Standard ECMA-262

J une 1 9 9 7

Standardizing Information and Communication Systems

ECMAScript Language
Specification

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 Standard ECMA-262
J une 1 9 9 7

Standardizing Information and Communication Systems

ECMAScript Language
Specification

P h o n e : + 4 1 2 2 8 4 9 . 6 0 . 0 0 - F a x : + 4 1 2 2 8 4 9 . 6 0 . 0 1 - U R L : h t t p : / / www. e c m a . c h - I n t e r n e t : h e l p d e s k @ e c m a . c h
MB Ecma-262.doc 29-07-97 15,07
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 Brief History

The originating technology for this ECMA Standard is JavaScript. This technology has been offered by Netscape
Communications for standardization in autumn 1996.
The ECMA Standard is submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1 for adoption under the fast-track procedure.

This ECMA Standard has been adopted by the ECMA General Assembly of June 1997.
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Table of contents

1 Scope 1

2 Conformance 1

3 References 1

4 Overview 1
4.1 Web Scripting 2
4.2 Language Overview 2
4.2.1 Objects 2
4.3 Definitions 3
4.3.1 Type 3
4.3.2 Primitive value 3
4.3.3 Object 3
4.3.4 Constructor 4
4.3.5 Prototype 4
4.3.6 Native object 4
4.3.7 Built-in object 4
4.3.8 Host object 4
4.3.9 Undefined 4
4.3.10 Undefined type 4
4.3.11 Null 4
4.3.12 Null type 4
4.3.13 Boolean value 4
4.3.14 Boolean type 4
4.3.15 Boolean object 4
4.3.16 String value 4
4.3.17 String type 5
4.3.18 String object 5
4.3.19 Number value 5
4.3.20 Number type 5
4.3.21 Number object 5
4.3.22 Infinity 5
4.3.23 NaN 5

5 Notational Conventions 5
5.1 Syntactic and Lexical Grammars 5
5.1.1 Context-Free Grammars 5
5.1.2 The lexical grammar 5
5.1.3 The numeric string grammar 6
5.1.4 The syntactic grammar 6
5.1.5 Grammar Notation 6
5.2 Algorithm conventions 8

6 Source Text 9

7 Lexical Conventions 9
7.1 White Space 9
7.2 Line Terminators 10
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7.3 Comments 10
7.4 Tokens 11
7.4.1 Reserved Words 11
7.4.2 Keywords 11
7.4.3 Future Reserved Words 11
7.5 Identifiers 11
7.6 Punctuators 12
7.7 Literals 12
7.7.1 Null Literals 12
7.7.2 Boolean Literals 12
7.7.3 Numeric Literals 13
7.7.4 String Literals 15
7.8 Automatic semicolon insertion 17
7.8.1 Rules of automatic semicolon insertion 17
7.8.2 Examples of Automatic Semicolon Insertion 18

8 Types 19
8.1 The Undefined type 19
8.2 The Null type 19
8.3 The Boolean type 19
8.4 The String type 20
8.5 The Number type 20
8.6 The Object type 21
8.6.1 Property attributes 21
8.6.2 Internal Properties and Methods 21
8.7 The Reference Type 24
8.7.1 GetBase(V) 24
8.7.2 GetPropertyName(V) 24
8.7.3 GetValue(V) 24
8.7.4 PutValue(V, W) 24
8.8 The List type 25
8.9 The Completion Type 25

9 Type Conversion 25
9.1 ToPrimitive 25
9.2 ToBoolean 26
9.3 ToNumber 26
9.3.1 ToNumber Applied to the String Type 27
9.4 ToInteger 29
9.5 ToInt32: (signed 32 bit integer) 29
9.6 ToUint32: (unsigned 32 bit integer) 30
9.7 ToUint16: (unsigned 16 bit integer) 30
9.8 ToString 30
9.8.1 ToString Applied to the Number Type 31
9.9 ToObject 32

10 Execution Contexts 32
10.1 Definitions 32
10.1.1 Function Objects 32
10.1.2 Types of Executable Code 32
10.1.3 Variable instantiation 33
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10.1.4 Scope Chain and Identifier Resolution 33

10.1.5 Global Object 34
10.1.6 Activation object 34
10.1.7 This 34
10.1.8 Arguments Object 35
10.2 Entering An Execution Context 35
10.2.1 Global Code 35
10.2.2 Eval Code 35
10.2.3 Function and Anonymous Code 35
10.2.4 Host Code 35

11 Expressions 36
11.1 Primary Expressions 36
11.1.1 The this keyword 36
11.1.2 Identifier reference 36
11.1.3 Literal reference 36
11.1.4 The Grouping rperator 36
11.2 Left-Hand-Side Expressions 36
11.2.1 Property Accessors 37
11.2.2 The new operator 37
11.2.3 Function Calls 38
11.2.4 Argument Lists 38
11.3 Postfix expressions 39
11.3.1 Postfix increment operator 39
11.3.2 Postfix decrement operator 39
11.4 Unary operators 39
11.4.1 The delete operator 39
11.4.2 The void operator 39
11.4.3 The typeof operator 40
11.4.4 Prefix increment operator 40
11.4.5 Prefix decrement operator 40
11.4.6 Unary + operator 40
11.4.7 Unary - operator 41
11.4.8 The bitwise NOT operator ( ~ ) 41
11.4.9 Logical NOT operator ( ! ) 41
11.5 Multiplicative operators 41
11.5.1 Applying the * operator 41
11.5.2 Applying the / operator 42
11.5.3 Applying the % operator 42
11.6 Additive operators 43
11.6.1 The addition operator ( + ) 43
11.6.2 The subtraction operator ( - ) 43
11.6.3 Applying the additive operators (+, -) to numbers 44
11.7 Bitwise shift operators 44
11.7.1 The left shift operator ( << ) 44
11.7.2 The signed right shift operator ( >> ) 45
11.7.3 The unsigned right shift operator ( >>> ) 45
11.8 Relational operators 45
11.8.1 The less-than operator ( < ) 45
11.8.2 The greater-than operator ( > ) 45
11.8.3 The less-than-or-equal operator ( <= ) 46
11.8.4 The greater-than-or-equal operator ( >= ) 46
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11.8.5 The abstract relational comparison algorithm 46

11.9 Equality operators 47
11.9.1 The equals operator ( == ) 47
11.9.2 The does-not-equals operator ( != ) 47
11.9.3 The abstract equality comparison algorithm 47
10.10 Binary bitwise operators 48
11.11 Binary logical operators 49
11.12 Conditional operator ( ?: ) 49
11.13 Assignment operators 50
11.13.1 Simple Assignment ( = ) 50
11.13.2 Compound assignment ( op= ) 50
11.14 Comma operator ( , ) 50

12 Statements 51
12.1 Block 51
12.2 Variable statement 51
12.3 Empty statement 52
12.4 Expression statement 52
12.5 The IF statement 53
12.6 Iteration statements 53
12.6.1 The while statement 53
12.6.2 The for statement 54
12.6.3 The for..in statement 54
12.7 The CONTINUE statement 55
12.8 The BREAK statement 56
12.9 The RETURN statement 56
12.10 The WITH statement 56

13 Function Definition 56

14 Program 57

15 Native ECMAScript objects 58

15.1 The global object 59
15.1.1 Value properties of the global object 59
15.1.2 Function properties of the global object 59
15.1.3 Constructor Properties of the Global Object 61
15.1.4 Other Properties of the Global Object 62
15.2 Object Objects 62
15.2.1 The Object Constructor Called as a Function 62
15.2.2 The Object Constructor 62
15.2.3 Properties of the Object Constructor 63
15.2.4 Properties of the Object Prototype Object 63
15.2.5 Properties of Object Instances 63
15.3 Function Objects 63
15.3.1 The Function Constructor Called as a Function 63
15.3.2 The Function Constructor 64
15.3.3 Properties of the Function Constructor 65
15.3.4 Properties of the Function Prototype Object 65
15.3.5 Properties of Function Instances 65
15.4 Array Objects 65
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15.4.1 The Array Constructor Called as a Function 66

15.4.2 The Array Constructor 66
15.4.3 Properties of the Array Constructor 66
15.4.4 Properties of the Array Prototype Object 67
15.4.5 Properties of Array Instances 69
15.5 String Objects 69
15.5.1 The String Constructor Called as a Function 69
15.5.2 The String Constructor 70
15.5.3 Properties of the String Constructor 70
15.5.4 Properties of the String Prototype Object 70
15.5.5 Properties of String Instances 74
15.6 Boolean Objects 74
15.6.1 The Boolean Constructor Called as a Function 74
15.6.2 The Boolean Constructor 74
15.6.3 Properties of the Boolean Constructor 74
15.6.4 Properties of the Boolean Prototype Object 75
15.6.5 Properties of Boolean Instances 75
15.7 Number Objects 75
15.7.1 The Number Constructor Called as a Function 75
15.7.2 The Number Constructor 75
15.7.3 Properties of the Number Constructor 76
15.7.4 Properties of the Number Prototype Object 76
15.7.5 Properties of Number Instances 77
15.8 The Math Object 77
15.8.1 Value Properties of the Math Object 77
15.8.2 Function Properties of the Math Object 77
15.9 Date Objects 82
15.9.1 Overview of Date Objects and Definitions of Internal Methods 82
15.9.2 The Date Constructor Called As a Function 85
15.9.3 The Date Constructor 86
15.9.4 Properties of the Date Constructor 88
15.9.5 Properties of the Date Prototype Object 90
15.9.6 Properties of Date Instances 95

16 Errors 95
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1 Scope
This Standard defines the ECMAScript scripting language.

2 Conformance
A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must provide and support all the types, values, objects, properties,
functions, and program syntax described in this specification.
A conforming implementation of ECMAScript is permitted to provide additional types, values, objects, properties, and
functions beyond those described in this specificaition. In particular, a conforming implementation of ECMAScript is
permitted to provide properties not described in this specification, and values for those properties, for objects that are
described in this specification.
A conforming implementation of ECMAScript is permitted to support program syntax not described in this
specification. In particular, a conforming implementation of ECMAScript is permitted to support program syntax that
makes use of the “future reserved words” listed in section 0 of this specification.

3 References
ANSI X3.159-1989: American National Standard for Information Systems - Programming Language - C, American
National Standards Institute (1989).
ANSI/IEEE Std 1754-1985: IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic. Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, New York (1985).
Berners-Lee, T., Masinter, L., and McCahill, M. Uniform Resource Locators. RFC 1738, Network Working Group,
December 1994.
Gay, David M. Correctly Rounded Binary-Decimal and Decimal -Binary Conversions. Numerical Analysis Manucript
90-10. AT&T Bell Laboratories (Murray Hill, New Jersey). November 30, 1990. Available as http://cm.bell-
labs.com/cm/cs/doc/90/4-10.ps.gz. Associated code available as http://cm.bell-
labs.com/netlib/fp/dtoa.c.gz and as http://cm.bell-labs.com/netlib/fp/g_fmt.c.gz
and may also be found at the various netlib mirror sites.
Gosling, James, Bill Joy and Guy Steele. The Java Language Specification. Addison Wesley Publishing Company
1996.
Ungar, David, and Smith, Randall B. Self: The Power of Simplicity. OOPSLA '87 Conference Proceedings, pp. 227–
241, Orlando, FL, October, 1987.
Unicode Consortium. The Unicode Standard, Version 2.0. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts (1996).

