71867.cover.

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2566 /-fm/frame Page 1 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

A VOLUME IN

THE LABORATORY ANIMAL POCKET REFERENCE SERIES

The Laboratory
Hamster and
Gerbil
2566 /-fm/frame Page 2 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

The Laboratory Animal Pocket Reference Series

Advisory Board

B. Taylor Bennett, D.V.M., Ph.D

Biologic Resources Laboratory
University of Illinois at Chicago
Chicago, IL 60612

Terrie Cunliffe-Beamer, D.V.M, M.S.

The Jackson Laboratory
Bar Harbor, ME 04609

John Harkness, D.V.M., M.S. M.Ed

College of Veterinary Medicine
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State, MS 39762

Roger P. Maickel, Ph.D

Laboratory Animal Program
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN 47907
2566 /-fm/frame Page 3 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

A VOLUME IN

THE LABORATORY ANIMAL POCKET REFERENCE SERIES

The Laboratory
Hamster and
Gerbil

Karl J. Field
and
Amber L. Sibold
2566 /-fm/frame Page 4 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress.

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2566 /-fm/frame Page 5 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

dedication
K.J.F.: As usual, I needed a lot of help completing this
project. Thank you to all of the dedicated animal technicians
who have devoted their lives to providing compassionate care
for the animals they oversee. Thanks to my parents, William
and Virginia, and to my mentors and friends in the profession.
Lastly, I must thank my wife Nanette and daughters Lindsay
and Whitney for their love and support.

A.L.S.: I would like to thank my parents, Faith and Jack,

my son Randy and friend David, and all my talented co-workers
for their support in this and all my endeavors.
2566 /-fm/frame Page 6 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM
2566 /-fm/frame Page 7 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

preface
This handbook is intended to be a resource for a wide variety
of institutions. However, individuals at small institutions or
facilities lacking a large, departmentally based animal resource
unit, and individuals who need to develop a research program
for hamsters and gerbils from scratch, may gain the most benefit
from this handbook. In smaller institutions, individuals who
perform animal research often hold the responsibilities associ-
ated with animal facility management, animal husbandry, reg-
ulatory compliance, and performance of technical procedures
directly related to research projects. It is our hope that these
individuals in particular — the investigators, technicians and
animal caretakers who are charged with the care and/or use of
hamsters and gerbils in the research setting will benefit from
the user-friendly format in which this handbook is written.
This handbook is organized into six chapters: Important Bio-
logical Features (Chapter 1), Husbandry (Chapter 2), Manage-
ment (Chapter 3), Veterinary Care (Chapter 4), Experimental
Methodology (Chapter 5), and Resources (Chapter 6). Basic
information and common procedures which fall under the chap-
ter scope are presented in detail. However, information such as
alternative techniques, or details of procedures and methods
which are beyond the scope of this handbook, are referenced.
The references direct the user to additional information without
having to wade through voluminous detail here. This handbook
should be viewed as a basic reference source and not as an
exhaustive review of the biology and use of the hamster and
gerbil.
2566 /-fm/frame Page 8 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

The final chapter on "Resources" provides the user with lists

of possible sources and suppliers and additional information on
hamster and gerbils, as well as sources for feed, sanitation
supplies, cages, and research and veterinary supplies. The lists
are not exhaustive and does not imply endorsement of listed
suppliers over those not listed; they are a starting point for users
to develop their own lists of preferred vendors of such items.
Chapter 6 contains tables which list vendors of cages and
research and veterinary supplies by number and is followed by
a list of contact information for these suppliers.
A final critical point is that each individual involved in animal
care and use must recognize that the humane care and use of
hamsters and gerbils is a fundamental principal of good
research. It is the principal investigator’s obligation to ensure
that each individual who is required to perform the procedures
described in this handbook is properly trained, otherwise the
animal may be harmed. An individual’s inexperience with a
technique can represent one of the most critical variables in a
research project. The initial and continuing education of all
personnel involved in the care and use of animals will facilitate
the overall success of any program using hamsters and/or ger-
bils in research, teaching, or testing.
2566 /-fm/frame Page 9 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

the authors
Karl J. Field, DVM., MS., is Director of Veterinary Sciences
at Bristol-Meyers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute in
Princeton, NJ.
Dr. Field earned the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine
from Michigan State University in 1986 and completed an M.S.
in laboratory animal medicine in 1988. He is a Diplomate of the
American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine.
Dr. Field is the author of 20 publications and abstracts cov-
ering a variety of aspects of laboratory animal science.

Amber L. Sibold is Assistant Director of Laboratory Animal

Services at Novartis Pharmaceuticals, East Hanover, NJ. Ms.
Sibold recieved her undergraduate degree from Penn State Uni-
versity. She is a Certified Laboratory Animal Technologist and
a Surgical Research Specialist.
2566 /-fm/frame Page 10 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM
2566 /-fm/frame Page 11 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

contents
1 IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES 1
Hamsters 1
Origin of the Hamster 1
Hamster Breeds 1
Hamster Behavior 1
Anatomic and Physiologic Features of Hamsters 3
Gerbils 6
Origin of the Gerbil 6
Gerbil Breeds 7
Gerbil Behavior 7
Anatomic and Physiologic Features of Gerbils 8
Normative Values of the Hamster and Gerbil 9

2 HUSBANDRY 13
Housing 13
Macroenviornment Considerations 14
Room Construction Features 14
Microenvironment/Caging Considerations 15
Cage Size Standards 16
Cage Materials and Design 18
Environmental Conditions 21
Environmental Enrichment 22
Nutrition 24
Cage Sanitation Practices 27
Cage Cleaning Frequency 28
Special Circumstances 30
Methods of Cage Sanitation 30
2566 /-fm/frame Page 12 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

Animal Room Sanitation 33

Sanitation Quality Control 35
Transportation 36
Animal Receipt 39
Record Keeping 40
Health Records 41
Census 41
Work Records 42
Breeding 43
Hamsters 43
Gerbils 46

3 MANAGEMENT 49
Regulatory Agencies and Compliance 49
Occupational Health and Zoonotic Diseases 55
Bacteria 55
Other Occupational Health Issues 57
Parasites 57
Viruses 58
Experimental Biohazards 58

4 VETERINARY CARE 59
Veterinary Supplies 59
The Physical Examination 60
Quarantine, Stabilization, and Acclimation 62
Common Clinical Problems 62
Diseases of Hamsters 63
Bacterial Diseases 63
Viral Diseases 64
Parasitic Diseases 65
Ectoparasitic Arthropods 68
Miscellaneous Diseases 69
Common Diseases of Gerbils 69
Bacterial Diseases 69
Viral Diseases 70
Parasitic Diseases 70
Miscellaneous Diseases and Conditions 71
Drug Dosages for Hamsters and Gerbils 72
Disease Prevention Through Sanitation 75
Anesthesia, Analgesia, and Sedation 75
Principles of General Anesthesia 78
2566 /-fm/frame Page 13 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

Administering Anesthesia 78
Stages of Anesthesia 79
Assessment of Anesthetic Depth 80
Postanesthetic Monitoring 81
Characteristics of Commonly Used Injectable Anesthetics 83
Principles of Gas Anesthesia 84
Preanesthetic Management 85
Premedication, Sedation, Tranquilization, and
Chemical Restraint 85
Aseptic Surgery 86
Asepsis 86
Operating Room Procedures 86
Patient Preparation 87
Surgical Site Preparation 88
Surgeon Preparation 89
Basic Surgical Techniques 90
Surgical Principles to Promote Wound Healing 90
Wound Closure 91
Complications of Wound Healing 91
Guidelines for Selecting Sutures 92
Sutures for Closure of Incisions 92
Organ and Tissue Sutures 93
Suture Needles 94
Suturing 94
Surgical Knot Tying 95
Suture Removal 95
Postoperative Management of Pain 96
Analgesia 96
Postoperative Care of Animals 97
Euthanasia 98
When to Euthanize an Animal 98
Guidelines for Recognizing Morbid and
Moribund Animals 98
Signs of Morbidity (Disease or Illness) in Animals 99
Selected Criteria for Euthanasia of Moribund (Dying)
Animals 99
Common Methods of Euthanasia 101
Barbiturate Overdose 101
Inhalant Anesthesia 101
Physical Methods 101
2566 /-fm/frame Page 14 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:27 PM

5 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY 103

Hamster Handling and Restraint 103
Methods for Picking a Hamster Up 103
Hamster Restraint 105
Gerbil Handling and Restraint 106
Sample Collection 107
Blood Collection Sites 107
Blood Volume 108
Blood Collection Vials 109
Blood Collection 109
Urine and Feces Collection 113
Test Article/Compound Administration 113
Parenteral Route 113
Oral Route 117
Water and Food 120
Implantable Osmotic Pumps 120
Necropsy 120
Equipment 120
Technique 122

6 RESOURCES 125
Organizations 125
Publications 127
Electronic 130
Purchasing Hamsters and Gerbils 131
Feed 130
Cages, Research, and Veterinary Supplies 132

BIBLIOGRAPHY 135

INDEX 141
2566 /ch01/frame Page 1 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

1
important biological
features

The Syrian hamster and Mongolian gerbil have been used

extensively in research for a variety of disciplines. Therefore,
unless noted otherwise, the information in this handbook will
focus on the Syrian hamster (Figure 1), the most commonly
used hamster species in the laboratory,1 and the Mongolian
gerbil (Figure 2).

hamsters
Origin of the Hamster
The hamster has a short history of domestication. Most ham-
sters used as laboratory animals appear to be descendants of
3 to 4 littermates that were captured and imported from Aleppo,
Syria in 1930. Because of their origin in Syria and their reddish
golden-brown color, they are often referred to as the Syrian
hamster, golden hamster, or golden Syrian hamster. The Syrian
hamster belongs to the taxonomic order Rodentia, family
Cridetidae. The genus and species is Mesocricetus auratus.2

Hamster Breeds
As mentioned previously, the Syrian hamster, Mesocricetus
auratus, is the most frequently used hamster species in the

1
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2 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 1. An adult Syrian hamster, Mesocricetus auratus. (Cour-

tesy of Mr. J. Foster, Jr., Charles River Laboratories.)

Fig. 2. An adult Mongolian gerbil, Meriones unguiculatus.

2566 /ch01/frame Page 3 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

important biological features 3

laboratory. Less commonly used breeds include the Striped or

Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus; the European hamster,
Cricetus cricetus; the Djungarian hamster, Phodopus sungorus;
and the Armenian hamster, Cricetulus migratorius. A more com-
plete listing of hamster breeds and classifications can be found
elsewhere.1,3

Hamster Behavior
Although hamsters are not naturally aggressive toward their
handlers,1 they will display this behavior if they are startled,
suddenly awakened, or roughly handled. Similarly, an unrecep-
tive breeding female may bite when handled. Since hamsters
are nocturnal and usually sleeping when first approached, it is
important to awaken the hamster before you handle it.
Hamsters are compatible within their own species, regardless
of sex, if they have been weaned and raised together. As adults,
hamsters are aggressive towards unfamiliar animals of their own
and the opposite sex when the new animal is introduced into
their group, with the exception being the female in heat. A female
in heat will usually be receptive to an unfamiliar male.1
Hamsters are very busy during their active period at night,
exhibiting wheel-running activity and will climb on the cage top
and through plastic tunnels (Figure 3). They are escape-prone
so the cage lid must fit securely or they will push their way out.
Hamsters will hoard food in their cheek pouches and at specific
sites within their cages.7

Anatomic and Physiologic Features of Hamsters

• Female breeding hamsters are more dominant, aggres-

sive, and larger in size than the male.
• The adult female is larger than the adult male.
• The vertebral formula is 7 cervical; 13 thoracic; 6 lum-
bar; 4 sacral; 13 to 14 caudal vertebrae.
• “Flank organs” are sebaceous glands that are located on
the hip region in both males and females.5 Flank organs
are responsive to androgens and become coarse, darkly
pigmented, and larger in males than in females. They
are used for territorial marking.6
2566 /ch01/frame Page 4 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

4 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 3. A hamster inside a PVC pipe fitting. Objects in the cage

that hamsters can climb in and through provide enrichment.

• Although not true hibernators, hamsters will begin to

gather food and enter into pseudohibernation as the days
shorten and the temperature decreases to 5°C to 15°C.7
• The dental formula is 2 (incisors 1/1, canines 0/0, pre-
molars 0/0, molars 3/3). Incisors and molars are open
rooted.
• The crowns of molars retain fine food, making hamsters
prone to dental caries. Males are more prone to caries
than females.
• The major salivary glands are the submaxillary, parotid
and sublingual glands. A smaller retrolingual gland is
associated with the submaxillary gland.
2566 /ch01/frame Page 5 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

important biological features 5

• Buccal cheek pouches (Figure 4) are located along the

lateral side of the head and neck region. They are used
to hoard and carry food. They are occasionally used for
tumor implant studies and are believed to be immuno-
logically protected.5 If startled, a female will hide her
young in her cheek pouches. The hamster's stomach is
compartmentalized into two distinct regions: the non-
glandular forestomach and the glandular stomach (Fig-
ure 5) The forestomach is lined with keratinized
epithelium, much like the forestomach of a ruminant,
has a higher pH than the glandular stomach, and con-
tains microflora and volatile fatty acids much like those
found in the rumen of sheep and cattle. The esophagus
empties into the forestomach. The glandular stomach is
similar to that found in monogastric animals.7

• The hamster has a single lobe on the left side of the

lungs and 4 lobes on the right side.

Fig. 4. An everted hamster cheek pouch. (Photo courtesy of

Dr. Susan Gibson, University of Southern Alabama.)
2566 /ch01/frame Page 6 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

6 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

• The hamster has small and fairly inaccessible superficial

veins, and no tail vein, making blood sampling difficult.
The hamster has an orbital venous sinus similar to the
mouse.
• Hamsters, like mice and rats, have muscle fibers anal-
ogous to the myocardium that extend into and along the
walls of the pulmonary vein.5

Fig. 5. Anatomy of the hamster stomach. The structures are

the esophagus (A), nonglandular forestomach (B), glandular
stomach (C), and the pyloric region of the stomach (D), which
empties into the small intestine.

gerbils
Origin of the Gerbil
Gerbils (see Figure 2) are found in desert and semi-arid
regions of the world, particularly northern Africa, India, south-
west and central Asia, northern China, Mongolia, and some
areas of Eastern Europe.8 The Mongolian gerbil, the most com-
mon species of gerbil used in research, originated from 20 pairs
of animals that were imported from eastern Mongolia to Japan,
of which 11 pairs were eventually imported into the United
States.9 The gerbil is frequently referred to as the sand rat, jird,
or desert rat. The name “jird” is often reserved for gerbils of the
genus Meriones, and most frequently used in reference to the
2566 /ch01/frame Page 7 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

important biological features 7

Mongolian gerbil. The Mongolian gerbil, like the hamster,

belongs to the order Rodentia, family Cridetidae. The Latin genus
species name for the Mongolian gerbil is Meriones unguicula-
tus.10

Gerbil Breeds
About 100 breeds of gerbils have been described,11 ranging
in size from that of a mouse to that of an adult Norway rat. As
mentioned previously, the most common gerbil used for research
is the Mongolian gerbil, Meriones unguiculatus. Other breeds
mentioned in gerbil fancier magazines, and occasionally the
scientific literature, include Meriones shawi, Meriones libycus,
Meriones persicus, Gerbillus amoenus, and Gerbillus pyramidum.

Gerbil Behavior
Gerbils are gentile and docile by nature,8 intensely curious,
will use plastic enrichment devices to climb on and play in
(Figure 6), and have a reputation for sticking their nose into

Fig. 6. Gerbils are intensely curious and, like hamsters, will

express their exploratory behavior and gain enrichment through
the addition of enrichment devices to their cage.
2566 /ch01/frame Page 8 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

8 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

everything. They live in colonies in their natural environment,

naturally burrow, and are known to constantly scratch the cage
floor with their front and hind paws. Gerbils have been known
to damage the floor of a plastic cage from their burrowing
behavior. Most gerbils are active throughout the 24-hour period,
with only slight differences during the dark phase.10 In the wild,
there is little activity during the cold nights of spring and fall.
Both sexes will naturally hoard food, with the female more prone
to hoarding than the male.
Gerbils will form a strong pair bond, mating for life and
breeding throughout the year.11 A harem mating setup of one
male to two females is often used by breeders in production
colonies.12 This pairing should be established after gerbil pups
are weaned but before puberty, which occurs at approximately
6 to 7 weeks of age.13 Gerbils that have been separated and
reunited after reaching sexual maturity will often fight. Intro-
duction of a new mating partner after one of the original partners
dies often leads to fighting and death of the new member.
Gerbils will greet one another by licking each others’ mouth,
are excellent jumpers, and thump with their hind limbs when
frightened. When they are ready to fight, they will push each
other with their heads and begin to box and wrestle.

Anatomic and Physiologic Features of Gerbils

• Gerbils will burrow through their bedding with their

noses. This may predispose them to a syndrome known
as “sore nose" (see Chapter 4).
• If gerbils are handled by the tip to middle of the tail,
they may slough their tail.
• Both sexes of gerbils will build a nest and care for the
young.
• The dental formula is 2 (incisors 1/1, canines 0/0, pre-
molars 0/0, molars 3/3).
• Both sexes of gerbils are prone to epileptiform seizures.
There are seizure-prone and seizure-resistant strains
available.
2566 /ch01/frame Page 9 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

important biological features 9

• Both male and female gerbils have a mid-ventral abdom-

inal sebaceous gland. The male sebaceous gland is twice
the size of the female’s gland, and may be mistaken for
a tumor. The male rubs this gland against objects to
mark his territory, a behavior that is androgen depen-
dent. Gerbils with a black coat color tend to mark terri-
tory more frequently than those with a brown coat.14
• After parturition the female will mark her territory and
become aggressive.
• The gerbil’s adrenal-to-body-weight ration is 3 to 4 times
that of the rat.15,16
• Approximately 40% of gerbils have an incomplete Circle
of Willis. As a result, ligation of one carotid artery will
result in a cerebral infarct on the side ipsilateral to the
ligation.17
• Gerbils are prone to dental caries and periodontal dis-
ease. The incidence of caries increases after 6 months
of age.
• Gerbils are used extensively in research involving aging,
audiology, dental disease, endocrinology, oncology,
nutrition, radiobiology, reproduction, infectious dis-
eases, and strokes.

normative values
Typical values are presented for basic biologic parameters
(Table 1), clinical chemistry (Table 2), cardiovascular and respi-
ratory function (Table 3), and hematology (Table 4). The values
are representative of those in the Syrian hamster and Mongolian
gerbil. The normative values found in the tables can vary signif-
icantly due to factors such as differences between individual
animals, breeds, age, sex, housing conditions, disease status,
laboratories, and sampling methods, therefore, these tables are
provided as guidelines. It is imperative that each laboratory
establish their own normal reference values. Values are pre-
sented as an average or a range from data given in References
1, 5, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25.
2566 /ch01/frame Page 10 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

10 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

TABLE 1. BASIC BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF THE HAMSTER AND GERBIL

Parameter Hamster Gerbil

Chromosome number 44 44
Life span (years) 1-3 2-5
No. mammary glands 6-11 pair 2 pairs: 1 thoracic,
1 inguina
Birth weight (g) 1-2 3-4
Mature body weight (g) 85-130 (M) 65-130 (M)
95-150 (F) 55-133 (F)
Body temperature (°C) 37-38.5 37-39
Dental formula 2(1/1, 0/0, 2 (1/1, 0/0,
0/0, 3/3) 0/0, 3/3)
Food intake (g/day) 10-14 5-7
Water intake (ml/day) 7-10 4-7
Urine volume (ml/day) 6 3-4
Diet peculiarities Feed on cage floor Prefer seeds to
hard food

TABLE 2. CLINICAL CHEMISTRY VALUES OF THE HAMSTER AND GERBIL

Parameter Hamster Gerbil

Total protein (g/dl) 4.3–7.7 4.3–12.5

Globulin (g/dl) 2.08–6.28 1.2–6.0
Albumin (g/dl) 2.63–4.10 1.8–5.5
Acid phosphatase (IU/L) 3.9–10.4 NV
Alkaline phosphatase (IU/L) 3.9–10.4 NV
LDH (IU/L) 148-412 NV
Aspartate aminotransferase (IU/L) 37.6–178 NV
Creatine kinase (IU/L) 0.50–1.90 NV
ALT (SGPT) (IU/L) 11.6-35.9 NV
Blood urea nitrogen (mg/dl) 15–33 17–32
Creatinine (mg/dl) 0.4–1.0 0.64–1.12
Glucose (mg/dl) 65–173 50–135
Sodium (meq/L) 106–146 143–157
Chloride (meq/L) 86–112 105
Calcium (mg/dl) 7.4–12.0 3.6–6.0
Magnesium (mg/dl) 1.9–3.5 NV
Potassium (meq/L) 4.0–5.9 3.9–5.2
Phosphorus (mg/dl) 3.4–8.24 3.7–7.1
Total bilirubin (mg/dl) 0.2–.74 1.3–2.5
Uric acid (mg/dl) 1.8–5.0 1.1–2.8
Amylase (IU/L) 120–250 NV
Serum lipids (mg/dl) 223–466 NV
Phospholipids (mg/dl) 132–190 NV
Triglycerides (mg/dl) 72–227 NV
Cholesterol (mg/dl) 112–210 90–151
2566 /ch01/frame Page 11 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

important biological features 11

TABLE 3. CARDIOVASCULAR AND RESPIRATORY FUNCTION OF THE

HAMSTER AND GERBIL
Parameter Hamster Gerbil

Respiratory rate (breaths/min) 74 ave., 33–127 70–120

Heart rate (beats/min) 332 ave., 360 ave.
286–400 260–600
Tidal volume (ml) 0.6–1.4 NV
paO2 (mmHg) 67–77 NV
paCO2 (torr) 38.5–43–5 NV
HCO3- (mmol/L) 27–33 NV
Arterial blood pH 7.45–7.51 NV
Venous blood pH 7.33–7.39 NV

TABLE 4. HEMATOLOGICAL VALUES OF THE HAMSTER AND GERBIL

Parameter Hamster Gerbil

Packed cell volume (%) 39–59 44–49

Red blood cells (106/ul) 7.2 ave., 4–10 7–10
White blood cells (103/ul) 6.5–10.6 7.3–15.4
Hemoglobin (g/dl) 13–19 13–16
Neutrophils (%) 1.9–3.1 1.3–5.2
Lymphocytes (%) 4.4–7.2 5.1–11.8
Eosinophils (%) 0.0–.10 0.07–0.32
Basophils (%) 0.0–1.2 0.1–0.28
Monocytes (%) 0.4–4.4 0.03–0.25
Reticulocytes (%) 1.3–3.7 2.0-5.4
MCV (fl) 64–76 NV
MCHC (%) 28-37 NV
MCH (pg) 20–26 NV
Blood volume (ml/kg) 65–80 60–85

NV = No value found
2566 /ch01/frame Page 12 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:12 PM

notes
2566 /ch02/frame Page 13 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:30 PM

2
husbandry

The well-being of all laboratory animals is inseparably linked

to the quality of management of the physical environment in
the animal facility. Critical areas of concern include the animal’s
macro- and microenvironment, nutrition, sanitation, and mini-
mization of factors which predispose the animal to disease and
injury.

housing
The term macroenvironment refers to the environment within
the room surrounding the microenvironment. The term microen-
vironment refers to the internal environment of the cage the
animal is housed in. The physical environment within the
microenvironment includes the intracage temperature, humid-
ity, air exchange rate, ammonia and carbon dioxide concentra-
tions, and illumination level. The components of the
microenvironment will differ with changes in the type of cage
provided to the animal (e.g., solid bottom with an open top and
wire lid versus the same housing with a microisolator lid). For
example, changes in the ventilation rate within the room can
affect the humidity within the animal’s cage.26 The ability for
air to be exchanged through the open lid will be greater than
that when a microisolator lid is used.

13
2566 /ch02/frame Page 14 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:30 PM

14 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Macroenvironment Considerations
room construction features
Hamsters and gerbils can be housed in animal rooms
designed for rats and mice. As with any animal room, those
housing hamsters and gerbils should be located in an area that
has minimal noise. The room should have a close proximity to
support areas associated with the research project that the
animal is used in. This minimizes the need to transport the
animals long distances to perform procedures.

