Routing algorithms

Interplay between routing

and forwarding
routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2
 Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
Graph: G = (N,E)
x 1
y

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z), (u,w)}

Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts

Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

 Graph abstraction: costs
5 • c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3
v w 5
2 - e.g., c(w,z) = 5
u 2 1 z
3 • cost could always be 1, or
1 2
x 1
y inversely related to bandwidth,

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?

Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

 Routing Algorithm
classification
Global or decentralized  Static or dynamic?
information?
Static:
Global:

all routers have complete 

routes change slowly over 
topology, link cost info time
• “link state” algorithms Dynamic: 
Decentralized: 

router knows physically­

routes change more 
connected neighbors, link costs to  quickly
neighbors 
periodic update

iterative process of computation,
exchange of info with neighbors

in response to link 
• “distance vector” algorithms cost changes
Link state Routing algorithm
 A Link-State Routing Algorithm

Dijkstra’s algorithm Notation:

net topology, link costs known to  • c(x,y): link cost from node x to 
all nodes y;  = ∞ if not direct neighbors

accomplished via “link state  • D(v): current value of cost of 
broadcast”  path from source to dest. v

all nodes have same info
• p(v): predecessor node along 

computes least cost paths from  path from source to v
one node (‘source”) to all other 
nodes • N': set of nodes whose least cost 

gives forwarding table for  path definitively known
that node

iterative: after k iterations, know 
least cost path to k dest.’s
 Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
 1 C
A 1
2
5
1 F E
1 3 2
2
B D

1 C
A 1

E 3 F
1 1
2
2
B D
 Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
• all routers identical
• network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: with 200 million destinations:
 can’t store all dest’s in routing tables! administrative autonomy
 routing table exchange would swamp links!  
internet = network of 
networks

each network admin may 
want to control routing in 
its own network
 Hierarchical Routing


aggregate routers into  Gateway router
regions, “autonomous  
Direct link to router in 
systems” (AS)
another AS

routers in same AS run 
same routing protocol
– “intra­AS” routing protocol

routers in different AS can 
run different intra­AS 
routing protocol
 Interconnected AS’s
Gate Way
Routers
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d

Forwarding table is 
configured by both intra­ 
and inter­AS routing 
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing
algorithm
algorithm algorithm 
Intra ­AS sets entries for 
Forwarding internal dests
table 
Inter­AS & Intra­As sets 
entries for external dests