> Training in Engineering OR Skills Basic Engineering Training Guide Bench Fitting ISBN 0 85083 702 2Bench fitting - contents Introduetion Standard symbols Hand tools (FI) 1 Benches and vices 1 Files 1 Hammers 3 Hacksaws 4 Centre punch 4 Cold chisels 4 Spanners 5 Screwdrivers 6 Pliers 6 Hexagon socket screw wrench 7 Pipe wrench 7 Condition of tools 7 Machines (F2) 8 Portable drills 8 Drilling machines 8 Off-hand grinder 9 Power driven hacksaw 9 Cutting fluids (F3) 10 Hand skills (F4, F5) 11 Using files © 11 Using chisels 12 Shaping (F5)_13, Identification of machine parts 13 Machine setting and adjustments 13 Selecting and mounting the tool 15 Setting machine vice 18 Setting the workpiece 19 Shaping operations 23 Drilling (F6)_27 ‘Types of drills 27 Clamping techniques for driling 28 Using drifls 29 Using a hole saw 30 Finishing holes (F7, F8)_ 31 Reaming 31 Counterboring 32 Spot facing Countersinking 32 Tapping and screwing (F9) 33 Taps 33 Dies 33 Fitting (F10) 35 Limits and fits 35 Fitting assemblies 36 Scrapers 37 Off-hand grinding (FI) 39 Ofthand grinder 39 Grinding a centre punch 39 Grinding a chisel 39 Grinding drills 40Introduction ‘This guide is one of a series prepared to assist instructors and trainees in the development of ‘engineering skills and knowledge. The various areas of skill to which each guide refers are illustrated with drawings. supported by notes on methods and procédures. ‘There are often a number of ways of carrying out a particular operation or activity and no attempt has been made to include alternatives. It is not intended that the methods illustrated are the ones which must be taught but instructors who choose to teach other methods must ensure that they are safe and eifcient. Trainees should be issued with guides relevant to the skil area in which they are being trained, ‘The guides are useful as: +A. sellteaching aid for trainees following demonstration of a particular ski element by an instructor. * Areminder for insteuctors of correct procedures ‘and of the key points to be emphasised, —=}) c OC ‘To help instructors and trainees to cross refer the content of these guides to the Basic Engineering ‘Training Specifications the Instructional Objective indexnumbers given in the specificationsare shown in brackets after therelevant subject headings within the guides. No attempt has been made to cover the related workshop theory which is an essential feature of further education courses for craft trainees. However, elements of job knowledge are incided where they need to be given additional emphasis or are required to complement the sll training before the theory has been covered in the college course. SAFETY ~ Attention is drauon to safety aspects 2 throughout the guides. Instructors and trainees are requested to pay particular attention to this subject at all times. The following symbols are used within the illustrations to depict particular attention points such as sound, vision and movement. —-_- a »Hand tools (FI) Award file is used for filing in narrow slots. Both faces are double cut, and both edges single cut. Itis tapered in width but not in thickness. Tiand Fie 6a ‘Ahand file is used for general surfacing work. Both faces are double cut. Either both edges are single cut, or one is uncut to provide a safe edge. Square fle A square file is used in corners. It is double cut on all sides, and is tapered. + @ found ie ‘Around fileis used for opening outhotes and rounding inside corners, Rough, bastard, second cut and smooth files under six’inches in length, are single cut ‘The flat side of a half round file is used for general work, and the bali round side for fling concave surfaces. Itis double cut on the flat side, The curved side is single cut, smooth or second cut. Tacos fe ae ‘The three square files used for ling corners between 60° and 90°. It is double cut on al faces. “The mill saw fle is used for sharpening saw blades, and for filing cross cut and circular saws, ‘The rasp is used for filing soft metals, wood and other soft non-metallic substances.Preparing the file for use Hand tools (FI) ‘The handle may have a small hole drilled to take the file tang, In this case insert the tang into the hole and gently tap the handle on the bench until the tang is securely fitted into the handle. Ifthe handle is supplied without a hole, one should be drilled using a drill of appropriate size, Care should be taken not to split the handle during this operation. J SURETY — A file must always be fitted with a $ handle, it is extremely dangerous to use a file without a handle as the tang can easily penetrate the hand. Hammers Ahammer consists of a steel head and a shalt. The striking face and the pein are hardened and tempered. ‘The shaft must be of appropriate size for the head. It must fit the head and be secured with wedges. A hammer with a loose head, a chipped face, or a split shaft must never be used, Ahammer is classified by the shape ofits head, and its weight. Boll pein Aball pein hammer is the type most commonly used. Cross pein and straight pein hammers are used in awkward places where a ball pein could not reach. ha Cros pein Straight pein Hand hammers vary in weight between 4oz (0.113kg) and 3ib (1.36kg) Fubber and peste Hide faced RR ‘There are soft hammers made of various materials, such as plastic, rawhide, copper, brass and lead, These are used when it is necessary to prevent damage to finished surfaces. hammer must be held ina firm grip at the end of the shaft. Ahammer can be used in conjunction with another tool. A hammer can be used in direct contact with the work.Hacksaws ‘A hacksaw consists of a frame, which may be adjustable in length, and a blade. The blade fits into the frame with the tecth pointing away from the handle. The teeth are set so that the blade makes a cut wider than itself, The blade must be at the correct tension. frome Bate Faults to check before use: ‘The blade must not be twisted. There must be no blunt or broken teeth, The blade must not be discoloured, as this indicates that itis softer than it should be. ‘+ Theteeth must be facing the direction of cut. Anew blade must not be used in an existing cut. dvection of cot fied by the number of teeth per unit length, the length of the blade and the material of which it is made, as follows: * A fine blade has 20-30 teeth per 25mm. + A-coarse blade has 14-18 teeth per 25mm, + A general purpose blade has 16-18 teeth per 25mm, Flexible blades are hardened only at the cutting edge. High speed blades are hardened all through. Hand tools (F1) Centre punch ‘The centre punch is used for making small indentations or ‘dots’ in metal surfaces, when struck ‘with a light blow from a hammer. Dots are used to mark lines more clearly or to provide starting centres for ells A dot punch (not illustrated) has the general shape of ‘centre punch but the point is ground to an included angle of 60°, Cold chisels Chisels are known by the length and type of cutting edge. cating eae A Chisels are made in lengths of usually from 100mm upwards. Fa che slightly rode ‘The main types of cutting edge are: flat, cross cut, round nose and diamond point chisel. When using hacksaw the angle of the bladeto the cut should be 30°. The rate of sawing should be 40-50 strokes per minute, Cutting pressure should be applied only on the forward strokes. Ramoviag © ‘vet heed ‘The flat chisel is a general purpose cutting tool and is the type of chisel most often used. It is used to cut sheet metal, to cut slots in sheet metal, to cutrodsand bars, to chip excess metal from large surfaces, and to chip ‘off rivet heads, rusted nuts and bolt heads in repair work.‘The cross cut chisel is used to cut parallel grooves, and to break up a large area into sections to be chipped away with a flat chisel. The cutting edge is slightly wider than the rest of the body, to prevent the body from binding in the groove, Round nose chisel ‘The round nose chisel is used to cut grooves and oil channels in bearings and bushes. mond potntehisok ‘The diamond point chisel is used to cut vee groovesin metal, to chip through plate, to clean out internal angles, and to square up corners of slots. in| “toto het SAFETY — Cold chisels with ‘mushroomed’ heads should not be used, Spanners Spanners vary considerably in shape to provide ease of operation under differing conditions. They are manufactured from high tensile or alloy steel and are normally identified by the appropriate bolt diameter. Hand tools (F1) Commonly used scales of measurement are: * Metric (measured in millimetres) * BA (British Association Standard Thread) * BSW (British Standard Whitworth) “The douible open-ended spanner isa general purpose tool for use where access to a nut or bolt is not restricted. the double ended ring spanner is gradually superseding the open-ended type as a general purpose tool It is easier and more convenient to use ‘when the spanner swing is restricted, ‘The adjustable spanner can be used instead of an ‘open-ended spanner or ring spanner. The jaws are adjustable to accommodate various sizes of nuts within a certain range, Use of spanners Accidents with spanners are nearly all caused by the spanner