• Doors to the animal room should be designed to prevent

both the entry of vermin into the room and the exit of
escaped animals out of the room. A self-closing door with
a door sweep will prevent an escaped animal from leaving
the room. The Guide for the Care and Use Of Laboratory
Animals (the “Guide”) 27 recommends that doors be 42
in. wide by 84 in. high, thus allowing easy movement of
equipment into the room. The door should also be fin-
ished with a material that prevents and resists corrosion.
Door jamb guards and 3/4 in. high kick plates are very
helpful in preventing damage to doors. Cage bumper
guards also assist in the protection of doors.
• Exterior windows are often considered undesirable
because they may introduce additional light, which
makes it difficult to control the temperature and the
photoperiod in the room.
• Floors and walls should sealed with a water-repellant
material that leaves the surface pinhole-free, minimizing
areas to harbor bacteria. Walls are often painted with
epoxy paint to achieve this effect. The floor and wall
surfaces should also be nonabsorbent, impact-resistant,
and resistant to deterioration from detergents, disinfec-
tants, urine, and other materials that may contact them.
Generally, floors should be smooth, allowing equipment
to roll freely, and they should support the equipment
and racks rolled across them without cracking. Com-
monly used flooring materials include urethanes;
epoxies; sheet vinyl; acrylics such as methylmethacry-
late; quarry tile; and sealed, hardened concrete. In a wet
2566 /ch02/frame Page 15 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:30 PM

husbandry 15

environment, the floor should be textured to avoid slip-

page, and should slope towards the drain. The slope
should not cause racks to tip when being moved into the
room, or to rest in an unleveled position after being
placed in the room. Wall materials should be impact-
resistant, and may include a bumper guard or rail, corner
guards, and base cants to prevent damage from equip-
ment. Commonly used materials include concrete block,
gypsum wallboard, tile, or cement board. The wall sur-
face is often coated with epoxy paint. All cracks, crevices,
and joints should be sealed on all floors and walls.
• Junctions where the floor meets the wall and wall meets
the ceiling should be sealed to prevent accumulation of
dirt and debris. Consideration should be given to using
a sealant or caulk that prevents the growth of bacteria
and fungi.
• Ceilings should be smooth and coated with a material
that withstands deterioration from detergents, disinfec-
tants and other materials that may contact the surface.
Typical ceiling finishes include gypsum wall board, fiber-
glass reinforced panels, and mylar-coated panels or a
ceiling grid system comprised of fiberglass, baked
enamel, stainless steel, or aluminum panels.
• Environmental control parameters will be covered in
more detail later in this chapter. The room environment
should be closely controlled and monitored so as to
prevent fluctuations in the temperature, humidity, the
light cycle, ammonia concentrations, and the hourly rate
of air exchanges.

Microenvironment/ Caging Considerations

The microenvironment (primary enclosure) should conform to
the following requirements: 27,28 it should be secure, structurally
sound, free of sharp edges, and in good repair, thereby protecting
the animal from injury and accidents. Wire-mesh floors,
although not encouraged by the Guide, when used must allow
feces to pass through, but protect the animals’ feet and append-
ages from injury; animals must be able to maintain normal body
temperature, remain clean and dry and have access to food and
2566 /ch02/frame Page 16 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:30 PM

16 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 7. Assortment of multiple caging used for hamsters and

gerbils. Both solid-bottom and wire-bottom cages are shown

water; the enclosure must allow for easy observation of the

animals; and, the enclosure must allow animals to make normal
movements and postural adjustments (Figures 7 to 10).

cage size standards

Hamster cage size specifications are included in both the
Regulations of the Animal Welfare Act,28 and the Guide.27 Since
the caging specifications differ between these two publications,
it is important to recognize that the caging standards listed in
the Animal Welfare Act are regulations set by the Federal Gov-
ernment (Tables 5 and 6).
Gerbil caging standards are not provided in either of the above
references. Gerbils are typically housed in plastic or metal cages
(see Figures 7 to 10) used for hamsters, mice, or rats. Solid
flooring with bedding is preferred by gerbils. A plastic aquarium
may also be used. Mature gerbils 12 weeks of age and older
should receive 36 square inches of floor space per animal, while
180 square inches of floor space is sufficient for a breeding
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husbandry 17

Fig. 8. When hamsters are placed in wire-bottom cages, the

spacing of the wires must be narrow enough so that their feet
do not pass through and become injured.

Fig. 9. Typical shelf rack containing solid-bottom cages and an

automatic watering system.
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18 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 10. Typical shelf rack containing wire-bottom cages and

an automatic watering system. The unit shown is mechanically
ventilated with self-contained intake and exhaust units.

pair.29 A smaller cage may inhibit breeding. Since gerbils often

sit up on their hind feet, the cage height provided to rats of
7 inches of internal height is adequate for an adult breeding
pair.15 Because gerbils are burrowing animals, wood chips, corn-
cobs, cellulose-based bedding, sand, or wood pulp provides good
bedding. Pine shavings or saw dust are not recommended
because the fur will become greasy and will mat.

cage materials and design

Caging used to house other laboratory rodents are not accept-
able for hamsters and gerbils unless they are escape-proof, and
constructed of a material (e.g., polycarbonate, stainless steel)
that prevents the hamster from gnawing through (Figure 11).
Likewise, overhead sipper tubes used for rats and mice are often
too high for weanling and suckling hamsters to reach.7
Extended-length sipper tubes or automatic watering systems
should be used in these instances.
Caging materials should be designed to be smooth and imper-
vious to moisture and liquids, corrosion resistant, withstand
deterioration during decontamination and provide adequate floor
support for the animals housed within the enclosure. Although
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husbandry 19

TABLE 5. MINIMUM CAGING REQUIREMENTS FOR HAMSTERSa

b
Minimum Space
Age in per Hamster, in2 Max. Population Interior
weeks Dwarf Other per Enclosure Height, in2

up to 5 5 10 20 c 5–5 1/2
5–10 7.5 12.5 16 "
>10 9 15 13 "

a Regulations of the Animal Welfare Act 28 for primary enclosures

acquired before August 15, 1990.

b A nursing female with her litter must be housed in a primary

enclosure which provides at least 121 square inches of floor
space, provided, however, that in the case of Dwarf hamsters the
floor space is at least 25 square inches.

c The cage interior height is a minimum of 5 1/2 inches, except

for Dwarf hamsters, in which case it must be a minimum height
of 5 inches.

TABLE 6. CAGING SIZE GUIDELINES FOR HAMSTERSa

Floor Area Required per Interior Cage
Body Weight, g Hamster, in2 (cm2) Height, in2

<60 10 (64.5) 6
60–80 13 (83.9) 6
81–100 16 (103.2) 6
>100 19 (122.6) 6

a Summarized from the Guide for the Care and Use of Labo-
ratory Animals 27 and the Animal Welfare Act.28 These space
requirements apply to primary enclosures acquired after
Agust 15, 1990.

stainless-steel wire-bottom cages are often used, hamsters and

gerbils prefer solid-bottom cages with contact bedding.7,29,30 As
mentioned before, hamsters have the ability to flatten their
bodies and squeeze out of small spaces, and gerbils like to
burrow and push with their face. Therefore, the cage lid of solid-
bottom cages must secure firmly to the cage side to prevent
escape. For wire-bottom cages, the juncture of the walls to the
top of the cage must fit snugly to prevent animals from escaping.
2566 /ch02/frame Page 20 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:30 PM

20 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 11. Escape-proof caging is required for hamsters and

gerbils. Note that the lid locks down on this cage. This cage also
contains a cage card, water bottle, and enrichment tubing

Solid-bottom caging with contact bedding, although more

labor intensive to maintain, is a more natural environment for
hamsters and gerbils. They instinctively burrow, grow more
rapidly, and experience fewer stress-related deaths than animals
housed in wire-bottom cages. The addition of tissues or cotton
bedding material will also improve litter yields for hamsters.31
If laboratory gerbils are exposed to a naturalistic environment
containing items such as stones, sand, and a water dish, they
will find food, rear up, mark their cage, and move about more
freely.29 Gerbils are known to damage cage flooring by constantly
scratching the surface with their front paws.
Stainless-steel cages, when provided with a solid back and
sides and a wire-mesh front, will allow hamsters to seek their
own level of privacy in the darker corners of the cage. Hamsters
on wire floors exhibit greater hoarding behavior and spend less
time gnawing than solid-bottom housed animals.30
As mentioned before, the wire-mesh floor should have open-
ings large enough to allow feces to pass through, while prevent-
ing the animals’ feet and appendages from falling through and
becoming injured. The gauge of wire used and width of mesh is
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husbandry 21

often the same as that used for rats. It is important to note that
hamsters have a tendency to sleep in piles. If wire-bottom cages
are used, the gauge of the mesh should be sufficient to support
the animal’s weight without collapsing. Suspended cages are
not acceptable in a breeding colony, or for mothers with a litter
because the pups may fall through, and they may also develop
hypothermia and die.31
Hamsters and gerbils adapt easily to automatic watering as
well as water bottles. Since hamsters go to great extremes to
remove food from overhead feeders, feed may be put on the floor.28

Environmental Conditions
The animal housing environment should be controlled to
minimize variations in the temperature, humidity, and lighting
levels. Otherwise, variations in these parameters may introduce
unwanted variables into an experiment. Performance of the
heating, cooling, ventilation, humidity, and lighting systems can
be monitored through the use of a hand-held meter (Figure 12),
physical room check for light activation and deactivation, or
continuously for all three parameters through a centralized
monitoring system.
The laboratory hamster is derived from a desert environment
and the gerbil from a semi-arid environment, thus both adapt
fairly well to the laboratory environment. In general, it can be
said that the environmental conditions acceptable for rats and
mice can be applied to hamsters and gerbils. Since hamsters
are natural hibernators, entering hibernation at approximately
5°C, they adapt more easily to cold temperatures than warm
temperatures.31 Adult hamsters and gerbils are usually main-
tained at 18 to 29°C, and young at 22 to 24°C.27,29 Hamsters
will enter a daylight sleep and can be difficult to arouse at higher
temperatures,31 and will become heat stressed at 34°C and begin
dying at 36°C.29 Since hamsters are more active during the dark
cycle, caution should always be used when arousing a hamster
sleeping during the day. They have a tendency to be aggressive
when awakened. In contrast, gerbils housed in a laboratory
environment usually show activity throughout the 24-hour
period, with only slight differences during the dark phase of the
light cycle.10
For both hamsters and gerbils, relative humidity should range
between 30 to 70%.27 The light cycle is most frequently set at
2566 /ch02/frame Page 22 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:30 PM

22 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 12. A hand-held temperature and humidity monitoring

device can be used to measure the environmental parameters
within the animal facility. This piece of equipment, as with other
monitoring devices used within the animal facility, should be
calibrated within a scheduled interval.

12 :12 lights on : lights off cycle. For hamsters, a 14 :10 on : off

cycle is optimal for breeding colonies.29 An excessively longer or
shorter light cycle than what is recommended above will lead
to infertility.29
Noise should be kept at a minimum within the animal room.
Female hamsters with litters are particularly irritable, and sud-
den noises or disturbances will promote this behavior.31 Both
male and female gerbils may experience epileptiform seizures,
characterized by convulsions and prostration lasting several
minutes, in response to sudden noise.10

environmental enrichment
Hamsters are most active at night, although they will exhibit
brief periods of activity during the daytime. During the daylight
hours, they will seek the darkest area of the cage and sleep in
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husbandry 23

Fig. 13. Enrichment devices such as PCV tubing, feeders,

balls, and cotton nesting material may be added to the cage.

piles. Hamsters enjoy exercise wheels and others toys such as

small boxes, plastic or cardboard tubing, tin cans, and other
objects which they can climb into and on (Figure 13). Whatever
type of enrichment device is added to their environment, it
should be non-toxic and sanitizable.
Gerbils are usually housed in pairs after sexual maturity. If
they have been separated from one another for a period of time,
or have been individually housed, they will fight when a pair
bond or group housing is set up. This may be avoided by placing
the gerbils in a neutral cage at the time the cage is changed,
providing areas for newly introduced animals to hide (a cup,
metal dish, etc.), or by forming the pair bond at approximately
10 weeks of age.15 Gerbils, being natural burrowers, benefit from
an environment that includes stones, sand, and other forms of
bedding, as well as enrichment devices as described above for
hamsters. Gerbils are very aggressive chewers and will destroy
enrichment devices quickly.
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24 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

nutrition
Hamsters. Although the hamster diet should be capable of
supporting growth, reproduction, lactation, and adult mainte-
nance, there is little information on the nutrient requirements
for the hamster when compared to other laboratory rodents.1 In
the wild, hamsters are omnivorous, existing on fruit and plants.7
Within the laboratory setting, hamsters are usually fed a pelleted
rodent diet intended for rats and mice (Figure 14). Supplement-
ing the diet with fruits and vegetables should not be necessary
if the laboratory diet is of high quality. In addition, providing
fruits and vegetables may be contraindicated as this may be a
route of exposure to unwanted bacteria or other contaminants.
Food should be stored properly at temperatures recommended
by the manufacturer, with strict adherence to recommended
shelf life. The storage area should be clean, uncluttered, and
regularly sanitized (see Figure 15).

Fig. 14. Both natural and manufactured food products are

commonly given to hamsters and gerbils. Natural food products
often provide a source of both nutrition and water.
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husbandry 25

Fig. 15. Food storage should occur in a dedicated feed storage

area. The food should be stored off the floor and the area should
be sanitized regularly. The temperature and humidity should be
set at a level that will maximize the shelf life and reduce spoilage
of food, especially fresh fruits and vegetables.

The presence of the forestomach in the hamster is considered

by some to be similar in function to that of a cow’s rumen. This
anatomical feature has created discussion on proper hamster
nutrition,32 with some authors speculating that a lower quality
diet may be provided due to the hamsters’ increased capacity
to digest roughage. Nutrient levels for the hamster diet are
usually found to be within the following range of formulation:
crude protein of 17 to 23%; crude fat of approximately 4.5%;
and crude fiber of 6 to 8.0%.1,29 Of critical importance in the
hamster diet is vitamin E. Failure to provide adequate vitamin
E can result in deaths of fetuses and muscular dystrophy in
weanlings.29,31
Hamsters begin to gnaw on pelleted food around 7 to 10
days of age, and as adults will eat around 7 to 15 grams of
2566 /ch02/frame Page 26 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:30 PM

26 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

food per day and drink up to 10 ml of water/100 g body weight

per day.29 Food consumption is at the higher end of the scale
in pregnant and lactating females. Lactating females also
require increased water intake, otherwise milk production will
decrease and the young will starve.7 Hamsters are hoarding
animals and will remove all the feed from a feeder and deposit
it around the cage and in their cheek pouches. Due to this
behavior, it is acceptable to place pelleted food on the floor of
the hamster cage.28
Gerbils. Although little is known about the nutritional
requirements of gerbils, they are known to be grainivorous or
herbivorous. The recommended diet is a pelleted rodent chow
providing 16 to 20% protein, fed ad libitum (gerbils eat approx-
imately 8 times per day) in a feed bowl, dish, or hopper,15,29,33
Their diet is often supplemented/enriched with a mixture of
seeds, vegetables, and grains (Figure 16), although such food-
stuffs are not nutritionally complete and should only be provided
as a treat. Young gerbils begin eating at around 2 weeks of age,
and may have difficulty getting to food if the food bowl is too
high; it may be necessary to provide some food on the cage floor.
Adult gerbils will consume 5 to 8 grams of food per day.15,29

Fig 16. Natural food provides a source of nutrition, water, and

enrichment.
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husbandry 27

Gerbils are not coprophagic when fed a commercially available

rodent diet ad libitum. However, they may become coprophagic
when fed a nutritionally incomplete diet.33
Although in the natural environment gerbils obtain most of
their water from their diet, in the laboratory the pelleted chow
provides very little moisture. Therefore, adult gerbils housed in
a laboratory environment must be provided with a continuous
supply of clean water (see Figure 17), and will drink 4 to 7 ml
water daily.

Fig. 17. When using an automatic watering system, the water

line must be flushed when the rack is initially hooked up. This
flushes all the air out of the system, ensuring that fresh water
is distributed throughout the system.

cage sanitation practices

The goal of cage sanitation is to maintain the animals’ living
conditions at the highest level possible in order to promote opti-
mal health and well being. There are three critical components
of sanitation for the animal’s primary enclosure: changes in
bedding and water bottles, cage changes, and cage disinfection.
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28 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Cage Cleaning Frequency

For animals housed in solid-bottom cages, bedding changes
are needed to separate the animal from exposure to feces and
urine that build up in the cage. In addition, fresh bedding
provides new, clean material to keep the animals clean and dry.
Types of bedding used in solid-bottom cages include purified
wood pulp, chopped corncob, hardwood, cellulose fiber (ham-
sters and gerbils), and sand (gerbil) (Figure 18). As discussed
with food, bedding should be stored properly in an area that is
clean, uncluttered and regularly sanitized (Figure 19).
Typically, with solid-bottom caging, the entire cage unit is
changed when the bedding is changed. With suspended wire-
bottom caging, the pan below the cage, which may or may not
contain bedding, is changed more frequently that the actual
cage itself. Water bottles and feed hoppers should be changed
at a frequency that provides animals with fresh clean water and
food at all times.
The frequency of cage sanitation is dependent on the fre-
quency of bedding changes, the type of cage used (solid-bottom
versus wire bottom), and the density of animals within the cage.

Fig. 18. A variety of contact bedding materials are used for

hamsters and gerbils including (clockwise from bottom left):
manufactured cellulose cubes, wood pulp, hardwood chips,
corncob, and sand (center).
2566 /ch02/frame Page 29 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:30 PM

husbandry 29

Fig. 19. Bedding, like feed, should be stored off the floor in a
room that is on a regular sanitation schedule.

Usually the primary enclosure and accessories (wire lids, water

bottles, cage rack, and automatic watering system) should be
sanitized at least every 14 days. The veterinarian or Institutional
Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) should approve excep-
tions to this frequency.
Although professional judgment is required in establishing
the frequency of cage/bedding and water bottle changes, a typi-
cal schedule would include 1 to 2 cage changes of each per week
when solid-bottom cages are used. This frequency may increase
or decrease, depending on the number of animals housed in a
primary enclosure, the size of the primary enclosure, or other
reasons, such as not wanting to disturb a female near parturi-
tion. For animals housed in wire-bottom cages, urine and feces
drop through to the litter pan below the cage, and water is often
supplied through an automatic watering system. Under these
conditions, the noncontact bedding is often changed 1 to 3 times
per week, again depending on the housing density of the cage.
The cages and racks are usually changed every 14 days.
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30 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Special Circumstances
During prepartum, postpartum, and breeding periods, fre-
quent cage and bedding changes may be contraindicated. Pher-
omones necessary for breeding may be removed during the
cleaning process and alter breeding results.27 Similarly, disturb-
ing the female during pre- and postpartum intervals may disturb
her to a point where she may injure her pups.

Methods of Cage Sanitation

Cage sanitation can be broken down into 3 or 4 phases, and
it is helpful if the workflow and cage wash are designed or
organized to complement these phases.
Phase 1: Cage disassembly and prewash, removes gross con-
tamination from the cage. Solid-bottom cages are dumped and
bedding that is adhering to the cage is scraped free. A bedding
dump station should be used to minimize exposure of the per-
sonnel to the soiled bedding. Caging prewash, may be used to
pretreat cages prior to washing. For example, cages may be
hosed down prior to washing. Those cages with a urine mineral
deposit may be treated with a commercially available acidic
detergent to soak and remove the scale prior to washing.Auto-
matic watering systems are also fulshed at this time.
Phase 2: Cage washing is used to disinfect the cage. This may
be done with hot water, chemical disinfectants, or a combination
of the two, provided the conditions for temperature and time
will kill many the organisms on the caging. The recommended
water temperature for washing cages is 143 to 180oF.27 Although
hot water may be used alone, the most common method for cage
cleaning is to combine hot water with a detergent to disinfect
the cage. Detergents, which can withstand high temperatures,
must be specifically requested. It is important to note that water
bottles, sipper tubes, feeders, and other accessories must be
washed using the same conditions. Likewise, when automatic
watering systems are used, the watering system should be dis-
infected during the washing period. A hyperchlorinated flush is
often used for this purpose, after the cage rack itself has been
washed.
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husbandry 31

Phase 3: Cage reassembly, takes place after the cage and

accessories have been washed. Clean fresh bedding is placed
into the solid-bottom cage, or in the litter pan below the wire-
bottom cage, the lids and feeders (where appropriate) are placed
on the cage, and the cages are ready to return to service. If
phases 1 and 2 are performed correctly, the cages have been
disinfected when they enter phase 3 of the cleaning cycle.
Phase 4: Cage sterilization, is used in instances where patho-
logic organisms are known to be present, in animals with strictly
regulated microbiological flora, or when sterile supplies are
required for entry into the animal room (e.g., immunocompro-
mised animals). An autoclave is used to sterilize caging.
Hand cage cleaning may be used throughout all phases to
disinfect cages. The primary concerns when using hand cleaning
are that you must be sure to clean all areas of the cage, rinse
residual detergent/disinfectants from the cage, and take pre-
cautions to protect yourself from exposure to the chemicals and
hot water used. Usually hand cleaning involves scrubbing the
cage with brushes, or using a high-pressure system to spray
the caging with heated water (water and detergent, followed by
a water rinse) or steam.
Automated cage cleaning is a more reliable and consistent
method for washing caging materials and accessories. The cage
rack washer (see Figure 20) can be programmed to dispense the
appropriate detergents and disinfectants during the wash cycle
(e.g., acid detergents to remove urine scale), and the cycle itself
can be programmed to control the length of time spent in a cage
prewash, wash and final rinse. In addition, automated cage
washing provides a consistent wash cycle, and can be pro-
grammed to guarantee that the wash cycle meets the 143 to
180°F requirement. After washing the shelf rack of cages, the
automatic watering system manifold should be flushed out with
a chlorinated rack manifold flushing system (see Figure 19
and 21). Recoil hoses used in automatic watering systems must
also be disinfected on a regular basis, usually every 14 days. A
chlorinated recoil hose flushing station similar to those used to
flush the rack water manifold is very effective in disinfecting the
recoil hose.
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32 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 20. A modern cage wash facility will often contain a

automatic bottle washer (left) and tunnel rack washer (right).

Fig. 21. The rack manifold flushing station is used to flush

the automatic watering system with hyperchlorinated water after
the rack exits from the tunnel washing machine.
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husbandry 33

animal room sanitation

The animal room cleaning utensils (mop, dustpan and broom)
should be assigned to an area and not be transported between
areas of different contamination risks.27 Ideally, each animal
room should have it’s own cleaning utensils. Animal room san-
itation may be performed at several different intervals, depend-
ing on the species of animal housed in the room, the population
density and disease status of the animals within the room, the
dress code for entering the room, the types of procedures per-
mitted in the room and the traffic within the room. A typical
schedule may include daily sweeping, daily or weekly mopping
(or more often as necessary) with a detergent disinfectant
solution, and a scheduled room breakdown for thorough clean-
ing and disinfection monthly or quarterly. The daily sweeping
is designed to remove gross debris that have accumulated on
the floor (see Figure 22). Mopping with a detergent disinfectant
is intended to remove debris, which may become ground into

Fig. 22. Animal rooms should be cleaned daily. Personnel

should wear protective apparel that will prevent exposure to the
cleaning agents.
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34 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 23. A check-off log is useful to have on the door of each

animal room. This log allows you to see at a glance if all pro-
cedures within the room have been completed, as well as pro-
viding documentation of what has occurred in the room.

the floor, and to control the level of bacteria present on the floor.
It is good practice to autoclave mop heads after each use,
otherwise the mop head can become the source to harbor micro-
organisms from one day to the next. Room break down is
designed to periodically disassemble the entire room, disinfect
floors, walls and ceilings, and perform any repairs that may not
be possible at other times.
In order to keep track of sanitation procedures, it may be
helpful to create a room checkoff sheet and post it outside each
animal room. This form will serve as a reminder of the proce-
dures to be followed, and document those that were performed
on a daily basis (see Figure 23).
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husbandry 35

sanitation quality control

The practices employed within your facility should be monitored
to ensure that your sanitation procedures are achieving the
desired effect, and that equipment is operating properly (see
Figure 24).
Animal room and cage surfaces, water bottles, sipper tubes,
and other accessories can be cultured and evaluated for micro-
biological contamination. Cultures of flat surfaces using RODAC
plates (see Figure 24), and cultures of air samples, water sam-
ples, and swabs of hard-to-reach places (inside sipper tubes,
corners of cages, ceiling and wall junctures) within the room or
on the cage may be used to identify the sanitation levels that
are present before and after cleaning. These results will also
assist in establishing sanitation frequency. Likewise, cage wash-

Fig. 24. A variety of sanitation supplies are used to sanitize

the animal room. In addition, the room is often monitored with
glue traps for the presence of vermin. Bacterial cultures may
be taken of the room surfaces after sanitizing to ensure that
standards are achieved.
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36 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 25. Heat-sensitive temperature strips are attached to cage

surfaces as a quality assurance check of the washing proce-
dures. They will allow you to determine at a glance if the cage
surface has reached 180°F during the cleaning cycle. The strip
turns black (bottom strip) when the correct temperature is
reached.

ing equipment can be monitored with temperature indicator

strips (see Figure 25) or temperature chart recorders to provide
documentation that the wash temperature has been achieved.
Automated soap dispensers may be used to determine that the
detergent disinfectant is being added to the wash cycle properly.
Temperature guarantees can be designed into the cage wash
cycle, ensuring that the cagewasher will not advance through
the cycle if a minimum temperature is not reached.

transportation
When hamsters and gerbils must be transported between facil-
ities or institutions, it is critical to ensure that they are ade-
quately packed and protected during the process. In the United
States, specific requirements for transportation of hamsters are
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husbandry 37

outlined in the Animal Welfare Act regulations,28 and should be

reviewed; see Table 7). Since there are no specific requirements
for transportation of gerbils, those outlined for the hamster
should be applied.
Pre-Shipment Evaluation. All animals that are scheduled
for shipment should be evaluated by a trained technician or
veterinarian to ensure that they are in good health and will
survive the shipping procedure without minimal risk to their
well being. The pre-shipment evaluation may also include com-
pleting a health evaluation of the animal room, including
screening sentinels for serologic or microbiologic evidence of
diseases. Results of the most recent evaluation of the colony of
animals should be provided to the recipient prior to shipping
the animls.