4 Overview
EMCAScript is an object-oriented programming language for performing computations and manipulating
computational objects within a host environment. ECMAScript as defined here is not intended to be computationally
self-sufficient; indeed, there are no provisions in this specification for input of external data or output of computed
results. Instead, it is expected that the computational environment of an ECMAScript program will provide not only the
objects and other facilities described in this specification but also certain environment-specific host objects, whose
description and behavior are beyond the scope of this specification except to indicate that they may provide certain
properties that can be accessed and certain functions that can be called from an ECMAScript program.
A scripting language is a programming language that is used to manipulate, customize, and automate the facilities of
an existing system. In such systems, useful functionality is already available through a user interface, and the scripting
language is a mechanism for exposing that functionality to program control. In this way, the existing system is said to
provide a host environment of objects and facilities which completes the capabilities of the scripting language. A
scripting language is intended for use by both professional and non-professional programmers, and therefore there may
be a number of informalities and built into the language.
ECMAScript was originally designed to be a Web scripting language, providing a mechanism to enliven Web pages in
browsers and to perform server computation as part of a Web-based client-server architecture. ECMAScript can
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provide core scripting capabilities for a variety of host environments, and therefore the core scripting language is
specified in this document apart from any particular host environment.
4.1 Web Scripting
A web browser provides an ECMAScript host environment for client-side computation including, for instance,
objects that represent windows, menus, pop-ups, dialog boxes, text areas, anchors, frames, history, cookies, and
input/output. Further, the host environment provides a means to attach scripting code to events such as change of
focus, page and image loading, unloading, error, and abort, selection, form submission, and mouse actions.
Scripting code appears within the HTML and the displayed page is a combination of user interface elements and
fixed and computed text and images. The scripting code is reactive to user interaction and there is no need for a
main program.
A web server provides a different host environment for server-side computation including objects representing
requests, clients, and files, and mechanisms to lock and share data. By using browser-side and server side scripting
together it is possible to distribute computation between the client and server while providing a customized user
interface for a Web-based application.
Each Web browser and server that supports ECMAScript supplies its own host environment, completing the
ECMAScript execution environment.
4.2 Language Overview
The following is an informal overview of ECMAScript—not all parts of the language are described. This overview
is not part of the standard proper.
ECMAScript is object-based: basic language and host facilities are provided by objects, and an ECMAScript
program is a cluster of communicating objects. An ECMAScript object is an unordered collection of properties each
with 0 or more attributes which determine how each property can be used—for example, when the ReadOnly
attribute for a property is set to true, any attempt by executed ECMAScript code to change the value of the property
has no effect. Properties are containers that hold other objects, primitive values, or methods. A primitive value is a
member of one of the following built-in types: Undefined, Null, Boolean, Number, and String; an object is a
member of the remaining built-in type Object; and a method is a function associated with an object via a property.
ECMAScript defines a collection of built-in objects which round out the definition of ECMAScript entities. These
built-in objects include the Global object, the Object object, the Function object, the Array object, the String
object, the Boolean object, the Number object, the Math object, and the Date object.
ECMAScript also defines a set of built-in operators which may not be, strictly speaking, functions or methods.
ECMAScript operators include various unary operations, multiplicative operators, additive operators, bitwise shift
operators, relational operators, equality operators, binary bitwise operators, binary logical operators, assignment
operators, and the comma operator.
ECMAScript syntax intentionally resembles Java syntax. ECMAScript syntax is relaxed to enable it to serve as an
easy-to-use scripting language. For example, a variable is not required to have its type declared nor are types
associated with properties, anddefined functions are not required to have their declarations appear textually before
calls to them
4.2.1 Objects
ECMAScript does not contain proper classes such as those in C++, Smalltalk, or Java, but rather, supports
constructors which create objects by executing code that allocates storage for the objects and initializes all or
part of them by assigning initial values to their properties. All functions including constructors are objects, but
not all objects are constructors. Each constructor has a Prototype property which is used to implement
prototype-based inheritance and shared properties. Objects are created by using constructors in new
expressions, for example, new String(“A String”) creates a new string object. Invoking a constructor
without using new has consequences that depend on the constructor. For example, String(“A String”)
produces a primitive string, not an object.
ECMAScript supports prototype-based inheritance. Every constructor has an associated prototype, and every
object created by that constructor has an implicit reference to the prototype (called the object’s prototype)
associated with its constructor. Furthermore, aprototype may have a non-null implicit reference to its prototype,
and so on; this is called the prototype chain. When a reference is made to a property in an object, that reference
is to the property of that name in the first object in the prototype chain that contains a property of that name. In
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other words, first the object mentioned directly is examined for such a property; if that object contains the named
property, that is the property to which the reference refers; if that object does not contain the named property, the
prototype for that object is examined next; and so on.
In a class-based object-oriented language, in general, state is carried by instances, methods are carried by classes,
and inheritance is only of structure and behavior. In ECMAScript, the state and methods are carried by objects,
and structure, behavior, and state are all inherited.
All objects that do not directly contain a particular property that their prototype contains share that property and
its value. The following diagram may illustrate this discussion:

CF implicit prototype link

prototype Cfp
P1 CFP1
P2

cf1 cf2 cf3 cf4 cf5

q1 q1 q1 q1 q1
q2 q2 q2 q2 q2

CF is a constructor (and also an object). Five objects have been created by using new expressions: cf1, cf2, cf3,
cf4, and cf5.Each of these objects contains properties named q1 and q2. The dashed lines represent the implicit
prototype relationship; so, for example, cf3’s prototype is CFp. The constructor, CF, has two properties itself,
named P1 and P2, which are not visible to CFp, cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, or cf5. The property named CFP1 in CFp is
shared by: cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, and cf5, as are any properties found in CFp’s implicit prototype chain which are not
named q1, q2, or CFP1. Notice that there is no implicit prototype link between CFp and CF.
Unlike class-based object languages, properties can be added to objects on the fly simply by assigning values to
them. That is, constructors are not required to name or assign values to all or any of its properties. In the above
diagram, one could add a new shared property for cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, and cf5 by assigning a new value to the
property in CFp.
4.3 Definitions
The following are informal definitions of key terms associated with ECMAScript.
4.3.1 Type
A type is a set of data values. In general, the correct functioning of a program is not affected if different data
values of the same type are substituted for others.
4.3.2 Primitive value
A primitive value is a member of one of the types Undefined, Null, Boolean, Number, or String. A primitive
value is a datum which is represented directly at the lowest level of the language implementation.
4.3.3 Object
An object is a member of the type Object. It is an unordered collection of properties which contain primitive
values, objects, or functions. A function stored in the property of an object is called a method.
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4.3.4 Constructor
A constructor is a function object which creates and initializes objects. Each constructor has an associated
prototype object which is used to implement inheritance and shared properties.
4.3.5 Prototype
A prototype is an object used to implement structure, state, and behavior inheritance in ECMAScript. When a
constructor creates an object, that object implicitly references the constructor’s associated prototype for the
purpose of resolving property references. The constructor’s associated prototype can be referenced by the
program expression constructor.prototype, and properties added to an object’s prototype are shared,
through inheritance, by all objects sharing the prototype.
4.3.6 Native object
A native object is any object supplied by an ECMAScript implementation independent of the host environment.
Standard native objects are defined in this specification. Some native objects are built-in; others may be
constructed during the course of execution of an ECMAScript program.
4.3.7 Built-in object
A built-in object is any object supplied by an ECMAScript implementation, independent of the host
environment, that is present at the start of the execution of an ECMAScript program. Standard built-in objects are
defined in this specification, and the ECMAScript implementation may specify and define others. Every built-in
object is a native object.
4.3.8 Host object
A host object is any object supplied by the host environment to complete the execution environment of
ECMAScript. Any object that is not native is a host object.
4.3.9 Undefined
Undefined is a primitive value used when a variable has not been assigned a value.
4.3.10 Undefined type
The type Undefined has exactly one value, called undefined.
4.3.11 Null
Null is a primitive value that represents the null, empty, or nonexistent reference.
4.3.12 Null type
The type Null has exactly one value, called null.
4.3.13 Boolean value
A boolean value is a member of the type Boolean and is one of either two unique values, true and false.
4.3.14 Boolean type
The type Boolean represents a logical entity and consists of exactly two unique values. One is called true and the
other is called false.
4.3.15 Boolean object
A Boolean object is a member of the type Object and is an instance of the Boolean object which is a constructor.
That is, a boolean object is created by using the Boolean constructor in a new expression, supplying a boolean as
an argument. The resulting object has an implicit (unnamed) property which is the boolean. A boolean object can
be coerced to a boolean value. A boolean object can be used anywhere a boolean value is expected.
This is an example of one of the conveniences built into ECMAScript—in this case it is to accommodate
programmers of varying backgrounds. Those familiar with imperative or procedural programming languages may
find number values more natural, while those familiar with object-oriented languages may find number objects
more intuitive.
4.3.16 String value
A string value is a member of the type String and is the set of all finite ordered sequences of zero or more
Unicode characters.
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4.3.17 String type

The type String is the set of all finite ordered sequences of zero or more Unicode characters.
4.3.18 String object
A string object is a member of the type Object and is an instance of the String object which is a constructor. That
is, a string object is created by using the String constructor in a new expression, supplying a string as an
argument. The resulting object has an implicit (unnamed) property which is the string. A string object can be
coerced to a string value. A string object can be used anywhere a string value is expected.
4.3.19 Number value
A number value a member of the type Number and is a direct representation of a number.
4.3.20 Number type
The type Number is a set of values representing numbers. In ECMAScript the set of values represent the double-
precision 64-bit format IEEE 754 value along with a special “Not-a-Number” (NaN) value, positive infinity, and
negative infinity.
4.3.21 Number object
A number object is a member of the type Object and is an instance of the Number object which is a constructor.
That is, a number object is created by using the Number constructor in a new expression, supplying a number as
an argument. The resulting object has an implicit (unnamed) property which is the number. A number object can
be coerced to a number value. A number object can be used anywhere a number value is expected. Note that a
number object can have shared properties by adding them to the Number prototype.
4.3.22 Infinity
The primitive value Infinity represents the positive infinite number value.
4.3.23 NaN
The primitive value NaN represents the set of IEEE Standard “Not-a-Number” values.

5 Notational Conventions

5.1 Syntactic and Lexical Grammars

This section describes the context-free grammars used in this specification to define the lexical and syntactic
structure of an ECMAScript program.
5.1.1 Context-Free Grammars
A context-free grammar consists of a number of productions. Each production has an abstract symbol called a
nonterminal as its left-hand side, and a sequence of one or more nonterminal and terminal symbols as its right-
hand side. For each grammar, the terminal symbols are drawn from a specified alphabet.
Starting from a sentence consisting of a single distinguished nonterminal, called the goal symbol, a given context-
free grammar specifies a language, namely, the (perhaps infinite) set of possible sequences of terminal symbols
that can result from repeatedly replacing any nonterminal in the sequence with a right-hand side of a production
for which the nonterminal is the left-hand side.
5.1.2 The lexical grammar
A lexical grammar for ECMAScript is given in Section 7. This grammar has as its terminal symbols the
characters of the Unicode character set. It defines a set of productions, starting from the goal symbol Input, that
describe how sequences of Unicode characters are translated into a sequence of input elements.
Input elements other than white space and comments form the terminal symbols for the syntactic grammar for
ECMAScript and are called ECMAScript tokens. These tokens are the reserved words, identifiers, literals, and
punctuators of the ECMAScript language. Moreover, line terminators, although not considered to be tokens, also
become part of the stream of input elements and guide the process of automatic semicolon insertion (see section
7.8). Simple white space and single-line comments are simply discarded and do not appear in the stream of input
elements for the syntactic grammar. A multi-line comment is likewise simply discarded if it contains no line
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terminator; but if a multi-line comment contains one or more line terminators, then it is replaced by a single line
terminator, which becomes part of the stream of input elements for the syntactic grammar.
Productions of the lexical grammar are distinguished by having two colons “::” as separating punctuation.
5.1.3 The numeric string grammar
A second grammar is used for translating strings into numeric values. This grammar is similar to the part of the
lexical grammar having to do with numeric literals and has as its terminal symbols the characters of the Unicode
character set. This grammar appears in section 9.3.1.
Productions of the numeric string grammar are distinguished by having three colons “:::” as punctuation.
5.1.4 The syntactic grammar
The syntactic grammar for ECMAScript is given in Sections 11, 12, 13, and 14. This grammar has ECMAScript
tokens defined by the lexical grammar as its terminal symbols (see section 5.1.2). It defines a set of productions,
starting from the goal symbol Program, that describe how sequences of tokens can form syntactically correct
ECMAScript programs.
When a stream of Unicode characters is to be parsed as an ECMAScript program, it is first converted to a stream
of input elements by repeated application of the lexical grammar; this stream of input elements is then parsed by
a single application of the syntax grammar. The program is syntactically in error if the tokens in the stream of
input elements cannot be parsed as a single instance of the goal nonterminal Program, with no tokens left over.
Productions of the syntactic grammar are distinguished by having just one colon “:” as punctuation.
The syntactic grammar as presented in Sections 11, 12, 13 and 14 is actually not a complete account of which
token sequences are accepted as correct ECMAScript programs. Certain additional token sequences are also
accepted, namely, those that would be described by the grammar if only semicolons were added to the sequence
in certain places (such as before end-of-line characters). Furthermore, certain token sequences that are described
by the grammar are not considered acceptable if an end-of-line character appears in certain “awkward” places.
5.1.5 Grammar Notation
Terminal symbols of the lexical and string grammars, and some of the terminal symbols of the syntactic grammar,
are shown in fixed width font, both in the productions of the grammars and throughout this specification
whenever the text directly refers to such a terminal symbol. These are to appear in a program exactly as written.
Nonterminal symbols are shown in italic type. The definition of a nonterminal is introduced by the name of the
nonterminal being defined followed by one or more colons. (The number of colons indicates to which grammar
the production belongs.) One or more alternative right-hand sides for the nonterminal then follow on succeeding
lines. For example, the syntactic definition:

WithStatement :
with ( Expression ) Statement
states that the nonterminal WithStatement represents the token with, followed by a left parenthesis token,
followed by an Expression, followed by a right parenthesis token, followed by a Statement. The occurrences of
Expression and Statement are themselves nonterminals. As another example, the syntactic definition:

ArgumentList :
AssignmentExpression
ArgumentList , AssignmentExpression
states that an ArgumentList may represent either a single AssignmentExpression or an ArgumentList, followed by
a comma, followed by an AssignmentExpression. This definition of ArgumentList is recursive, that is to say, it is
defined in terms of itself. The result is that an ArgumentList may contain any positive number of arguments,
separated by commas, where each argument expression is an AssignmentExpression. Such recursive definitions
of nonterminals are common.
The subscripted suffix “opt”, which may appear after a terminal or nonterminal, indicates an optional symbol.
The alternative containing the optional symbol actually specifies two right-hand sides, one that omits the optional
element and one that includes it. This means that:
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VariableDeclaration :
Identifier Initializeropt
is a convenient abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration :
Identifier
Identifier Initializer
and that:

IterationStatement :
for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
is a convenient abbreviation for:

IterationStatement :
for ( ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( Expression ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
which in turn is an abbreviation for:

IterationStatement :
for ( ; ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( ; Expression ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( Expression ; ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( Expression ; Expression ; Expressionopt ) Statement
which in turn is an abbreviation for:

IterationStatement :
for ( ; ; ) Statement
for ( ; ; Expression ) Statement
for ( ; Expression ; ) Statement
for ( ; Expression ; Expression ) Statement
for ( Expression ; ; ) Statement
for ( Expression ; ; Expression ) Statement
for ( Expression ; Expression ; ) Statement
for ( Expression ; Expression ; Expression ) Statement
so the nonterminal IterationStatement actually has eight alternative right-hand sides.
If the phrase “[no LineTerminator here]” appears in the right-hand side of a production of the syntactic grammar, it
indicates that the production is a restricted production: it may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the input
stream at the indicated position. For example, the production:

ReturnStatement :
return [no LineTerminator here] Expressionopt ;
indicates that the production may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the program between the return
token and the Expression .
Unless the presence of a LineTerminator is forbidden by a restricted production, any number of occurrences of
LineTerminator may appear between any two consecutive tokens in the stream of input elements without
affecting the syntactic acceptability of the program.
When the words “one of” follow the colon(s) in a grammar definition, they signify that each of the terminal
symbols on the following line or lines is an alternative definition. For example, the lexical grammar for
ECMAScript contains the production:
 - 8 -

ZeroToThree :: one of
0 1 2 3
which is merely a convenient abbreviation for:

ZeroToThree ::
0
1
2
3
When an alternative in a production of the lexical grammar or the numeric string grammar appears to be a
multicharacter token, it represents the sequence of characters that would make up such a token.
The right-hand side of a production may specify that certain expansions are not permitted by using the phrase
“but not” and then indicating the expansions to be excluded. For example, the production:

Identifier ::
IdentifierName but not ReservedWord
means that the nonterminal Identifier may be replaced by any sequence of characters that could replace
IdentifierName provided that the same sequence of characters could not replace ReservedWord.
Finally, a few nonterminal symbols are described by a descriptive phrase in roman type in cases where it would
be impractical to list all the alternatives:

SourceCharacter:
any Unicode character
5.2 Algorithm conventions
We often use a numbered list to specify steps in an algorithm. These algorithms are used to clarify semantics. In
practice, there may be more efficient algorithms available to implement a given feature.
When an algorithm is to produce a value as a result, we use the directive “return x” to indicate that the result of the
algorithm is the value of x and that the algorithm should terminate. We use the notation Result(n) as shorthand for
“the result of step n”. We also use Type(x) as shorthand for “the type of x”.
Mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, negation, multiplication, division, and the mathematical
functions defined later in this section should always be understood as computing exact mathematical results on
mathematical real numbers, which do not include infinities and do not include a negative zero that is distinguished
from positive zero. Algorithms in this standard that model floating-point arithmetic include explicit steps, where
necessary, to handle infinities and signed zero and to perform rounding. If a mathematical operation or function is
applied to a floating-point number, it should be understood as being applied to the exact mathematical value
represented by that floating-point number; such a floating-point number mustbe finite, and if it is +0 or −0 then the
corresponding mathematical value is simply 0.
The mathematical function abs(x) yields the absolute value of x, which is −x if x is negative (less than zero) and
otherwise is x itself.
The mathematical function sign(x) yields 1 if x is positive and −1 if x is negative. The sign function is not used in
this standard for cases when x is zero.
The notation “x modulo y” (y must be finite and nonzero) computes a value k of the same sign as y such that abs(k)
< abs(y) and x−k = q⋅y for some integer q.
The mathematical function floor(x) yields the largest integer (closest to positive infinity) that is not larger than x.
Note that floor(x) = x−(x modulo 1).
If an algorithm is defined to “generate a runtime error”, execution of the algorithm (and any calling algorithms) is
terminated and no result is returned.
 - 9 -

6 Source Text

ECMAScript source text is represented as a sequence of characters representable using the Unicode version 2.0
character encoding.

SourceCharacter ::
any Unicode character
However, it is possible to represent every ECMAScript program using only ASCII characters (which are equivalent to
the first 128 Unicode characters). Non-ASCII Unicode characters may appear only within comments and string literals.
In string literals, any Unicode character may also be expressed as a Unicode escape sequence consisting of six ASCII
characters, namely \u plus four hexadecimal digits. Within a comment, such an escape sequence is effectively ignored
as part of the comment. Within a string literal, the Unicode escape sequence contributes one character to the string
value of the literal.
Note that ECMAScript differs from the Java programming language in the behavior of Unicode escape sequences. In a
Java program, if the Unicode escape sequence \u000A, for example, occurs within a single-line comment, it is
interpreted as a line terminator (Unicode character 000A is line feed) and therefore the next character is not part of the
comment. Similarly, if the Unicode escape sequence \u000A occurs within a string literal in a Java program, it is
likewise interpreted as a line terminator, which is not allowed within a string literal—one must write \n instead of
\u000A to cause a line feed to be part of the string value of a string literal. In an ECMAScript program, a Unicode
escape sequence occurring within a comment is never interpreted and therefore cannot contribute to termination of the
comment. Similarly, a Unicode escape sequence occurring within a string literal in an ECMAScript program always
contributes a character to the string value of the literal and is never interpreted as a line terminator or as a quote mark
that might terminate the string literal.

7 Lexical Conventions

The source text of a ECMAScript program is first converted into a sequence of tokens and white space. A token is a
sequence of characters that comprise a lexical unit. The source text is scanned from left to right, repeatedly taking the
longest possible sequence of characters as the next token.
7.1 White Space
White space characters are used to improve source text readability and to separate tokens (indivisible lexical units)
from each other but are otherwise insignificant. White space may occur between any two tokens, and may occur
within strings (where they are considered significant characters forming part of the literal string value), but cannot
appear within any other kind of token.
The following characters are considered to be white space:

Unicode Value Name Formal Name

\u0009 Tab <TAB>
\u000B Vertical Tab <VT>
\u000C Form Feed <FF>
\u0020 Space <SP>

Syntax
WhiteSpace ::
<TAB>
<VT>
<FF>
<SP>
 - 10 -

7.2 Line Terminators

Line terminator characters, like whitespace characters, are used to improve source text readability and to separate
tokens (indivisible lexical units) from each other. Unlike whitespace characters, line terminators have some
influence over the behavior of the syntactic grammar. In general, line terminators may occur between any two
tokens, but there are a few places where they are forbidden by the syntactic grammar. A line terminator cannot occur
within any token, not even a string. Line terminators also affect the process of automatic semicolon insertion (see
section 7.8.2).
The following characters are considered to be line terminators:

Unicode Value Name Formal Name

\u000A Line Feed <LF>
\u000D Carriage Return <CR>

Syntax
LineTerminator ::
<LF>
<CR>
7.3 Comments
Description
Comments can be either single or multi-line. Multi-line comments cannot nest.
Because a single-line comment can contain any character except a LineTerminator character, and because of the
general rule that a token is always as long as possible, a single-line comment always consists of all characters from
the // marker to the end of the line. However, the LineTerminator at the end of the line is not considered to be part
of the single-line comment; it is recognized separately by the lexical grammar and becomes part of the stream of
input elements for the syntactic grammar. This point is very important, because it implies that the presence or
absence of single-line comments does not affect the process of automatic semicolon insertion (see section 7.8.2).

Syntax
Comment ::
MultiLineComment
SingleLineComment

MultiLineComment ::
/* MultiLineCommentCharsopt */

MultiLineCommentChars ::
MultiLineNotAsteriskChar MultiLineCommentCharsopt
* PostAsteriskCommentCharsopt

PostAsteriskCommentChars ::
MultiLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar MultiLineCommentCharsopt
* PostAsteriskCommentCharsopt

MultiLineNotAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not asterisk *

MultiLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not forward-slash / or asterisk *

SingleLineComment ::
// SingleLineCommentCharsopt
 - 11 -

SingleLineCommentChars ::
SingleLineCommentChar SingleLineCommentCharsopt

SingleLineCommentChar ::
SourceCharacter but not LineTerminator
7.4 Tokens
Syntax
Token ::
ReservedWord
Identifier
Punctuator
Literal
7.4.1 Reserved Words
Description
Reserved words cannot be used as identifiers.

ReservedWord ::
Keyword
FutureReservedWord
NullLiteral
BooleanLiteral
7.4.2 Keywords
The following tokens are ECMAScript keywords and may not be used as identifiers in ECMAScript programs.

Syntax
Keyword :: one of
break for new var
continue function return void
delete if this while
else in typeof with

7.4.3 Future Reserved Words

The following words are used as keywords in proposed extensions and are therefore reserved to allow for the
possibility of future adoption of those extensions.