slipping from the nut. Use the correct size of spanner for the job: Never pack the gap with washers, etc. Use. rigid-jaw spanner rather than an adjustable type: there is less chance of slipping. ‘Tighten a nutas shown in thetop illustration; pressure ‘on the spanner tends to keep the jaws on the nut, Used as shown in the bottom illustration the jaws tend to slip off the nut.eA Vy Hand tools (F1) Pliers Pliers are basically gripping tools, used to grip small ‘components which would otherwise be difficult to hold and control. They are made of cast steel with the jaws hardened and tempered. Classification is by overall length in centimetres. Pull toward the body whenever possible; do, not obtain extra leverage by improvised extension handles. Usea steady pull not ajerigy action; donot hit ‘a spanner with a hammer. Ensure the hands will not strike obstructions if the nut turns unexpectedly. Flat nose pliers are used solely for gripping and holding purposes. Screwdrivers Screwdrivers are made in varying lengths and designs. ‘They are identified by overall length and in some ‘cases by blade width. Screws are driven by tufning the screwdriver handle in the hand, at the same time Sie Combination pliers are more versatile tools with a greater number of applications. They incorporate side Cutters, joint cutters and pipe grip. Heavy duty electrical pliers are similar to the combination pliers with the addition of insulated handles tested to 10 000 volts. They should always be ‘used when working with electrical components. Always use the correct size of blade for the screw head, The screwdriver blade should fit the width of the screw slot and should not protrude beyond the diameter of the screw head, 3) ate ‘Seowdrer ‘The crosshead screwdriver must always be used for ‘crosshead recessec-head screws. It may have a ‘wooden or plastic insulated handle. Its identified by point size. Pliers should only be used for holding and gripping, inserting and removing split pins and cutting and tensioning wire, A finished surface should be protected, otherwise the serrated jaws of the pliers will damage the fish. Pliers should never be used to undo or tighten up nuts and bolts.‘There is a range of other types of pliers for special applications eg, circlip pliers, wire strippers, wire ccatters, eyelet pliers and hand crimping tools. Hexagon socket screw wrench ‘This is used for hexagon head socket screws. They are identilied by their size across the flats, Hand tools (FI) Pipe wrench A pipe wrench is designed to tighten its grip on the part being rotated, as itis being used, It has serrated jaws and so should not be used on surfaces which must not be damaged. A pipe wrench must not be used to loosen a nut, unless the nut is to be replaced by a new one, Condition of tools All tools must be kept clean and maintained in good condition. They should be inspected before use, kept free from grease and cleaned after use. Defective tools are dangerous and must not be used, J) SARSTY = Split fite handles, sprang spanners 4 and mushroomed chisel heads are dangerous. Damaged tools must be repaired or discarded.Machines (F2) ond dtl Dra dll Powumate ill Portable drills ‘There are hand, electric and pneumatic (air driven) drills. fp SARBTY - Check cable ofelecti crits for wear ‘and bad connections. Drilling machines Ina drilling machine the tool is rotated, and is capable ‘of easy movement along the axis of rotation of the tool, There are bench, pillar and radial machines. In each machine the drill is supported and fed vertically into the work. Th Pillar Dil Note: In this ilustration, the drill guard has been omitted for clarity. rive mote belt howsing ‘he Bench Dell Detail of Radiat Oril showing movernents of scl, rail aren and abl,Machines (F2) he Ofthend Grinder Off-hand grinders ‘The off-hand grinder is used for reconditioning tools where extreme accuracy is not required. Itis used for sharpening or re-facing tools such as cold chisels, screwdrivers and lathe tools. ‘The pow hockaow Power driven hacksaw ‘These are power driven saws fitted with a large hacksaw blade, and are used for rough cutting of metal bar.Cutting fluids (F3) Cutting fluids are used to: * Cool the workpiece and tool. ‘+ Lubricate the tool face and reduce friction. + Prevent adhesion of metal chips to the cutting tool. © Wash away chips and swarl, Coolants possess a high capacity to remove heat and thus have high wetting properties to ensure maximum, heat transfer. ‘There are two main types of cutting fluid: * Soluble oils * Neat oils Soluble oils are further sub-divided into two types: * Opaque - most general purpose soluble oils are this type, giving a milky emulsion when diluted with water, * Clear ~ used mainly for grinding operations. ‘Sample lists of coolants and their application Neat oils are undiluted and are used where more severe conditions of metal removal are encountered. ‘The selection of the correct cutting fluid is influenced. by: ‘+ The nature of the material being machined, ‘+ The nature of the operation being performed. * Tool type. # Rate of metal removal. Note: Cutting fluids have the secondary purpose of ‘damping down’ flying dust or fine swart - a safety hazard to the health of the operator. Metal Reaming Tapping Mild steel ‘Soluble oil, mineral lard oil Mineral lard oi! Soluble oil, lard oil Tool steel (carbon high speed) Soluble oll, lard oll with sulphur Lard oit Sulphur base oil, ‘mineral lard oil Alloy steel Soluble oil, mineral lard oil Mineral lard ol! Sulphur base olf, mineral lard ol! Brass and bronze Dry, lard oi! Soluble oll Dry, soluble oil Aluminium Kerosene, lard oil ‘Mineral lard oil Lard oil, soluble oll, mineral lard oll Malleable iron Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble of! Cast iron Dry Dry Small amount of mineral oilHand skills (F4, F5) Using files ‘The correct stance should be adopted. Although the pressures on the file must vary to keep the cut even, the body weight must be distributed evenly to retain balance throughout the stroke, Fesiion of fot suuuta oA. OR OR Pressures during tte stokes Where the surface to be filed is larger than the file, a file holder should be used. ‘To avoid blunting teeth and breaking files they should be stored carefully in a tool box or rack. ter filing in one direction, the work s filed again with the strokes at 90° to the original ones. ‘This is called «ross filing. Once the surface has been filed down almost to size, draw filing can give a fairly accurate and smooth finish. Sometimes particles of material become embedded in the teeth of the file, preventing a smooth finish being achieved, Chalk may be rubbed into the teeth to avoid clogging and so ensure as smooth a finish as possible, Ale should be cleaned by brushing witha file cardin the direction of the cut, or by means of a strip of thin, soft metal -u-Hand skills (F4, F5) Once the first surface of the workpiece has been finished, care must be taken to maintain that finish When subsequent faces are being worked on, The workpiece must be carefully handled. It should be positioned deliberately and gently. Ifthe component has to be held in a vice or clamps, soft jaws or soft metal protecting pieces should be used. Ifa hammer has to be used on the workpiece, it must berawhide or soft faced, Finished faces should be protected by some sort of shield if there is the slightest danger of tool slip, Using chisels SAFETY ~ Chiselling must always be directed ‘away from the body. A chisel which has become mushroomed must never be used, as pieces of metal may fly off when the chisel is struck with the hammer. When chiselling, goggles and a chipping screen must be used. \ ‘The chisel should beheld firmly but lightly, atan angle of 30° - 40° to the cutting plane, The eye must watch the cutting edge, ‘When large areas have to be chiselled, grooves should bbe cut with a cross cut chisel, and the strips between the grooves removed with a flat chisel. ‘The work should be reversed when getting near the far edge, to prevent the edge from breaking away. When cutting sheet metal, wood or a soft material should be put under the sheet to be cut. Holes should ecut in the waste metal to relieve the pressure on the ‘outer edge. The cutting edge of the chisel should be ‘angled’ on to the working surface to obtain a continuous line of cut. -2-Shaping (F5) Identification of machine parts The illustration is of a typical shaping machine, The position of some controls may vary with models, 1 Ram ~ Carries clapper box and toolpost over workpiece 2. Clapper box Supports toolpost and tool. Fivots on return stroke, 3 Position of stroke adjustment - Allows adjustment of ram position when stationary 4 Length of stroke indicator - Indicates length of stroke of ram 5 Gear change lever ~ Provides a selection of ram. speeds, 6 Length of stroke adjustment - Provides adjustment to obtain length of stroke required 7 Cross-feed screw - Provides means of hand ‘operating table cross-feed (detachable handle) 8 Table elevating screw ~ Provides means of raising or lowering table by hand (detachable handle) 9 Cross-feed engaging phinger_ - Allows disengagement of auto-cross-feed 10 