TABLE 7. SHIPPING STANDARDS FOR HAMSTERSa

Age Dwarf, in2 Other, in2

Weaning to 5 weeks 5.0 70

5 to 10 weeks 7.5 11
Over 10 9.0 15

a Regulations of the Animal Welfare Act.28

Shipping Containers. The shipping container (Figure 26)

used to transport a live hamster or gerbil should be clean, and
preferably sterile. The shipping container should be constructed
in a manner that prevents escape, is free from protrusions or
sharp edges that can injure the animal, and should withstand
stacking during transportation. If necessary, the inner surface
should be covered with a fine wire mesh screen to prevent the
animals from gnawing through or escaping. Ventilation openings
and projections on the outside which create a space between
stacked containers and allow for air flow should comply with
the specific requirements outlined in the Animal Welfare Act
Regulations.28
The interior height of the primary enclosure of the hamster
transport box must be at least 6 inches, except for dwarf ham-
sters, in which case it must be at least 5 inches high.28 The
minimum amount of floor space for hamsters is:
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38 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 26. Filtered shipping containers are used to transport

animals. Processed or natural foods may be added to the
container. Natural foods have an advantage over processed foods
in that they provide animals with a source of both nutrition and
water while they are in transit. Water may also be provided with
water packs and through the use of gel packs.

Gerbils in transport should be provided with a primary enclo-

sure floor space recommended above for housing animals,
including an interior height of 6 inches.
Food and Water. Depending on how long the animals are to
be transported, the need for food and water may vary. Animals
which are transported for a period greater than 6 hours must
be provided with food and water.28 When this is necessary, the
quantity and quality of food and water must be sufficient to
satisfy the animals needs throughout the duration of transport.
Vegetables are often given to animals to provide a single source
for both nutrition and water. Standard rodent chow mixed with
water, or shipping containers containing water dispensers or
water gel packs are also commonly used.
Observation. During surface transportation, hamsters must
be observed at least every 4 hours to assure that they are
receiving adequate ventilation, their ambient temperature is
within the prescribed limits, and that they are not in any obvious
distress. Any finding that results in stress to the animal must
be resolved. Animals that develop a health problem must be
2566 /ch02/frame Page 39 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

husbandry 39

treated. Shipping containers with observation windows built into

them are useful for this purpose.
When hamsters are air-shipped, they must be observed at
least every four hours if the cargo space is accessible. Otherwise,
they must be observed when they are loaded and unloaded.28
Compatibility. If several animals are transported in the
same container they should be of the same species and com-
patible. Compatible groups should be established prior to ship-
ping the animals. This is particularly true for adult hamsters
and gerbils, otherwise they will fight if they are not familiar with
their cage mates.
Environment. The environment to which the animal is
exposed during shipping must be maintained carefully. Space
between boxes must be provided to allow for good ventilation
when stacking of boxes occurs. Large fluctuations in tempera-
ture, and temperature extremes must be avoided. Hamsters
must be shipped in an environment that is maintained at 45 to
85°F unless the animals have been acclimated to lower temper-
atures. It is important to remember that since hamsters are
natural hibernators, entering hibernation at ~41°F.31 they more
easily adapt to cold temperatures than to warm temperatures.

animal receipt
Since hamsters and gerbils may contract a variety of diseases
that could alter the validity of research results, the purchase of
only specific pathogen-free (SPF) hamsters and gerbils is
strongly encouraged. Vendors should be asked to supply recently
obtained information regarding the health status of their ham-
ster and gerbil colonies prior to your purchase. Upon receipt, the
shipping containers should be disinfected (use a detergent dis-
infectant such as a quaternary ammonium a chlorine based liq-
uid misted on the outer portions of the shipping container) prior
to unpacking the animals (see Figure 27). Extreme care must be
used so that the animals do not come in contact with the disin-
fectant. Once the box has been sprayed, and sufficient time has
passed for agent to disinfect the container (typically 10 to 15
minutes), the animals should then be assessed to assure that the
animals meet the specification of the order (e.g., they are the
correct age, weight, sex, stock or strain).
2566 /ch02/frame Page 40 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

40 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 27. Shipping containers should be disinfected at the time

of receipt. This will decrease the likelihood of exposing animals
to unknown contaminants during unpacking. A fresh mixture
of 10% bleach solution is often used to disinfect the outside of
the container.

record keeping
The availability of records on animals within the facility, room
census, and work records for the facility itself are a key com-
ponent to animal husbandry. Identification of original supplier
of the animal, order requisition number, breeding area of origin
at the vendor, the birth date, sex and age of the animal, the
protocol to which the animal is assigned, and the investigators
name minimize the chance of an individual using an animal
that was not assigned to them (see Figure 28). For hamsters,
the easiest way to accomplish this level of identification is to
create a cage card and appropriately label it with the above
information.
With respect to individual identification of animals within a
cage, ear tags, implantable (subcutaneous) electronic micro-
chips, and temporary identification numbers are often used. The
facility veterinarian or manager should be consulted on where
2566 /ch02/frame Page 41 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

husbandry 41

Fig. 28. Record keeping is an important factor in caring for

animals. The cage card on the left contains important
information on the source, age, sex, and delivery of the animals
within the cage. The medical forms shown are used to document
procedures and treatments that have occurred.

to obtain these devices and how to use them. Some forms and
records used within the animal facility are described below.

Health Records
Any medical problem encountered with an animal should be
reported in a timely manner to the veterinary staff. Once
reported, health records should be maintained on the animal
or group of animals receiving medical treatment. The records
should include the animal’s identification, a description of the
medical problem, diagnostic procedures, treatment(s) and the
outcome. The possibility of the medical problem being related
to experimental treatments must always be considered, and any
proposed treatment should be discussed with the investigator
prior to proceeding.

Census
Room census should be taken at specific intervals (typically
monthly) in order manage the husbandry aspects of the animal
facility. The staffing required for maintaining a room, the amount
of food and bedding required for the animals, the frequency of
2566 /ch02/frame Page 42 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

42 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 29. Animals may be identified with both temporary and

permanent methods which may include (clockwise) ear tags
(bottom center), subcutaneous transponder implants (they
require one of the readers shown in the upper left), a cage card,
and a permanent marker (indelible ink).

room break down and cleaning, and required caging depends

on the room census. Room census cards are often stored within
the animal room or in the animal facility supervisor’s office.

Work Records
An animal room should be looked at as one would any other
piece of equipment within the facility. In order to know the
condition and history of an animal room, complete records
should be maintained on the room husbandry procedures that
occur in the room. In order to keep track of room upkeep and
sanitation procedures, it is helpful to create a room checkoff
sheet and post it outside each animal room (See Figure 23). This
form will serve as a reminder of the procedures to be followed,
and document those that were performed on a daily basis (e.g.,
animal health checks, feeding, watering, temperature and
humidity checks) through a check off system and initials of the
person conducting the work. It also provides an excellent his-
torical record for events that occur within the animal room.
2566 /ch02/frame Page 43 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

husbandry 43

breeding
Normative reproductive values of hamsters and gerbils are
listed in Table 8. High-quality hamsters and gerbils are available
from commercial breeders (see Chapter 6), or they can be bred
without much difficulty.

TABLE 8. REPRODUCTIVE VALUES OF THE HAMSTER AND GERBIL

Parameters Syrian Hamster Gerbila

Breeding age/weight (F) 56 days/90–110 g 65–85 days

Breeding age/weight (M) 63 days/100–120 g 75–85 days
Estrous cycle (days) 4, polyestrous 4–6, 4 ave.,
polyestrous
Duration of estrus (hours) 4–23, 20 ave. 12–18
Copulation 1 hr after nightfall At night
Postpartum return to estrus 5–10 minutes Immediate
Gestation (days) 16 24–26
Weaning age 21 days, 35-40 g 21–28 days,
12–18 g
Begin dry food (days) 7–9 by 16
Litter size 4-12, 7–8 ave 1–12, 5 ave.
Reproductive life, (F) 6 months–2 years 7–20 months
Reproductive life, (M) 9–12 months 24+ months
Mating scheme Pairs or 1M to 2–4F 1:1 to 1M:3F,
permanent
pairing

a Breeding information and values are presented as an average or

a range from data given in References 10, 13, 29, 31, 34, and 35.

Hamsters
Sexing of hamsters is relatively easy (Figures 30 and 31). The
ano-genital distance is posterior due to protrusion of the testes
into the scrotal sac. The female posterior is not as rounded, and
the genital papillae is more prominent than in the male.

• The male is sexually mature at around 7 weeks of age

and the female at 6 weeks of age.
• The optimal 24-hour light:dark cycle for successful
breeding is 14:10, respectively.
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44 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 30. Sexing hamsters may be done from above by observing

the contour of the hind quarters. The male (M) has a rounded
posterior which is created by the scrotal sac (S).

• Monogamous pairing is often set up soon after weaning

to avoid the aggressive response females often show
towards males in hand mating situations. In hand breed-
ing systems, where the male is only placed with a poten-
tially receptive female long enough to mate, an
unreceptive female will attack and possibly kill a newly
introduced male. Harem systems of 1M:4F may be used
for production colonies.
• The female has a 4-day estrous cycle. They attract males
through scent marking the day before they are receptive.
A female will exhibit lordosis when receptive to breeding.
2566 /ch02/frame Page 45 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

husbandry 45

Fig. 31. When sexing hamsters from the ventral aspect, note
that the distance between the anus (a) and genital papilla (u) is
up to 2 times greater in the male (M) than the female (F), and
the genital papilla is more prominent in the female than male.
Also, note that the female has a vaginal opening (v).

Breeding will occur repeatedly for up to 30 minutes,

usually within 1 hour into the dark cycle.
• The different stages of the estrous cycle are characterized
by different vaginal discharges. On day 2, the postovu-
latory discharge is copious, viscous, thick creamy white
with a distinct pungent odor. On day 3 the discharge is
waxy, and on day 4 it is usually a translucent mucous
discharge. Females are usually receptive to breeding 3
days after the postovulatory discharge.
2566 /ch02/frame Page 46 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

46 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

• Spontaneous ovulation occurs about 8 to 10 hours after

the onset of estrus.
• A postovulatory discharge occurs again on days 5 and 9
following an unsuccessful breeding.
• The gestation period is approximately 16 days long.
• Females should not be handled or disturbed from
approximately 2 days prior to 7 days after parturition.

Gerbils

• The male is sexually mature at approximately 11 to 12

weeks of age, and the female at 10 to 12 weeks of age.
• Sexing of gerbils is relatively easy. As with the hamster,
the ano-genital distance is pronounced genital papilla
where the urethra exits. In addition, the male has very
dark scrotal sacs.
• Gerbils are known to form monogamous breeding pairs,
mating for life. The pairing is usually established after
weaning but before puberty, at approximately 6 to 7
weeks of age. The optimal 24-hour light:dark cycle for
succesful breeding is 14:10, respectively.
• Harem mating systems of 1 male :2 to 3 females are
frequently used in production colonies. When this sys-
tem is used, non-parturient females may cannibalize the
young.
• If one mate dies, the remaining mate will often reject the
introduction of a new mate.
• Even though reports indicate that a female may be intro-
duced and receptive to a strange male during estrus,23
timed matings (forced mating during estrus) have not
proven to be successful in production colonies of gerbils.
• The estrous cycle ranges from 4 to 6 days in duration.
Ovulation occurs spontaneously and the female is sex-
ually receptive for approximately 12 to 15 hours.
• Mating usually occurs at night.
2566 /ch02/frame Page 47 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

husbandry 47

• Males will thump their hind feet during courtship, and

will mate the female several times.
• Both the male and female will build a nest and care for
the young. They will build a nest with cotton fiber nesting
material available from bedding vendors.
• The gestation period is 24 to 26 days in duration.
2566 /ch02/frame Page 48 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:36 PM

notes
2566 /ch03/frame Page 49 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:40 PM

3
management

regulatory agencies and compliance

Regulations, policies, and guidelines outlining the use of lab-
oratory animals for research, teaching and testing within the
United States are summarized below. In addition to those noted
below, specific regulatory agencies and their requirements may
vary with the locale.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

The Animal Welfare Act contains provisions28 to prevent the
sale or use of animals that have been stolen; prohibit animal
fighting ventures; and ensure that animals used in research,
for exhibition, or as pets receive humane care and treatment.
The law provides for regulating the transport, purchase, sale,
housing, care, handling, and treatment of such animals.
The Improved Standards for Laboratory Animals Act was
enacted into law as a part of the 1985 Farm Bill.36 This new
law amended the Animal Welfare Act to require new standards
for the care, treatment, and use of laboratory animals, and to
establish an information service at the National Agricultural
Library. It also stipulated that the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture (USDA) must inspect each research facility, and that each
facility must provide reports that verify compliance with the new
regulations, provide proof that personnel involved with animal

49
2566 /ch03/frame Page 50 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:40 PM

50 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

care and use are trained, and establish at least one institutional
animal committee to conduct semiannual reviews.

• Specific Standards or requirements of the Animal Welfare

Act are described in the Regulations of the Animal Wel-
fare Act.28
• Registration with the USDA and adherence to the USDA
Regulations are required by all institutions, except ele-
mentary or secondary schools using animals such as
hamsters in teaching, testing or research in the United
States.
• Unannounced on-site inspections by USDA inspectors
employed by the Animal Care section of the USDA should
be expected at least once per year. More frequent inspec-
tions are not uncommon.
• The USDA requires an annual report on animal usage
covering the federal fiscal year from October 1 to Sep-
tember 31. The report is due by December 1.

The National Institutes of Health, Public Health

Service (PHS)
Oversight responsibility is described in the Health Research
Extension Act of 1985.37 The Policy is described in the Public
Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory
Animals.
The Policy is administered through the Office for Protection
from Research Risks, which requires that an assurance be on
file and approved. The Policy on Humane Care and Use of
Laboratory Animals was revised in 1996, with the mandated
changes incorporated into the Health Research Extension Act,
Public Law 99–158. Institutions must comply with this policy if
they are awarded a federal grant or contract to conduct research
involving the use of vertebrate animals.
Principles for implementation of PHS policy are those
described in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory
Animals.27 These guidelines provide information on the care and
use of laboratory animals in research. The recommendations in
the Guide cover physical construction of animal facilities, hus-
bandry, veterinary care, sanitation and the qualifications of
personnel along with other aspects of animal care. The Guide
2566 /ch03/frame Page 51 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:40 PM

management 51

emphasizes the role of the Institutional Animal Care and Use

Committee in oversight of animal care facilities, procedures, and
compliance.
The Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Labora-
tory Animal Care, International (AAALAC, Int’l.) uses the criteria
set forth in the Guide to evaluate and accredit animal care and
use programs. AAALAC, Int. accreditation is one of the highest
standards achievable for documenting excellence in animal care
and use.

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Policies are described in the Good Laboratory Practices for
Nonclinical Laboratory Studies (GLP) Regulations (CFR 21 (Food
and Drugs), Part 58. Subparts A–K: CFR Title 40 (Environmental
Protection Agency), Part 160, Subparts A–J: CFR Title 40 (Pro-
tection of Environment), Part 792, Subparts A–L).
GLP regulations were enacted in 1979 to assure the outstand-
ing quality and integrity of animal safety data in non-clinical
laboratory studies that support or are intended to support appli-
cations for research or marketing permits. This includes studies
for products regulated by the Food and Drug Administration,
including food and color additives, animal food additives, human
and animal drugs, medical devices for human use, biological
products, and electronic products.
GLP regulations encompass: (1) organization and personnel;
(2) facilities and equipment; (3) facilities operation (including
animal care); (4) test and control articles; (5) protocols for and
conduct of a non-clinical laboratory study; and (6) records and
reports. In general, standard operating procedures must be
outlined and rigorously followed and supported with detailed
records.

Association for Assessment and Accreditation of

Laboratory Animal Care International, Inc. (AAALAC
International)
AAALAC International is a nonprofit organization designed to
provide peer review-based accreditation to animal research facil-
ities. Basis for accreditation by AAALAC International is adher-
ence to principles outlined in the Guide. Accreditation is
voluntary with on-site assessment of the animal care and use
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52 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

program occurring every 3 years. Annual reports on program

changes are required. AAALAC accreditation is one of the highest
standards achievable for documenting excellence in animal care
and use.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

The basis for achieving a high-quality, comprehensive pro-
gram for animal care and use most often comes about through
the close interaction of the IACUC with the department respon-
sible for carrying out the program, and the individuals governed
by the program.
Although gerbils are not a named species in the USDA Animal
Welfare Act, and thus not “covered” under the regulations, ham-
sters are “covered” by the USDA regulations. Furthermore, a
progressive program for animal care and use will not differen-
tiate between “covered” and “non-covered” species of animals.
Therefore, for the purposes of this discussion, the USDA, PHS
and AAALAC require an IACUC at any institution using either/or
hamsters and gerbils in research, teaching and testing.
Important points to note about the IACUC are:

• The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

(IACUC) will be appointed by the Chief Executive Officer
of the institution.
• The IACUC will have no less than three members to
comply with the USDA regulations, and five members to
comply with PHS policy.

The IACUC membership should have the following composi-

tion:

• A Chairperson
• At least one Doctor of Veterinary Medicine who has train-
ing and experience in laboratory animal medicine or
science, and responsibility for activities involving ani-
mals used in the research efforts of the institution.
• One individual who is not affiliated with the institution
in any way other than as a member of the IACUC. Clergy
or lawyers often fill this role.
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management 53

In addition, the PHS requires the following members to be on

the IACUC:

• A practicing scientist experienced in research involving

animals
• One member whose primary concerns are in a non-
scientific area. This individual may be an employee of
the institution served by the IACUC. A lawyer or a mem-
ber of the Public Policy and Affairs department often fills
this position.
• It is acceptable for a single individual to fill more than
one of the above categories.

Responsibilities of the IACUC. The written regulations

should be consulted for an in-depth coverage of the IACUC
responsibilities. In general, the IACUC is charged with the fol-
lowing:

• Review and approve, require modifications to secure

approval, or withhold approval of those components of
proposed research activities involving the use of animals
in research, teaching and testing. Protocols must be
approved prior to the use of the animals.
• Once a protocol has been approved, the IACUC should
review and approve, require modifications to secure
approval, or withhold approval of proposed significant
changes regarding the care and use of animals in ongo-
ing activities.
• Review, at least once every six months (semi-annually),
the research facilitie’s program for humane care and use
of animals to assure that they meet the standard of the
regulations. This review will include an inspection of all
of the research facilities, animal facilities, including ani-
mal study areas.
• Prepare reports of the semi-annual evaluations of the
animal facilities and animal care and use programs and
submit the reports to the Institutional Official of the
research facility. The reports shall be reviewed and
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54 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

signed by a majority of the IACUC members and must

include any minority views. The reports must distinguish
significant deficiencies from minor deficiencies. A signif-
icant deficiency is one that in the judgment of the IACUC
and the Institutional Official is or may be a threat to the
health or safety of the animals.
• Submit written annual reports to Office for Protection
from Research Risks updating the institution's assur-
ance. These reports must include minority views filed by
members of the committee.
• Assure that personnel are adequately trained and qual-
ified to conduct research using animals.
• Assure that animals are properly handled and cared for.
• Assure that the investigator has considered alternatives
to potentially painful or distressful procedures, and that
the research does not include unnecessary duplication.
• Assure that sedatives, analgesics and tranquilizers are
used to relieve pain and distress whenever appropriate.
• Assure that proper surgical preparation and technique
are utilized.
• Assure that animals are euthanatized properly, and that
the personnel performing euthanasia are properly
trained.
• Review, and, if warranted, investigate concerns involving
the care and use of animals at the research facility
resulting from public complaints received and from
reports of noncompliance received from laboratory or
research facility personnel or employees.
• Make recommendations to the Institutional Official
regarding any aspect of the research facility's animal
program, facilities, or personnel training.
• Be authorized to suspend an activity involving animals.
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management 55

occupational health and zoonotic diseases

Animals present health risks that workers should be made
aware of.38,39 Zoonoses refers to diseases that are transferred
directly from an animal to a human, where the animal acts as
the intermediate host or vector.
This section reviews selected known or potential zoonotic
agents that have been documented in some individuals who
worked with hamsters and gerbils. In no way does this chapter
include all infections or diseases that are zoonotic. The selection
included has been made from those that are of principal interest,
for various reasons, in public health. The number of listed
zoonoses increases with our expansion of biomedical knowledge,
improved diagnostic competency, and improved health services.
This section of the chapter simply serves an introduction to the
topic of zoonotic diseases.
Hamsters and gerbils purchased from reputable vendors
present a very low risk with respect to zoonotic diseases. Nev-
ertheless, individuals who are exposed to laboratory animals
must understand that however low the potential, precautions
must be taken to prevent exposure, and provisions must be
available to treat an individual upon exposure. Following good
principles for hygiene such as wearing respiratory protection to
minimize exposure to allergens, gloves when handling animals,
a lab coat in the animal facility and washing your hands after
working with animals are important preventative measures (see
Figure 32).
In addition to the above, an occupational safety and health
program should take into consideration the following possible
health hazards to those individuals working with hamsters and
gerbils.

Bacteria
Leptospirosis is caused by the bacteria Leptospira spp.
Although the common reservoir for this organism includes ger-
bils and hamsters, this disease is very unlikely to be present in
purpose-bred animals. When infected, the disease in humans
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56 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 32. Personal protective supplies commonly available in an

animal facility include a lab coat, face mask, gloves, hand towels,
and cleaning agents. Safety glasses (not shown) are also com-
monly used.

may vary from inapparent to death. Individuals may experience

a sudden onset of fever and headache, leukocytosis, chills,
encephalitis, retroorbital pain, conjunctival suffusion, jaundice
and hemorrhage.40 Transmission is most likely to occur through
direct contact with the animal or its contaminated urine, or
aerosol exposure during cage changing and cleaning. Since this
is an organism primarily of wild rodents, prevention and control
include wearing protective clothing, controlling the entry of wild
rodents into the animal facility, use of purpose-bred animals,
and vaccination of animals where appropriate.
Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella typhimurium have
been reported to cause enteritis in gerbils. Because people may
contract Salmonella from gerbils, the animal colony should be
screened and free of this organism. Personnel should wear per-
sonal protective clothing and follow good hygiene when working
with gerbils.40,41
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management 57

Other Occupational Health Issues

Allergies. Although allergies are not a zoonotic disease, aller-

gies in personnel exposed to rodents are not uncommon.38,39
The primary allergens with rats and mice are either the salivary
and urinary proteins, or both.38,39 In gerbils and hamsters, the
allergens have not been identified. Personnel with allergies may
experience symptoms such as rhinitis, sneezing, or redness,
swelling and itching on their skin where they have been exposed
to urinary proteins. In some cases, allergies to laboratory ani-
mals may progress to asthma. These symptoms may interfere
with the person’s ability to perform their job, and represent a
serious occupational hazard that may eventually result in reas-
signment to another work area. Therefore, it is advised that
personal protective clothing such as respiratory protection (dust
and mold mask, positive-pressure HEPA filtered-air-stream hel-
met), gloves, and a clean launderable or disposable laboratory
coat or coveralls be worn. Individuals who are known to be
sensitive should also have a periodic respiratory evaluation as
part of their occupational safety and health program.

Bite, puncture, and scratch wounds. Hamsters are known

to bite if they are startled or irritated, and scratches may easily
occur when handling hamsters and gerbils. Puncture wounds
can occur when handling caging or other supplies with sharp
edges. Personal protective clothing as noted above should be
worn to minimize these incidents. If you are bitten, scratched,
or suffer from a puncture wound, the wound should be cleaned
with soap and water and you should report the incident to your
facilities health-services group.