Syntax
FutureReservedWord :: one of
case debugger export super
catch default extends switch
class do finally throw
const enum import try

7.5 Identifiers
Description
An identifier is a character sequence of unlimited length, where each character in the sequence must be a letter, a
decimal digit, an underscore (_) character, or a dollar sign ($) character, and the first character may not be a
decimal digit. ECMAScript identifiers are case sensitive: identifiers whose characters differ in any way, even if only
in case, are considered to be distinct.
 - 12 -

Syntax
Identifier ::
IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

IdentifierName ::
IdentifierLetter
IdentifierName IdentifierLetter
IdentifierName DecimalDigit

IdentifierLetter :: one of
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
$ _
DecimalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7.6 Punctuators
Syntax
Punctuator :: one of
= > < == <= >=
!= , ! ~ ? :
. && || ++ -- +
- * / & | ^
% << >> >>> += -=
*= /= &= |= ^= %=
<<= >>= >>>= ( ) {
} [ ] ;
7.7 Literals
Syntax
Literal ::
NullLiteral
BooleanLiteral
NumericLiteral
StringLiteral
7.7.1 Null Literals
Syntax
NullLiteral ::
null
Semantics
The value of the null literal null is the sole value of the Null type, namely null.
7.7.2 Boolean Literals
Syntax
BooleanLiteral ::
true
false
Semantics
The value of the Boolean literal true is a value of the Boolean type, namely true.
 - 13 -

The value of the Boolean literal false is a value of the Boolean type, namely false.
7.7.3 Numeric Literals
Syntax
NumericLiteral ::
DecimalLiteral
HexIntegerLiteral
OctalIntegerLiteral

DecimalLiteral ::
DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigitsopt ExponentPartopt
. DecimalDigits ExponentPartopt
DecimalIntegerLiteral ExponentPartopt

DecimalIntegerLiteral ::
0
NonZeroDigit DecimalDigitsopt

DecimalDigits ::
DecimalDigit
DecimalDigits DecimalDigit

NonZeroDigit :: one of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ExponentPart ::
ExponentIndicator SignedInteger

ExponentIndicator :: one of
e E

SignedInteger ::
DecimalDigits
+ DecimalDigits
- DecimalDigits

HexIntegerLiteral ::
0x HexDigit
0X HexDigit
HexIntegerLiteral HexDigit

HexDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F
OctalIntegerLiteral ::
0 OctalDigit
OctalLiteral OctalDigit

OctalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Semantics
A numeric literal stands for a value of the Number type. This value is determined in two steps: first, a
mathematical value (MV) is derived from the literal; second, this mathematical value is rounded, ideally using
IEEE 754 round-to-nearest mode, to a representable value of the number type.
• The MV of NumericLiteral :: DecimalLiteral is the MV of DecimalLiteral.
• The MV of NumericLiteral :: HexIntegerLiteral is the MV of HexIntegerLiteral.
 - 14 -

• The MV of NumericLiteral :: OctalIntegerLiteral is the MV of OctalIntegerLiteral.

• The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral.
• The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral plus (the MV of
−
DecimalDigits times 10 n), where n is the number of characters in DecimalDigits.
• The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral times 10e, where
e is the MV of ExponentPart.
• The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits ExponentPart is (the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral
−
plus (the MV of DecimalDigits times 10 n)) times 10e, where n is the number of characters in DecimalDigits and e is the
MV of ExponentPart.
• The MV of DecimalLiteral ::. DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits times 10−n, where n is the number of characters
in DecimalDigits.
• The MV of DecimalLiteral ::. DecimalDigits ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalDigits times 10e−n, where n is the number
of characters in DecimalDigits and e is the MV of ExponentPart.
• The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral.
• The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral times 10e, where e
is the MV of ExponentPart.
• The MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral :: 0 is 0.
• The MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral :: NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits is (the MV of NonZeroDigit times 10 ) plus the MV of
n

DecimalDigits, where n is the number of characters in DecimalDigits.

• The MV of DecimalDigits :: DecimalDigit is the MV of DecimalDigit.
• The MV of DecimalDigits :: DecimalDigits DecimalDigit is (the MV of DecimalDigits times 10) plus the MV of
DecimalDigit.
• The MV of ExponentPart :: ExponentIndicator SignedInteger is the MV of SignedInteger.
• The MV of SignedInteger :: DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits.
• The MV of SignedInteger :: + DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits.
• The MV of SignedInteger :: - DecimalDigits is the negative of the MV of DecimalDigits.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 0 or of HexDigit :: 0 or of OctalDigit :: 0 is 0.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 1 or of NonZeroDigit :: 1 or of HexDigit :: 1 or of OctalDigit :: 1 is 1.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 2 or of NonZeroDigit :: 2 or of HexDigit :: 2 or of OctalDigit :: 2 is 2.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 3 or of NonZeroDigit :: 3 or of HexDigit :: 3 or of OctalDigit :: 3 is 3.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 4 or of NonZeroDigit :: 4 or of HexDigit :: 4 or of OctalDigit :: 4 is 4.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 5 or of NonZeroDigit :: 5 or of HexDigit :: 5 or of OctalDigit :: 5 is 5.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 6 or of NonZeroDigit :: 6 or of HexDigit :: 6 or of OctalDigit :: 6 is 6.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 7 or of NonZeroDigit :: 7 or of HexDigit :: 7 or of OctalDigit :: 7 is 7.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 8 or of NonZeroDigit :: 8 or of HexDigit :: 8 is 8.
• The MV of DecimalDigit :: 9 or of NonZeroDigit :: 9 or of HexDigit :: 9 is 9.
• The MV of HexDigit :: a or of HexDigit :: A is 10.
• The MV of HexDigit :: b or of HexDigit :: B is 11.
• The MV of HexDigit :: c or of HexDigit :: C is 12.
• The MV of HexDigit :: d or of HexDigit :: D is 13.
• The MV of HexDigit :: e or of HexDigit :: E is 14.
• The MV of HexDigit :: f or of HexDigit :: F is 15.
• The MV of HexIntegerLiteral :: 0x HexDigit is the MV of HexDigit.
• The MV of HexIntegerLiteral :: 0X HexDigit is the MV of HexDigit.
• The MV of HexIntegerLiteral :: HexIntegerLiteral HexDigit is (the MV of HexIntegerLiteral times 16) plus the MV of
HexDigit.
• The MV of OctalIntegerLiteral :: 0 OctalDigit is the MV of OctalDigit.
• The MV of OctalIntegerLiteral :: OctalIntegerLiteral OctalDigit is (the MV of OctalIntegerLiteral times 8) plus the MV
of OctalDigit.
 - 15 -

Once the exact MV for a numeric literal has been determined, it is then rounded to a value of the Number type. If
the MV is 0, then the rounded value is +0; otherwise, the rounded value must be the number value for the MV (in
the sense defined in section 8.4), unless the literal is a DecimalLiteral and the literal has more than 20 significant
digits, in which case the number value may be either the number value for the MV of a literal produced by
deleting all significant digits after the 20th or the number value for the MV of a literal produced by deleting all
significant digits after the 20th and then incrementing the literal at the 20th digit position. A digit is significant if
it is not part of an ExponentPart and (either it is not 0 or (there is a nonzero digit to its left and there is a nonzero
digit, not in the ExponentPart, to its right)).
7.7.4 String Literals
A string literal is zero or more characters enclosed in single or double quotes. Each character may be represented
by an escape sequence.

Syntax
StringLiteral ::
" DoubleStringCharactersopt "
' SingleStringCharactersopt '

DoubleStringCharacters ::
DoubleStringCharacter DoubleStringCharactersopt

SingleStringCharacters ::
SingleStringCharacter SingleStringCharactersopt

DoubleStringCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not double-quote "or backslash \ or LineTerminator
EscapeSequence

SingleStringCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not single-quote 'or backslash \ or LineTerminator
EscapeSequence

EscapeSequence ::
CharacterEscapeSequence
OctalEscapeSequence
HexEscapeSequence
UnicodeEscapeSequence

CharacterEscapeSequence ::
\ SingleEscapeCharacter
\ NonEscapeCharacter

SingleEscapeCharacter :: one of
' " \ b f n r t

NonEscapeCharacter::
SourceCharacter but not EscapeCharacter or LineTerminator

EscapeCharacter ::
SingleEscapeCharacter
OctalDigit
x
u

HexEscapeSequence ::
\x HexDigit HexDigit
 - 16 -

OctalEscapeSequence ::
\ OctalDigit
\ OctalDigit OctalDigit
\ ZeroToThree OctalDigit OctalDigit

ZeroToThree :: one of
0 1 2 3

UnicodeEscapeSequence ::
\u HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit
The definitions of the nonterminals HexDigit and OctalDigit are given in section 7.7.3.
A string literal stands for a value of the String type. The string value (SV) of the literal is described in terms of
character values (CV) contributed by the various parts of the string literal. As part of this process, some
characters within the string literal are interpeted as having a mathematical value (MV), as described below or in
section 7.7.3.
• The SV of StringLiteral :: "" is the empty character sequence .
• The SV of StringLiteral :: '' is the empty character sequence.
• The SV of StringLiteral :: " DoubleStringCharacters " is the SV of DoubleStringCharacters.
• The SV of StringLiteral :: ' SingleStringCharacters ' is the SV of SingleStringCharacters.
• The SV of DoubleStringCharacters :: DoubleStringCharacter is a sequence of one character, the CV of
DoubleStringCharacter.
• The SV of DoubleStringCharacters :: DoubleStringCharacter DoubleStringCharacters is a sequence of the CV of
DoubleStringCharacter followed by all the characters in the SV of DoubleStringCharacters in order.
• The SV of SingleStringCharacters :: SingleStringCharacter is a sequence of one character, the CV of
SingleStringCharacter.
• The SV of SingleStringCharacters :: SingleStringCharacter SingleStringCharacters is a sequence of the CV of
SingleStringCharacter followed by all the characters in the SV of SingleStringCharacters in order.
• The CV of DoubleStringCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not double-quote " or backslash \ or LineTerminator is the
SourceCharacter character itself.
• The CV of DoubleStringCharacter :: EscapeSequence is the CV of the EscapeSequence.
• The CV of SingleStringCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not single-quote ' or backslash \ or LineTerminator is the
SourceCharacter character itself.
• The CV of SingleStringCharacter :: EscapeSequence is the CV of the EscapeSequence.
• The CV of EscapeSequence :: CharacterEscapeSequence is the CV of the CharacterEscapeSequence.
• The CV of EscapeSequence :: OctalEscapeSequence is the CV of the OctalEscapeSequence.
• The CV of EscapeSequence :: HexEscapeSequence is the CV of the HexEscapeSequence.
• The CV of EscapeSequence :: UnicodeEscapeSequence is the CV of the UnicodeEscapeSequence.
• The CV of CharacterEscapeSequence :: \ SingleEscapeCharacter is the Unicode character whose Unicode value is
determined by the SingleEscapeCharacter according to the following table:
 - 17 -

Escape Sequence Unicode Value Name Symbol

\b \u0008 backspace <BS>
\t \u0009 horizontal tab <HT>
\n \u000A line feed (new line) <LF>
\f \u000C form feed <FF>
\r \u000D carriage return <CR>
\" \u0022 double quote "
\' \u0027 single quote '
\\ \u005C backslash \

• The CV of CharacterEscapeSequence :: \ NonEscapeCharacter is the CV of the NonEscapeCharacter.

• The CV of NonEscapeCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not EscapeCharacter or LineTerminator is the SourceCharacter
character itself.
• The CV of HexEscapeSequence :: \x HexDigit HexDigit is the Unicode character whose code is (16 times the MV of the
first HexDigit) plus the MV of the second HexDigit.
• The CV of OctalEscapeSequence :: \ OctalDigit is the Unicode character whose code is the MV of the OctalDigit.
• The CV of OctalEscapeSequence :: \ OctalDigit OctalDigit is the Unicode character whose code is (8 times the MV of the
first OctalDigit) plus the MV of the second OctalDigit.
• The CV of OctalEscapeSequence :: \ ZeroToThree OctalDigit OctalDigit is the Unicode character whose code is (64 (that
is, 82) times the MV of the ZeroToThree) plus (8 times the MV of the first OctalDigit) plus the MV of the second
OctalDigit.
• The MV of ZeroToThree :: 0 is 0.
• The MV of ZeroToThree :: 1 is 1.
• The MV of ZeroToThree :: 2 is 2.
• The MV of ZeroToThree :: 3 is 3.
• The CV of UnicodeEscapeSequence :: \u HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit is the Unicode character whose code is
(4096 (that is, 163) times the MV of the first HexDigit) plus (256 (that is, 162) times the MV of the second HexDigit) plus
(16 times the MV of the third HexDigit) plus the MV of the fourth HexDigit.
Note that a LineTerminator character cannot appear in a string literal, even if preceded by a backslash \. The correct way to
cause a line terminator character to be part of the string value of a string literal is to use an escape sequence such as \n or
\u000A.
7.8 Automatic semicolon insertion
Certain ECMAScript statements (empty statement, variable statement, expression statement, continue statement,
break statement, and return statement) must each be terminated with a semicolon. Such a semicolon may
always appear explicitly in the source text. For convenience, however, such semicolons may be omitted from the
source text in certain situations. We describe such situations by saying that semicolons are automatically inserted
into the source code token stream in those situations.
7.8.1 Rules of automatic semicolon insertion
• When, as the program is parsed from left to right, a token (called the offending token) is encountered that is
not allowed by any production of the grammar and the parser is not currently parsing the header of a for
statement, then a semicolon is automatically inserted before the offending token if one or more of the
following conditions is true:
1. The offending token is separated from the previous token by at least one LineTerminator.
2. The offending token is }.
 - 18 -