Start-stop’ and ‘inching’ buttons ~ Starts and stops motor and allows ram to be ‘inched! in either direction 11 Tool head adiusting handle ~ Raises or lowers the tool head Machine setting and adjustments Adjusting the length of stroke ‘The length of stroke is adjusted through a handle attached to the square drive on the adjusting shaft which is located on the operator side of the shaper. ‘The length of stroke is indicated by a pointer reading on a scale situated on the side of the machine. To calculate length of stroke required: * Measure the length of the workpiece with a rule. * Add 25mm to the length obtained for clearance of the tool, Note: The tool should clear the workpiece at the front by approximately 1mm and by approximately 20mm at the back (start of the cut): ‘To set stroke to required length: * Start machine, visually chéck pointer on the side of the ram, and stop machine when it reaches its highest reading on the scale. * Loosen locking nut on the stroke adjusting shat * Attach the handle to the square drive on the adjusting shaft, Ensure the handle is pointing toward the back of the machine. ‘+ Wind the handle until the pointer on the side of the ram shows the reading required on the scale. © Tighten the locking nut, and remove the handle, SAFETY ~ Switch machine offat the main switch & before manwaity adjusting the stroke. Positioning the stroke to the workpiece am aastgg «gam canoe ‘To set ram in position for adjustment: +" Start machine and allow the ram to reach the front of its stroke (as far forward as possible), and stop machine Switch off machine at the main switch * Loosen ram clamping lever. + Attach the handle to the ram adjustment screw. '* Wind the ram back or forward to position the point of the tool approximately 10mm beyond the front Of the workpiece. + Remove the handle and lock clamping lever. * Start machine and check that stroke position is correct + Adjust ram if necessary. ‘Setting the table traverse automatic feed ‘To set the traverse (automatic feed): + Loosen locking lever. ‘+ Turn the dial to the feedrate required. Tighten locking lever. * Start machine, and engage table feed lever. -B-Note: The table should feed when the ram reaches the back of its stroke regardless of the direction in which the table is feeding (either towards, or away from the operator). ‘To set the traverse (ratchet feed) ‘+ Tum the knurled lob to engage the ratchet. * Start machine Listen for the number of clicks per stroke to determine the feedrate. (One dick means 0.25mm, two clicks 0.50mm feed and s0 on). + Loosen the locking nut on the feed arm and adjust the arm, either in or out, between the centre and the outside of the ring to reduce or increase the feed. ‘© Tighten locking nut, engage the ratchet, start machine. * Check the number of clicks again, Note: A low ram speed will enable the number of ratchet clicks to be counted more easily. ‘To adjust the traverse (ratchet feed: Shaping (F5) * Start machine and engage the ratchet knob. © Ensure the ratchet clicks when the: ram has completed its forward stroke and is about to move back. + Fratchet does not click at the end of the forward stroke, stop machine. Loosen locking nut and move the arm to the opposite side of the slotted disc. ‘+ Tighten locking nut, start machine and engage table feed to move towards the operator. + Note the position of ram when ratchet clicks. It should now click at the completion of the forward stroke, ‘* Loosen the locking nut and move the arm to the ‘opposite side of the disc to reverse the direction of the table feed. ‘© Tighten locking nut, start machine and engage the table to feed fowards the operator, ensuring the ratchet clicks at the end of the stroke. SAFETY — Ensure the tool is clear of the F woorkpiece when setting and adjusting the traverse. Setting the head slide at an angle ‘To prepare machine table and head slide: © Clean machine table and ensure it is {ree from burrs. ‘Clean the side of the head slide and ensure itis free from burrs. * Wind the head operating screw to position the slide to the approximate middle of its travel ‘To set head slide using graduations, * Loosen locking nuts at rear of head slide. Swing the head side to the angle required using the scale, + Visually check that the required angleis set against the datum line. * Tighten locking nuts. Note: The headslide may be set at any angle using the graduations. If greater accuracy is required the slide should be finally set with a vernier protractor. Setting head slide with vernier protractor “To set vernier protractor: * Select a vernier protractor and attach a suitable blade. ‘= Set the protractor at the required angle. ‘To set head slide using graduations: * Set head slide to the graduations -ue© Lightly tighten locking nuts, suff in position. Finally st head with vernier protractor as follows! Mount base of vernier ‘protractor on machine table. Sliding motion will produce a good seat. ‘+ Adjust machine table so that the whole length of the protractor blade will seat on the head slide. * Slide the protractor base along the machine table tnt the blacle comes in light contact with the head slide, + Apply downward pressure with the hand to the base of the protractor. int to hold head Ir + Visually check that the protractor bladeis touching the slide alongits whole length, (If light canbe seen, at either the top or bottom of the blade slide protractor away from the head slide and tap head lightly with a soft hammer). * Slide protractor back to touch the blade to the head slide and re-cheek. © Fully tighten locking nuts Note: A piece of white paper held behind the protractor blade: will assist in visually checking the angle. SAFETY ~ Ensure machine is switched off at the ‘main switch before seiting head slide. Selecting and mounting the tool Tool forms and their applications ‘The general pattern of shaping toolsis the same as for turning, except that where possible the shanks should be more robust to withstand the shock at the start of the cutting stroke, The usual movement of the tool across the workpiece when shaping is from left to right, and this requires a side rake sloping from right to left. Ail tools should be mounted with the smallest possible extension below the clapper box A aS ety di STRAIGHT ROUGHING TOOLS Shaping (F3) Straight roughing tools are used for general surfacing. ‘work to form flat faces on steel, cast iron, brass etc, final cuts being taken with a finishing tool Tool ake Too! rake FINISHING TOOLS Finishing tools for general surfacing work are either round or stub nosed. The stub nosed tools are also useful for shaping profiles, radi ete. The tools wil cut in either direction as there is no slope on the front rake. “Tool ood LE Tool tees Front rake Front si Side tools are used for shaping down vertical or angular faces, also two faces at right angles. Surplus ‘material should first be removed with a. straight roughing tool, Side tools are available in both right and Jeft hand form KwiFe TOOLS Knife tools are used for finish machining steps, ‘opening out slots etc. They are available for right and Ieft hand cutting, The too! is fed vertically down the face to be machined,| Front . Clearance 4 Top rake ‘GROOVING (OR PARTING TOOL, Grooving tools are mainly employed for cutting keyways, slots etc. When cutting broad grooves or slots, one side at a time is machined. Tool angles should be careiully checked, for ifthe cutting angle is too great the tool may tend to bite into the ‘workpiece. TOOLHOLOER AND TOOL BIT ‘Toolholders which have high speed steel tootbits inserted and secured by a small bolt are used mainly for general surfacing work. Care should be exercised in setting the bit in the holder. Ifthe bit protrudes too far out ofthe holder itis liable to snap off when cutting commences. ‘The following rake and clearance angles apply to most shaping tools: Materiat | Front rake | Clearance Cast iron, brittle brass ete ee Steal 10° 12° It should be noted that the amount of clearance should not be more than is necessary toallow the tool to cut cleanly. Ii more than necessary is allowed the tool pointis made sharper andlthis removes the body" from the tool which would otherwise assist it to survive and conduct away the heat generated when cutting. Shaping (F5) Mounting and setting toolbits and toolholders MN xa x ve 1p secure toobit in oolholder: Insert the toolbit in the square hole in the toolholder allowing a minimum length of the square section to overhang the holder. Finger tighten the clamping screw ensuring the front face of the-tool is square to the camping screw. Ny ‘To mount tootholder in toolpost: ‘+ Tum the toolpost to position the hole at 90° to the head slide, * Loosen the bott at the end of the toolpost and slide in the toolholder, ensuring that the cutting edge of the toolbit is pointing forward. * Visually check that the tool is vertical from the front. ‘* Finger tighten the toolpost bolt, and check that theres sufficient length of toolholder protruding to allow the tool to pass over the face of the workpiece without the clapper box fouling the ‘workpiece. © Fully tighten bolts, with appropriate spanner. Note: Solid tools