Parasites
Hymenolepis nana and Hymenolepis diminuta, tapeworms
occasionally found in hamsters, may also infect humans. In
humans, there are often no apparent clinical signs. In heavily
infected individuals, nausea, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea and
central nervous signs of agitation may be seen. Control includes
managing a good quality-control program with vendors, screen-
ing their colonies to ensure that they are not carrying this
parasite, and control of fleas, the intermediate host for this
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58 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

parasite. In addition, controlling the entry of wild rodents into

the animal facility will prevent exposure of research colonies.
Personnel handling hamsters should be instructed to follow good
hygiene.40,41

Giardia sp. are fairly common in hamster and gerbil colonies.

Control measures include managing a good quality control pro-
gram with vendors, screening their colonies to ensure that they
are not carrying this protozoan. Personnel handling hamsters
should be instructed to follow good hygiene. In humans, infec-
tion is often subclinical, or it may present as bloating, abdominal
pain, nausea, diarrhea, and weight loss.40,41

Viruses
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus is a viral infection that
can originate from hamsters, but more commonly originates
from mice and transplantable mouse tumors.42 Clinical signs in
humans include mild influenza-like illness with or without cen-
tral nervous system signs (headache, somnolence, paresthesia,
paralysis). Transmission to humans occurs by aerosol exposure,
direct contact with infected excretions, skin or mucous mem-
branes, inhaling dust contaminated with dried excreta, hamster
bites, and possibly arthropods. A quality-assurance program
which includes serological surveillance of the vendors’ hamster
colonies, and screening murine tumors to prevent entry of the
virus through transplantable tumors are the primary modes of
prevention. Preventing the entry of wild rodents into the animal
facility will minimize the exposure of in-house hamster colonies
to the virus. In addition, all bite wounds should be decontam-
inated as noted above.40

experimental biohazards
The research studies that are conducted on hamsters and
gerbils may include the use of chemical, radioactive, and infec-
tious hazards. When this occurs, standard operation procedures
in the form of a safety action plan should be developed to ensure
that the hazardous materials and contaminated animals are
handled safely.38, 39
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4
veterinary care

veterinary supplies
The following supplies are useful for providing clinical care
to hamsters and gerbils used in research, teaching, and testing.
For any procedure, consult with a qualified veterinarian before
performing a procedure you are not familiar with.

1. A laboratory scale for weighing the animal.

2. Disposable syringes ranging from 1 to 12 ml.
3. Disposable needles ranging from 21- to 27-gauge diam-
eter, 1/2 to 1 1/2 in. long.
4. Blood collection tubes with no additive (for serum) and
EDTA (for whole blood). Tubes requiring 0.05 to 1.0 ml
are preferred since only small samples can be obtained.
5. Gauze sponges.
6. Disinfectant (povidone-iodine solution).
7. Sterile fluids such as sterile water, lactated Ringer’s solu-
tion, or 0.9% saline.
8. Nail clippers.
9. Culture swabs in transport media for bacterial isolation.

59
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60 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

10. Microhematocrit tubes.

11. Rodent restrainers.
12. An infrared tympanic thermometer for measuring body
temperature.
13. A sterile pack containing gauze, cotton tip swabs, a
scalpel blade-holder, sterile scalpel blades, sterile suture,
tissue forceps, suture needle-holders, tissue staples and
stapling device, tissue scissors, and suture scissors.
14. A small nose cone or bell jar for delivering inhalation
anesthetic agents.
15. A hot-water heating pad.

Although the respiratory rate and character is normally

assessed through direct observation of the animal, a pediatric
stethoscope may also be used for this purpose. Additional sup-
plies may also be used as the need arises.

physical examination
A physical examination should be performed on all hamsters
and gerbils upon arrival at the facility, and on any animal that
is housed within the facility that appears abnormal. Since ham-
sters and gerbils are often housed in pairs or groups, assess-
ment of the cage mates should also be performed. The physical
examination should be done systematically so that no area is
overlooked. All findings should be recorded in a medical record
for either the individual or group of animals. The physical exam-
ination should proceed as follows:

• Observe the animal in its home cage and note any abnor-
mal behavior. Often the first evidence that an animal
may be ill is that it is isolated from its cage mates, has
a hunched posture, a ruffled hair coat and is not showing
normal exploratory behavior.
• Another early indication that an animal is ill is a change
in normal color, consistency, odor and/or amount of
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veterinary care 61

urine and feces. A fecal sample can be submitted for

detection of parasites or ova, and for bacterial culturing.
• Assess the animal’s food bowl and water bottle to eval-
uate appetite and thirst.
• A change in body weight is one of the best methods for
determining if a hamster or gerbil is ill. Since hamsters
and gerbils generally weigh less than 150 grams, minor
changes in body weight can be a significant finding.
• When weighing the animal, examine its skin and fur for
hair loss, wounds, hydration, and ectoparasites. Hydra-
tion is most easily assessed in small animals by carefully
monitoring changes in body weight, and assessing the
elasticity of the skin. Failure of skin over the shoulder
blades to return to its normal position after it is lifted
may be a sign that the animal is dehydrated.
• Palpate the animal’s skin and abdomen for abnormal
masses. Gently squeeze the thorax and slide your fingers
caudally, allowing them to fall off the final rib and onto
the abdomen. Palpate both ventrally and caudally. Be
careful not to squeeze too hard, otherwise you may
bruise or injure an internal organ. With your fingers, feel
for firm masses. Look for symmetry in anatomy and
shape when palpating the animal.
• Check the oral cavity for normal dentition. Clip over-
grown teeth as they will prevent the animal from eating.
When evaluating the oral cavity, carefully assess the
mucous membranes for normal color. Mucous mem-
branes should be pink. Be sure to examine the hamster’s
cheek pouches.
• Examine the ears for abnormal discharges or masses.
• Examine the feet and toes for lesions and clip overgrown
toenails as needed.
• Eyes should be glistening and should not have any
abnormal discharge or reddening of the conjunctiva.
• Assess the perineal region for fecal and urine staining
and discharges from the vulva.
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62 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

• Body temperature may be measured from the ear using

a infrared tympanic thermometer. Normal body temper-
ature for the hamster is 37 to 38.5oC and or the gerbil
is 37 to 39oC.
• A pediatric stethoscope should be used listen to the chest
for abnormal respiratory sounds.

quarantine, stabilization, and acclimation

A quarantine is used to physically separate newly received
animals from the resident population until the health status of
the newly received animals is assessed. In addition, a quarantine
prohibits the investigator from accessing the animals to initiate
studies, and it permits time for the animals to stabilize and
acclimate to their new environment while recuperating from the
effects of shipping. In cases where the health status of the
incoming animals is not well defined by the vendor, the quar-
antine period may run 2 to 3 weeks.
Hamsters and gerbils may not require a quarantine period if
the data available from the vendor is recent and comprehensive
to provide a defined health status, and the shipping procedures
do not expose the animals to any infectious agents. This is
usually the case when hamsters and gerbils are purchased from
a vendor with a known high quality of animals. Whatever the
case, there is ample data to show that rodents need a minimum
of 48 to 72 hours after shipping for physiological and nutritional
stabilization before they are turned over to the investigator.43,44

common clinical problems

In this section, common clinical problems of hamsters and
gerbils are reviewed. Many clinical problems appear similar at
first, and often times the diseases are uncovered during screen-
ing while they are at the subclinical stage. If animals are pur-
chased from a reputable vendor as pathogen-free animals, many
of the diseases reviewed here may be avoided.
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veterinary care 63

diseases of hamsters
The most common spontaneous diseases in hamsters are
diarrhea and pneumonia.13 Once either of these are detected,
efforts are generally directed at prevention of infection and con-
trol of the disease through eradication of affected animals. Occa-
sional clinical reports of parasitic diseases (mange or intestinal
parasites) are found in the literature.

Bacterial Diseases of Hamsters

Proliferative ileitis (wet tail)
Wet tail is the most commonly recognized disease of hamsters.
Wet tail occurs in 3 to 8-week-old hamsters, with a high mor-
bidity and mortality rate. Clinical signs include diarrhea, leth-
argy, anorexia, fetid watery feces staining the perineum, weight
loss, and sudden death within 1 to 3 days of onset. Recent
findings indicate that an organism nearly indistinguishable from
Lawsonia intracellularis, the causative agent of proliferative
enteritis in swine, has been identified in hamsters.45 The best
method for eliminating this disease is eradication of affected
animals. If the decision is made to treat the animals, adminis-
tering tetracycline 400 mg/L in the drinking water or metron-
idazole at 2 mg/ml in the drinking water has also been reported
to be effective. Other efforts should be directed at minimizing
spread of the disease. Erythromycin and chloromycetin have
also been reported to be effective. A strict quarantine and hous-
ing of animals in a filter top cage is recommended in controlling
spread of the disease.1,13,46

Clostridium piliforme: Tyzzer’s disease

Although Tyzzer’s disease has only been reported occasion-
ally in hamsters, it is possible that some cases go undiagnosed
or are mistaken for wet tail. Clinically, diarrhea in the form of
yellow, watery feces is the most common finding, along with
anorexia and dehydration. In some cases, animals may present
with sudden death with few premonitory signs. Although no
treatment is reported in hamsters, other species of rodents with
Tyzzer’s disease have been treated with tetracycline, which
would be the treatment of choice in hamsters. Since so many
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64 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

other rodent species are susceptible to Tyzzer’s disease, control

and prevention of the disease must be emphasized. This is
accomplished through isolation or euthanasia of affected ani-
mals, and sanitation of the facility. Since C. piliforme is a spore-
forming bacteria, the environment must be thoroughly decon-
taminated to prevent reoccurrence of the disease.13,46

pneumonia
Pneumonia, although rare in hamsters, is the second most
common spontaneous disease reported, with enteritis being the
most common.13 Pasteurella pneumotropica is commonly asso-
ciated with pneumonia in hamsters. Clinical signs include
labored breathing, conjunctivitis, otitis interna, nasal exudate,
and weight loss.46 Chloromycetin and ampicillin have been used
to treat pneumonia.46 Carriers of P. pneumotropica should be
eliminated.

cutaneous abscesses
Skin abscesses, often around the head, eyes and cheek pouch,
related to Staphylococcus aureus infection due to fighting
wounds have been reported. Surgical drainage and antibiotic
therapy have been used. In addition, separation of the aggressive
animals may be required.

salmonella
Hamsters are reported to be more susceptible to Salmonella
sp. than other laboratory rodents.13 Clinically animals are
lethargic and have a rough hair coat, weight loss, increased
respiratory rate, and distended abdomen. Efforts are directed
at prevention of entry of this organism into the facility, and
eradication of positive animals.13

Viral Diseases of Hamsters

Very few naturally occurring viral diseases outbreaks have
been reported in hamsters.13

lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCM)

Infection with LCM virus is usually clinically silent. Infected
hamsters usually have chronic subclinical viuria, however, the
infection may present as a chronic wasting disease. The virus
affects blood vessels and the kidneys, and is shed in the urine,
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veterinary care 65

resulting in transmission to other hamsters and humans. Since

LCM is a zoonotic disease that can cause meningitis in humans,
it is important to prevent the entry of this virus into the animal
colony. If detected, an eradication program should be instituted.
13,47

sendai virus
Sendai virus is a very rare finding in hamsters. When present,
it may cause fatal pneumonia. Efforts should be directed at
prevention of viral introduction into the colony, and eradication
of positive animals.13,47

Parasitic Diseases

protozoans
The protozoan Giardia muris mesocricetus (Figure 33) is the
causative agent of giardiasis. Although often carried subclini-
cally, large numbers of organisms have been recovered from
weanlings with diarrhea. This may be an incidental finding, but

Fig. 33. The protozoan Giardia muris mesocricetus, found in a

fecal sample from a hamster with diarrhea. (Photo courtesy of
Mr. David Pavlock, Bristol-Myers Squibb).
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66 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

their presence is suggestive of a causal relationship. Treatment

is 0.1% dimetranidazole in the drinking water for 14 days.48
Spironucleus (Hexamita) muris and Tritrichmonas sp. have
been found in the gastrointestinal tract, but few cases of clinical
disease have been reported. If present, both organisms may
spread to mice and rats.

nematodes
The pinworm Syphacia muris and Syphacia obvelata occur
(rarely) in hamsters and Syphacia mesocriceti is even more rare
(Figure 34). S. obvelata has a direct life cycle, with females laying
eggs on day 11 to 15 of the life cycle.49 Pinworms may be
diagnosed by pressing a piece of clear adhesive tape against the
hamsters anus, placing the tape on a microscope slide, and
assessing the slide for pinworm eggs. Since S. obvelata and S.
muris may spread to other laboratory rodents,49 they should be
eradicated from the hamster colony when detected. Use of an
avermectin will usually eliminate the adult infestation in the

Fig. 34. The pinworm Syphacia mesocriceti, from a fecal sam-

ple taken from a hamster with diarrhea. Typical of this pinworm
is a flat side to the egg. (Photo courtesy of Mr. David Pavlock,
Bristol-Myers Squibb.)
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veterinary care 67

Fig. 35. This egg, found in a fecal sample from a hamster, is

typical in that it is harboring the tapeworm Hymenolepis sp.
(Photo courtesy of Mr. David Pavlock, Bristol-Myers Squibb).

animal. The environment must be thoroughly sanitized (using

chlorine-based agents) to eliminate the eggs. Reinfestation with
pinworms may occur due to the chemical resistant nature of
the eggs. Continued monitoring in a previously positive colony
is recommended.

cestodes
Hymenolepis diminuta and Hymenolepis nana are tapeworms
that have been found in hamsters (Figure 35). Clinical signs are
minimal, although intestinal impaction/occlusion has been
reported with heavy infestations. H. diminuta has an indirect
life cycle, with the intermediate host being a cockroach or grain
beetle. In contrast, H. nana usually has a direct life cycle
through the feces, but may also demonstrate an indirect life
cycle through an intermediate host such as the flea or grain
beetle. Since this tapeworm may be transmitted to humans,
positive animals should be considered biohazardous.13,48
Niclosamide 1 mg/gm feed (100 mg/kg body weight) for 2 weeks
has been reported to cure hamsters.48
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68 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Ectoparasitic Arthropods
mange
Demodex criceti or Demodex aurati cause demodex mange (see
Figure 36). Demodex criceti is a mite that burrows into the
epidermis, feeding on the cell contents. Infestation with this
mite rarely presents as a clinical disease, but may cause dry
scaly skin, scabby dermatitis, and alopecia anywhere on the
body.13 D. aurati is only found in the pilosebaceous glands of
hair follicles. Most infested animals are asymptomatic. When
stressed, hair loss may occur over the back and hind quarters,
but pruritus is not observed.13,48 Treatment is not reported but
methods used for other animals (cutaneous or injectable arac-
icide) will most likely work.
Another infestation is itch mange, caused by Notedres sp.
This presents as a papular dermatitis with pruritus on the ears,
nose, genital areas, tail, and limbs.13

Fig. 36. Finding this mite on a deep skin scraping of a hamster

with dry scaly skin is diagnostic for demodectic mange caused
by Demodex criceti or Demodex aurati. (Photo courtesy of Mr.
David Pavlock, Bristol-Myers Squibb).
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veterinary care 69

miscellaneous diseases
Amyloidosis occurs when amyloid, an immunoglobulin
protein, is deposited in a variety of tissues, including the
kidneys, spleen, liver, lungs and adrenals. This occurs
commonly in aging hamsters and those with chronic
infections. Chronic weight loss and wasting in an adult
animal is the most common clinical finding.13,50
Atrial thrombosis with bilateral ventricular hypertrophy
occurs in older animals, females more often than males,
with thrombi most commonly seen in the left atria. Ani-
mals that develop thrombi may be recognized by their
lethargy, subcutaneous edema, increased respiratory
rate, cyanosis and increased heart rate, followed by sud-
den death within a week.51,52,53
Polycystic disease of the liver, seminal vesicles, renal pel-
vis, endometrium, pancreas, and seminal vesicles have
been reported. The liver is the most commonly affected
organ.48,54

common diseases of gerbils

Bacterial Diseases of Gerbils
clostridium piliforme: Tyzzer’s disease
Weanling-aged gerbils are highly susceptible to Tyzzer’s dis-
ease, exhibiting a high morbidity and mortality, particularly in
young animals,15 and less so in adults. Transmission occurs
through contact with soiled bedding. Clinical signs include acute
death, lethargy, rough hair coat, and possibly watery diarrhea.
This disease should be controlled through sanitation and culling
the affected animals from the colony.13 As mentioned with ham-
sters, C. piliforme is a spore-forming bacteria that can spread
to other rodents. A positive animal colony must be quarantined,
and all materials used in the primary enclosure autoclaved to
kill the spores. It is possible that tetracycline, which has been
used to treat mice, will decrease the incidence of this disease
in gerbils. Oxytetracycline added to the drinking water may also
be beneficial, as is fluid therapy to dehydrated animals
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70 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

nasal dermatitis or “sore nose”

This is an important disease of gerbils, particularly weanlings.
Up to 20% of the animals in a colony may be affected. Erythema
occurs over the dorsum of the nose, progressing to alopecia and
a moist dermatitis. In extreme cases this condition may spread
to the forelegs, feet, and ventral body surfaces. The etiology is
unknown, but it is proposed that stress and secretion of por-
phyrin-containing fluid from the Harderian glands may cause
irritation. It has also been proposed that this disease results
from wounds sustained during burrowing. staphylococcus
aureus is often cultured from lesions. Animals eventually recover
or become unthrifty lose weight, and die.13,55,56 Treatment con-
sists of eliminating the factors that may cause the disease.
Provision of clean, dry, soft bedding, reduction of stress, elimi-
nation of any sharp edges within the cage which may traumatize
the animal, and construction of an Elizabethan collar to prevent
the animal from re-traumatizing the area, will aid in treating
this disease. Chloromycetin (0.083 g/1100 ml of water) and
tetracycline (0.3 g/100 ml of water) for 14 days have been used
to clear up infections.57

Salmonella sp.
Enteritis may result from bacterial infections such as Salmo-
nella sp. Perianal staining, anorexia, rough hair coat, weight
loss, dehydration, and sudden death sometimes occur. Some
outbreaks are characterized by high mortality rates, but more
typically, the animal will develop diarrhea then recover. Animals
positive on bacteriological culture for Salmonella should be elim-
inated from the colony.13,15

Viral Diseases of Gerbils

Very little is reported on naturally occurring viral diseases in
gerbils.13

Parasitic Diseases of Gerbils

demodectic mange
Demodex sp. has been recovered from gerbils with alopecia,
hyperemia, and focal ulcerations on the legs and dorsum.13
Mites can be seen through microscopic examination of materials
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veterinary care 71

obtained from a skin scraping. Treatment with a topical acari-

cide is recommended.

pinworms
Syphacia obvelata and Syphacia muris can be transmitted to
gerbils from rats, mice, and other laboratory animals. The biol-
ogy and treatment of pinworms is similar to that described
earlier for hamsters.

cestodes
Hymenolepis diminuta and Hymenolepis nana occur in gerbils
as well as hamsters. The biology and treatment for cestodes is
similar to that described earlier for hamsters. Niclosamide is
used to treat tapeworms.15

Miscellaneous Diseases and Conditions

epilepsy
Spontaneous cataleptic, hypnotic, or grand mal seizures
related to a sudden stress (handling, noise, placement in a novel
environment) have been reported in gerbil colonies. Seizure-
prone and seizure-resistant strains have been described. In
seizure-prone colonies, animals begin to demonstrate seizures
at around 2 months of age, with 40 to 80% exhibiting seizures
by 10 months of age. Daily provocation of animals will decrease
the incidence through habituation of animals. Treatment with
phenobarbital will prevent seizures.13,58

tail degloving
If a gerbil is picked up by the tip or middle of the tail, the
skin over the tail may pull or slough off. This is know as
degloving. Proper handling includes picking up a gerbil by the
base of the tail. The tail may need to be amputated if a significant
portion is affected.

dental disease
Occasionally incisors will become overgrown and require trim-
ming, which may be done with toenail clippers or sharp cutting
pliers. Spontaneous peridontal disease with plaque and calculus
build-up on the teeth occurs on standard laboratory diets, but
this is not considered a common clinical problem.15
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72 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

neoplasms and cysts

Most reports of neoplasms have been in aged animals. Neo-
plasms of the midventral scent gland, the skin, ovary, testicles,
and adrenal gland have been described. Cystic ovaries are com-
mon in the aged (greater than 2 years) female and may present
as a swollen abdomen and infertility.13,15 There is generally no
treatment for cystic ovaries.

drug dosages for hamsters and gerbils

Very few drugs are specifically labeled for use in hamsters
and gerbils. Administering these drugs often constitutes “extra
label” use, and must be based upon sound veterinary practices.
Although the dosages of drugs listed in Table 9 are from pub-
lished literature, idiosyncratic responses may occur.

Note: When using these drugs, it is important to recognize

that the animal’s age, sex, diet, health status, metabolic rate,
nutritional status, etc., can affect the results.

Antibiotics should be used after microbial sensitivity has been

determined, and with knowledge of potential toxic side effects.
Dihydrostreptomycin is toxic to gerbils.59 Tetracyclines may
cause fatal enterotoxemia when given subcutaneously at 50
mg/kg to hamsters, unless given simultaneously with sulf-
aguanidine.29
When administering drugs, some guidelines to injection vol-
umes must be adhered to. Abbreviations used for the route of
administration are PO for oral, IV for intravenous, IM for intra-
muscular, SC for subcutaneous, IN for intranasal, and IP for
intraperitoneal.
Table 10 provides suggested injection volume guidelines. It
should be noted that the volume given is dependent on the
animal’s size, the route of administration, and the rate at which
the drug is given. Injection volumes for IV administration may
be larger when the total injection is given slowly.
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veterinary care 73

TABLE 9. DRUG DOSAGES FOR HAMSTERS AND GERBILSa

Therapeutic Agent Hamster Dosage Gerbil Dosage

Antibacterial Drugs
Amikacin 10–20 mg/day 10–20 mg/day
divided q8–24h; SC, divided q8–24h; SC,
IM IM with concurrent
fluid therapy
Chloramphenicol 20 mg/100 g body —
palmitate weight PO three
times a day
Chloramphenicol 50–200 mg/kg q8h; 50–200 mg/kg q8h;
succinate PO PO
Chloramphenicol — 50 mg/60 ml
drinking water for 2
weeks
Chlortetracycline 30–50 mg/kg q12; 30–50 mg/kg q12;
SC, IM SC, IM
Ciprofloxacin 7–20 mg/kg q12h; 7–20 mg/kg q12h;
PO PO
Dimetronidazole 500 mg/L drinking
water
Enrofloxacin 5–10 mg/kg q12h; 5–10 mg/kg q12h;
PO, IM; not SC or PO, IM; not SC or
50–200 mg/L 50–200 mg/L
drinking water for drinking water for
14 d 14 d
Gentamicin 0.5 mg/100 g body 0.5 mg/100 g body
weight IM once a weight IM once a
day day
Metronidazole 7.5mg/70–90g body —
weight q8h; PO
Neomycin 100 mg/kg q24h; PO 100 mg/kg q24h; PO
Oxytetracycline 16 mg/kg q24; SC 10 mg/kg q8h; PO
20 mg/kg q24; SC
Tetracycline 10–20 mg/kg q8h; 10–20 mg/kg q8h;
PO PO
Tetracycline — 250 mg/100 ml
drinking water for
14 days
Tyliosin 2–8 mg/kg q12h; PO, 2–8 mg/kg q12h; PO,
SC, IM SC, IM
Antfungal Drugs
Griseofulvin 25 mg/kg q24h for 25 mg/kg q24h for
14–24 d; PO 14–24 d; PO
Ketoconazole 10–40 mg/kg/d; PO 10–40 mg/kg/d; PO
for 14 d for 14 d
(continued)
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74 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

TABLE 9. DRUG DOSAGES FOR HAMSTERS AND GERBILSA (CONTINUED)

Therapeutic Agent Hamster Dosage Gerbil Dosage

Antiparasitic Drugs
Amitraz 1.4 ml/L topically; 1.4 ml/L topically;
apply 3–6 topical apply 3–6 topical
treatments lightly treatments lightly
rubbed on 14 days rubbed on 14 days
apart apart
Carbaryl 5% powder Dust lightly once per Dust lightly once per
week week
Dichlorvos- Lay 1 inch square on Lay 1 inch square on
impregnated cage for 24h cage for 24h
resin strip once/wk for 6 wk once/wk for 6 wk
Dimetronidazole 0.5 mg/ml drinking 0.5 mg/ml drinking
water water
Fenbendazole 20 mg/kg q24h for 5 20 mg/kg q24h for 5
days; PO days; PO
Ivermectin 200–400 mg/kg; PO, 200–400 mg/kg; PO,
SC; repeat in 8–10 d SC; repeat in 8–10 d
Niclosamide 500 mg in 150 g food 1 mg/10 g body
or 10 mg/100 g weight PO
body weight PO
Piperazine 3–5 mg/ml drinking 20–60 mg/100 g
water for 7 days, body weight PO: use
withhold 7 days, 3–5 mg/ml drinking
treat 7 additional water for 7 days,
days withhold 7 days,
treat 7 additional
days
Pyrantel pamoate 50 mg/kg; PO 50 mg/kg; PO
Sulfamethazine 1–5 mg/ml drinking 1–5 mg/ml drinking
water water
Thiabendazole 100 mg/kg q24h for 100 mg/kg q24h for
5d; PO 5d; PO
Miscellaneous Drugs
Aspirin 240 mg/kg q24h; PO 240 mg/kg q24h; PO
Atropine 0.04 mg/kg; SC, IM 0.04 mg/kg; SC, IM
Oxytocin 0.2–3 USP units/kg; 0.2–3 USP units/kg;
IM, SC IM, SC
Prednisone 0.5–2 mg/kg; PO 0.5–2 mg/kg; PO
Vitamin K1 1–10 mg/kg IM as 1–10 mg/kg IM as
needed needed

a Doses are presented as an average or a range taken from data

given in References 13, 15, and 60.
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veterinary care 75

TABLE 10. INJECTION VOLUMES IN MILLILITERS FOR HAMSTERS

AND GERBILS

Animal IM IV IP SC

Hamster 0.1 0.3 3–4 3–4

Gerbil 0.1 0.3 2–3 2–3

Values from Reference 29.

disease prevention through sanitation

An essential component of disease prevention is good sanita-
tion. Hamster and gerbil cages should be changed routinely,
and cleaned and disinfected as described in Chapter 2. Accu-
mulation of excessive amounts of urine, feces, hair, and dander
should be prevented. Instruments used to handle or work with
animals should be routinely cleaned and disinfected. Personnel
should maintain good hygiene, washing their hands with an
antiseptic soap after handling animals, and wearing laundered
clothing while in the animal facility. In addition, hamsters and
gerbils identified as being infected with a pathogenic organism
should be quarantined, treated, or eliminated from the colony.
Likewise, since rats and mice carry many diseases which can
be transmitted to hamsters and gerbils, efforts should be put
forth to maintain pathogen-free mouse and rat colonies.

anesthesia, analgesia, and sedation

The purpose of a sedative, analgesic, or anesthetic is to min-
imize or alleviate the pain or distress that the animal may
experience during experimental use. In order to facilitate the
selection and administration of these agents, Tables 11 to 13
provide guidelines for selected dose ranges. Please note that
effective doses may vary from those included in the tables due
to differences in the age, strain, sex, and physical status of the
animal. Because of this variation, until you become experienced
with the anesthetic you select, a dose at the low end of the
recommended range should be used. For additional information
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76 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

on the selections and use of these agents, a veterinarian should

always be consulted.