• When, as the program is parsed from left to right, the end of the input stream of tokens is encountered and the
parser is unable to parse the input token stream as a single complete ECMAScript Program, then a semicolon
is automatically inserted at the end of the input stream.
However, there is an additional overriding condition on the preceding rules: a semicolon is never inserted
automatically if the semicolon would then be parsed as an empty statement.
• When, as the program is parsed from left to right, a token is encountered that is allowed by some production
of the grammar, but the production is a restricted production and the token would be the first token for a
terminal or nonterminal immediately following the annotation “[no LineTerminator here]” within the restricted
production (and therefore such a token is called a restricted token), and the restricted token is separated from
the previous token by at least one LineTerminator, then there are two cases:
1. If the parser is not currently parsing the header of a for statement, a semicolon is automatically inserted
before the restricted token.
2. If the parser is currently parsing the header of a for statement, it is a syntax error.
These are all the restricted productions in the grammar:

PostfixExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression [no LineTerminator here] ++
LeftHandSideExpression [no LineTerminator here] --

ReturnStatement :
return [no LineTerminator here] Expressionopt ;
The practical effect of these restricted productions is as follows:
1. When the token ++ or -- is encountered where the parser would treat it as a postfix operator, and at least
one LineTerminator occurred between the preceding token and the ++ or -- token, then a semicolon is
automatically inserted before the ++ or -- token.
2. When the token return is encountered and a LineTerminator is encountered before the next token is
encountered, a semicolon is automatically inserted after the token return.
The resulting practical advice to ECMAScript programmers is:
1. A postfix ++ or -- operator should appear on the same line as its operand.
2. An Expression in a return statement should start on the same line as the return token.
7.8.2 Examples of Automatic Semicolon Insertion
The source
{ 1 2 } 3
is not a valid sentence in the ECMAScript grammar, even with the automatic semicolon insertion rules. In
contrast, the source
{ 1
2 } 3
is also not a valid ECMAScript sentence, but is transformed by automatic semicolon insertion into the following:
{ 1
;2 ;} 3;
which is a valid ECMAScript sentence.
The source
for (a; b
)
is not a valid ECMAScript sentence and is not altered by automatic semicolon insertion because the place where
a semicolon is needed is within the header of a for statement. Automatic semicolon insertion never occurs
within the header of a for statement.
 - 19 -

The source
return
a + b
is transformed by automatic semicolon insertion into the following:
return;
a + b;
Note that the expression a + b is not treated as a value to be returned by the return statement, because a
LineTerminator separates it from the token return.
The source
a = b
++c
is transformed by automatic semicolon insertion into the following:
a = b;
++c;
Note that the token ++ is not treated as a postfix operator applying to the variable b, because a LineTerminator
occurs between b and ++.
The source
if (a > b)
else c = d
is not a valid ECMAScript sentence and is not altered by automatic semicolon insertion before the else token,
even though no production of the grammar applies at that point, because an automatically inserted semicolon
would then be parsed as an empty statement.
The source
a = b + c
(d + e).print()
is not transformed by automatic semicolon insertion, because the parenthesized expression that begins the second
line can be interpreted as an argument list for a function call:
a = b + c(d + e).print()
In the circumstance that an assignment statement must begin with a left parenthesis, it is a good idea for the
programmer to provide an explicit semicolon at the end of the preceding statement rather than to rely on
automatic semicolon insertion.

8 Types
A value is an entity that takes on one of nine types. There are six standard types (Undefined, Null, Boolean, String,
Number, and Object) and three internal types called Reference, List, and Completion. Values of type Reference,
List, and Completion are used only as intermediate results of expression evaluation and cannot be stored to properties
of objects.
8.1 The Undefined type
The Undefined type has exactly one value, called undefined. Any variable that has not been assigned a value is of
type Undefined.
8.2 The Null type
The Null type has exactly one value, called null.
8.3 The Boolean type
The Boolean type represents a logical entity and consists of exactly two unique values. One is called true and the
other is called false.
 - 20 -

8.4 The String type

The String type is the set of all finite ordered sequences of zero or more Unicode characters. Each character is
regarded as occupying a position within the sequence. These positions are identified by nonnegative integers. The
leftmost character (if any) is at position 0, the next character (if any) at position 1, and so on. The length of a string
is the number of distinct positions within it. The empty string has length zero and therefore contains no characters.
8.5 The Number type
The Number type has exactly 18437736874454810627 (that is, 2 64−253+3) values, representing the double-precision
64-bit format IEEE 754 values as specified in the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic, except that
the 9007199254740990 (that is, 253−2) distinct “Not-a-Number” values of the IEEE Standard are represented in
ECMAScript as a single special NaN value. (Note that the NaN value is produced by the program expression NaN,
assuming that the globally defined variable NaN has not been altered by program execution.) In some
implementations, external code might be able to detect a difference between various Non-a-Number values, but such
behavior is implementation-dependent; to ECMAScript code, all NaN values are the same.
There are two other special values, called positive Infinity and negative Infinity. For brevity, these values are also
referred to for expository purposes by the symbols +∞ and −∞, respectively. (Note that these two infinite number
values are produced by the program expressions +Infinity (or simply Infinity) and -Infinity, assuming
that the globally defined variable Infinity has not been altered by program execution.)
The other 18437736874454810624 (that is, 264−253) values are called the finite numbers. Half of these are positive
numbers and half are negative numbers; for every finite positive number there is a corresponding negative number
having the same magnitude.
Note that there is both a positive zero and a negative zero. For brevity, these values are also referred to for
expository purposes by the symbols +0 and −0, respectively. (Note that these two zero number values are produced
by the program expressions +0 (or simply 0) and -0.)
The 18437736874454810622 (that is, 264−253−2) finite nonzero values are of two kinds:
18428729675200069632 (that is, 264−254) of them are normalized, having the form
s ⋅ m ⋅ 2e
where s is +1 or −1, m is a positive integer less than 253 but not less than 252, and e is an integer ranging from −1074
to 971, inclusive.
The remaining 9007199254740990 (that is, 253−2) values are denormalized, having the form
s ⋅ m ⋅ 2e
where s is +1 or −1, m is a positive integer less than 252, and e is −1074.
Note that all the positive and negative integers whose magnitude is no greater than 253 are representable in the
Number type (indeed, the integer 0 has two representations, +0 and -0).
We say that a finite number has an odd significand if it is nonzero and the integer m used to express it (in one of the
two forms shown above) is odd. Otherwise we say that it has an even significand.
In this specification, the phrase “the number value for x” where x represents an exact nonzero real mathematical
quantity (which might even be an irrational number such as π) means a number value chosen in the following
manner. Consider the set of all finite values of the Number type, with −0 removed and with two additional values
added to it that are not representable in the Number type, namely 21024 (which is +1 ⋅ 253 ⋅ 2971) and −21024 (which is
−1 ⋅ 253 ⋅ 2971). Choose the member of this set that is closest in value to x. If two values of the set are equally close,
then the one with an even significand is chosen; for this purpose, the two extra values 21024 and −21024 are considered
to have even significands. Finally, if 21024 was chosen, replace it with +∞; if −21024 was chosen, replace it with −∞; if
+0 was chosen, replace it with −0 if and only if x is less than zero; any other chosen value is used unchanged. The
result is the number value for x. (This procedure corresponds exactly to the behavior of the IEEE 754 “round to
nearest” mode.)
Some ECMAScript operators deal only with integers in the range −231 through 231−1, inclusive, or in the range 0
through 232−1, inclusive. These operators accept any value of the Number type but first convert each such value to
 - 21 -

one of 232 integer values. See the descriptions of the ToInt32 and ToUint32 operators in sections 9.5 and 9.6,
respectively.
8.6 The Object type
An Object is an unordered collection of properties. Each property consists of a name, a value and a set of attributes.
8.6.1 Property attributes
A property can have zero or more attributes from the following set:

Attribute Description
ReadOnly The property is a read-only property. Attempts by ECMAScript code to write to
the property will be ignored. (Note, however, that in some cases the value of a
property with the ReadOnly attribute may change over time because of actions
taken by the underlying implementation; therefore “ReadOnly” does not mean
“constant and unchanging”!)
DontEnum The property is not to be enumerated by a for-in enumeration (section 12.6.3)
DontDelete Attempts to delete the property will be ignored. See the description of the
delete operator in section 11.4.1.
Internal Internal properties have no name and are not directly accessible via the property
accessor operators. How these properties are accessed is implementation specific.
How and when some of these properties are used is specified by the language
specification.

8.6.2 Internal Properties and Methods

Internal properties and methods are not exposed in the language. For the purposes of this document, we give
them names enclosed in double square brackets [[ ]]. When an algorithm uses an internal property of an object
and the object does not implement the indicated internal property, a runtime error is generated.
There are two types of access for exposed properties: get and put, corresponding to retrieval and assignment.
Native ECMAScript objects have an internal property called [[Prototype]]. The value of this property is either
null or an object and is used for implementing inheritance. Properties of the [[Prototype]] object are exposed as
properties of the child object for the purposes of get access, but not for put access.
The following table summarizes the internal properties used by this specification. The description indicates their
behavior for native ECMAScript objects. Host objects may implement these internal methods with any
implement-dependent behavior, or it may be that a host object implements only some internal methods and not
others.
 - 22 -

Property Parameters Description

[[Prototype]] none The prototype of this object.
[[Class]] none The kind of this object.
[[Value]] none Internal state information associated with this object.
[[Get]] (PropertyName) Returns the value of the property.
[[Put]] (PropertyName, Value) Sets the specified property to Value.
[[CanPut]] (PropertyName) Returns a boolean value indicating whether a [[Put]]
operation with the specified PropertyName will
succeed.
[[HasProperty]] (PropertyName) Returns a boolean value indicating whether the object
already has a member with the given name.
[[Delete]] (PropertyName) Removes the specified property from the object.
[[DefaultValue]] (Hint) Returns a default value for the object, which should be
a primitive value (not an object or reference).
[[Construct]] a list of argument values Constructs an object. Invoked via the new operator.
provided by the caller Objects that implement this internal method are called
constructors.
[[Call]] a list of argument values Executes code associated with the object. Invoked via a
provided by the caller function call expression. Objects that implement this
internal method are called functions.

