. This is your measuring probe.
• Take an empty sheet and put the two output pins on it to act as point-like sources. Push
the pins in only a little bit and not all the way through.
• Insert the reference probe at an arbitrary position and move the measuring probe until the
multimeter shows a value of zero. This means that the two points are at the same potential.
Mark this position with one of the red markers provided, so as not to confuse it with the
probe. Search for more equipotential points until you have enough to draw an equipotential
contour.
• Move the reference pin to a new position and construct another equipotential line.
• Repeat for a total of about 5 equipotential lines.
• Given these equipotential lines, draw about 5 field lines using the yellow pen. Remember
that the field lines and equipotential lines always intersect perpendicularly.
• Do your equipotential and field lines show the symmetries you would expect for this
system? Just what symmetries does/should this system have?
• Obtain the equipotential and field lines for the other two configurations as well. (Stick the
two pins from the function generator into the metal paint-covered part of the paper, after the
paint has dried!).
• Are the equipotential lines as you expect them?