TABLE 11. COMMON ANESTHETIC DRUGS FOR HAMSTERS

Duration of
Anesthesia
Agent Dose/Route (min) Ref.

Fentanyl-Fluanisone + 1 mg/kg IM — 61
Diazepam 5 mg/kg IP
Ketamine 100 mg/kg IM — 62
Ketamine 200 mg/kg IP — 63
Ketamine + 150 mg/kg IM — 61
Acepromazine 5 mg/kg IM
Ketamine + 40 mg/kg IM – — 29
Acepromazine 100 mg/kg IP
1–4 mg/kg IM
Ketamine + 40–100 mg/kg IM or IP — 29
Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IM or
5 mg/kg IP
Ketamine + 50–100 mg/kg IP 28 29
Xylazine 5 mg/kg IP
Ketamine + 200 mg/kg IP — 61
Xylazine 10 mg/kg IP
Pentobarbital 50–90 mg/kg IP 30–45 65
61
Telazol + 30 mg/kg IP 30 29
Xylazine 10 mg/kg IP

Anesthesia is associated with a loss of feeling or sensation.

The types of anesthesia which may be useful for hamsters and
gerbils can be classified into the following categories:

1. General anesthesia produces a state of unconscious-

ness, with absence of pain sensation over the entire body
(e.g., methoxyfurane, isoflurane, pentobarbital).
2. Local anesthesia is that which is limited to a confined
(small) area of the body (lidocaine).
3. Dissociative anesthesia is produced by interruption of
information from the conscious part to the unconscious
part of the brain (ketamine).
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veterinary care 77

TABLE 12. COMMON ANESTHETIC DRUGS FOR GERBILS

Duration of
Anesthesia
Agent Dose/Route (min) Ref.

Fentanyl-Fluanisone + 0.3 mg/kg IM — 61

Diazepam 5 mg/kg IP
Ketamine 40–44 mg/kg IM or IP — 64
29
Ketamine + 75 mg/kg IM — 61
Acepromazine 3 mg/kg IM
Ketamine + 50 mg/kg IM — 61
Diazepam 5–10 mg/kg IP 29
Ketamine + 50 mg/kg IP or IM — 29
Xylazine 2 mg/kg IP or IM 61
Pentobarbital 60 mg/kg IP 30–45 64
29
Metomidate + 50 mg/kg SC — 63
Fentanyl 0.05 mg/kg SC

TABLE 13. DRUGS AND DOSES FOR SEDATION

AND PREMEDICATION OF HAMSTERS
AND GERBILS

Drug Hamster Gerbil

Acepromazine 0.5–5 Do not use, may cause

seizures in gerbils.
Diazepam 3–5 3–5
Midazolam 1–2 1–2
Xylazine 8–10 5–10
Atropine 0.05 0.05
Glycopyrrolate 0.01–0.02 0.01–0.02

a All values are given in mg/kg IM or SC and are

derived from Reference 66.

4. Neuroleptanalgesia is a state of quiescence, altered

awareness, and analgesia with a narcotic and neuroleptic
agent (fentanyl-droperidol), along with a state of uncon-
sciousness.
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78 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

principles of general anesthesia

Administering Anesthesia
When administering anesthesia, the first and foremost con-
cern is for the animal's safety and health. This includes making
sure that the animal is healthy and well-acclimated to its envi-
ronment, and is of acceptable health status to be anesthetized.
There are several general rules that should be followed during
the preanesthetic and anesthetic stages:

1. Fast animals 8 to 12 hours prior to anesthesia to reduce

intestinal engorgement related to recent food consump-
tion, thus decreasing the potential for misplacing an IP
injection into an abdominal organ.
2. Perform a physical examination on all animals to eval-
uate their health status. If evidence of disease is found,
elective procedures involving anesthesia are discouraged.
3. Acclimate animals to restraint devices, if they are used,
in order to minimize distress and anxiety associated with
their use during induction of anesthesia.
4. Accurately weigh the animal immediately before calcu-
lating the anesthetic dose.
5. If atropine is to be administered, do so within 30 minutes
of anesthetic induction.
6. Accurately calculate dosages and measure doses as
closely as possible. The margin of error for misdosing a
hamster or gerbil is decreased due to their small size;
therefore, diluting out an agent 1:5 or 1:10 with sterile
water or saline allows for more accurate dose measure-
ment, and will facilitate drug absorption if given IM, IP,
and SC.
7. Assess your anesthetic technique in a pilot study if you
are unfamiliar with the procedures and anesthetic
effects.
8. Administer preanesthetic agents (sedatives or tranquil-
izers) to alleviate fear and apprehension in the animal.
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veterinary care 79

9. Monitor the animal's depth of anesthesia (methods dis-

cussed later in this chapter) and respiration. Respiration
should be slow and regular during surgical anesthesia.
10. Provide supplemental heat to the animal by placing the
animal on a circulating warm-water blanket. This is
particularly critical for smaller animals, which lose heat
rapidly due to their large body surface to body mass ratio.
11. Administer supplemental fluids to animals, particularly
if there is blood loss or if the surgery is longer than 1
hour and the animal will recover. Fluids may be given
by the subcutaneous or intraperitoneal route. Administer
at least as much fluid as blood is lost.
12. Monitor the animal's vital signs (respiratory rate, body
temperature) during the recovery period to ensure that
they are progressing toward consciousness. The animal
should be monitored periodically until it is awake.
13. Prepare for administration of postoperative analgesics
prior to initiating the procedure. In some cases, you may
wish to administer the analgesic preemptively. However,
this should be done with caution as analgesics will often
reduce the dose of anesthetic agent required.
14. Inhalant anesthetics must be used with a scavenging
system to prevent anesthetic gasses from contaminating
the room.

Stages of Anesthesia
During anesthetic induction, and throughout the anesthetic
period, there are four broad stages of anesthesia one must be
familiar with.

Stage 1: Voluntary excitement. This stage lasts from ini-

tial administration to loss of consciousness and provides
a variable degree of analgesia. Animals may become
excited, vomit, urinate, and struggle if this stage is pro-
longed.
Stage 2: Involuntary excitement: During this stage there
is development of unconsciousness and onset of regular
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80 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

breathing. Animals may whine, cry, and bellow, respira-

tion is uneven, and breath-holding is common.
Stage 3: Surgical anesthesia. The animal is unconscious
and reflexes are depressed. Muscle relaxation occurs and
respiration is slow and regular. The animal does not
respond to noxious stimulation.
Stage 4: Medullary paralysis. The central nervous system
(CNS) is extremely depressed, respiration has ceased,
and the heart beat is slowing and will eventually arrest.
Anesthesia must be discontinued and the animal’s res-
piration must be supported if the animal is expected to
recover.

Assessment of Anesthetic Depth

In order to determine that the animal is in Stage 3 (surgical
anesthesia) and not Stage 2 (non-surgical) or Stage 4 (medullary
paralysis), it is critical to monitor the depth of anesthesia. Meth-
ods used to assess depth are as follows:

1. Depth assessment — There is no single objective mea-

surement for assessing depth of anesthesia; therefore,
several indices are used to determine the animal's depth
and stage of anesthesia:

a. Ocular mystagmus is the side-to-side movement of

the eyeball during light anesthesia (Stage 2).
b. Palpebral (blink) reflex occurs when the corner of
the eyelid is lightly touched. This reflex is usually
absent during surgical anesthesia (Stage 3).
c. Corneal reflex results in blinking when the cornea
is lightly touched. Usually present during surgical
anesthesia (Stage 3) and absent during deep anes-
thesia (Stage 4).
d. Muscle tone is usually present in light anesthesia
(Stage 2) and absent in surgical anesthesia (Stage 3).
e. Respiration is usually regular and deep during sur-
gical anesthesia (Stage 3). Breathing may be irreg-
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veterinary care 81

ular and slow during light or deep anesthesia (Stage

2 and 4, respectively). If respiration speeds up, the
animal may be getting light and require more drug
to deepen the anesthetic plane.
f. Responses to painful stimuli are generally present
during light anesthesia (Stage 2) and absent during
surgical anesthesia (Stage 3). In most animals the
pedal reflex (response to a lightly pinched toe with
forceps using a pressure that would be painful in
an awake animal) is absent during surgical anes-
thesia (Stage 3). However, loss of response to painful
stimuli does not occur uniformly in all areas. It may
be possible to perform abdominal surgery in an
animal without any evidence of response to pain,
yet the animal continues to withdraw its limb when
its toe is pinched. An alternative to pinching the toe
in rodents is pinching the tail (remember that ham-
sters don’t have a tail). Rodents usually do not
respond to the tail pinch when they are at the stage
of surgical anesthesia.
g. Most anesthetics cause a dose-dependent depres-
sion of the cardiovascular system. The respiratory
system is difficlt to evaluate; however, the color of
the mucous membranes (normal is red to pink;
abnormal is prey to white) is a reflection of adequate
oxygenation and respiration. The cardivascular sys-
tem usually demonstrates a fall in blood pressure
at Stages 1 or 3, which in larger animals can be
indirectly monitored with a blood pressure machine.

Postanesthetic Monitoring
During the recovery period, many of the above indices can be
monitored to determine the animal’s progress toward recovery.
In addition, provisions should be made for the following:

1. The recovery area should be warm and quiet. Supple-

mental heat (a bottle filled with warm water or place the
cage on a circulating hot-water blanket) may be provided
to aid in maintaining an animal's body temperature.
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82 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

2. If possible, allow the animal to recover in it’s home cage.

However, do not place recovering animals in a cage with
animals that have not been anesthetized or surgically
manipulated.
3. The animal’s vital signs (respiratory rate) should be
monitored frequently until the animal is conscious.
Once the animal has regained consciousness, the sur-
gical site should be monitored frequently the first day
postoperatively and at least daily thereafter.
4. During the first day, the most critical concern is that
the surgical incision remains sutured and that there is
no bleeding as the animal moves around. Although a
slight amount of blood and serum seepage is normal
after surgery, an animal should never be returned to its
cage until all bleeding has been controlled. Postoperative
bleeding must always be attended to immediately.
5. Analgesics should be administered as instructed by the
veterinarian during the recovery period.

After 24 to 48 hours of recovery, postoperative concerns are

mainly to ensure that the surgical site heals correctly and that
the site remains infection-free. Appropriate wound dressings
and medications should be given if evidence of infection occurs
(e.g., cloudy discharge, reddening, abscess formation, purulent
discharge, wound dehiscence).
Pre- and postoperative records must be maintained by the
investigator or designated assistant. These records should
include information regarding preoperative physical examina-
tion results, anesthesia techniques (drug, dose, and route), and
evidence that the animals were monitored during the recovery
period. These records should also include postoperative medi-
cations that were administered and any special care given (e.g.,
suture removal, wound cleaning, etc.).
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veterinary care 83

characteristics of commonly used injectable

anesthetics

• Diazepam is a benzodiazepine drug; a potent tranquilizer

which produces muscle relaxation, is an anti-convul-
sant, and minimally depresses the cardiopulmonary sys-
tems. Diazepam is often combined with ketamine to
produce balanced anesthesia. Diazepam is insoluble in
water and causes muscle irritation if administered IM.
• Midazolam is also a benzodiazepine drug, but is approx-
imately 3 to 4 times as potent as diazepam; but unlike
diazepam, is water-soluble. Midazolam is used in
combination with telazol and ketamine to produce neu-
roleptanesthesia or balanced anesthesia, respectively.
Midazolam may cause respiratory depression, apnea,
and hypotension.
• Fentanyl is a narcotic analgesic which also causes seda-
tion, decreased motor activity, and an exaggerated
response to loud noises (hyperacousia). Like other nar-
cotics, fentanyl will cause hypotension, decreased car-
diac output, and respiratory depression. Fentanyl is
often combined with other agents such as fluanisone (a
neuroleptic) to produce neuroleptanalgesia. By combin-
ing fluanisone with fentanyl, analgesic activity is poten-
tiated and cardiopulmonary depression is limited.
• Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic (interrupts flow of
information from unconscious to conscious parts of the
brain) has a short duration of action, and is rapidly
metabolized by the liver. As an anesthetic, it does not
produce muscle relaxation and increases salivation. It
produces minor effects on blood pressure and cardiac
output, mild respiratory depression, and little or no effect
on pharyngeal or laryngeal muscles, thus animals retain
the swallowing reflex.
• Xylazine, when combined with ketamine, will allow the
ketamine dose to be reduced by about 1/3 of that
required with ketamine alone. Xylazine has sedative,
analgesic, and muscle-relaxing properties. Ket-
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84 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

amine/xylazine cocktails will produce good muscle relax-

ation and a smoother recovery than with ketamine alone.
Addition of xylazine will cause respiratory and cardio-
vascular depression.
• Pentobarbital is a commonly used barbiturate in which
surgical anesthesia is attained at doses close to those
which cause respiratory failure. Pentobarbital will stim-
ulate hepatic microsomal enzymes. About 90% is metab-
olized by the liver and 60% is excreted in the urine. At
anesthetic doses, it will cause hypotension, decreased
cardiac output, and decreased heart rate. Respiratory
depression may lead to apnea.

Principles of Gas Anesthesia

Inhalant anesthetic agents are administered best with a pre-
cision vaporizer which may require an induction chamber or
tracheal intubation. Consult with your veterinarian before using
these agents.

• Halothane is administered by inhalation with a precision

vaporizer at 2.5 to 4.0% for induction and 0.5 to 2% for
maintenance of anesthesia. Halothane can cause
hypotension, decreased cardiac output, and respiratory
depression. Halothane also sensitizes the heart to cate-
cholamines, which may lead to an arrhythmia. Up to
20% is metabolized by the liver, with the remainder being
excreted through the lungs.

Note: Use of halothane, like any inhalant anesthetic, requires

removal of the waste gas.

• Methoxyflurane is administered by inhalation using an

open-drop method, or through a vaporizer at 3 to 3.5%
for induction and 0.4 to 1% for maintenance of anesthe-
sia. When using the open-drop method, gauze or an
absorbent material is placed in the bottom of a bell jar
and soaked with the anesthetic. A wire platform is placed
over the gauze, allowing the animals to stand in the bell
jar without coming in contact with the anesthetic agent.
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veterinary care 85

Animals are then placed in the bell jar, the lid is closed,
and they are observed until they become anesthetized.
Upon becoming anesthetized they can be removed from
the jar and a nose cone containing gauze soaked with
the anesthetic is placed over their muzzles, allowing you
to work on them.
Methoxyflurane produces a slow induction and recovery
from anesthesia. Mildly decreased blood pressure and
mild respiratory depression occurs.

Note: Remember that all work with anesthetic agents must

be done in such a way that exposure to waste gasses is
minimal.

• Isoflurane is administered by inhalation using a preci-

sion vaporizer at 2.5 to 5% for induction and 1.2 to 2.3%
for maintenance of anesthesia. Cardiovascular depres-
sion is minimal, but respiratory depression may occur.
Isoflurane is not metabolized to any great degree, and is
excreted primarily through the lungs. Induction and
recovery from anesthesia is very rapid.

preanesthetic management
Premedication, Sedation, Tranquilization, and
Chemical Restraint
Sedatives and tranquilizers produce a mild degree of central
nervous system depression, but they do not all provide analge-
sia. These agents calm the animal and reduce apprehension.
They are most often used as a preanesthetic to reduce fear and
struggling, and to decrease the amount of anesthetic needed.
When used postoperatively, they will prolong recovery from
anesthesia.

• Acepromazine. An effective tranquilizer when given IM

or SC. The lower dose range is given for IM injections
and the higher dose for SC injections. Because gerbils
are prone to epileptiform seizures, acepromazine is not
recommended as a tranquilizer or preanesthetic.
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86 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

• Diazepam and midazolam. Not highly water-soluble

and may be an irritant when given as an IM injection.
However, it will produce mild sedation and is acceptable
for gerbils. In contrast, midazolam is water-soluble and
more appropriate for IM injections. If midazolam is sub-
stituted for diazepam, the dose is approximately 1/2 that
of diazepam.
• Xylazine. Produces very good sedation alone, and is
often combined with ketamine to provide anesthesia with
good muscle relaxation.
• Atropine and glycopyrrolate. Both may be given pre-
anesthetically to decrease salivation and respiratory
track secretions in rodents when ketamine is adminis-
tered. This effect assists in maintaining an open airway
in animals during anesthesia.

aseptic surgery
Asepsis
Asepsis is the absence of microorganisms. Aseptic surgery
involves preventing contact with microorganisms. Asepticism is
defined as the principles and practices of aseptic surgery.

Operating Room Procedures

Most of the information contained in the following sections on
operating room procedures, surgery, suture selection, and
suture patterns can be found in standard veterinary surgery
texts.67,68 Consult your veterinarian for guidance in the correct
selection of surgical materials. When performing surgery on a
rodent, the area in which the surgery is performed must be
clean, decontaminated and dedicated solely for the purpose of
performing surgery; i.e., no other procedures should be per-
formed in that area during the surgical procedure. Although a
dedicated operating room is not required for rodents,27 the trend
with modern research facilities is to require that rodent surgery
be performed in a dedicated rodent operating suite. When a
dedicated operating room is used for the surgery, proper oper-
ating room attire must be worn at all times when in the operating
room. The optimal attire for entering a rodent surgery includes
wearing a surgeon's cap, face mask, scrubs, and booties. Min-
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veterinary care 87

imal attire includes wearing a surgeon's cap, face mask, and

booties. A face mask must be worn over the mouth and nose
whenever sterile instrument packs are open or a surgical pro-
cedure is in progress.
The sole purpose of the operating room (OR) is to treat the
patient. Regardless of whether the patient is human or non-
human, specific principles must be established and adhered to.
When a dedicated OR suite is used, the following are suggested
principles for managing the OR:

1. Gowning, gloving, suturing, etc., require practice before

they are used in surgery.
2. Asepsis is an absolute requirement. When in doubt,
consider an item contaminated and re-sterilize it.
3. The surgeon and assistant must be completely familiar
with the surgical procedure.
4. No one should enter the OR area unless they are properly
attired, i.e., wearing surgical scrubs, scrub cap, special
hood or face mask, and booties if required.
5. Everything that can be possibly sterilized should be ster-
ilized if it will be used for surgery.
6. Traffic in the OR should be restricted.
7. Strict housekeeping and clean-up procedures must be
followed.

Patient Preparation:
1. Prior to surgery, the patient should be thoroughly eval-
uated as described previously.
2. Preanesthetic and anesthetic drug doses should be cal-
culated based upon the animal's current fasted weight.
3. Gerbils and hamsters may be fasted for 8 to 12 hours
prior to abdominal surgery to decrease intestinal
engorgement.
4. The potential for reduction of contamination of the oper-
ating field should be taken whenever possible. The fol-
lowing measures may be taken:
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88 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

a. Before anesthetizing the animal, clean widely

around the surgical area if the patient is
cooperative. This will minimize the time the
animal must spend anesthetized.
b. After the animal is anesthetized, clip away the
hair from around the surgery site and clean the
surgery site (to be described).
c. Administer antibiotics during surgery and/or
postoperatively if needed. Never use antibiotics
in place of aseptic surgical technique. However,
they may be appropriate in prolonged surgical
procedures.
d. Use sterile drapes to isolate the operative field,
provided they do not obstruct the surgery site or
the ability to monitor the animal.
5. If preanesthetics are to be used, administer them 15 to
30 minutes prior to anesthetizing the animal.

Surgical Site Preparation:

1. Clip hair away from the surgical site. Clipping widely
around the proposed site and extend the clipped area if
necessary.
2. Disinfect the surgery site with an antiseptic scrub (e.g.,
Betadine scrub) and a rinse. Typically a 70% ethanol
may be used to rinse away the scrubbing soap, but in
small rodents such as the hamster or gerbil, this may
cause hypothermia. Sterile water may be more appropri-
ate. Three rounds of scrubbing and rinsing is recom-
mended when preparing the site.
3. Surgery site disinfection should begin at the intended
incision line, with scrubbing being done in a circular
motion, proceeding outward with each revolution. The
sponge should never be brought back from a contami-
nated edge of the surgical area to the clean center. The
sponge should be discarded after one pass over the sur-
gical field.
4. A new, sterile sponge should be used for each cycle of
scrubbing and rinsing.
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veterinary care 89

5. After the site is prepared, the area is draped and the

animal is positioned for surgery. A final preparation anti-
septic (e.g., Betadine solution) is applied before surgery.

Surgeon Preparation:
1. High standards of personal hygiene are necessary for the
surgeon and assistant to maintain aseptic technique.
2. The fingernails of the surgeon and assistant(s) should
be clipped short, and all street clothing, watches, brace-
lets, and rings removed.
3. When a dedicated OR is used for the surgery, proper
operating room attire must be worn at all times when in
the OR. The optimal attire for entering a rodent surgery
includes wearing a surgeon's cap, face mask, scrubs,
and booties. Minimal attire includes wearing a surgeon's
cap, face mask, and booties. A face mask must be worn
over the mouth and nose whenever sterile instrument
packs are open or a surgical procedure is in progress.
4. Hand scrubbing can be accomplished through a variety
of routines. The following routine is suggested:
a. The surgeon's cap, face mask, booties, and scrub
suit must be adjusted correctly before beginning
scrubbing. Hands and arms are thoroughly wet to
above the elbow. Hands are held upright so that
water runs down off the elbows into the sink (not
onto your scrubs).
b. A liquid soap is used to prewash the hands and
arms and is rinsed off. Fingernails are cleaned
(underneath) thoroughly, and a sterile brush or
sponge is opened. One hand at a time is cleaned.
The sponge is used to brush under the fingernails,
each finger is brushed with several strokes on each
of the 4 sides. As you move down the hand, each
side is brushed. Once an area is cleaned the brush
is never moved back up to that area because bac-
teria may be carried up with it.
c. The arm is scrubbed down to the elbow. After com-
pleting one arm, allow the lather to remain on that
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90 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

arm while scrubbing the other arm. The brush is

rinsed off and transferred to the opposite hand
(clean scrubbed hand) for scrubbing. The entire
process is repeated on the opposite hand and arm.
d. Once scrubbing is completed, both arms can be
rinsed off, allowing the soap to run from the finger
tips off the elbows and into the sink. A final lath-
ering and rinsing may be done on both arms if
necessary. This entire process may take 7 to 10
minutes.