are mounted in the toolpost in the same manner as toolholders. -~16-‘Setting the tool to machine a vertical face When taking vertical cuts, the head slide is hand fed down, Ensure the cut is fed on at the return stroke of ‘the ram. The clapper box must be angled aver so that. ‘on the return stroke the cutting edge of the tool will not dig into the workpiece. Shaping (F5) Setting the tool to machine an angular face ‘To set clapper box at angle: ‘* Loosen the nut at the front of the clapper box. * Swivel the clapper box to its full extent, ensuring the top is toward the operator. ‘+ Fully tighten the clamping nut. ‘To set tool in toolpost: * Loosen the bolt and slide the tool into the toolpost. * Set the tool over in the toolpost, so that its cutting edge is toward the face to be machined and finger tighten bolt. ‘+ Visually check that the tool cutting angles are correct in relation to the workpiece. * Fully tighten bolt, To set tools to machine a given angle: © Set head at required angle. * Loosen locking nuts and using the scale swivel head to the required angle, * Tighten locking nuts. Ensure the zero mark is exactly on the angle required, Note: If greater accuracy is required, the head should be set with a vernier protractor. To set clapper box * Loosen the locking nut and swivel the clapper box to its full extent © Ensure the clapper box is swivelled in the correct direction and tighten the locking nut. Note: The clapper boxis always swivelled the oppo: Way to the angle set on the head slide, ‘To check clearance of clapper box: © Wind the head slide down tots full extent to ensure it will clear the bottom of the workpiece. (Raise machine table if required). ‘* Wind the ram to allow the tool to pass across the vertical face, and visually check that the clapper box will not foul the face of the workpiece. + Loosen the toolpost bolt and slide the tool down a littl if more clearance is required * Re-check the tool to ensure the cutting will be done by the point of the tool, Adjust if necessary. ‘To set tool in toolpost: * Loosen the toolpost bolt and slide the tool into the toolpost. * Visually set the tool vertical to the marked angle on the workpiece. * Ensure that the tool is protruding below the clapper box sufficiently to allow the head and clapper to clear the workpiece, * Fully tighten toolpost bolt. <1Setting machine vice ‘Stinging and lifting a vice ‘To prepare machine table and vice: Clean machine table ensuring tee slots are free from swarf and surface of table is free from burrs. © Clean base of vice and fixed tenons, ensuring both are free from burs. * Select appropriate sized tee bolts, of sufficient length to fully engage nut when vice is in position, + Slide tee bolts into table slots. To'position rope sting ‘= Check that the safe working load of the rope is greater than the weight of the viee, + Inspect the sling for signs of wear or damage. ‘+ Cross sling to form a figure 8. + Position one loop under each end of vice. * Position crane hook through and under crossed sling, approximately central to vice body. To litt vice: + Ensure crane is directly over vice. + Raise vice off floor. ‘Vice should lit parallel either end tits, Iower vice ‘and adjust hook position towards the lower end, ‘Adjust until vice its parallel + Raise vice to just above table level * Position vice over table. J SAFETY ~ Stand clear when lifing vice ‘To mount vice: * Lower vice to approximately 6mm above bolts and visually align bolts with holes in base of vice, and tenons in vice with table slot. + Lower vice gently to allow bolts topass through the holes in the vice, and the tenons to engage in the table slot. * Attach washers and nuts to the bolts and lightly tighten. + Remove sling and swing crane clear of machine. Check vice seating as follows: * Check all round between the base of the vice and machine table with a feeler gauge to ensure vice is seating correctly. * Fully tighten nuts. Shaping (F5) Setting vice square with ram movement ‘Set vice to zero position, Open vice jaws to full extent Set vice using dial indicator as follows: ‘Attach a magnetic base and dial indicator to the head slide. ‘+ Wind head slide down and adjust dial indicator to engage stylus on fixed vice jaw. iten knuckle joints, and set dial indicator at zer0. ‘+ Wind table stide backwards and forwards and note the reading at each end of the vice jaw. + Loosen locking nutsand adjust vice as necessary to achieve a constant indicator reading over full Tength of jaw. + Tighten locking nuts, Note: Always adjust by tapping the vice away from the dial indicator stylus. + Re-check setting. Setting vice parallel to the ram To set vice using the scale: * Loosen locking nuts and set vice at 90° on the scale, ‘Tighten locking nuts lightly to hold vice in position. Check vice with dial indicator as follows: * Attach a magnetic base and dial indicator to the head slide. ‘© Adjust table slide to bring stylus over the fixed vice jaw. ‘* Lower head slide to position stylus approximately 6mm below the top of the fixed vice jaw. ‘+ Wind table slide gently to register approximately 0.5mm on dial indicator and set at zero. 18 ~* Loosen ram locking lever and wind the ram back and forth to bring styius of cial indicator to each ‘end of the fixed vice jaw. ‘+ Iferroris found adjust position by tapping vice with a soft hammer, ‘Tighten vice locking nuts. ‘* Re-check alignment. Note: Always position ram so that the vice is tapped away from the dial indicator stylus, Setting vice at an angle to the ram To set vice at requited angle using the scale: * Loosen vice locking nuts. * Manually swing vice round to the required angle. * Visually check that the zero marks exactly on the igle required on the scale. Tighten locking bolts securely and visually re-check the scale to ensure the vice has not Shaping (F5) + Place the smoothest side of the workpiece to the fixed vice jaw. Note: For many operations the angle may be set using the scale only, but if greater accuracy is required the angle should be set with a sine bar. Setting the workpiece Mounting the workpiece in a vice ‘To seat workpiece and tighten vice: + Tighten vice and tap workpiece down with a soft hammer. Aringing soundisheard until workpieceis seated, when a dead sound should be heard. * Check that the parallels are tightly trapped. Note: In ts rough state workpiece may not seat tightly ‘on both parallels, ao JY sls) ‘To mount workpiece in vice: * Select parallels of sulficient height to finish face of workpiece without tool fouling vice jaws, and to hold maximum amount of workpiece. Note: Position one parallel central if bottom face of workpiece is round, two parallels will be required if workpiece is flat + Check parallels to ensure they are the same size. * Position parallels and workpiece, approximately central to Tength of vice jaws. ‘To reset workpiece: + Turn workpiece to position machined face to fixed vice jaw. * Insert a length of round bar 10mm to 20mm diameter between movable jaw and workpiece, approximately central to length of workpiece in vice. * Repeat both steps for seating workpiece and tightening viee, Note: The round bar is used to minimise the tendency of the moving vice jaw to tilt (cant) the workpiece resulting in the fixed jaw contacting the workpiece in one place only. =19-Mounting a shaft in vee blocks a ‘Shaping (F5) + Position clamp in clamping slot in-vee block, or on. top of vee block, ensuring they do not foul shaft. ‘© Push vee blocks hard up to setting plates and tighten clamps securely, ensuring blocks do not tilt over. © Check with feeler gauge that vee’ blocks remain tight up to setting blocks, Ponta Select vee blocks as follows: Select a pair of vee blocks which will allow the shaft to rest approximately midway on groove faces. ‘* Ensure vee blocks are clean and free from burrs. ‘To position vee blocks: ‘© Refer to drawing for operation and position workpiece and vee blocks on machine table. © Ensure clamps and packing blocks will clear tool ‘ Position two tee bolts in table slot, ensuring that length of tee bolts is sufficient for clamping on top of shaft. * Position two setting blocks in table slot making certain they are sliding fit, with no play, and will not obstruct clamps, * Push vee blocks up to setting blocks and check base is located clear of table slots; parallels may be inserted between vee blocks and setting blocks if necessary. ‘To clamp vee blocks: ‘To clamp workpiece in vee blocks: © Position clamps on workpiece, central and directly over, vee blocks. © Protect finished diameters by inserting a piece of soft material between clamp and workpiece. © Ensure clamps will not foul tool, or are clamping ‘over any thin walls on the workpiece. © Align ary clearance holes for keyways ete, at top centre of the workpiece. © Tighten clamps securely. Alternative methods ‘Align shaft with dial indicator: Lightly clamp shaft in vee blocks. Tap shaft until the same indicator reading is obtained at each end of shat. Clamp vee blocks in position. Re-check setting. Ailgn vee block square or at an angle: ‘Set and clamp a parallel in required plane. * Push vee blocks up to parallel. * Clamp in