Every object must implement the [[Class]] property and the [[Get]], [[Put]], [[HasProperty]], [[Delete]], and
[[DefaultValue]] methods, even host objects. (Note, however, that the [[DefaultValue]] method may, for some
objects, simply generate a runtime error.)
The value of the [[Prototype]] property must be either an object or null, and every [[Prototype]] chain must have
finite length (that is, starting from any object, recursively accessing the [[Prototype]] property must eventually
lead to a null value). Whether or not a native object can have a host object as its [[Prototype]] depends on the
implementation.
The value of the [[Class]] property is defined by this specification for every kind of built-in object. The value of
the [[Class]] property of a host object may be any value, even a value used by a built-in object for its [[Class]]
property. Note that this specification does not provide any means for a program to access the value of a [[Class]]
property; it is used internally to distinguish different kinds of built-in objects.
Every native object implements the [[Get]], [[Put]], [[CanPut]], [[HasProperty]], and [[Delete]] methods in the
manner described in sections 8.6.2.1, 8.6.2.2, 8.6.2.3, 8.6.2.4, and 8.6.2.5, respectively, except that Array objects
have a slightly different implementation of the [[Put]] method (section 15.4.5.1). Host objects may implement
these methods in any manner; for example, one possibility is that [[Get]] and [[Put]] for a particular host object
indeed fetch and store property values but [[HasProperty]] always generates false.
In the following algorithm descriptions, assume O is a native ECMAScript object and P is a string.
8.6.2.1 [[Get]](P)
When the [[Get]] method of O is called with property name P, the following steps are taken:
1. If O doesn’t have a property with name P, go to step 4.
2. Get the value of the property.
3. Return Result(2).
4. If the [[Prototype]] of O is null, return undefined.
5. Call the [[Get]] method of [[Prototype]] with property name P.
6. Return Result(5).
 - 23 -

8.6.2.2 [[Put]](P, V)
When the [[Put]] method of O is called with property P and value V, the following steps are taken:
1. Call the [[CanPut]] method of O with name P.
2. If Result(1) is false, return.
3. If O doesn’t have a property with name P, go to step 6.
4. Set the value of the property to V. The attributes of the property are not changed.
5. Return.
6. Create a property with name P, set its value to V and give it empty attributes.
7. Return.
Note, however, that if O is an Array object, it has a more elaborate [[Put]] method (section15.4.5.1).
8.6.2.3 [[CanPut]](P)
The [[CanPut]] method is used only by the [[Put]] method.
When the [[CanPut]] method of O is called with property P, the following steps are taken:
1. If O doesn’t have a property with name P, go to step 4.
2. If the property has the ReadOnly attribute, return false.
3. Return true.
4. If the [[Prototype]] of O is null, return true.
5. If the [[Prototype]] of O is a host object that does not implement the [[CanPut]] method, return false.
6. Call the [[CanPut]] method of [[Prototype]] of O with property name P.
7. Return Result(4).
8.6.2.4 [[HasProperty]](P)
When the [[HasProperty]] method of O is called with property name P, the following steps are taken:
1. If O has a property with name P, return true.
2. If the [[Prototype]] of O is null, return false.
3. Call the [[HasProperty]] method of [[Prototype]] with property name P.
4. Return Result(3).
8.6.2.5 [[Delete]](P)
When the [[Delete]] method of O is called with property name P, the following steps are taken:
1. If O has a property with name P, remove that property from O.
2. Return.
8.6.2.6 [[DefaultValue]](hint)
When the [[DefaultValue]] method of O is called with hint String, the following steps are taken:
1. Call the [[Get]] method of object O with argument "toString".
2. If Result(1) is undefined, go to step 5.
3. Call the toString method of object O (with no arguments).
4. If Result(3) is a primitive value, return Result(3).
5. Call the [[Get]] method of object O with argument "valueOf".
6. If Result(5) is undefined, go to step 8.
7. Call the valueOf method of object O (with no arguments).
8. If Result(7) is a primitive value, return Result(7).
9. Generate a runtime error.
When the [[DefaultValue]] method of O is called with hint Number, the following steps are taken:
1. Call the [[Get]] method of object O with argument "valueOf".
2. If Result(1) is undefined, go to step 5.
3. Call the valueOf method of object O (with no arguments).
4. If Result(3) is a primitive value, return Result(3).
5. Call the [[Get]] method of object O with argument "toString".
6. If Result(1) is undefined, go to step 8.
7. Call the toString method of object O (with no arguments).
 - 24 -

8. If Result(7) is a primitive value, return Result(7).

9. Generate a runtime error.
When the [[DefaultValue]] method of O is called with no hint, then it behaves as if the hint were Number,
unless O is a Date object (see section 15.9), in which case it behaves as if the hint were String.
8.7 The Reference Type
The internal Reference type is not a language data type. It is defined by this specification purely for expository
purposes. An implementation of ECMAScript must behave as if it produced and operated upon references in the
manner described here. However, a value of type Reference is used only as an intermediate result of expression
evaluation and cannot be stored as the value of a variable or property.
The Reference type is used to explain the behavior of such operators as delete, typeof, and the assignment
operators. For example, the left-hand operand of an assignment is expected to produce a reference. The behavior of
assignment could, instead, be explained entirely in terms of a case analysis on the syntactic form of the left-hand
operand of an assignment operator, but for one difficulty: function calls are permitted to return references. This
possibility is admitted purely for the sake of host objects. No built-in ECMAScript function defined by this
specification returns a reference and there is no provision for a user-defined function to return a reference. (Another
reason not to use a syntactic case analysis is that it would be lengthy and awkward, affecting many parts of the
specification.)
Another use of the Reference type is to explain the determination of the this value for a function call.
A Reference is a reference to a property of an object. A Reference consists of two parts, the base object and the
property name.
The following abstract operations are used in this specification to describe the behavior of references:
• GetBase(V). Returns the base object component of the reference V.
• GetPropertyName(V). Returns the property name component of the reference V.
• GetValue(V). Returns the value of the property indicated by the reference V.
• PutValue(V, W). Changes the value of the property indicated by the reference V to be W.
8.7.1 GetBase(V)
1. If Type(V) is Reference, return the base object component of V.
2. Generate a runtime error.
8.7.2 GetPropertyName(V)
1. If Type(V) is Reference, return the property name component of V.
2. Generate a runtime error.
8.7.3 GetValue(V)
1. If Type(V) is not Reference, return V.
2. Call GetBase(V).
3. If Result(2) is null, generate a runtime error.
4. Call the [[Get]] method of Result(2), passing GetPropertyName(V) for the property name.
5. Return Result(4).
8.7.4 PutValue(V, W)
1. If Type(V) is not Reference, generate a runtime error.
2. Call GetBase(V).
3. If Result(2) is null, go to step 6.
4. Call the [[Put]] method of Result(2), passing GetPropertyName(V) for the property name and W for the
value.
5. Return.
6. Call the [[Put]] method for the global object, passing GetPropertyName(V) for the property name and W for
the value.
7. Return.
 - 25 -

8.8 The List type

The internal List type is not a language data type. It is defined by this specification purely for expository purposes.
An implementation of ECMAScript must behave as if it produced and operated upon List values in the manner
described here. However, a value of the List type is used only as an intermediate result of expression evaluation and
cannot be stored as the value of a variable or property.
The List type is used to explain the evaluation of argument lists (section 11.2.4) in new expressions and in function
calls. Values of the List type are simply ordered sequences of values. These sequences may be of any length.
8.9 The Completion Type
The internal Completion type is not a language data type. It is defined by this specification purely for expository
purposes. An implementation of ECMAScript must behave as if it produced and operated upon Completion values
in the manner described here. However, a value of the Completion type is used only as an intermediate result of
statement evaluation and cannot be stored as the value of a variable or property.
The Completion type is used to explain the behavior of statements (break, continue, and return) that
perform nonlocal transfers of control. Values of the Completion type have one of the following forms:
• “normal completion”
• “normal completion after value V”
• “abrupt completion because of break”
• “abrupt completion after value V because of break”
• “abrupt completion because of continue”
• “abrupt completion after value V because of continue”
• “abrupt completion because of return V” where V is a value
Any completion of one of the four forms that carries a value V is called a value completion. Any completion of one
of the first two forms is called a normal completion; any other completion is called an abrupt completion. Any
completion of a form that mentions break is called a break completion. Any completion of a form that mentions
continue is called a continue completion. Any completion of a form that mentions return is called a
return completion.

9 Type Conversion
The ECMAScript runtime system performs automatic type conversion as needed. To clarify the semantics of certain
constructs it is useful to define a set of conversion operators. These operators are not a part of the language; they are
defined here to aid the specification of the semantics of the language. The conversion operators are polymorphic; that
is, they can accept a value of any standard type, but not of type Reference, List, or Completion (the internal types).
9.1 ToPrimitive
The operator ToPrimitive takes a Value argument and an optional PreferredType argument. The operator
ToPrimitive attempts to convert its value argument to a non-Object type. If an object is capable of converting to
more than one primitive type, it may use the optional hint PreferredType to favor that type. Conversion occurs
according to the following table:
 - 26 -

Input Type Result

Undefined The result equals the input argument (no conversion).
Null The result equals the input argument (no conversion).
Boolean The result equals the input argument (no conversion).
Number The result equals the input argument (no conversion).
String The result equals the input argument (no conversion).
Object Return a default value for the Object. The default value of an object is retrieved by
calling the internal [[DefaultValue]] method of the object, passing the optional hint
PreferredType. The behavior of the [[DefaultValue]] method is defined by this
specification for all native ECMAScript objects (see section 8.6.2.5). If the return
value is of type Object or Reference, a runtime error is generated.

9.2 ToBoolean
The operator ToBoolean attempts to convert its argument to a value of type Boolean according to the following
table:

Input Type Result

Undefined false
Null false
Boolean The result equals the input argument (no conversion).
Number The result is false if the argument is +0, −0, or NaN; otherwise the result is
true.

String The result is false if the argument is the empty string (its length is zero);
otherwise the result is true.
Object true

9.3 ToNumber
The operator ToNumber attempts to convert its argument to a value of type Number according to the following
table:

Input Type Result

Undefined NaN
Null +0
Boolean The result is 1 if the argument is true. The result is +0 if the argument is
false.
Number The result equals the input argument (no conversion).
String See grammar and discussion below.
Object Apply the following steps:
1. Call ToPrimitive(input argument, hint Number).
2. Call ToNumber(Result(1)).
3. Return Result(2).
 - 27 -

9.3.1 ToNumber Applied to the String Type

ToNumber applied to strings applies the following grammar to the input string. If the grammar cannot interpret
the string as an expansion of StringNumericLiteral, then the result of ToNumber is NaN.

StringNumericLiteral :::
StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrWhiteSpaceopt StrNumericLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt

StrWhiteSpace :::
StrWhiteSpaceChar StrWhiteSpaceopt

StrWhiteSpaceChar :::
<TAB>
<SP>
<FF>
<VT>
<CR>
<LF>

StrNumericLiteral :::
StrDecimalLiteral
+ StrDecimalLiteral
- StrDecimalLiteral
HexIntegerLiteral

StrDecimalLiteral :::
Infinity
DecimalDigits . DecimalDigitsopt ExponentPartopt
. DecimalDigits ExponentPartopt
DecimalDigits ExponentPartopt

DecimalDigits :::
DecimalDigit
DecimalDigits DecimalDigit

DecimalDigit ::: one of

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ExponentPart :::
ExponentIndicator SignedInteger

ExponentIndicator ::: one of

e E

SignedInteger :::
DecimalDigits
+ DecimalDigits
- DecimalDigits

HexIntegerLiteral :::
0x HexDigit
0X HexDigit
HexIntegerLiteral HexDigit
 - 28 -

HexDigit ::: one of

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F
Some differences should be noted between the syntax of a StringNumericLiteral and a NumericLiteral (section
7.7.3):
• A StringNumericLiteral may be preceded and/or followed by whitespace and/or line terminators.
• A StringNumericLiteral may not use octal notation.
• A StringNumericLiteral that is decimal may have any number of leading 0 digits.
• A StringNumericLiteral that is decimal may be preceded by + or - to indicate its sign.
• A StringNumericLiteral that is empty or contains only whitespaceis converted to +0.
The conversion of a string to a number value is similar overall to the determination of the number value for a
numeric literal (section 7.7.3), but some of the details are different, so the process for converting a string numeric
literal to a value of Number type is given here in full. This value is determined in two steps: first, a mathematical
value (MV) is derived from the string numeric literal; second, this mathematical value is rounded, ideally using
IEEE 754 round-to-nearest mode, to a representable value of the number type.
• The MV of StringNumericLiteral ::: (an empty character sequence) is 0.
• The MV of StringNumericLiteral ::: StrWhiteSpace is 0.
• The MV of StringNumericLiteral ::: StrWhiteSpaceopt StrNumericLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt is the MV of StrNumericLiteral,
no matter whether whitespace is present or not.
• The MV of StrNumericLiteral ::: StrDecimalLiteral is the MV of StrDecimalLiteral.
• The MV of StrNumericLiteral ::: + StrDecimalLiteral is the MV of StrDecimalLiteral.
• The MV of StrNumericLiteral ::: - StrDecimalLiteral is the negative of the MV of StrDecimalLiteral.
• The MV of StrNumericLiteral ::: HexIntegerLiteral is the MV of HexIntegerLiteral.
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral ::: Infinity is 1010000 (a value so large that it will round to +∞).
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits. is the MV of DecimalDigits.
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits. DecimalDigits is the MV of the first DecimalDigits plus (the MV of the
−
second DecimalDigits times 10 n), where n is the number of characters in the second DecimalDigits.
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits. ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalDigits times 10e, where e is the MV
of ExponentPart.
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits. DecimalDigits ExponentPart is (the MV of the first DecimalDigits plus
−
(the MV of the second DecimalDigits times 10 n)) times 10e, where n is the number of characters in the second
DecimalDigits and e is the MV of ExponentPart.
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral :::. DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits times 10−n, where n is the number of
characters in DecimalDigits.
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral :::. DecimalDigits ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalDigits times 10e−n, where n is the
number of characters in DecimalDigits and e is the MV of ExponentPart.
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits.
• The MV of StrDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalDigits times 10e, where e is the MV of
ExponentPart.
• The MV of DecimalDigits ::: DecimalDigit is the MV of DecimalDigit.
• The MV of DecimalDigits ::: DecimalDigits DecimalDigit is (the MV of DecimalDigits times 10) plus the MV of
DecimalDigit.
• The MV of ExponentPart ::: ExponentIndicator SignedInteger is the MV of SignedInteger.
• The MV of SignedInteger ::: DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits.
• The MV of SignedInteger ::: + DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits.
• The MV of SignedInteger ::: - DecimalDigits is the negative of the MV of DecimalDigits. (Note that if the MV of
DecimalDigits is 0, the negative of this MV is also 0. The rounding rule described below handles the conversion of this
signless mathematical zero to a floating-point +0 or −0 as appropriate.)
• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 0 or of HexDigit ::: 0 is 0.
• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 1 or of HexDigit ::: 1 is 1.
• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 2 or of HexDigit ::: 2 is 2.
 - 29 -

• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 3 or of HexDigit ::: 3 is 3.

• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 4 or of HexDigit ::: 4 is 4.
• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 5 or of HexDigit ::: 5 is 5.
• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 6 or of HexDigit ::: 6 is 6.
• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 7 or of HexDigit ::: 7 is 7.
• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 8 or of HexDigit ::: 8 is 8.
• The MV of DecimalDigit ::: 9 or of HexDigit ::: 9 is 9.
• The MV of HexDigit ::: a or of HexDigit ::: A is 10.
• The MV of HexDigit ::: b or of HexDigit ::: B is 11.
• The MV of HexDigit ::: c or of HexDigit ::: C is 12.
• The MV of HexDigit ::: d or of HexDigit ::: D is 13.
• The MV of HexDigit ::: e or of HexDigit ::: E is 14.
• The MV of HexDigit ::: f or of HexDigit ::: F is 15.
• The MV of HexIntegerLiteral::: 0x HexDigit is the MV of HexDigit.
• The MV of HexIntegerLiteral::: 0X HexDigit is the MV of HexDigit.
• The MV of HexIntegerLiteral::: HexIntegerLiteral HexDigit is (the MV of HexIntegerLiteral times 16) plus the MV of
HexDigit.
Once the exact MV for a string numeric literal has been determined, it is then rounded to a value of the Number
type. If the MV is 0, then the rounded value is +0 unless the first non-whitespace character in the string numeric
literal is ‘-’, in which case the rounded value is −0. Otherwise, the rounded value must be the number value for
the MV (in the sense defined in section 8.4), unless the literal includes a StrDecimalLiteral and the literal has
more than 20 significant digits, in which case the number value may be either the number value for the MV of a
literal produced by deleting all significant digits after the 20th or the number value for the MV of a literal
produced by deleting all significant digits after the 20th and then incrementing the literal at the 20th digit
position. A digit is significant if it is not part of an ExponentPart and (either it is not 0 or (there is a nonzero digit
to its left and there is a nonzero digit, not in the ExponentPart, to its right)).
9.4 ToInteger
The operator ToInteger attempts to convert its argument to an integral numeric value. This operator functions as
follows:
1. Call ToNumber on the input argument.
2. If Result(1) is NaN, return +0.
3. If Result(1) is +0, −0, +∞, or −∞, return Result(1).
4. Compute sign(Result(1)) * floor(abs(Result(1))).
5. Return Result(4).
9.5 ToInt32: (signed 32 bit integer)
The operator ToInt32 converts its argument to one of 232 integer values in the range −231 through 231−1, inclusive.
This operator functions as follows:
1. Call ToNumber on the input argument.
2. If Result(1) is NaN, +0, −0, +∞, or −∞, return +0.
3. Compute sign(Result(1)) * floor(abs(Result(1))).
4. Compute Result(3) modulo 232; that is, a finite integer value k of Number type with positive sign and less than
232 in magnitude such the mathematical difference of Result(3) and k is mathematically an integer multiple of
232.
5. If Result(4) is greater than or equal to 2 31, return Result(5)−232; otherwise return Result(5).
Discussion:
Note that the ToInt32 operation is idempotent: if applied to a result that it produced, the second application leaves
that value unchanged.
Note also that ToInt32(ToUint32(x)) is equal to ToInt32(x) for all values of x.
 - 30 -

(It is to preserve this latter property that +∞ and −∞ are mapped to +0.)
Note that ToInt32 maps −0 to +0.
9.6 ToUint32: (unsigned 32 bit integer)
The operator ToUint32 converts its argument to one of 232 integer values in the range 0 through 232−1, inclusive.
This operator functions as follows:
1. Call ToNumber on the input argument.
2. If Result(1) is NaN, +0, −0, +∞, or −∞, return +0.
3. Compute sign(Result(1)) * floor(abs(Result(1))).
4. Compute Result(3) modulo 232; that is, a finite integer value k of Number type with positive sign and less than
232 in magnitude such the mathematical difference of Result(3) and k is mathematically an integer multiple of
232.
5. Return Result(4).
Discussion:
Note that step 5 is the only difference between ToUint32 and ToInt32.
Note that the ToUint32 operation is idempotent: if applied to a result that it produced, the second application leaves
that value unchanged.
Note also that ToUint32(ToInt32(x)) is equal to ToUint32(x) for all values of x.
(It is to preserve this latter property that +∞ and −∞ are mapped to +0.)
Note that ToUint32 maps −0 to +0.
9.7 ToUint16: (unsigned 16 bit integer)
The operator ToUint16 converts its argument to one of 216 integer values in the range 0 through 216−1, inclusive.
This operator functions as follows:
1. Call ToNumber on the input argument.
2. If Result(1) is NaN, +0, −0, +∞, or −∞, return +0.
3. Compute sign(Result(1)) * floor(abs(Result(1))).
4. Compute Result(3) modulo 216; that is, a finite integer value k of Number type with positive sign and less than
216 in magnitude such the mathematical difference of Result(3) and k is mathematically an integer multiple of
216.
5. Return Result(4).
Discussion:
Note that the substitution of 216 for 232 in step 4 is the only difference between ToUint32 and ToUnit16.
Note that ToUint16 maps −0 to +0.
9.8 ToString
The operator ToString attempts to convert its argument to a value of type String according to the following table:
 - 31 -

Input Type Result

Undefined "undefined"
Null "null"
Boolean If the argument is true, then the result is "true".
If the argument is false, then the result is "false".
Number See discussion below.
String Return the input argument (no conversion)
Object Apply the following steps:
1. Call ToPrimitive(input argument, hint String).
2. Call ToString(Result(1)).
3. Return Result(2).

9.8.1 ToString Applied to the Number Type

The operator ToString converts a number to string format as follows:
• If the argument is NaN, the result is the string "NaN".
• If the argument is +0 or −0, the result is "0".
• If the argument is +∞, the result is "Infinity".
• If the argument is −∞, the result is "-Infinity".
• Otherwise, the result is a string that represents the sign and finite nonzero magnitude (absolute value) of the
argument. If the sign is negative, the first character of the result is ‘-’; if the sign is positive, no sign character
appears in the result. As for the magnitude m:
• If m is an integer less than 1021, then it is represented as that integer value in decimal form with no leading
zeroes and no decimal point.
−
• If m is greater than or equal to 10 6 but less than 1021, and is not an exact integer value, then it is
represented as the integer part (floor) of m, in decimal form with no leading zeroes, followed by a decimal
point ‘.’, followed by one or more decimal digits (see below) representing the fractional part of m.
−
• If m is less than 10 6 or not less than 1021, then it is represented in so-called “computerized scientific
−
notation.” Let n, k, and a be integers such that k ≥ 1, 10k ≤ a < 10k+1, the number value for a ⋅ 10n k is m,
−
and k is as small as possible. The magnitude is then represented as the integer part (floor) of a ⋅ 10 k, as a
single decimal digit, followed by a decimal point ‘.’, followed by one or more decimal digits (see below)
−
representing the fractional part of a ⋅ 10 k, followed by the lowercase letter ‘e’, followed by a
representation of n as a decimal integer (first a minus sign ‘-’ if n is negative or a plus sign ‘+’ if n is not
negative, followed by the decimal representation of the magnitude of n with no leading zeros).
−
How many digits must be printed for the fractional part of m or a ⋅ 10 k? There must be at least one digit; beyond
that, there must be as many, but only as many, more digits as are needed to uniquely distinguish the argument
value from all other representable numeric values. That is, suppose that x is the exact mathematical value
represented by the decimal representation produced by this method for a finite nonzero argument; then d must be
the value of Number type nearest to x; or if two values of the Number type are equally close to x, then d must be
one of them and the least significant bit of d must be 0. A consequence of this specification is that ToString never
produces trailing zero digits for a fractional part.
There remains some choice as to the last digit generated for a fractional part. The following specification was
considered but not adopted:
(This paragraph is not part of the ECMAScript specification.) The decimal string produced must be as close
in its mathematical value to the mathematical value of the original number as any other decimal string with the
 - 32 -

same number of digits; and if two decimal strings of the same minimal length would be equally close in value
to the original number, then the decimal string whose last digit is even should be chosen.
While such a strategy is recommended to implementors, the actual rule is somewhat more permissive (and is
implied by the rules above):
If x is any number value other than −0, then ToNumber(ToString(x)) must be exactly the same as x.
Implementors of ECMAScript may find useful the paper and code written by David M. Gay for binary-to-
decimal conversion of floating-point numbers [Gay 1990].
9.9 ToObject
The operator ToObject attempts to convert its argument to a value of type Object according to the following table:

Input Type Result

Undefined Generate a runtime error.
Null Generate a runtime error.
Boolean Create a new Boolean object whose default value is the value of the boolean. See
section 15.6 for a description of Boolean objects.
Number Create a new Number object whose default value is the value of the number. See
section 15.7 for a description of Number objects.
String Create a new String object whose default value is the value of the string. See
section 15.5 for a description of String objects.
Object The result is the input argument (no conversion).

10 Execution Contexts
When control is transferred to ECMAScript executable code, we say that control is entering an execution context.
Active execution contexts logically form a stack. The top execution context on this logical stack is the running
execution context.
10.1 Definitions
10.1.1 Function Objects
There are four types of function objects:
• Declared functions are defined in source text by a FunctionDeclaration.
• Anonymous functions are created dynamically by using the built-in Function object as a constructor, which
we refer to as instantiating Function.
• Host functions are created at the request of the host with source text supplied by the host. The mechanism for
their creation is implementation dependent. Host functions may have any subset of the following attributes {
ImplicitThis, ImplicitParents }. Note that these are attributes of function objects, not of properties. These
attributes are described below.
• Internal functions are built-in objects of the language, such as parseInt and Math.exp. An
implementation may also provide implementation-dependent internal functions that are not described in this
specification. These functions do not contain executable code defined by the ECMAScript grammar, so are
excluded from this discussion of execution contexts.
10.1.2 Types of Executable Code
There are five types of executable ECMAScript source text:
• Global code is source text that is outside all function declarations. More precisely, the global code of a
particular ECMAScript Program consists of all SourceElements in the Program production which come from
the Statement definition.
 - 33 -