Gowning
If a sterile gown is worn, it should only be considered sterile
from the mid-chest to the top of the surgical table. The sterile
pack is opened by the OR nurse or the assistant surgeon,
exposing the sterile hand towel and gown. The towel is lifted
with one hand. One arm is dried and the towel is transferred
to the dry hand. The opposite arm is dried with a clean area of
the towel. The towel is dropped to the floor or a table top. Grasp
a gown and remove it from the pack. Allow the gown to unfold
but hold it high enough to keep it from touching the floor. Do
not touch any part of the gown’s exterior. slip the arms into the
sleeves and allow the OR assistant to adjust and tie the gown
from the rear.

Gloving
Closed-gloving involves picking the sterile gloves up without
pushing your arms through the gown sleeve and slipping them
on your hands. Open-gloving involves pushing hands through
the end of your sleeves, picking up the glove (from the inside)
and slipping them on. After gloving, the surgeon should always
keep his or her hands above the waist. The animal can now be
covered with sterile drapes.

basic surgical techniques

Surgical Principles to Promote Wound Healing
1. Ascepsis controls postoperative infections.
2. Gentle tissue handling minimizes tissue trauma.
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veterinary care 91

3. Hemostasis minimizes blood loss, decreases infections,

and preserves blood supply for the healing process.
4. Wound irrigation with sterile saline cleans the surgical
site and keeps tissue moist and alive.
5. Appropriate selection of suture material minimizes
wound infection and promotes healing.
6. Correct suture patterns and wound closure allow the
wound to heal quicker.
7. Postoperative wound management decreases healing
time.
8. A tissue at rest heals best. Try to minimize the animal's
movement during recovery.
9. Removal of all sponges and instruments from the surgi-
cal site is critical. Count your sponges!
10. Wounds heal from side to side and not end to end. It is
better to make the incision longer and improve exposure
than to stretch a small incision.
11. Monitor the animal during recovery to ensure that it does
not damage the surgery site, and that complications are
attended to.
12. Sutures should be removed after 7 to 14 days of wound
healing.

Wound Closure
For recovery surgeries, several tissues must be held in oppo-
sition while the healing process takes place. Tissue may be held
together with sutures, staples, clips, adhesive skin strips, or
surgical glue (cyanoacrylate). In order to provide skin apposition
throughout the heling process, the correct shoice of wound
closure material is required.

Complications of Wound Healing

Occasionally, in spite of the many precautions taken, com-
plications arise in wound healing. This is particularly true with
animals since they may chew, lick, and untie sutures. The most
serious complications are postoperative infections and/or
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92 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

wound disruption, i.e., dehiscence. If wound infection occurs, a

culture of the discharge or incision site should be taken for
identification of the causative microorganism, and to determine
an appropriate antibiotic regimen. If wound dehiscence occurs,
the animal must be reanesthetized and the wound cleaned and
reclosed.

guidelines for selecting sutures

Types of Sutures
These are two types of suture: nonabsorbable and absorbable.
Nonabsorbable suture remains where it is placed, unless used
to close the skin, in which case it is removed at a later date.
Absorbable sutures are degraded by enzymes at various rates,
eventually dissolving. A second subdivision of suture material
is monofilament (single-strand) or multifilament (multi-strand).
Multifilament sutures tend to have better known strength; how-
ever, they will harbor microorganisms and act as a wick for
microbial entry into the surgical site. Monofilament sutures
resist microbial infection, and the knot ties down smoothly.

The Size and Strength of a Suture

The size and strength of a suture varies. The size is indicated
numerically and denotes the diameter. As the number of zeros
(0's) increases, the size decreases. 5-0 is smaller than 4-0. The
smaller the size, the less the tensile strength. When selecting a
suture, the tensile strength of a suture material does not need
to exceed the tensile strength of the tissue. By following this
principle, use of small size sutures is promoted. However, since
tissue enzymes decrease suture strength with time, loss of
suture strength must always be considered when selecting a
suture.

Sutures for Closure of Incisions

• Peritoneum — This layer is usually closed with the

posterior fascia or an overlying muscle layer. A monofil-
ament (stainless steel, proline) or multifilament suture
may be used. Either absorbable or non-absorbable
suture may be used.
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veterinary care 93

• Fascia — This layer of connective tissue overlying muscle

bears the maximum stress of the wound and must be
closed with a moderate sized nonabsorbable or slowly
absorbable suture. Monofilament (stainless steel, pro-
line) or multifilament suture may be used.
• Muscle — Sutures are usually of the same materials as
those used for fascia.
• Subcutaneous fat — Will not tolerate sutures well. How-
ever, to close dead space, fat may sometimes be sutured.
Sutures used to ligate blood vessels (silk, gut) may be
used.
• Subcuticular tissue — This tough layer of connective
tissue underlies the skin. When sutured, it will hold the
skin in apposition. Most frequently, if minimal tension
is present, surgical gut or polymeric materials are used.
• Skin sutures — Monofilament sutures, staples, wound
clips, and surgical grade cyanoacrylate tissue adhesive
are used for skin closure. Multifilament sutures may act
as a wick to draw microorganisms into the wound, so
they are not recommended. When a subcuticular suture
pattern is used, skin sutures are often removed by day 10.

Organ and Tissue Sutures

• Stomach — The stomach heals rapidly, thus, absorbable

sutures are acceptable.
• Small intestine — Absorbable monofilament sutures are
often used, as the small intestine heals quickly.
• Colon and rectum — Leakage of colonic contents can
cause peritonitis. Therefore, a non-wicking monofilament
suture that is non-absorbable or slowly absorbable
should be used. The mucosal layer should not be pene-
trated with the suture, if possible.
• Respiratory tract — Monofilament sutures are the best
choice to minimize the potential for infections.
• Cardiovascular systems (vessels) — Ligating can be
done with small or medium-sized monofilament or mul-
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94 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

tifilament sutures, providing that the knot strength is

good. For anastomosis of vessels, a monofilament suture
is used.
• Urinary tract — Nonabsorbable sutures must not be
used as they will create a site for future infections.

Suture Needles
Suture needles come in many varieties and sizes and may be
either straight or curved. The points of suture needles may be
tapered (round), may have a cutting edge like a bayonet, spear,
or trocar or may be blunt. Except where tissue resistance (in
the skin, for example) demands a cutting point for each pene-
tration, tapered needles are commonly used, since they produce
minimal trauma. The elastic tissues soon obliterate the small,
circular hole made by the round point; whereas the needles with
a cutting edge leave a pathway through the tissue so that undue
tension on the suture may cause it to tear. Blunt needles are
used to dissect through friable or parenchymatous tissues such
as the liver, kidney or spleen.67,68
Needles may have eyes like ordinary sewing needles; they may
be eyeless and swaged (attached to the end of the suture) or
they may have spring eyes (French needle). Swaged needles
(attached to the end of the suture) are always used for delicate
work where it is essential to minimize trauma, and are the most
common type of needle used for recovery surgeries. Needles
should be threaded carefully from the inside (if curved) without
tension, which may cause fraying.

Suturing
Good apposition of tissues is dependent on choosing the right
suture material, needle, and pattern and then using them prop-
erly. A needle is less likely to break and is more easily directed
if it is held along the shank rather than near the point or the
eye. Trauma can be minimized by using the smallest needle that
will accomplish approximation of the tissues.
There are many varieties of suture patterns, but the beginning
surgeon should attempt to master only the few basic patterns
that are routinely used. The choice of pattern should be based
on three criteria: (1) will it hold the tissues in the requested
position without undue tension; (2) does it distribute tension on
2566 /ch04/frame Page 95 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:55 PM

veterinary care 95

the suture material and tissue in such a manner as not to exceed

the tensile strength of the suture material; and (3) does it require
a minimum amount of suture material?

Surgical Knot Tying

Dexterity and speed in tying knots can be acquired only by
practice, and the surgeon should practice tying knots until it
becomes second nature. Knot tying should be practiced on a
board covered with material, and not on the animal. The knot
must be tied firmly so that it will not slip, but the tissues must
not be pulled together so tightly that the blood supply is cut off
and healing is impeded. Although a wide variety of complicated
knots can be used, the surgeon should concentrate on using
the square knot.
For rodent surgery, most knots are tied with a needle-holder,
so this technique should be practiced. The needle-holder is
useful when the end of the suture is short or when the suture
material or gloves are slippery. The needle-holder should be
applied only to the end of the sutures because the jaws of this
instrument will break fibers it holds. When tying knots with
your fingers, the surgeon should do so with a steady, equal pull
on each end of the suture material.67,68

Suture Removal
Removal of exposed sutures should be done sometime
between the 4th and the 14th postoperative day, depending on
(1) the extent of the wound, (2) evidence of infection, and (3) the
physical stress to which the wound may be subjected.
If healing is by first intention and the scar is supported by
underlying sutures or is in a location where movement is slight,
the skin sutures may safely be removed early. If healing is
delayed for any reason, the skin sutures should be left in longer.
In long, weight-bearing incisions (such as midline abdominal
incisions), the sutures should remain in place at least 10 days
and sometimes as long as 2 weeks.
When removing the sutures, one must take care to avoid
contamination of the wound. This will be less of a problem if
the knots are tied to one side of the incision. After all the sutures
have been removed, the incision site should again be cleansed
with an antiseptic.
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96 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

postoperative management of pain

Analgesia
Analgesic agents are used to produce relief from pain without
causing loss of consciousness. Although they are most com-
monly used postoperatively, they are also very useful in many
non-operative situations. In order to appropriately determine
when analgesics should be used, it is helpful to divide pain into
three levels of magnitude: mild, moderate, and severe.

1. Mild pain is a nuisance; it is tolerable and may or may

not require analgesia. This level of pain does not interfere
with the behavior of an animal and is difficult to identify.
Treatment is not usually indicated. Pain categorized as
mild may be associated with minor surgery, licking, or
healing wounds. Mild pain can be produced manipulat-
ing the involved area of an animal; however, this area is
not painful when at rest.
2. Moderate pain starts to interfere with normal behavior,
appetite, and activity. This level of pain is equated with
that which would cause a human to seek relief, and
would alter his/her activities such that they lose sleep,
work less effectively, etc. In most cases, this level of pain
in animals warrants relief. However, in an animal that
has pain related to disc disease or a fractured bone, total
abolition of pain may cause the animal to further injure
itself. In many postoperative situations, pain can be
minimized but not alleviated entirely. In the non-opera-
tive situation it is important to learn to recognize symp-
toms of moderate pain (decreased activity, decreased
appetite, decreased tolerance to handling, loss of mobil-
ity, etc.) and examine the animal to determine if provid-
ing analgesia is appropriate.
3. Severe pain might be defined as that which is intolera-
ble. The animal may throw itself around the cage, pace,
lose weight etc. In these cases, either administration of
analgesics or euthanasia of the animal is indicated.
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veterinary care 97

TABLE 14. DRUGS AND DOSES FOR ADMINISTERING

ANALGESIA TO HAMSTERS AND GERBILS
Drugb Hamster Gerbil

Butorphanol 1–5, q2–q4h 1–5, q2–4h

Buprenorphine 0.05–0.5, q8-12h 0.05–0.2,q8–12h
Pentazocine 10, q2-4h 10, q2-4h
Nalbuphine 4-8, q3h 4-8, q3h
Oxymorphone 0.2–0.5, q6–12h 0.3-0.5, q6-12h
Meperidine 20, q2–3h 20, q2–3h
Morphine 2-5, q2–4h 2-5, q2–4h
Flunixin 2.5, q12–24h 2.5,q12–24h

b All values are given in mg/kg IM or SC.66

postoperative care of animals

The surgeon or principle investigator is responsible for post-
operative care of the animal. The investigator may be relieved
of this responsibility when they have prearranged for the ani-
mals care to be tended for by another trained individual. If a
surgery ends late at night and no previous transfer of respon-
sibility has been make, the investigator remains responsible
until this responsibility is passed on.
Effective postoperative care improves the animal's recovery.
Postoperative care begins when the incision is closed and
includes the following:

1. Treating all problems resulting from surgical manipula-

tion, and maintaining nutritional balance and hydration.
2. Providing heat (hot-water bottle or circulating hot-water
blanket) to maintain the animal's body temperature dur-
ing recovery.
3. Monitoring the animal's vital signs (temperature and
respiration) at regular intervals until the animal is awake
and able to right itself.
4. Relieve pain when appropriate.
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98 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

5. Monitor the animal daily for surgical wound healing and

evidence of infection.
6. Evaluate the animal’s temperature and respiration,
appetite, fluid intake, feces and urine output, and char-
acter.
7. Dressing the wound (topical antibiotics, gauze to protect
the wound, and bandaging) if needed.

euthanasia
Euthanasia is a term which by definition provides its own
guidelines: to produce a rapid and painless death. Criteria
that are essential for a painless death include rapid induction
of unconsciousness followed by respiratory and/or cardiac
arrest. For both humane and scientific reasons, these are guide-
lines that all investigators are obligated to uphold. Tables 15
and 16 present a list of clinical signs and findings that indicate
the animal is in a morbid or moribund condition.

When to Euthanatize an Animal?

In most cases the research proposal defines the time when
an animal must be euthanatized prior to study initiation. How-
ever, there are many instances when an animal becomes ill
during a study and a decision must be made as to whether or
not the animal is euthanatized or the medical problem is prop-
erly addressed. If medical treatment would interfere with the
validity of the experiment or data interpretation, the animal
should be euthanatized rather than permitted to suffer. The
decision to allow the animal to continue to suffer with a medical
problem without treatment is below acceptable standards of
veterinary medicine. In addition, allowing an animal with a
medical problem to remain on study will alter it’s normal phys-
iology, and will compromise the data being collected.

Guidelines for Recognizing Morbid and Moribund

Animals
The decision as to when unscheduled euthanasia should be
considered is difficult to make. Veterinarians are trained to
recognize and diagnose normal health and well-being, as well
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veterinary care 99

as variations from normal in laboratory animals. When concerns

arise regarding the health of an animal, veterinarians are avail-
able to assist investigators in determining the status and appro-
priate disposition of the animal. With their assistance, a timely
and accurate decision regarding whether or not to treat or
euthanatize an animal can be made.
The following lists, compiled from References 69, 70, 71, and
72, are provided as general guidelines regarding when an animal
should be evaluated by a veterinarian for treatment or eutha-
nasia. It is important to remember that no single sign is neces-
sarily indicative of a serious disease. The entire clinical picture
should be evaluated by a veterinarian in order to make the
correct decision.

Signs of Morbidity (Disease or Illness) in Animals:

1. Slow, shallow, labored breathing.
2. Hunched posture.
3. Ruffled fur (rough hair coat).
4. Rapid weight loss (20 to 25% in 1 week).
5. Anorexia.
6. Hypothermia (often occurs with piloerection).
7. Hyperthermia.
8. Elevated respiratory rate.
9. Diarrhea or constipation.
10. Skin sores, infections, or necrotic tumors.
11. Decreased activity.
12. Change in behavior.

Selected Criteria for Euthanasia of Moribund (Dying)

Animals:

1. Rapid weight loss (20 to 25% in 1 week).

2. Partial or sustained anorexia leading to extended weight
loss and emaciation.
3. Impaired mobility restricting access to food and
water.
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100 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

4. Spreading hair loss caused by disease.

5. Rough coat, hunched posture, or distended abdomen
leading to lethargy, especially if prolonged (3 days).
6. Diarrhea, especially if debilitating (3 days) or leading to
emaciation.
7. Prolonged or intense diuresis leading to emaciation.
8. Persistent coughing, wheezing, and respiratory
distress.
9. Distinct icterus (jaundice; yellow color to skin).
10. Persistent bleeding from any orifice.
11. Anemia leading to debilitation.
12. Rapid growth of a mass, or clinical signs of leukemia.
13. Paralysis.
14. CNS signs (head tilt, tremors, spasticity, seizures, cir-
cling, or weakness) especially if hindering the animal's
ability to obtain food or water.
15. Persistent self-induced trauma.
16. Markedly discolored urine; increased or decreased urine
volume.
17. Lesions interfering with eating, drinking, or ambulation.
18. Clinical signs of infection requiring a diagnostic
necropsy.
19. Necrotic tissue or tumors.
20. Other clinical signs judged as being of moribund
conditions.

Note: Regardless of the method of euthanasia selected, the

person performing this procedure must subsequently ensure
that the animal is dead. This may be done by opening the
animals chest (thoracotomy) to create a pneumothorax. Pref-
erably the thoracotomy is done on each side of the chest to
ensure that all lung tissue deflates. This procedure must be
done before the animal is disposed of.
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veterinary care 101

common methods of euthanasia for hamsters

and gerbils
A complete summary of recommendations for euthanasia can
be found in the 1993 “Report of the American Veterinary Asso-
ciation Panel on Euthanasia.73 Summarized below are common
methods of euthanasia.

Barbiturate Overdose
Use of barbiturates requires that the facility have a Drug
Enforcement Agency (DEA) registration for purchase and use of
controlled substances. For euthanasia, pentobarbital is com-
monly administered, intraperitoneally, at a dose of 100 to 150
mg/kg. If a commercially available barbiturate euthanasia agent
is used, the manufacturers directions should be followed.

Inhalant Anesthesia
Carbon dioxide is often used to euthanatize small rodents.
Compressed gas is recommended over the use of dry ice. If dry
ice is used, measures must be taken to prevent the animals
from coming in contact with the dry ice.

Physical Methods
Cervical dislocation or decapitation may be used, provided
they are approved by the IACUC and scientifically justified. Use
of a plastic decapitation cone may be useful in restraining the
animals while performing the procedure. A commercially avail-
able guillotine for rodents should be used. Before performing
this procedure, you should consult with the veterinarian for
specific training and instructions on this technique. Whenever
possible, the animal should be sedated or anesthetized prior to
performing cervical dislocation or decapitation.
2566 /ch04/frame Page 102 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:55 PM

notes
2566 /ch05/frame Page 103 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:56 PM

5
experimental methodology

Hamsters and gerbils have been used for a wide variety of

experimental models. The purpose of this chapter is to describe
the more common techniques used when handling hamsters
and gerbils for experimental procedures. Hamsters and gerbils
are not typically placed into mechanical restraint devices; there-
fore none of these devices are shown or described. The proce-
dures shown in the chapter focus on hand restraint. As noted
in earlier chapters, the personnel performing the experimental
manipulations must be properly trained in the procedures.

hamster handling and restraint

Hamsters have a reputation for being aggressive. They gen-
erally exhibit such behavior after being startled, awakened, or
handled roughly. Therefore, it is important to let the hamster
know you are present before you handle them.

Methods for Picking a Hamster Up:

1. Hamsters may be picked up by the loose skin of the neck

(Figure 37), but care must be taken to prevent them from
turning and biting the handler.
2. Hamsters may be picked up by cupping them in your
hands (Figure 38), or by gripping them over the back
(similar to picking up a baseball).
103
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104 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 37. Hamsters may be moved by lifting them by the loose

skin over their back.

Fig. 38. Hamsters may be picked up by cupping them in your

hand as shown.
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experimental methodology 105

3. A protective glove may be worn for hamsters that are

unaccustomed to handling; however, gloves may cause
discomfort to the animals thereby developing an associ-
ation between the glove, discomfort, and aggression.

Hamster Restraint
When hamsters are to be restrained, the loose skin of their
neck must be gathered-up tightly to immobilize the animal
(Figure 39). First, wake the hamster up if it is sleeping; a startled
hamster is often aggressive. Next, remove the hamster from its
cage and place it on a flat surface. Place your palm down over
the hamster, with your thumb near the head. Slowly close your
hand as you gather up the loose skin, being careful to avoid
grasping the body. As you pick the hamster up you will find
that it is securely held, and the skin is taut over the chest and
abdomen.

Fig. 39. Hamsters may be restrained by grasping the skin over

their shoulders and pulling it tightly as they are picked up.
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106 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

gerbil handling and restraint

Because the gerbil is gentile and docile, it is unnecessary to
wear gloves to protect you from bite wounds when handling
them. The main handling concern is that if startled by a loud
or sudden noise, it may leap out of the cage and injure itself.

Fig. 40. An easy way to move a gerbil is to scoop it up in the

palm of your hands. Be careful that it does not jump out of your
hands.

Fig. 41 and 42. When restraining a gerbil, grab it by the base

of its tail, then lift it up and reach over with your other hand
to grasp the skin over it’s neck. Lift the gerbil up and pull the
skin over the neck tightly to restrain the animal.
2566 /ch05/frame Page 107 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:56 PM

experimental methodology 107

Fig. 42.

The primary method for handling a gerbil are to close your

cupped hands over the animal and gently scoop it up in the
palms of your hands (Figure 40), or grasp the gerbil by the
base of it’s tail (the tail skin may pull off if you grab the tail
anywhere but at the base) with one hand and reach under the
gerbil to lift and support it’s body with your other hand. When
restraining a gerbil, the tail base may be grabbed with one hand
while reaching forward with the opposite hand to pick the gerbil
up by the skin overlying the neck (Figures 41 and 42). Gerbils
detest being placed on their back and will struggle if this is
attempted.

sample collection
Blood Collection Sites
There is no preferred route for blood collection for the hamster
or gerbil. The most common non-terminal blood collection routes
used are summarized in Table 15, with a description of the
procedures used for those and other routes included in the text
2566 /ch05/frame Page 108 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:56 PM

108 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

following the table. Likewise, routes used when blood is collected

as a terminal procedure are described in the text.

TABLE 15. COMMON SITES FOR BLOOD COLLECTION FROM

HAMSTERS AND GERBILS

Tail Orbital
Tail Tip Vein Venous Jugular Cardiac
Amputation Artery Sinus Vein Puncture
Hamster – – + + ++
Gerbil ++ ++ ++ + ++

Collection sites are summarized from Reference 74.

+ Possible as an alternative for blood collection.
++ Acceptable route for blood collection.
* Cardiac puncture is generally only used for terminal blood
collection, unless the IACUC has approved

Blood Volume
Rapid removal of too much blood can produce hypovolemic
shock. Removal of 10% of the animals blood volume will set off
homeostatic responses (cholinergic), 15 to 20% will alter cardiac
output and blood pressure, and 30 to 40% may induce hemor-
rhagic shock.74 Repeated collections of small amounts of blood
can result in the same effect. Therefore, if greater than 10% of
the animal’s circulating blood volume (1 ml/100 g body weight)
is removed at a single collection point, replacement of the blood
volume with a physiologic solution (e.g., Normosol R, 0.9%
saline, lactated Ringer’s solution) warmed to body temperature
is recommended. If repeated blood samples are collected from
the same animal over the course of 1 to 2 days or on a weekly
basis, the amount of blood per sample should be decreased to
a maximum of 1.0% of the animals circulating volume every 24
hours. This will permit the animal to begin regenerating blood
and recover from the blood loss. Once again, donor blood or
physiologic fluid (e.g., Normosol R, 0.9% saline, lactated Ringer’s
solution) can be given to minimize the stress of blood depletion
and hypovolemia. The animal's hematocrit can also be moni-
tored to be sure it does not become anemic.
Although the hamster and gerbil are reported to have a blood
volume equivalent to 7.8% and 6.7% of their body weight,74
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experimental methodology 109

respectively, for this discussion we will assume that total blood

volume of both is equal to approximately 6% of the animal’s
body weight. (For example, a 100-gram gerbil has a total blood
volume of 6%, which equals 0.06 × 100 g = 6 g blood = 6 ml
total blood volume.) By using this assumption, a margin of safety
is built into calculations for the maximum amount of blood what
can be withdrawn safely.
When collecting all of the blood possible from an animal
("exsanguinating or bleeding out"), you can expect to collect 1/2
of the animal's total blood volume. For example, if a 100 g gerbil
has a total blood volume of 6 ml:1/2 or 3 ml (3% of body weight)
is available when exsanguinated.

Note: Animals should only be exsanguinated while under

general anesthesia.

Blood Collection Vials

When collecting blood, a variety of blood collection vials can
be used (see Figure 43). When plasma or cellular constituents
are desired, use of tubes containing an appropriate anticoagu-
lant such as EDTA is recommended (lavender-top tube). Tubes
contaiining heparin as an anticoagulant may also be useful. If
blood glucose is to be measured, sodium fluoride is often added
to the collection tube.
When serum is required, a red-top tube is used. This tube
will separate the clot from the serum.

Blood Collection
hamsters
Possible routes for non-terminal blood collection are listed
above. The procedures used for these routes are similar to those
described for rats and mice.

1. Collection of blood from the orbital sinus should be

performed only with the animal anesthetized. Once the
animal is anesthetized, it is held firmly by the scruff of
the neck on a solid surface, allowing the eye to protrude.
It is important not to obstruct the animal’s ability to
breathe when performing this procedure. A heparinized
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110 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 43. A variety of blood collection vials are used as shown

above. Anesthesia may be required for the blood collection. The
blood collection site should be decontaminated with a prep pad.

hematocrit tube or a Pasteur pipette is inserted into the

lateral canthus of the eye and directed medially and
posterior, toward the back of the orbit, until it hits the
bony wall of the eye socket and penetrates the venous
sinus. Blood is then collected from the free tip of the
capillary tube. Place gentle pressure on the eye following
collection to stop the bleeding. Application of a topical
ophthalmic anesthetic such as proparacaine to the eye
will provide relief from post-procedural pain, and is
highly recommended.