position Mounting workpiece direct to machine table ‘To mount workpiece: © Clean machine table and ensure burrs. is free from -20-+ Position workpiece on table as near central as possible. «Engage tenons or setting plate in table slots within length of, but as near extremes of workpiece as possible, ‘+ Feel tenons are a tight fit in table slot with no side Play. ‘© Push workpiece to tenons or setting plates and visually check base is seated on table clear of slots. Equal parallels may be inserted between tenons and workpiece if required, «Hold workpiece to tenons while clamping. * Check between workpiece and tenons, with feeler gauge. Use of table slots for setting workpiece square or at angle ‘fo position setting plates: Engage setting plates in table slot ensuring atight fit with no side play. * Position setting plates as close as possible to workpiece, ensuring square or protractor blade will not foul on plates. + Position setting plates to locate maximum length of square or protractor base. ‘To position square or protractor: ‘= Position base of square or protractor to setting plates. « hoply pressure to hold base flat to setting plates, sliding blade to face of workpiece. «Tap workpiece to align face to square or protractor blade. Shaping (F5) Mounting workpieces in vertical plane ‘To visually align workpiece: « Slide tee bolts in side slots of machine table and attach clamps and nuts. «Hold workpiece to side of table, position one clamp to each side and at opposite ends of workpiece. ‘© Tighten clamps sufficiently to hold wor! position and visually align in vertical plane. “To position square: «Position base of square to top of machine table. Side square to lightly touch the blade to the workpiece, ensuring the blade will not foul the clamp. «Tap workpiece with a soft hammer to align face of workpiece to blade of square. « Pally tighten clamps, and re-check with square, Attach further clamps or stops if heavy cuts are to be taken, -21-Mounting unmachined workpieces Shaping (F5) ‘To check workpiece: ‘+ Remove any loose scale from the workpiece. + Place workpiece on machine table and check for any rocking movement. * Visually. check for gaps between workpiece and table. Insert shims of required thickness, to bring workpiece flat to the table without rocking movement. To clamp workpiece: ‘+ Attach suitable clamps to workpiece and carefully tighten, ensuring workpiece remains soli. ‘+ Attach one or twostops to the end of the workpiece to take the thrust of the cut, ensuring tool will not foul them at finished size. Mounting irregular shaped workpieces Ensure the base or largest flat surface of the workpiece is machined as a first operation. Castings etc, may have to be clamped to the side of the machine table. Use the base as a datum face when setting and clamping for subsequent operations. Clamp workpiece so that as many faces as possible may be machined without moving the workpiece. Combine vice and angle bracket, or angle bracket, screw jacks and clamps, to’ hold workpiece securely. Clamp workpiece so that faces may be machined without the too! fouling the clamps or workholding, and are positioned over a solid member. Apply even, firm pressure to clamp bolts, ensuring no distortion occurs, Note: If workpiece is marked out, always set to the ‘marked lines with a scribing block, Check machining allowance if not marked out. The use of stops several workpieces are to be machined, stops.can be used to locate them in the same position on the work table, This enables the indexes, which are set during the initial set up, to be used on subsequent workpieces, and avoids setting each workpiece individually. Another use of stops is to counteract the thrust of the tool which may otherwise move the workpiece. ‘To set stops: * Position stops to sides and/or end of workpiece to control positioning in requited planes. Make certain workpiece is clean where stops are positioned. ‘Position stops so that only a small area isin contact ‘with workpiece, eg, use clamp with tapered sides, or slightly turn ‘clamp to locate on one comer. Note: When positioning stops for counteracting the thrust ofthe tool, they should be square to the end of the workpiece, and cover as large an aréa as possible. ‘To clamp stops: ‘+ Clamp as near locating end of stop as possible, ‘+ Ensure stops and tee bolts will be clear of tool. ‘© Hold stops in position and tighten nuts on bolts. * Tap stops until correctly located on end or sides of workpiece; check with feeler gauge. -~2-Position workpiece to stops as follows: © Clean locating points of stops and workpiece before positioning. ‘© Bxercise care when positioning workpiece ensuring stops are not moved from their set position. © Hold workpiece tight to stops, and clamp in position. ‘© Check location of workpiece to stops with feeler gauge. * Check machining on uniformity. «Check setting of castings after positioning to stops. before taking cut. workpiece to ensure Shaping operations Shaping a flat surface “To mount the workpiece: + Select a pair of parallels of suificient height to hold maximum amount of workpiece, without tool fouling the vice jaws at finished size. + Clean vice jaws and bottom face of vice, and de-buer workpiece. + Mount workpiece on paraltels, mid-way between end of vice jaws ‘+ Tighten vice, and tap workpiece with a soft hammer, to seat tightly on parallels. «Fully tighten vice, and tap again. Note: Workpieces in rough state may not seat tightly ‘on parallels. ‘To mount the tool: ‘= Position toolholder over workpiece. + Select suitable tool. Shaping (F5) + Mount tool in holder, ensuring tool edge is clear of face of workpiece. + Visually check clearance angles of tool. Set stroke to required length and position. ‘To position tool to workpiece: ‘© Wind tool slide down to bring edge of tool to within approximately 5mm of workpiece. ‘« Move ram back and forth to visually obtain highest point of workpiece. + Insert a feeler gauge between tool edge and face of workpiece. Wind tool slide down to lightly trap fecler and set index at zero. ‘+ Wind ram back to clear tool from workpiece. © Wind tool slide down the required amount for first cut, Note: Ensure that tool cuts below any scale or rough surfaces of the workpieces. ‘To face workpieces: © Start machine and hand feed cross slide, to bring tool to within approximately 15mm of side of workpiece. ‘© Select suitable feed, and engage cross feed lever. isually check that swart is not discoloured (too heavy feed), or chips are not in proportion to cut. Check surface of workpiece as follows: * Clean swarl from machined surface, with brush. * Visually check surface finish, and ensure whole face has cleaned up. © Take a further light cut if required.J) SAFETY — Care of hands Use a brush to remove + swark Beware of burrs when handling workpieces. Shaping angular faces To rough out angled face: + Select the correct tool to rough out the face. ‘Loosen clapper box bolt and swivel the box away from the operator as far as it will go; re-tighten bolt. * Set the tool vertically in the toolpost and tighten tool retaining bolt. ‘= Adjust the head. slide to bring the tool to approximately 0.5mm above the top of the workpiece. ‘+ Adjust the cross slide to bring the tool to within approximately 0.5mm of the end of the workpiece. at which the angle is marked. * Start machine and wind head slide down approximately 5mm and feed the table away from. the operator, to remove material until the tool point is within 0.5mm of the marked angle line. + Return the table to the starting position and wind on a further cut of Smm, Again feed table across until tool is within 0.5mm of the marked line. * Continue until a series of cuts have been taken to form steps. Note: Care should be exercised when nearing the marked line. Ifthe tool cuts past the marked angle ine ‘a ridge will be left on the face of the workpiece. Set head slide at required angle and swivel clapper box as far asit will go, in the opposite direction to the angle on the head slide. Shaping (F5) ‘To mount and set took: Select the correct tool to finish the face. ‘* Mount tool in toolpost and visually set vertical, To check clearance of head: © Wind head slide down to position tool within approximately 1.5mm of roughed out face. ‘© Manually wind ram to pass the tool across the face. ‘+ Visually check that the clapper or head will not foul the workpiece on the return stroke. “To finish angled face: ‘Start machine and visually check that the tool isin correct position, ‘+ Wind head slide up to ring the tool point tothe top of the angular face. ‘+ Adjust table slide to start the cut at the top of the face and wind on approximately 05min and lock table slide, ‘© Hand feed the head slide to take the tool down the angular face. ‘© Raise head slide and wind on further cuts of approximately 0.5mm until the marked line is split Note: The last cut should be of approximately 0.127mm to aid surface texture, Care should be exercised to feed on the cuton the return stroke of the ram only. SAFETY — Keep fingers well clear of the tool ‘Always use correct size spanners. -u-Shaping slots and grooves Mark out the workpiece by applying