2. The lateral tarsal vein, which lies on the lateral side of

the hind foot, may be used for blood collection. A 25
gauge or smaller needle is inserted into the occluded
vein. As blood flows into the hub, it can be collected in
a hematocrit tube or a blood collection tube.
3. The abdominal vena cava or abdominal aorta may be
used in anesthetized animals as a terminal blood collec-
tion procedure. This vein lies directly below the spinal
column within the abdominal cavity. A ventral midline
2566 /ch05/frame Page 111 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:56 PM

experimental methodology 111

incision of the abdomen, with reflection of the intestinal

tract to one side or the other, will expose this vein.
4. Because of the potential for causing post-procedural
problems such as cardiac tamponade or a collapsed
lung, cardiac puncture is generally only used for ter-
minal blood collection, unless the IACUC has
approved this method as a recovery procedure. When
cardiac puncture is used anesthesia is always
required. The procedure may be done with the animal
laying on its side or back. With the animal on its back,
the needle is advanced to the left of the xiphisternal
junction at a 30 degree angle down into the heart (Figure
44). The needle should be directed at the apex beat. The
heart can also be approached from the right or left side
at the 4th to 5th intercostal junction, with the needle
being directed at the apex beat.
5. Tail tip clipping is not used in the hamster. However,
toenail clipping may be used to collect small amounts
of blood. Pressure must be applied to the site of collection
until bleeding stops.

gerbils

1. Blood can be collected from unanesthetized animals from

the lateral tail vein. This is done by placing pressure
on the tail vein by gently squeezing the base of the tail
to restrict the flow of blood out of the vien. A needle is
then inserted into the vein. It may be necessary to dip
the gerbil's tail in warm water (11oF) for 10 to 20 seconds
to promote blood flow. In addition, placing the animal in
a thermostatically warmed chamber (30 to 35oC for 10
to 15 minutes) will result in vasodilation.
2. Collection of blood from the retro-orbital sinus from the
medial canthus can be used. As with the hamster, this
method should include some form of short-term sedation
or anesthesia, and the procedure is carried out as
described with the hamster. Application of a topical oph-
thalmic anesthetic should also be considered to provide
post-procedural analgesia.
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112 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

3. Cardiac puncture may also be used as described with

the hamster and should be reserved for terminal bleeding
unless approved otherwise by the IACUC. Similarly, col-
lection of blood from the abdominal vena cava or abdom-
inal aorta may be used and is a terminal procedure that
should only be done under anesthesia.

Note: Cardiac puncture should only be used if approved by

the animal care and use committee. When cardiac puncture
is performed, anesthesia is always required.

Fig. 44. The cardiac puncture procedure may be done with

the animal on its side or back. With the animal on its back, the
needle is advanced to the left of the xiphisternal junction, down-
ward at a 30 degree angle into the heart. The plunger on the
syringe should be withdrawn slightly so that blood will be pulled
into the syringe when the heart is entered.

4. Tail-tip clipping or toenail clipping may be used to

collect small amounts (0.1 to 0.2 ml) of blood. The tail
tip should only be used 1 or 2 times, otherwise the
coccygeal vertebrae will become involved. Pressure must
be applied to the site of collection until bleeding stops.
5. The gerbil may be exsanguinated from the abdominal
vena cava or abdominal aorta as described for the
hamster.
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experimental methodology 113

Urine and Feces Collection

Usually urine is collected in directly from the bladder at
necropsy, or using a metabolism cage. When using a metabolism
cage, note that since hamsters and gerbils void a small volume
of urine, it may evaporate during the collection period, thus
affecting the specific gravity and possibly other parameters.
Feces are usually collected as a fresh sample from the metab-
olism cage pan, or directly from the colon at necropsy.

test article/compound administration

For both the hamster and gerbil, with the exception of intra-
venous injections, most injections and intubations are done as
in the rat or mouse. The skin over the injection site is often
cleaned with an alcohol wipe before administering the injection.
Compounds can also be given by parenteral or oral routes.

Parenteral Routes

intravenous injections
Needles of 23 to 25 gauge are typically used for most injec-
tions. However, for very viscous substances, a larger needle (21
gauge) may be required. Prior to administering any injection,
once the needle is inserted into the area the injection is to be
given, it is appropriate to draw back on the syringe plunger to
determine if the needle is inserted into a blood vessel. If, upon
drawing back the plunger, you see a flash of red in the needle
hub, you are in a vessel and may proceed to give theinjection.
Since hamsters lack an easily accessible tail vein, most IV
injections are made in the cephalic vein (anterior forearm), tarsal
vein (lateral side of hind limb), lingual vein, orbital venous sinus
or jugular vein (requires anesthesia and a surgical cutdown). In
addition, since repeated IV injections are so difficult in the
hamster, intracardiac injections may be used, provided the pro-
cedure is approved by the IACUC.
When using the cephalic vein, which runs along the anterior
medial aspect of the forearm the animal is anesthetized and a
rubber band tourniquet is applied at the elbow, causing the vein
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114 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

to enlarge and engorge. Once the vein is engorged, the needle

is inserted at a 10 degree angle, and an injection of up to 0.3
ml is easily given. No reinjections are given for 24 hours.75
With the jugular vein, the skin overlying the vein must be
prepared for a surgical cutdown. A veterinarian should be con-
sulted before this procedure is used. Likewise, a veterinarian
should be consulted if the lingual vein or orbital venous sinus
are used for injection, and these procedures should only be
performed on anesthetized animals.
Intracardiac injections are generally given with the animal
laying anesthetized on its back. The needle is inserted as
described for cardiac bleeding, and the injection given slowly.
With proper training, repeated intracardiac injections are pos-
sible.
In gerbils, the lateral tail vein is accessible and commonly
used for IV injections. It may be necessary to dip the gerbil’s
tail in warm water (11oF) for 10 to 20 seconds to promote
vasodilatation for easier injections, or use the heating chamber
as described previously for blood collection. Once the vein
becomes dilated, the base of the tail is firmly gripped and a
needle (23 gauge or smaller) is inserted into the vein. When a
flash of blood is seen in the hub of the needle, the injection is
given. If the injection was given correctly, the tail vein will
temporarily blanch

subcutaneous injections
Most subcutaneous injections are easily given between the
shoulder blades in both hamsters and gerbils.(Figure 45). The
skin is tented with one hand and the needle is inserted under
the skin. Once this is done, draw back on the syringe plunger
to determine if you have inserted the needle into a bleed vessel.
If you see a flash of red in the needle hub, you are in a vessel
and must withdraw the needle and place it in a new location.
If you do not see blood when drawing back on the syringe
plunger, the injection may be given. Since hamsters are
restrained by the skin over the shoulder blade, subcutaneous
injection may also be given in the inguinal region.
2566 /ch05/frame Page 115 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

experimental methodology 115

Fig. 45. Most subcutaneous injections are given between the

shoulder blades. The skin is tented with one hand and the needle
is inserted under the skin.

intramuscular injections
The caudal thigh muscles are most frequently used for intra-
muscular injections as depicted in Figures 46 and 47. Care must
be taken to avoid injecting into the sciatic nerve that runs
laterally along hip and the hind limb.

intraperitoneal injections
Intraperitoneal injections are generally given in the lower left
or right abdominal quadrant while the animal’s head is tilted
downward (Figure 48). Once the syringe is placed in the abdom-
inal cavity, the plunger is slightly withdrawn. If any intestinal
contents are seen in the syringe (brown or green liquid, or urine),
the needle should be withdrawn and administration attempted
again with a new needle and syringe. Since the gerbil detests
being placed on it’s back, this procedure must be modified to
prevent them from struggling. The gerbil is restrained as previ-
ously described, and while held vertically, the needle is slipped
into the abdominal quadrant.13
2566 /ch05/frame Page 116 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

116 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 46. When giving an intramuscular injection, the injection

is given in the caudal thigh muscles (depicted with the overlying
tissue removed) in an area (A) that will avoid injecting into the
sciatic nerve.

Fig. 47. This figure shows the restraint method and injection
site for administering an intramuscular injection.
2566 /ch05/frame Page 117 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

experimental methodology 117

Fig. 48. An intraperitoneal injection is typically given in the

lower left or lower right quadrant of the abdomen. It is important
to withdraw the plunger before making the injection. Any mate-
rial withdrawn into the syringe would indicate that the needle
has entered an abdominal structure and must be withdrawn,
changed and redirected before the injection is given.

Oral Route

gavage
Dosing hamsters and gerbils with a gavage needle (stainless
steel stomach tube with a ball tip: Figure 49) is performed while
the hamster or gerbil is restrained as previously described. A
18- or 20-gauge, stainless-steel ball-tipped gavage needle of
approximately 10-12 cm long is used. Before inserting the nee-
dle, the distance between the mouth and stomach (last rib) is
measured (Figure 50). This gives you a general idea of how far
the tube must be inserted to reach the stomach. Once the animal
2566 /ch05/frame Page 118 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

118 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Fig. 49. Ball-tipped gavage needles attached to syringes used

for oral dosing.

Fig. 50. The distance from the oral cavity to the stomach is
measured prior to dosing the animal. If resistance is met when
inserting the needle, do not advance the needle because you
have most likely entered the trachea; withdraw the needle and
begin again.
2566 /ch05/frame Page 119 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

experimental methodology 119

is restrained, the needle is slid along the hard palate and

directed posteriorly through the esophagus and into the stomach
(Figure 51). When the needle has been inserted to the previously
measured depth, the dose can be given.

Note: If resistance is met when inserting the needle, do not

advance the needle any further because you are most likely
entering the trachea. Withdraw the needle and begin again.

Fig 51. The needle should be advanced all the way into the
stomach before the dose is adminstered.

hamster cheek pouch

Fluids in small amounts (0.1 ml), and even tumors and tumor
cells, may be instilled into the hamster's cheek pouch. In order
to implant tumors, the pouch must be everted and the injection
is given. This process becomes remarkably easier when the
hamster is anesthetized (see Figure 4 in Chapter 1).
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120 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Water and Food

Test articles may be incorporated into the water and/or food
supply as long as they do not significantly alter palatability and
intake.

Implantable Osmotic Pumps

Implantable osmotic pumps are becoming more popular as a
means to administer compounds for periods up to 28 days.
These pumps are surgically implanted subcutaneously or intra-
peritoneally with a concentration of the test article necessary to
achieve a continuous administration of drug over the course of
the study. Information on the availability of osmotic pumps is
included in Chapter 6.

necropsy
Many studies require that observations be made which cannot
take place on the living animal. In these cases, a post mortem
examination is conducted to more fully evaluate the effect of a
treatment or procedure on the animal’s organs and tissues
(necropsy). In addition, a necropsy is also frequently performed
to assess disease problems.

Equipment
Basic equipment needed to conduct a necropsy on a hamster
or gerbil includes the following:

1. Latex or rubber gloves, lab coat, face mask, eye goggles,

or other protective eyewear.
2. A small metric ruler.
3. Toothed and serrated tissue forceps, and a probe.
4. Scalpel blades and handles.
5. Dissecting and small operating scissors.
6. A dissecting board (plastic or cork).
7. Bone-cutting forceps.
8. Sterile swabs for bacteriological culture of tissues.
2566 /ch05/frame Page 121 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

experimental methodology 121

9. Large (18-gauge) and small bore (25-gauge) hypodermic

needles and syringes (1, 3, and 5 ml).
10. Saline for washing of structures, and paper towels for
absorption of blood and other fluids are useful. Addi-
tional equipment may be useful and can be added to this
basic kit.
11. A method to sterilize instruments (open flame or glass
bead sterilizer)

The postmortem evaluation necropsy should be performed in

a dedicated necropsy room and on a surface that will facilitate
drainage of blood and fluids, and that can be easily cleaned and
sanitized. Since necropsy is often used to determine if an animal
from the colony is harboring an infectious agent which may pose
a threat to the health of the remaining animals in the facility,
the necropsy room should be restricted to entry of personnel
that do not have to reenter the animal facilities on the day of
the necropsy. If they do have to reenter the animal facility, those
individuals should wear protective clothing in the necropsy room
and change this clothing when leaving the room.
Stainless-steel necropsy tables with a down-draft airflow are
ideal, since they will exhaust infectious agents and noxious
odors away from personnel. These tables should be certified
annually to ensure that they are working adequately. If this type
of equipment is unavailable, an area that is isolated from other
animals, personnel areas, the surgery suite and feed and bed-
ding storage could be used, provided that the area can be
appropriately cleaned and sanitized following each use.
A 10% neutral buffered formaldehyde mixture is the most
commonly used tissue fixative. When using this fixative, recog-
nize that it can cause allergic reactions and irritation of surfaces
lined by mucous membranes,76,77 and is considered to be a
human carcinogen.78 Thus, exposure of personnel to formalde-
hyde must be limited by providing adequate ventilation of the
necropsy and tissue processing areas.
Personnel conducting necropsies should wear a clean lab
coat, latex or rubber gloves, protective booties and a face mask,
and protective eyewear. Although specific pathogen-free hamster
and gerbils harbor few zoonotic infectious agents, this equip-
2566 /ch05/frame Page 122 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

122 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

ment will further decrease exposure of personnel to airborne

allergens and formaldehyde, as well as protect clothes from
soiling with blood or other material. Whenever possible, the
clothing noted above should be disposable.

necropsy technique
Ideally, the hamster and gerbil should be necropsied imme-
diately after death. Alternatively, carcasses may be stored for a
short time (several hours) under refrigeration to delay tissue
decomposition. Carcasses should not be stored in refrigerators
used for storage of food for animals or personnel. Freezing of
carcasses can significantly interfere with meaningful necropsy.
An in-depth description of anatomy and some details on
necropsy methods for the hamster and gerbil can be found
elsewhere.79,80 General procedures for necropsy of a hamster or
gerbil are as follows:

1. The animal’s body weight is obtained and recorded, and

is examined externally for abnormalities such as discol-
oration, hair loss, wounds, masses, discharges (nasal or
ocular), and fecal or urine staining. In addition, the oral
cavity is examined, with particular attention paid to the
teeth. Any cultures of the external surface lesions or
discharges should be taken.
2. The animal is secured to a necropsy board. The skin is
incised along the ventral midline with the scalpel blade
or scissors, beginning at the lower jaw and continuing
along the midline caudally to the pubis. Using the scal-
pel, or scissors, the skin is reflected laterally away from
the subcutaneous tissues and underlying musculature.
These tissues are examined.
3. The abdominal wall is lifted up with forceps and incised.
Using scissors, the abdominal cavity is opened along the
ventral midline.
4. The abdominal organs and the peritoneal surfaces are
examined for abnormal hydration, coloration, size, and
presence of masses, traumatic damage, or any other
abnormal appearance. If fluid is present in an excessive
2566 /ch05/frame Page 123 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

experimental methodology 123

amount or with an abnormal color, it should be sampled

for cytology and bacterial culture, and the volume and
appearance of such fluids noted and recorded. Depend-
ing on the time between death and necropsy, and the
carcass storage conditions, tissues may appear abnor-
mal due to postmortem autolysis, a non-disease process
in which tissues degrade after the animal has died.
5. The thoracic cavity is exposed by reflecting the liver
forward and cutting the diaphragm. Once this is done,
clip the ribs using the bone cutting forceps. The clipped
portion of the rib cage is then lifted off and removed or
reflected laterally.
6. The lungs, heart, and pleural surfaces are examined for
abnormalities. The organs are removed for inspection by
cutting the trachea and cutting all attachments of tra-
chea, lungs, and heart caudally to the diaphragm.
7. Abnormal fluids found in the abdominal or thoracic cav-
ity should be sampled for cytology and bacterial culture,
and the volume and appearance of such fluids noted and
recorded.
8. Other masses or abnormal tissues can be cultured using
bacteriological culture swabs if infection is suspected.
9. Samples of tissues can be preserved in 10% neutral
buffered formalin and saved for later processing and
evaluation. Smaller samples (a few centimeters thick)
allow quicker penetration of formalin, better preserva-
tion, and are therefore preferred.
2566 /ch05/frame Page 124 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 1:59 PM

notes
2566 /ch06/frame Page 125 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 2:02 PM

6
resources

This chapter provides a list of sources for obtaining informa-

tion on hamsters and gerbils, as well as lists of resources for
obtaining information on equipment and materials, examples of
vendors, and organizations dealing with hamsters and gerbils.
The lists are not exhaustive, and they do not imply endorsement
of one vendor over another. What they do provide is a starting
point for developing a list of resources. Sources for equipment
are provided below with contact information provided at the end.

organizations
Several professional organizations serve as a primary contact
for obtaining information on distinct issues related to the care
and use of laboratory hamsters and gerbils. Membership in
these organizations should be considered, since it allows the
laboratory animal science professional to remain knowledgeable
of regulatory issues, improved procedures for the use of animals,
management issues, and animal health issues. Several of the
relevant organizations are listed:

The American Association for Laboratory Animal Science

(AALAS), 70 Timber Creek Drive, Cordova, TN 38018 (Tel:
901-754-8620). AALAS serves all members of the laboratory
animal science community, including but not limited to principal

125
2566 /ch06/frame Page 126 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 2:02 PM

126 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

investigators, animal care technicians, and veterinarians. The

journals, Laboratory Animal Science and Contemporary Topics
in Laboratory Animal Science, and the technicians newsletter
Tech Talk, are published by AALAS. AALAS sponsors a program
for certification of laboratory animal science professionals at 3
levels: Assistant Laboratory Animal Technician (ALAT), Labora-
tory Animal Technician (LAT), and Laboratory Animal Technol-
ogist (LATG). The AALAS-affiliated Institute for Laboratory
Animal Management (ILAM) is a program designed to provide
state of the art training in laboratory animal facility manage-
ment. In addition, the association sponsors an annual meeting
and an electronic bulletin board (COMPMED). Local groups have
also organized into smaller branches.

The Laboratory Animal Management Association (LAMA) pro-

vides an opportunity for information exchange between individ-
uals who’s primary responsibility is managing laboratory animal
facilities. LAMA promotes the dissemination of ideas, knowledge
and experiences, encourages continued education, and assists
in training managers of animal facilities. The association pub-
lishes the The LAMA Review on a quarterly basis and sponsors
periodic meetings. The contact for LAMA changes annually with
the elected president. The current contact for LAMA may be
obtained from AALAS.

The American Society of Laboratory Animal Practitioners

(ASLAP) is an association of veterinarians engaged in laboratory
animal medicine. The society publishes a newsletter and spon-
sors annual meetings, generally in conjunction with annual
meetings of AALAS and the American Veterinary Medical Asso-
ciation (AVMA). The contact for ASLAP changes annually with
the elected president. Current contact information may be
obtained from AALAS.

The American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine

(ACLAM) is an association of laboratory animal veterinarians
founded to encourage education, training, and research in lab-
oratory animal medicine. ACLAM is recognized as a sub-spe-
cialty of veterinary medicine by the AVMA. The ACLAM Board
2566 /ch06/frame Page 127 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 2:02 PM

resources 127

of Directors annually certifies veterinarians as Diplomates in

laboratory animal medicine by means of an examination, expe-
rience, and publication requirements. The group sponsors the
ACLAM Forum as well as sessions at the annual AALAS meeting.
Contact is established through AALAS or the AVMA.

The International Council for Laboratory Animal Science

(ICLAS) promotes and coordinates the development of laboratory
animal science throughout the world. ICLAS sponsors interna-
tional meetings every fourth year, with regional meetings being
held on a more frequent basis. The organization is composed of
national, scientific, and union members.

The Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (ILAR), under

the auspices of the National Research Council, develops and
makes scientific and technical information available on labora-
tory animal models and other biologic resources. Useful publi-
cations available from ILAR include the Guide for the Care and
Use of Laboratory Animals and the ILAR Journal. Contact with
ILAR can be established at 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20418 (Tel: 202-334-2590).

The Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Labo-

ratory Animal Care International, Inc. (AAALAC Interna-
tional) is a nonprofit organization that provides peer evaluation
of laboratory animal care and use programs. AAALAC accredi-
tation is widely accepted as evidence of a high-quality animal
care and use program. Contact with AAALAC may be made
through the Executive Director at 11300 Rockville Pike, Suite
1211, Rockville, MD 20852-3035 (Tel: 301-231-5353).

publications
A number of published materials are valuable as additional
reference materials, including both books and periodicals.

Books
The following books may be worthwhile sources of additional
information:
2566 /ch06/frame Page 128 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 2:02 PM

128 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

1. A Colour Atlas of Anatomy of Small Laboratory Ani-

mals: Rat, Mouse and Hamster, by P. Popesko, V.
Rajtoua, and J. Horak, 1990. Wolfe Publishing, Ltd. Lon-
don, England.
2. The Anatomy of the Mongolian Gerbil (Meriones
unguiculatus), by W. M. Williams, 1974. Tumblebrook
Farms, Inc., Westbrookfield, MA, 01585.
3. The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents,
by J. E. Harkness and J. E. Wagner, 1995, Williams &
Wilkins, Baltimore, MD 21298-9724.
4. Formulary for Laboratory Animals, by C.T. Hawk and
S. L. Leary, 1995. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA
50014.
5. Laboratory Animal Anesthesia, by P.A. Flecknell,
1987. Academic Press, Inc., 525 B Street, Suite 1900,
San Diego, CA 92101.
6. Handbook of Veterinary Anesthesia, by W. W. Muir,
J. A. E. Hubbell, R. T. Skarda, and R. M. Bednarski
1995. C.V. Mosby Co., 11830 Westline Industrial Drive,
St. Louis, MO 63146.
7. Necropsy Guide: Rodents and the Rabbit, by D.B.
Feldman and J.C. Seely, 1988. CRC Press, Inc., 2000
Corporate Blvd. N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431.
8. Laboratory Hamsters, by Van Hoosier, G. L. and
McPherson, C. W., Academic Press, Orlando, FL 1987.

Periodicals
The following periodicals are excellent sources of current rel-
evant information:

1. Laboratory Animal Science. Published by the Ameri-

can Association for Laboratory Animal Science. For con-
tact information, see the above listing for AALAS.
2. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science.
Published by the American Association for Laboratory
2566 /ch06/frame Page 129 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 2:02 PM

resources 129

Animal Science. For contact information, see the above

listing for AALAS.
3. Laboratory Animals. Published by Royal Society of
Medicine Press, 1 Wimpole Street, London W1M 8AE, UK.
4. Lab Animal. Published by Nature Publishing Co., 345
Park Avenue South, NY 10010-1707.
5. ILAR Journal. Published by the Institute of Laboratory
Animal Resources, National Research Council. For con-
tact information, see the above listing for ILAR.
6. The Gerbil Digest, (Figure 52) published by Tumble-
brook Farms, Inc., West Brookfield, MA 01585. This
periodical is out-of-print, but old issues can be found at
some libraries.

Fig. 52. The Gerbil Digest, published by Tumblebrook Farms,

Inc., contains many details on gerbils used in research. (copies
of The Gerbil Digest were kindly provided by D. Robinson.)
2566 /ch06/frame Page 130 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 2:02 PM

130 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

electronic resources
Many online sources of information relevant to the care and
use of laboratory animals, including hamster and gerbils, are
available. These include:

1. Comparative Medicine Discussion List (COMPMED).

An electronic mailing list available through the Internet,
COMPMED is a valuable means to quickly tap into the
expertise of laboratory animal science professionals
around the world. In addition, COMPMED archives all
correspondence, and the archives may be searched for
reference information. At the time of publication, those
individuals who are interested in using this resource
should subscribe to [email protected] and
mail to [email protected].
2. Network of Animal Health (NOAH). NOAH is a commer-
cial online service sponsored by the American Veterinary
Medical Association. Forums cover a variety of topics,
some of which would be of interest to those caring for
and using hamsters and gerbils. Additional information
can be obtained from the American Veterinary Medical
Association (1931 N. Meacham Rd., Suite 100, Schaum-
burg, IL; 1-800-248-2862; e-mail: 72662.3435@com-
puserve.com).

purchasing hamsters and gerbils

Hamster and gerbils may be obtained from vendors of varying
size and quality. Since hamsters and gerbils may contract a
variety of diseases that could alter the validity of research
results, the purchase of only specific pathogen-free (SPF) ham-
sters and gerbils is strongly encouraged. Vendors should be
asked to supply recently obtained information regarding the
health status of their hamster and gerbil colonies prior to your
purchase.
Small local or regional vendors frequently offer quality ani-
mals at reasonable prices, however, they may not have the same
2566 /ch06/frame Page 131 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 2:02 PM

resources 131

professional resources or quality control behind them that a

larger supplier has. In addition, large vendors are often a good
source of high-quality hamster and gerbils with known health
status. Since it is not possible to list all of the hamster and
gerbil vendors here, the following are examples of vendors that
supply hamsters and gerbils:

1. Bio Breeders Inc., 280 Sheldon Road, Fitchburg, MA

01420-1818 USA, (Tel: 508-343-3000) for hamsters.
2. Charles River Laboratories, Inc., 251 Ballardvale Street,
Wilmington, MA 01887 USA (Tel: 800-522-7287) for
hamsters and gerbils.
3. Harlan Sprague Dawley, Inc., Box 29176, Indianapolis,
IN 46229-0176 USA, (Tel: 317-894-7521) for hamsters
and gerbils.
4. Simonsen Laboratories, Inc., 1180-C Day Road, Gilroy,
CA 95020-9308 USA, (Tel: 408-847-2002) for hamsters.

feed
Several large feed vendors such as those listed below provide
a high quality, nutritionally balanced diet. However, just as with
animals, analysis of the feed for contamination during produc-
tion, evaluation of the storage conditions at the supplier or a
regional distributor’s warehouse, and assessment of conditions
during delivery is critical to ensure the provision of high-quality
feed.