marking blue to the workpiece and mark out width and depth of slot or groove. ‘To mount the workpiece: © Select a suitable pair of parallels, height sufficient to ‘hold workpiece with the bottom of the slot approximately 3mm. above the top of the vice jaws » Mount parallel in the vice and seat workpiece on the parallel = ‘Tighten vice and tap workpiece with a soft! hammer to seat tightly on parallels. To mount and set the tool: «Set clapper box vertical and mount a grooving (parting) tool in the toolpost and secure. ‘Adjust table and head slides to bring the tool over the approximate centre of the marked slot, and the cutting edge of the tool approximately 1.5mm above the face of the workpiece. ‘Visually check that the cutting edge of the tool Is parallel with the top face of the workpiece. * Adjust position as necessary. Note: The width of the too! should be less than the finished size of the slot. Set length and position of stroke. Shaping (F5) ‘To zero the head slide index: «Insert a fecler gauge between the cutting edge of the tool and the face of the workpiece. ‘© Wind head slide down gently, to lightly trap the feeler and set head slide index at zero. ‘© Lightly tighten tool slide clamp. "To machine a slot to depth: + Ensure the automatic table feed is disengaged. ‘© Start machine and hand feed head slide down ‘approximately 0.10mim per cut. ‘Ensure that the cutis fed down on the back stroke of the ram only. © Check depth of slot when within approximately (050mm of full depth on the index. ‘+ ‘Take further cuts as necessary to bring the slot to depth required. # Re-set too! slide index to zero, “To finish a slot to width: © Check between one side of the slot and the side of the workpiece and note the amount to be removed. ‘+ Wind tool clear of workpiece, and adjust the table slide to remove the required amount, ‘Hand feed tool slide down as before, to remove the ‘material from the side of the slot. # Finish to depth, using the zero setting on the tool slide, Check dimension and take further culs as necessary. «Wind head slide to clear tool from workpiece. © Adjust table slide and take a light cut down ‘opposite side of the slot * Check slot with slip gauges and note the am be removed to finish the slot to size. ‘+ Repeat second to fourth steps in this list and check finished size with slip gauges. intto =~Shaping a profile ‘Apply marking blue to the workpiece and mark out the profil line. Centre dot the marked line lightly, for the whole of the profile. Select a suitable workholding method, mount and secure workpiece. Then select a suitable tool to rough, away the surplus material and mount in toolpost. Remove surplus material to the highest point of the profile, leaving approximately 0:75mm above the marked fine. Angle the head slide to rough away material from radii etc, alternatively if workpiece is mounted in a vice it may be reset at the required angle. To rough out the profile: * Select a suitable tool to rough and finish the profile and mount in toolpost, (a round nosed tool is usually suitable), ‘Select a low cutting speed, this will give more time for the adjustment of the head slide index on the return stroke. Start machine and feed in by hand, to bring the toolpoint to the start of the marked profile, ‘© Adjust the head slide to cut approximately 04mm. above the profile line, ‘+ Engage the table feed using alow feed and carefully adjust the head slide on each return stroke to follow the marked profil line. ‘+ Exercise care in feeding the head slide up or down so that the tool never cuts below the line, Shaping (F3) ‘To finish the profile: ‘+ Remove the tool, regrind the cutting edges and remount. + Adjust the cutting depth to split the marked line, ‘ ‘To finish the profile repeat the last two stages of roughing out the profile (above). ‘+ Ensure that the cut is fed on at the return stroke of the ram only, stop the machineat intervals, remove any swari and check the profile to the marked lime, Note: Shaping profiles is one of the more difficult operations, and much practice is required to obtain satisfactory results,Drilling (F6) ‘Types of drills Drills are used for producing holes. There are many types of drills designed: for varying machining requirements, but the most common are the parallel ‘and taper shanic types of varying sizes. J SAAETY ~ Great, care must be taken when Farting. The guard on the drilling machine must ‘always be in place before the machine is ‘switched on, and during all drilling operations. There must be no loose clothing or long hair which could get caught up in the drill. The work. must be properly secured against movement, ‘and special care must be taken when the drill is breaking through the metal. Drilling sheet metal is particularly dangerous, and great care is needed, Standard sizes of drills range from 0.20 millimetres up {to 16 millimetres; or from 1/64 inch diameter up to Y inch diameter. Te ail soit r. ‘Twist drills are classified by the shape of the shank. ‘They are identified by the size and material from which they are made. Paralle! shank drills are usually made up to 12 millimetres or Ys inch in diameter. They are used ‘mainly with hand tools or small pillar drills, and fit in ‘an adjustable chuck. Cass Parallel shank Gobbers series) drills are in most common use and can be used in drilling machines, hand-held drilling machines and machine tools, ing rt te sone ‘Taper shank drills are obtainable in most diameters, and are used to give a more positive drive, and where quick changing is necessary. A taper shank has a morse taper. ‘This is a standard classification (originally American) in which drills have been grouped according to ASA (American Standards ‘Association) sizes. Each group shares a common shank number from 0 = 7. emoving @ taper shark dull bing @ Hope eit ‘Ataper shank drill must be removed from the mact ‘with a taper drift, made of mild steel so that it does not damage the drill, Standard taper’ drill sizes usually range from 3 millimetres up to 100 millimetres; or from 1/8 inch ameter up to 4 inches. Sloave <= 0 atm 0 Topar Shore Soc Sleeves and sockets are used to adapt the taper of the drill to fit the machine. The sockets are made with morse tapers. The tang fits ina slot when the socket is put in the machine, ‘The taper must be in good Condition because the drill is driven by it; if it is damaged, the drill cannot be used effectively. -ar-Clamping techniques for drilling To damp a regular shaped workpiece in vice: * Position maximum possible length and depth of workpiece in vice. * I it is necessary to. raise the height of the iece, position one parallel central if bottom of workpiece is round, or one parallel to each edge bottom of workpiece is flat. + Check that the parallel will not foul drill or measuring instruments, ‘Visually check that the centrettine ofthe eylindical workpiece is below the top of the vice jaw. ‘+ Lightly tighten vice and tap workpiece down with soft hammer. A ringing sound is heard until workpiece is seated. Then a dull thudding sound is heard. * Using feeler gauge, check that the workpiece is corréetly seated on the vice bed. If paraliels are used, ensure that they are tightly trapped. * Tighten vice. To clamp flat work in a vice: + Ensure drill table and underneath of vice are lean. Drilling (F6) ‘Place vice on table and position clamping slots in line with "T" slots on table, + Clamp vice to table, Use ‘T’ slot bolt, washer and rut, Always use a washer to prevent the nut from biting into vice clamping area, ‘+ Position the two parallels in between the vice jaws. Make sure that both parallels are the same height. ‘+ Place the workin between the viee jaws and the top of the parallels. Lightly tighten the vice jaws. ‘© Check that the parallels are in such a position under the work that, when the drill breaks through, the work, it will not foul or damage the parallels. ‘Lightly tap work with hide hammer to ensure that the work is correctly seated on the parallel. © Finally clamp vice jaws on to work. Tap clamp handle with palm of hand (not with hammer) to avoid straining vice screw. + Check that there is no movement of parallels. To clamp flat work on dil tabte: * Ensure that the table is free from swarl and ditt Position two parallels on table, Ensure both parallels are the same height, * Place the work on top of parallels and position so that the area to be drilled is in line with drill spindle, ‘+ Re-position parallels, so that they areasnear to the ‘edge of the work as is possible. + Check that the work is laying flat upon parallels. + Position “T slot bolts and clamps on both sides of work to give maximum clamping area. The parallels should be directly below the point of clamping to avoid the work tilting. ‘* Finally tighten both clamps evenly. = 28 -Drilling (F6) Set the face to be drilled parallel by using a spitit, level on horizontal face of workpiece, tap the workpiece until a true horizontal reading is obtained. * Finally tighten clamps and check that the workpiece has not moved, To clamp irregular shapes: © Position and clamp angle plate by ensuring that the table and angle plate are clean and free from burrs. Then clamp edge plate to table using "T’ slot bolts. ‘© Pre-position clamps by selecting appropriate slots in angle plate to give maximum clamping area ‘Then build clamps up on angle plate ready for use. ‘To position and clamp workpiece: +” Ensure that the workpiece is clean and free [rom burrs. ‘+ Position workpiece flat against the angle plate. For small work, build up the height of the work by placing packing undemeath it, This often eliminates the use of a very long dil © Support workpiece with one hand and position clamp with the other hand, Change the support from the band to clamp and exert pressure to clamp, to support workpiece. Position packing block at rear of clamp. Finger tighten clamping nut. Position second clamp and packing and finger tighten. ‘To clamp round work in a vee block: ‘+ Ensure table is free from swari. * Position vee block on table parallel with 'T” slots. Place work on top of vee block making sure both ‘work and vee blocks are free from burrs. ‘© Establish height from table to top of work and select appropriate packing for clamping. « Pre-position ‘I’ slot bolt and strap clamp on work. ‘© Rotate shait to bring marked out position of hole to top dead centre. ‘© Finally tighten strap clamp. Take care not to move shaft Using drills Hole centres must be accurately marked out, centre punched and checked for accuracy. The workpiece ust be secured against movement during dling. 1 chip « groove tock towards When drilling, the position of the hole should be shecked before the drill is allowed to cut to full diameter. I the hole is off centre, the error can be corrected by chipping a groove which will allow the ‘work to take up its proper alignment. — 29 -Drilting (F6) A pilot drill is necessary to ensure clearance when driling a large diameter hole. When driling care should be taken to avoid breaking a drill in the workpiece as itis difficult to remove, and may result in the work being scrapped. To prevent a drill from breaking it should be used at the correct, speed and feed. The swarf should not be allowed to jam in it and the iands must be in good condition, Proper use of a suitable coolant will also help to avoid breaking drills. | He * The work must be properly secured. # There must be proper support for the break- through. Particular care must be taken in drilling sheet metal ‘+ The guard on the drill must be in position before and daring drilling * Hair must be short or covered. * No loase clothing should be worn. Using a hole saw To engage hole saw up to approximately 15mm diameter: ‘* Mark the starting point with a centre punch, * Select a hole saw of the required diameter. * Select a twist drill to fit centre of the hole saw. ‘© Insert drill in hole saw boss and secure with grub screw. Allow drill to project sufficiently to act as a, pilot. ‘© Insert chill shank in drill chuck. ‘To engage a hole saw above 15mm diameter: Mark the starting point with a centre punch. Sclect a hole saw of the required diameter. Select a twist drill to fit saw arbor. Engage saw on arbor and tighten retaining nut. Insert twist drill in arbor. Allow drill to project sutficiently to act as a pilot. + Engage arbor in drill chuck, To cut a hole: ‘© Bring drill into contact with workpiece and apply lubricant, * Select spindle speed, dependent upon material and hole saw diameter © Start machine spindle and feed drill until saw makes contact with workpiece. Continue drilling. Note: When resistance on feed handle is felt to be reducing, immediately reduce the hand feed pressure and lightly feed through.Finishing holes (F7, F8) Reaming Because 4 drill cannot always produce the correct degree of accuracy and finish, a reamer is used for enlarging and finishing to size, after a hole has been drilled is not used for corcecting any mistakes in the position or direction of a drilled hole. ‘The amount of material left for reaming varies according to the diameter of the reamer, and the material. Principle of ‘expanding Expanding reamers have advantages over solid reamers. ‘The wear on the flutes of solid reamers causes inaccuracy, and when a reamer is reground, it imust be reground down to the next size, When the ‘expanding reamer has lost its size, the flutes can be ‘sprung open and they can be reground to the correct Size. These reamers can also be used in repair work to enlarge existing holes by small amounts. Machine omar ‘Aajuneble wana With the exception of adjustable reamers, they may be. used by hand or in a machine, and may have straight or spiral flutes, Teper ease So Applicaton of Prepare dea hole ‘er by sep aillieg Shigh fee Adjustable reamers have replaceable blades which = can be expanded. This allows one reamer to be used = for a wide range of hole sizes. Spr Hts ‘Ataper reamer is used to give a taper to a drilled hole ‘when a taper pin is to be used, Parallel Reomer A parallel reamer is used when extreme accuracy and. ‘a high class finish are required in a hole. ~ 31 When reaming, the workpiece must be properly supported and rigidly held in a stock (wrench) of appropriate size. The reamer must be kept in its correct position relative to the workpiece. The reamer must be run slowly, and excessive feed must be avoided. The reamer must always be turned in the cutting direction. Ample cutting fluid should be used. ‘When removing the reamer, it must be turned in the cutting direction, Reamers with blunt or chipped edges must not be used.Counterboring Finishing holes (F7, F8) Countersinking => Couterboring ‘Counterboring is needed to form a flat, recessed seating for a cheese-headed bolt Spot facing Spat farina. Spot. facing is needed to form a flat seating for a securing nut or bolt, = 32- Cosrtesinking Countersinking is needed to enable the head of the serew to fit flash with the surface of a component,Tapping and screwing (F9) ‘Taps A tap cuts an internal (female) thread, either left or right hand, Taps are usually made in sets of three: a taper tap, an intermediate tap, and a plug tap. SAFETY — Beware of cutting edges when ‘handling. 10 thes i Ta oper Teper ep Pe ‘The taper tapis tapered olf for 8 to 10 threads, ands, used first, cutting to the full thread gradually. 3-4 threads N Care must be taken not to damage the cutting edges.A chipped tap must never be used, When notin use, taps should be kept clean, and stored in a rack. ‘A hole must be drilled to the tapping size for the thread. The workpiece must be securely supported. When starting the cutting, the tap must be 90° in all planes to the work, Excessive force must not be used, as this will result in breaking the tap. Cutting fluid should be used. The threads must be cleared as often as is necessary Lo prevent flute cogging. Dies "ad Tope Intermediate top ‘Theintermediate tap usually has three or four threads chamfered, The second tap can finish a through &®@ hole. esse Plug top "The plug tap has a full-sized untapered thread to the end, andis the main finishing tap. nthe case of a blind hole, a plug tap must be used. A die cuts an external (male) thread, which may be right or left hand. A die is made of high quality tool steel, suitably heat treated. —Q-= Thaeaded handle ojos jaws se ‘The appropriate size wrench should always be used for a given tap, to ensure that the jaws fit correctly. ‘A die is held in, and turned by, a stock, There are button dies, half dies, and solid die nuts. -3-Tapping and screwing (F9) ‘The button (or split) die allows a limited amount of adjustment in the depth it will cut, by means of screws in the stock which spring it open or shut. It should be fully open for the first cut, and then gradually reduced to finished size. It must be checked against an existing thread or die nut of correct size. Half dies have the advantage of taking smaller cuts to reach correct size, so the amount of material taken off can be controlled. Half dies are in matched pairs, andl should always be used together. A solid die nuts used to repair a damaged thread, not to cut a new one. ‘When not in use, dies should be kept clean and stored ina partitioned box to prevent damage to their cutting edges. When using dies the work should be chamfered for case of starting, The workpiece must be securely ‘supported, and vertical in the vice. Great care must be taken to start the thread true to the axis of the bar. Lubricant should be used. The threads must be Cleared as often as is necessary. aeFitting (F10) Limits and fits When making assemblies of several parts, steps have tobe taken to ensure that parts fit together properly. To ensure that similar parts can be interchanged, limits of size are set. These vary with the class of fit required, a P Ricans acme tit ie nie fe ‘The biggest tolerated increase in size above a given dimension is known as the ‘high limit. The tolerated! decrease of sizebelow the same required dimension is called the ‘low limit’. The difference between the high and low limits is known as the tolerance. ‘When two components are fitted together, such as a shaft and bearing, the difference between the ‘high limit’ of the shaft and the ‘low limit’ of the bearing hole is known as the allowance. This allowed difference determines which class