1. Bio-Serv, Inc., PO Box 450, 8th & Harrison Streets,

Frenchtown, NJ 08825 (Tel: 1-800-473-2155).
2. Harlan Teklad, Inc., P.O. Box 44220, Madison, WI
537444220 (Tel: 1-800-483-5523).
3. PMI/Purina Mills, Inc., 505 North 4th St., PO Box 548,
Richmond, IN 47375 (Tel: 1-800-227-8941).
4. United States Biochemical Corp., PO Box 22400, Cleve-
land, OH 44122 (Tel: 1-800-321-9322).
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132 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

equipment
Sanitation
Several sources of disinfectants and other sanitation supplies
are listed below.

1. BioSentry, Inc., 1481 Rock Mountain Blvd., Stone Moun-

tain, GA 30083-9986 (Tel: 1-800-788-4246).
2. Pharmacal Research Labs, 33 Greater Hill Road, Naug-
atuck, CT 06770–369 (Tel: 1-800-243-5350).
3. Quip Laboratories Ind., 1500 Eastlawn Avenue, Wilm-
ington, DE 19802 (Tel. 302-761-2600).
4. Rochester Midland, Inc., 333 Hollenbeck St., P.O. Box
1515, Rochester, NY 14603-1515 (Tel: 1-800-836-1627).
5. Steris Corporation, Steris Scientific, 5960 Heisley W.
Road, Mentor, OH 44060 (Tel: 1-800-444-9009).

Cages and Research and Veterinary Supplies

Sources for pharmaceuticals, hypodermic needles, syringes,
surgical equipment, bandages, and other related items are pro-
vided below. Unless you have extensive experience with the
pharmaceuticals you plan to order, they should be ordered and
used only under the direction of a licensed veterinarian. Cages
should meet the size requirements as specified by relevant reg-
ulatory agencies. Stainless steel is preferable to galvanized steel.

TABLE 11. POSSIBLE SOURCES OF EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

Item Source

Cages and supplies 1, 2, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14

Veterinary and surgical supplies 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17
Gas anesthesia equipment 9, 15, 16, 17
Syringes and needles 5, 7, 8, 10, 17
Osmotic pumps 3
Necropsy tools 5, 8, 16
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resources 133

contact information for cages and research

and veterinary supplies
1. Allentown Caging Equipment, Inc., PO Box 698, Allen-
t o w n , N J 0 8 5 0 1 -0 6 9 8 ( T e l : 6 0 9 - 2 5 9 - 7 9 5 1 o r
1-800-762-2243).
2. Alternative Design Manufacturing and Supply, Inc.,
16396 Highway 412, Siloam Springs, AR 72761 (Tel:
1-800-320-2459).
3. Alza Corporation, 950 Page Mill Road, PO Box 10950,
Palo Alto, CA 94303-0802 (Tel: 1-800-692-2990).
4. Ancare Corp., 2475 Charles Court, PO Box 661, North
Bellmore, NY 11710 (Tel: 1-800-645-6379).
5. VWR Scientific Products Corporation, 1310 Goshen
Parkway, West Chester, PA 19380, (Tel: 1-800-932-
5000).
6. Britz-Heidbrink, Inc., PO Box 1179, Wheatland, WY
82201-1179 (Tel: 307-322-4040.
7. Butler Co., Inc., 5000 Bradenton Ave., Dublin, OH 43017
(Tel: 1-800-225-7911).
8. Fisher Scientific, Inc., 711 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA
15219-4785 (Tel: 1-800-766-7000). 12. Harvard Appa-
ratus, 22 Pleasant St., South Natick, MA 01760 (Tel:
1-800-272-2775).
9. Harvard Apparatus, 22 Pleasant Street, South Natick,
MA 01760 (Tel: 1-800-272-2775).
10. IDE Interstate, Inc., 1500 New Horizons Blvd., Amityville,
NY 11701 (Tel: 1-800-666-8100).
11. Lab Products, Inc., 255 West Spring Valley Ave., PO Box
808, Maywood, NJ 07607 (Tel: 201-843-4600 or
1-800-526-0469).
12. Lenderking Caging Products, Inc., 1000 South Linwood
Ave., Baltimore, MD 21224 (Tel: 410-276-2237).
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134 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

13. Lock Solutions, Inc., P.O. Box 611, Kenilworth, NJ 07033

(Tel: 1-800-947-0304).
14. Otto Environmental, 6914 N. 124th St., Milwaukee, WI
53224 (Tel.: 1-800-484-5363 Ext. 6886).
15. Vetamac, Inc., PO Box 178, Rossville, IN 46065 (Tel:
1-800334-1583).
16. Viking Products, Inc., PO Box 2142, Medford Lakes, NJ
08055 (Tel: 609-953-0138).
17. J. A. Webster, Inc., 86 Leominster Road, Sterling, MA
01564 (Tel: 1-800-225-7911).
2566 /biblio/frame Page 135 Tuesday, October 20, 1998 2:04 PM

bibliography

1. Hobbs, K. R., Hamsters, in The UFAW Handbook on The

Care & Management of Laboratory Animals, 6th edition,
Poole, T., Longman Scientific and Technical, Essex, U.K.,
1987, chap. 23.
2. Clark, J. D., Historical perspectives and taxonomy, in Lab-
oratory Hamsters, Van Hoosier, G. L. and McPherson, C.
W., Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1987, chap. 1.
3. Magalhaes, H., Foreword, in Laboratory Hamsters, Van
Hoosier, G. L. and McPherson, C. W., Academic Press, Or-
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index

AAALAC International, 51–52, Analgesia

127 drugs and dosages, 97
AALAS (American Association of postoperative, 79, 82, 96–97
Laboratory Animal Anatomic and physiological
Science), 125–126 features
Acepromazine, 76, 77, 85 of gerbils, 8–9
Acid phosphatase, 10 of hamsters, 3–6
ACLAM (American College of Anatomy of the Mongolian Gerbil
Laboratory Animal (Meriones unguiculatus),
Medicine), 126 128
Ad libitum feeding, 26, 27 Anesthesia
Administration of drugs administration of, 78–79
inhalation, 83–84 depth assessment of, 80–81
injection, 84–85 dissociative, 76, 81
Air supply. See Ventilation general, 76, 78–81
Albumin, 10 inhalant, 84–85
Alkaline phosphatase, 10 injectable, 84–85
Allergies, 57 light, 80, 81
American Association of local, 76
Laboratory Animal Science preanesthesia, 78, 85–86
(AALAS), 125–126 postanesthesia monitoring,
American College of Laboratory 81–82
Animal Medicine (ACLAM), neuroleptanalgesia, 77
126 stages of, 79–80
American Society of Laboratory Anesthesia, analgesia, and
Animal Practitioners sedation, 75–86
(ASLAP), 126 Anesthesic drugs
American Veterinary Medical for gerbils, 77
Association (AVMA), 126 for hamsters, 76
Amikacin, 73 Animal selection, 1–3, 6–7, 62,
Amino acids, 38, 42. See also 75, 130–131
Protein Animal Welfare Act, 30, 58
Amitraz, 74 Anorexia, 57, 63, 70, 99, 100
Ammonia, 13, 15 Antibiotics
Ampicillin, 64 preoperative, 72
Amylase, 10 postoperative, 88, 98
Amyloidosis, 69 Anus, 45

141
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142 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Arthropods. See Ectoparasites Blood urea nitrogen, 10

Aseptic surgery, 86–90 Blood volume, 11, 122
ASLAP (American Society of Body surface area, 10
Laboratory Animal Body temperature, 10, 62
Practitioners), 126 Body weight, 10, 19
Aspartate aminotransferase, 10 at birth, 10
Aspirin, 74 cage size and, 19
Association for Assessment and change in, 58, 63, 64, 69, 70,
Accreditation of Laboratory 96, 99
Animal Care International, Breeding, 43–47
Inc. (AAALAC Buprenorphine, 97
International), 58, 60, 162 Butorphanol, 97
Atrial thrombosis, 69
Atropine, 74, 77, 86 Cage cards, 41
Automatic watering systems, 17, Cage racks, 17, 18
18, 28, 29, 31 Cage room, 13–15, 33–36
census, 41–42
Bacterial diseases sanitation of, 33–36
of gerbils, 63–64 work records, 34, 42
of hamsters, 69–70 Cages
Barbiturates, 101 design of, 16, 17, 18–21
Basal metabolic rate, 72 materials for, 16, 18, 20
Basophils, 11 microenvironment, 15–21
Bedding, 20, 27, 30, 41 sanitation of, 27–33
sanitation of, 27, 28, 30–31 size, 19
vendors, 134–136 solid-bottom, 13, 19, 20
Behavior, 3, 7, 9, 20 shelf racks, 16, 17, 18
burrowing, 6, 8, 19, 70 tops for, 3, 7, 13, 19, 63
environmental enrichment and, vendors, 134, 135
7, 20, 23–24 wire-bottom, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19,
hoarding, 20 20, 21
postoperative analgesic needs Calcium, 10
and, 75, 95 Carbaryl 5% powder, 74
response to noise, 21, 22 Carbon dioxide, 101
response to stress, 70, 71 Carcasses, storage of, 124, 125
scratching, 8 Cardiac puncture, 112
Biohazard agents, 58 Cardiac output, 11
Bilirubin, total, 10 Cardiovascular and respiratory
Biological parameters, 10 function, 11
Birth weight, 10 Catgut sutures, 93
Bite wounds, 57, 58, 106 Cellulose fiber bedding, 27
Bladder, 113 Central nervous system, 57, 58,
Blankets, heating, 79, 81, 97 80, 85
Blood sampling, 107–112 Cervical dislocation, 101
of gerbils, 111–112 Cestodes, 67, 71
of hamsters, 109–111 Cheek pouch, hamster, 5, 119
Blood pressure, 108, 181 Chemical restraint, 85
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index 143

Chloramphenicol, 73 Diazepam, 76, 77, 83, 86

Chloramphenicol palmitate, 73 Dichlorvos-impregnated resin
Chloramphenicol succinate, 73 strip, 74
Chloromycetin, 63, 64, 70 Diet and nutrition, 24–27
Chlortetracycline, 73 ad libitum feeding, 27
Chloride, 10 nutrient levels, 25–26
Chlorine-based agents, 39–40 of gerbil, 26–27
Cholesterol, 10 of hamster, 24–26
Chromosomal number, 10 peculiarities of, 10
Ciprofloxacin, 73 storage, 25
Circulatory system, 11 Dimetronidazole, 73, 74
Cleaning. See Sanitation Diseases, 63–72
Clinical chemistry, 10 of gerbils, 69–72
Clothing of hamsters, 63–69
protective, 56, 57, 75, 124 zoonotic, 55–58, 65
surgical, 86–87, 90 Disinfection. See Sanitation
Color Atlas of Anatomy of Small Droperidol, 77
Laboratory Animals, 128 Drug dosages
Compliance, 49–54 for gerbils, 73–74, 77, 97, 109
COMPMED (Comparative for hamsters, 76, 97, 109
Medicine Discussion List, Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA),
130 101
Compound administration,
113–119 Ear tags, 40
Contemporary Topics in Ears
Laboratory Animal Science, physical examination of, 61
128 Ectoparasites, 68
Corncob bedding, 27 Electronic resources, 130
Creatinine, 10 Endotracheal intubation,
Creatine kinase, 10 117–119
Cricetus cricetus (European Enrofloxacin, 73
hamster), 3 Environmental enrichment, 3,
Cricetulus griseus (Striped or 7–8, 22–23
Chinese hamster), 3 Eosinophils, 11
Cricetulus migratorus (Armenian Equipment, vendors, 134–135
hamster), 3 Estrous cycle, 43–47
Cutaneous disease, 38 Erythromycin, 63
Euthanasia, 98–101
Databases, 130 Experimental methodology,
DEA (U.S. Drug Enforcement 103–123
Agency), 125 compound administration,
Dental diseases, 61, 72 113–122
Dental formula, 10, 72 handling and restraint
Design gerbil, 106–107
of animal room, 14–15 hamster, 103–105
of cages, 18–21 necropsy technique, 122–123
Detergents, 30, 31, 35–36 sample collection, 107–113
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144 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

test article administration, Good Laboratory Practices, 51,

113–122 Griseofulvin, 73, 75
Eyes Guide for the Care and Use of
ophthalmic ointment for, 110 Laboratory Animals (The
physical examination of, 61 Guide), 14, 15, 16, 19, 10,
65–66 50–51, 129
FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Hair coat, 101, 102
Administration), 58 effects of disease on, 64, 68, 69,
Feces 70, 125
collection, 113 physical examination of, 61
Feed shaving of, 88
forms of, 24–27 Halothane, 84, 109, 124
nutrient levels, 25, 26 Handbook of Veterinary
storage, 25 Anesthesia, 128
vendors, 131 Handling, 3, 8, 46, 55, 57, 58
Female of gerbils, 71, 105–107
gerbils, 8–9, 43, 46–47 of hamsters, 103–105
hamsters, 3, 5, 43–46 Health Research Extension Act,
Fenbendazole, 74 50
Fentanyl, 76, 77, 83 Heating blankets, 79, 81, 97
Fleas, 80 Hematological values, 11
Floor space in cage, 16, 19. 38 Hemoglobin, 11
Floors in animal room, 14, 15 HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate
Fluanisone, 76, 77, 83 Arrestance filtered air), 57
Flunixin, 97 High Efficiency Particulate
Food and Drug Administration Arrestance filtered air
(FDA), 101 (HEPA), 57
Food intake, 25, 26 Historical background, 1–2
Forestomach, hamster, 25, 157 Housing, 13–23
Formalin, 123 cage size standards, 16–18
Formulary for Laboratory cage materials and design,
Animals, 128 18–21
Fur. See Hair coat environmental conditions,
21–22
Gavage, 120 environmental enrichment,
Gerbil Digest, The, 129 22–23
Gerbilus amoemus, 7 macroenvironment
Gerbilus pyramidun, 7 considerations, 14–15
Gender, behavioral differences microenvironment/caging
3, 8–9 considerations, 15–20
Gentamicin, 73 Humidity, 21–22
Gestation, 43, 46, 47 Husbandry, 21–53
Globulin, 10 breeding, 43–47
Glucose, 10 environmental enrichment,
Glycopyrrolate, 86 22–23
Gnawing, 18, 20, 37 housing, 13–23
Gowning and gloving, 90 nutrition, 24–26
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index 145

receipt, 39–40 “Jird,” 6

record keeping, 40–42 Jugular vein, 108, 114
sanitation
cage, 27–32 Ketamine, 76, 77, 83
quality control, 35–36 Ketoconazole, 73
room, 33–34 Kidney, 64, 69
shipping, 36–39 Knots, suture, 116
Hyperthermia, 99
Hypothermia, 21, 88, 99 Lab Animal, 129
Laboratory Animal Management
IACUC (Institutional Animal Care Association (LAMA), 126
and Use Committee), Laboratory Animal Medicine, 97,
52–54, 127 126
ICLAS (International Council for Laboratory Animals, 129
Laboratory Animal Laboratory Animal Science, 129
Science), 127 Laboratory Hamsters, 128
Identification, 40 Lactated Ringer’s solution, 59,
ILAR (Institute of Laboratory 108
Animal Resources), 3, 129 LAMA (Laboratory Animal
ILAR Journal, 129 Management Association),
Implants, 120 126
Improved Standards for LAMA Review, 126
Laboratory Animals Act, 49 Legislation, 49–54
Inhalation anesthesia, 84–85, Leukemia, 100
101 Lidocaine, 76
Injection volume guidelines, 75 Lifespan, 10
Institute of Laboratory Animal Listserv mailing lists, 132
Resources (ILAR), 127 Liver, 69
Institutional Animal Care and Lungs, 5, 123
Use Committee (IACUC), Lymphocytes, 11
52–54, 127
International Council for Macroenvironment, 14–15
Laboratory Animal Science Magnesium, 10
(ICLAS), 127 Males
Internet sites, 130 gerbils, 8–9, 43, 46–47
Intramuscular administration, hamsters, 3, 43–46
72, 75–74, 115 Mammary glands, 10
Intranasal administration, 72, Management, 49–58
73–74 Mange, 68
Intraperitoneal administration, Meperidine, 97
72, 73–74, 115 Meriones libycus, 7
Intravenous administration, 72, Meriones persicus, 7
73–74, 113–114 Meriones shawi, 7
Isofluorane, 85, 109, 124 Meriones unguiculatus
“Itch mange”, 68 (Mongolian gerbil), 7
Ivermectin, 74 Mesocritcetus auratus (Syrian
hamster), 1–2, 48–49
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146 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

Methodology, 103–123 Operating room procedures,

Methoxyflurane, 84–85, 124 86–90
Metomidate, 77 Ophthalmic ointment, 110
Metronidazole, 73 Oral administration, 72, 73–74
Microenvironment, 15–21 Oral gavage, 138, 142–143, 144
Microisolator lid, 13, 28, 33 Organizations, 125–127
Midazolam, 77, 83, 86 Origins, 161–164
Mites, 71 of gerbils, 6
Monocytes, 11 of hamsters, 1
Monofilament sutures, 92, 93, 94 Osmotic pumps, 119, 132–133
Morphine, 97 Oxymorphone, 73f
Multifilament sutures, 92, 94 Oxytetracycline, 73f
Oxytocin, 74
Nalbuphine, 197
Nasal dermititis (“sore nose”), 6, Packed cell volume, 11
70 Pain, 55, 58, 75, 76, 81,
National Research Council, 127, postoperative management of,
129 96–97
National Institutes of Health Parasites, 57–58, 61
(NIH), 58 Parasitic diseases, 147
Necropsy, 123–126 of gerbils, 70–71
Necropsy Guide, 130 of hamsters, 65–68
Necropsy tools, 134 Parturition, 9, 28, 45
Needles, 59, 121, Pathogens. See also Disease;
for compound administration, Sanitation
117, 118 Pentazocine, 97
suture, 94 Pentobarbital, 76, 77, 84
Nematodes, 66 Periodicals, 128–129
Neomycin, 73 Peritonitis, 93
NOAH (Network of Animal Personnel
Health), 130 clothing, 86–87, 90, 121
Neuroleptanalgesia, 77 exposure to research
Neutrophils, 11 environment, 55–58
New animals, introduction of, 23, noise from, 22
43, 47 surgical preparation, 89–90,
Niclosamide, 67, 71, 74 zoonotic diseases, 55–58
NIH (National Institutes of Pheromones, 30
Health), 58 Phospholipids, 10
Nocturnal behavior, 3, 8 Phosphorous, 10
Noise, reaction to, 22, 30 Photoperiod, 21–22, 43
Nutrition, 24–26 PHS (Public Health Service)
of gerbils, 26–27 policy, 50–51
of hamsters, 24–26 Physical examination, 60–62,
Physiologic features
Occupational health issues, of gerbil, 8–9
55–58 of hamster, 3–6
Office for Protection from Pinworms, 66, 71
Research Risks, 50 Piperazine, 74
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index 147

Pneumonia, 64, 71 Sample collection, 107–113

Polyaptic disease, 69 Sand (bedding), 27
Potassium, 10 Sanitation, 27–36
Preanesthesic monitoring, 81–82 of cage, 27–31
Prednisone, 74 of animal room, 33–34
Proparacaine, 110 of shipping containers, 39–40
Protein of watering systems, 31, 32
nutrient requirements, 25–26 quality control, 35–36
total, 10 supplies for, vendors, 134, 135
Protozoans, 65–55 Scratch wounds, 57
Puberty, 8, 46 Sebaceous glands, 9
Publications, 127–129 Sedation, 83, 86, 114
Public Health Service (PHS) Policy Sendai virus, 65
on Humane Care and Use Serum lipids, 10
of Laboratory Animals, Sexing
50–51 of gerbils, 46
Pyrantel pamoate, 74 of hamsters, 43–46
Shipping, 36–39
Quality control, 35–36, 58 containers, 37–38
Quarantine, 63 guidelines for hamsters, 36–37
pre-shipment evaluation, 37
Record keeping, 40–42 Silk sutures, 93
Rectum, 93 Skin, abscesses of the, 64
Red blood cell count, 11, Sleeptime, 21, 22
Regulatory agencies and Social behavior, 3
compliance, 49–54 Sodium, 10
Report of the AVMA Panel on Specific pathogen-free animals,
Euthanasia, 101 63, 75
Reproduction Staphylococcus aureus, 66, 72
photoperiod and, 43, 46 Staples, surgical, 61, 93, 95
values, 43 Stainless-steel sutures, 93, 94
Research uses of gerbils, 9 Stomach, 6
Resources Storage
electronic, 130 of carcasses, 122–123
organizations, 125–127 of feed, 24
publications, 127–129 Strains. See also individual strain
vendors, 130–134 types
Respiratory rate, 11, 60, 79 historical background
monitoring, 82 of gerbil, 6–7
Restraint of hamster. 1
chemical, 85 vendors, 130–132
devices, 78 Stress, response to, 70–71
of gerbil, 107 Subcutaneous administration,
of hamster, 106 72, 73–74
Reticulocytes, 11 Sulfamethazine, 74
RODAC plates, 34 Surgical instruments, 59–60,
Surgical knot tying, 95
Salmonella, 56, 66, 72 Surgical procedures, 86–101
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148 the laboratory hamster and gerbil

analgesia, 96–97 animal receipt, 40

aseptic technique, 86 shipping containers, 37, 38
basic principles, 90–91 Treatment of disease, 91–95
operating room procedures, Triglycerides, 10
86–90 Tumors, 99, 100, 121
postoperative care, 97–98 Tylosin, 73
patient preparation, 87–88 Tyzzer's disease, 65, 71
site preparation, 88–89
surgeon preparation, 89–90 United States, regulatory
Sutures, 91–95 agencies and compliance,
Syringes, 120, 134 49–54
Uric acid, 10
Tail vein, 6, 81, 116 Urine
Tail degloving, 71, 107, 113, 114, collection, 114
116 output, 14, 60, 84, 98, 100
Tail tip clipping, 113, 114 volume, 10
Tapeworms, 57, 67, 74 U.S. Department of Agriculture
Teeth (USDA), 49–50
clipping, 61, 72 U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency
physical examination of, 125 (DEA), 101
Temperature. See also Body U.S. Food and Drug
temperature Administration (FDA), 51
indicator strips, 36
intra-cage, 13, 36, 37 Vagina, 46, 47
monitoring, 32 Vendors, 47, 58, 132–134
of cage room, 14, 15, 21, 22, Vendor quality control, 55, 57,
30, 43 58, 127
of feed storage room, 24, 26 Ventilation, 13, 21, 37, 39
of sanitation water, 34, 35 Vertebrae, 3, 114
Test articles, incorporation of in Veterinary care, 59–101
water, 122 physical examination, 60–62,
Textbooks, 128 supplies and vendors, 132–134
Tetracycline, 63, 69, 70 Viral diseases, 33
Thiabendizole, 74 of gerbils, 70–71
Thrombosis, 69 of hamsters, 64–65
Toenail clipping, 114 Vitamin K1, 57, 81
Tops, for cages, 25, 26, 28, 32 Vomiting, 74
Tumor, implantation, 118
Tracheal administration, 84, Water
117–119 moisture content of feed, 26
Tranquilization, 85–86 requirements, 24
Transponders, electronic, 40 Water bottles, 20, 21, 27, 28, 34,
Transportation, 36–40 61
pre-shipment evaluation, 37 Watering systems, automatic, 17,
Animal Welfare Act regulations, 18, 27, 29
36–37 Water intake, 10, 24, 26
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index 149

Websites, 130 Wounds, 91–92

Weight. See Birth weight; Body closure, 91
weight complications of healing, 91–92
Weight loss, 58, 63, 64, 69, 70,
96, 99 Xylazine, 76, 77, 83, 86
White blood cells, 11
Wire-mesh flooring, 15–17, 19–21
Wood chip bedding, 27 Zoonotic diseases, 55–57, 65, 124
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