of fit ‘exists between the mating parts. The three classes of fit are clearance, transition and interference. Clearance fits may be referred to as running or free running fits, Mating components may be assembled by applying a light pressure or they may fit together without any applied force ‘Transition fits may be referred toas light press or push. fits. Since there may be interference or clearance Detween the mating parts they may need a light press or a hammer tap to achieve assembly. rt Interference fits may be referred to as drive, press or force fits, The tightness of the fit is unlikely to damage ‘or overstrain components but requires a press or hammer for assembly,For checking limits and fits micrometers and vernier calipers can be used to measure the dimensions of shafts and bores. There is a possibility of small errors arising when using these instruments, therefore, for batch and production work it is beiter to use limit gauges, Limit gauges are precision instruments and must be handied with care, The checking faces must be protected from damage and checked regularly against a standard. Using ples =e Gauges of this type check only that the component is within limits, The most common types of limit gauge are plug gauges and snap gauges. ‘The plug gauge is used to check internal dimensions within prescribed limits, Ging a soa ‘nop g2tge ‘The snap gauge is used to check external dimensions, ‘within prescribed limits. Ting Ferg Fitting (F10) Fitting assemblies ‘This section describes an approach to the fitting of assemblies. The overall plan isa guide and instructors are expected to use it in relation to their own ‘workshop’s procedures. Itis essential, however, that the trainee understands the overall approach. Reference is made to the techniques which may have to be used in each task, Make sure you understand the drawings, and what is required in respect of: * Accuracy and finish. ‘+ Component funetion. + Assembly funetion. In planning the assembly procedure consider: ‘The sequence of assembly. © Space required, * Handling of parts and assembly. © Special tools and equipment. ‘To prepare the individual parts: Check availability of parts and materials. + Check parts against drawing or schedule. © Inspect parts as required, © De-burr and clean parts using a suitable method depending upon the job, eg, filing, scraping, chiselling and hand grinding. ‘Arrange further work on parts as required. Mark out ~ additional work may be needed on arts, eg, oil holes. + Fit carry out work required to complete individual parts ready for assembly. + Mark parts ~ component marking is carried out for identification purposes, for indicating surface position and for giving instruction, Wherever possible, position the mark on the component ‘where it can easily be seen. Methods Use Stamping: Use for permanent © Letter or marking on soft metals. number punch | Take care when marking Centre punch | cast components to avoid * Chisel cracking. Do not use on mating faces Do not use on thin components, distortion ‘may occur. Etching: Use for permanent * Electric marking on herd metals and thin components. © Acid ‘Mark on finished surfaces. Labelling: Use for temporary marking, * Chaiking Labels should not be used ‘on moving parts. * Painting Painting may be used as a| ‘code of to give specific Information. ~36 ~+ Paint and treat ~ ensure all parts are protected as called for on the drawing, eg, castings and fabrications painted; machined surfaces protected Dy grease, ol or corrosion resistant compound depending upon function and position of parts. © Assemble ~ components should be fitted together in accordance with the drawing using appropriate xing techniques. * Check performance. Scrapers Scrapers are used to produce a bearing surface from one which has been filed or machined. A scraper consists of a handle and a blade. A scraper should be of high quality tool steel and the cutting edge should be kept in good condition. Scrapers are classified by the shape of the blade. There are flat, half-round, and three square scrapers. ter Q Ss ‘The flat scraper is used for removing slight irregularities on a flat surface. When the surface has been scraped with strokes in one direction it must be scraped with strokes at 90° to the first ‘The half-round scraper surfaces, ‘The three-square scraper is used for internal surfaces such as bearings. Fitting (F10) ‘To scrape flat surfaces: * Find the highspots on the workpiece by sliding it over a surface plate evenly covered with a thin film of Prussian blue or other suitable marking agent. » Scrape the area showing the greatest amount of highspots, © Check the workpiece frequently against the surface plate, until required condition has been achieved. UO When moitling by ‘curling’ and ‘feathering’ position right hand tip of cutting edge on workpiece. Apply a. downward pressure with the left hand on the scraper blade and a forward pressure with the right hand. At the same time, slightly rotate the right hand anticlockwise until the left hand tip of the scraper cutting edge is reached. Note: ‘the ‘curl’ should start and finish at an equal distance cither side of the cutting edge centre line, ‘When the surface has been scrapedin one direction, it must then be scraped with strokes at 90° to the first es, to give the necessary finish, =31-Fitting (F10) ‘To grind ‘flat’ scraper to shape round off the cutting ede of the scraper as follows: © Switch on the machine and turn on the coolant. ‘© Support the scraper on the tool rest with the ‘cutting edge touching the front of the grinding wheel. ‘© With the left hand remaining in a fixed position to act as a pivot move the right hand in an are to grind, a radius on the cutting edge. { SARETY ~ Safety goggles must be worn, ‘To cary out final sharpening of scraper on oll stone: * Lightly smear oilstone with a thin film of of ‘+ Position angular face of scraper flat on oilstone. + Apply pressure with tips of fingers of left hand as right hand moves the scraper backwards and fowards along the oil stone. * Tur scraper and repeat the two previous stages. * Position scraper vertically with cutting edge on oll stone. Grind a taper on the flat faces of the scraper as follows: * Position the seraper face to one side of the wheel at ‘an angle of approximately 5°, Support the scraper con the tool rest. * Grind approximately 50mm back towards the handle. * Tum the scraper over and repeat this operation on the other face. * Repeat the previous two stages until the cutting edge thickness is reduced to approximately 15mm. + Tum off the coolant and switch off the machine. * Apply downward pressure with both hands grasped ficmly around scraper, At the same time ‘move scraper in an are to give a sharp cutting edge. Care should be taken not to tilt the scraper sideways, Note: Do not restrict this operation to one area of the stone as continual use will cause wear and produce a coneave stone surface,Off-hand grinding (F11) Off-hand grinder TThe off-hand grinder is used for sharpening various. types of hand and machine tools. Before commencing any grinding operation cary out the following checks: © Visually inspect the grinding wheel for surface defects before starting the machine, ‘+ Check that the grinding wheel is running true and has an even face and sides. * Cheek that the tool rest is correctly set in relation to the grinding wheel. “There are two types of off-hand grinder, namely the hench model and the pedestal (floor) model. They ‘can be single or double ended, ie, one or two wheels. ‘The main parts of the grinder are shown in the illustration. J SAFETY — Abrasive Whee! Regulations (1970) Pi is necessary for persons mounting Abrasive Wheels (Grinding Wheels) 10 have received training in accordance with the Regulations. Ifyou are in any doubt as to the condition of the grinding wheel do not attempt to replace it ‘Yourself but consult your instructor. Grinding a centre punch 1 SAFETY — Safety goggles must be worn. ‘To grind a centre punch: Hold the centre punch in the fingers of the left hand ‘which should rest on the tool rest. ‘+ Hold the head of the centre punch in the tips of the fingers of the right hand. Position tip of centre punch to wheel at an angle of approximately oo + ‘Touch centre punch to front of wheel and rotate by turning the head with the right hand, keeping continuous even pressure against wheel. Note: Do not allow the point of the centre punch to become overheated as this will cause the point to become soft. Frequently quench the point in a coolant. © Visually check that the tip is central. Grinding a chisel SAFETY — Safety goggles must be worn Position chisel to wheel and grind as follows: + Visually check existing cutting angle, to establish it itis correct. ‘Hold chisel in the left hand, and support the hand on the tool rest. + The right hand should hold the head of the chisel and guide the cutting edge backwards and forwards slowly and lightly across the face of the grinding wheel. + Tum chisel over and grind the other side of the cutting edge. Note: The edge being ground should frequently be quenched in a coolant. Check cutting angle using centre gauge. —39-