• Eval code is the source text supplied to the built-in eval function. More precisely, if the parameter to the
built-in eval function is a string, it is treated as an ECMAScript Program. The eval code for a particular
invocation of eval is the global code portion of the string parameter.
• Function code is source text that is inside a function declaration. More precisely, the function code of a
particular ECMAScript FunctionDeclaration consists of the Block in the definition of FunctionDeclaration.
• Anonymous code is the source text supplied when instantiating Function. More precisely, the last
parameter provided in an instantiation of Function is converted to a string and treated as the StatementList
of the Block of a FunctionDeclaration. If more than one parameter is provided in an instantiation of
Function, all parameters except the last one are converted to strings and concatenated together, separated
by commas. The resulting string is interpreted as the FormalParameterList of a FunctionDeclaration for the
StatementList defined by the last parameter.
• Host code is the source text supplied by the host when creating a host function. The source text is treated as
the StatementList of the Block of a FunctionDeclaration. Depending on the implementation, the host may also
supply a FormalParameterList.
10.1.3 Variable instantiation
Every execution context has associated with it a variable object. Variables declared in the source text are
added as properties of the variable object. For global and eval code, functions defined in the source text are
added as properties of the variable object. Function declarations in other types of code are not allowed by the
grammar. For function, anonymous and host code, parameters are added as properties of the variable object.
Which object is used as the variable object and what attributes are used for the properties depends on the
type of code, but the remainder of the behavior is generic:
• For each FunctionDeclaration in the code, in source text order, instantiate a declared function from the
FunctionDeclaration and create a property of the variable object whose name is the Identifier in the
FunctionDeclaration, whose value is the declared function and whose attributes are determined by the type of
code. If the variable object already has a property with this name, replace its value and attributes.
• For each formal parameter, as defined in the FormalParameterList, create a property of the variable object
whose name is the Identifier and whose attributes are determined by the type of code. The values of the
parameters are supplied by the caller. If the caller supplies fewer parameter values than there are formal
parameters, the extra formal parameters have value undefined. If two or more formal parameters share the
same name, hence the same property, the corresponding property is given the value that was supplied for the
last parameter with this name. If the value of this last parameter was not supplied by the caller, the value of
the corresponding property is undefined.
• For each VariableDeclaration in the code, create a property of the variable object whose name is the
Identifier in VariableDeclaration, whose value is undefined and whose attributes are determined by the
type of code. If there is already a property of the variable object with the name of a declared variable, the
value of the property and its attributes are not changed. Semantically, this step must follow the creation of the
FunctionDeclaration and FormalParameterList properties. In particular, if a declared variable has the same
name as a declared function or formal parameter, the variable declaration does not disturb the existing
property.
10.1.4 Scope Chain and Identifier Resolution
Every execution context has associated with it a scope chain. This is logically a list of objects that are searched
when binding an Identifier. When control enters an execution context, the scope chain is created and is populated
with an initial set of objects, depending on the type of code. When control leaves the execution context, the scope
chain is destroyed.
During execution, the scope chain of the execution context is affected only by WithStatement. When execution
enters a with block, the object specified in the with statement is added to the front of the scope chain. When
execution leaves a with block, whether normally or via a break or continue statement, the object is
removed from the scope chain. The object being removed will always be the first object in the scope chain.
 - 34 -

During execution, the syntactic production PrimaryExpression : Identifier is evaluated using the following
algorithm:
1. Get the next object in the scope chain. If there isn't one, go to step 5.
2. Call the [[HasProperty]] method of Result(l), passing the Identifier as the property.
3. If Result(2) is true, return a value of type Reference whose base object is Result(l) and whose property
name is the Identifier.
4. Go to step 1.
5. Return a value of type Reference whose base object is null and whose property name is the Identifier.
The result of binding an identifier is always a value of type Reference with its member name component equal to
the identifier string.
10.1.5 Global Object
There is a unique global object which is created before control enters any execution context. Initially the global
object has the following properties:
• Built-in objects such as Math, String, Date, parseInt, etc. These have attributes { DontEnum }.
• Additional host defined properties. This may include a property whose value is the global object itself, for
example window in HTML.
As control enters execution contexts, and as ECMAScript code is executed, additional properties may be added
to the global object and the initial properties may be changed.
10.1.6 Activation object
When control enters an execution context for declared function code, anonymous code or host code, an object
called the activation object is created and associated with the execution context. The activation object is
initialized with a property with name arguments and property attributes { DontDelete }. The initial value of
this property is the arguments object described below.
If the function object being invoked has an arguments property, let x be the value of that property; the
activation object is also given an internal property [[OldArguments]] whose initial value is x; otherwise, an
arguments property is created for the function object but the activation object is not given an
[[OldArguments]] property. Next, arguments object described below (the same one stored in the arguments
property of the activation object) is used as the new value of the arguments property of the function object.
This new value is installed even if the arguments property already exists and has the ReadOnly attribute (as it
will for native Function objects). (These actions are taken to provide compatibility with a form of program syntax
that is now discouraged: to access the arguments object for function f within the body of f by using the
expression f.arguments. The recommended way to access the arguments object for function f within the
body of f is simply to refer to the variable arguments.)
The activation object is then used as the variable object for the purposes of variable instantiation.
When a value is to be returned from the call to a function, its activation object is no longer needed and may be
permanently decommissioned. At this time, if the activation object has no [[OldArguments]] property, then the
arguments property of the function object is deleted; otherwise, the value of the [[OldArguments]] property of
the activation object is stored into the arguments property of the function object (an arguments property is
created for the function object if necessary). This old value is stored even if the arguments property already
exists and has the ReadOnly attribute (as it will for native Function objects).
The activation object is purely a specification mechanism. It is impossible for an ECMAScript program to access
the activation object. It can access members of the activation object, but not the activation object itself. When the
call operation is applied to a Reference value whose base object is an activation object, null is used as the
this value of the call.
10.1.7 This
There is a this value associated with every active execution context. The this value depends on the caller and
the type of code being executed and is determined when control enters the execution context. The this value
associated with an execution context is immutable.
 - 35 -

10.1.8 Arguments Object

When control enters an execution context for declared function code, anonymous code, or host code, an
arguments object is created and initialized as follows:
• The [[Prototype]] of the arguments object is to the original Object prototype object, the one that is the initial
value of Object.prototype (section 15.2.3.1).
• A property is created with name callee and property attributes { DontEnum }. The initial value of this
property is the function object being executed. This allows anonymous functions to be recursive.
• A property is created with name length and property attributes { DontEnum }. The initial value of this
property is the number of actual parameter values supplied by the caller.
• For each non-negative integer, iarg, less than the value of the length property, a property is created with
name ToString(iarg) and property attributes { DontEnum }. The initial value of this property is the value of
the corresponding actual parameter supplied by the caller. The first actual parameter value corresponds to
iarg = 0, the second to iarg = 1 and so on. In the case when iarg is less than the number of formal parameters
for the function object, this property shares its value with the corresponding property of the activation object.
This means that changing this property changes the corresponding property of the activation object and vice
versa. The value sharing mechanism depends on the implementation.
10.2 Entering An Execution Context
When control enters an execution context, the scope chain is created and initialized, variable instantiation is
performed, and the this value is determined.
The initialization of the scope chain, variable instantiation, and the determination of the this value depend on the
type of code being entered.
10.2.1 Global Code
• The scope chain is created and initialized to contain the global object and no others.
• Variable instantiation is performed using the global object as the variable object and using empty property
attributes.
• The this value is the global object.
10.2.2 Eval Code
When control enters an execution context for eval code, the previous active execution context, referred to as the
calling context, is used to determine the scope chain, the variable object, and the this value. If there is no
calling context, then initializing the scope chain, variable instantiation, and determination of the this value are
performed just as for global code.
• The scope chain is initialized to contain the same objects, in the same order, as the calling context's scope
chain. This includes objects added to the calling context's scope chain by WithStatement.
• Variable instantiation is performed using the calling context's variable object and using empty property
attributes.
• The this value is the same as the this value of the calling context.
10.2.3 Function and Anonymous Code
• The scope chain is initialized to contain the activation object followed by the global object.
• Variable instantiation is performed using the activation object as the variable object and using property
attributes { DontDelete }.
• The caller provides the this value. If the this value provided by the caller is not an object (including the
case where it is null), then the this value is the global object.
10.2.4 Host Code
• The scope chain is initialized to contain the activation object as its first element.
 - 36 -

• If the host function has the ImplicitThis attribute, the this value is placed in the scope chain after the
activation object.
• If the host function has the ImplicitParents attribute, a list of objects, determined solely by the this value,
is inserted in the scope chain after the activation object and this object. Note that this list is determined at
run time by the this value. It is not determined by any form of lexical scoping.
• The global object is placed in the scope chain after all other objects.
• Variable instantiation is performed using the activation object as the variable object and using attributes
{ DontDelete }.
• The this value is determined just as for function and anonymous code.

11 Expressions
11.1 Primary Expressions
Syntax
PrimaryExpression :
this
Identifier
Literal
( Expression )
11.1.1 The this keyword
The this keyword evaluates to the this value of the execution context.
11.1.2 Identifier reference
An Identifier is evaluated using the scoping rules stated in section 10.1.4. The result of an Identifier is always a
value of type Reference.
11.1.3 Literal reference
A Literal is evaluated as described in section 7.7.
11.1.4 The Grouping rperator
The production PrimaryExpression : ( Expression ) is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Expression. This may be of type Reference.
2. Return Result(1).
Note that this algorithm does not apply GetValue to Result(1). The principal motivation for this is so that
operators such as delete and typeof may be applied to parenthized expressions.
11.2 Left-Hand-Side Expressions
Syntax
MemberExpression :
PrimaryExpression
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . Identifier
new MemberExpression Arguments

NewExpression :
MemberExpression
new NewExpression
 - 37 -

CallExpression :
MemberExpression Arguments
CallExpression Arguments
CallExpression [ Expression ]
CallExpression . Identifier

Arguments :
()
( ArgumentList )

ArgumentList :
AssignmentExpression
ArgumentList , AssignmentExpression

LeftHandSideExpression :
NewExpression
CallExpression
11.2.1 Property Accessors
Properties are accessed by name, using either the dot notation:
MemberExpression . Identifier
CallExpression . Identifier
or the bracket notation:
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
CallExpression [ Expression ]
The dot notation is explained by the following syntactic conversion:
MemberExpression . Identifier
is identical in its behavior to
MemberExpression [ <identifier-string> ]
and similarly
CallExpression . Identifier
is identical in its behavior to
CallExpression [ <identifier-string> ]
where <identifier-string> is a string literal containing the same sequence of characters as the Identifier.
The production MemberExpression : MemberExpression [ Expression ] is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate MemberExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate Expression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call ToObject(Result(2)).
6. Call ToString(Result(4)).
7. Return a value of type Reference whose base object is Result(5) and whose property name is Result(6).
The production CallExpression : CallExpression [ Expression ] is evaluated in exactly the same manner, except
that the contained CallExpression is evaluated in step 1.
11.2.2 The new operator
The production NewExpression : new NewExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate NewExpression.
 - 38 -

2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. If Type(Result(2)) is not Object, generate a runtime error.
4. If Result(2) does not implement the internal [[Construct]] method, generate a runtime error.
5. Call the [[Construct]] method on Result(2), providing no arguments (that is, an empty list of arguments).
6. If Type(Result(5)) is not Object, generate a runtime error.
7. Return Result(5).
The production NewCallExpression : new NewExpression Arguments is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate NewExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate Arguments, producing an internal list of argument values (section 0).
4. If Type(Result(2)) is not Object, generate a runtime error.
5. If Result(2) does not implement the internal [[Construct]] method, generate a runtime error.
6. Call the [[Construct]] method on Result(2), providing the list Result(3) as the argument values.
7. If Type(Result(6)) is not Object, generate a runtime error.
8. Return Result(6).
11.2.3 Function Calls
The production CallExpression : MemberExpression Arguments is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate MemberExpression.
2. Evaluate Arguments, producing an internal list of argument values (section 0).
3. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
4. If Type(Result(3)) is not Object, generate a runtime error.
5. If Result(3) does not implement the internal [[Call]] method, generate a runtime error.
6. If Type(Result(1)) is Reference, Result(6) is GetBase(Result(1)). Otherwise, Result(6) is null.
7. If Result(6) is an activation object, Result(7) is null. Otherwise, Result(7) is the same as Result(6).
8. Call the [[Call]] method on Result(3), providing Result(7) as the this value and providing the list Result(2)
as the argument values.
9. Return Result(8).
The production CallExpression : CallExpression Arguments is evaluated in exactly the same manner, except that
the contained CallExpression is evaluated in step 1.
Note: Result(8) will never be of type Reference if Result(3) is a native ECMAScript object. Whether calling a
host object can return a value of type Reference is implementation-dependent.
11.2.4 Argument Lists
The evaluation of an argument list produces an internal list of values (section 8.8).
The production Arguments : ( ) is evaluated as follows:
1. Return an empty internal list of values.
The production Arguments : ( ArgumentList ) is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate ArgumentList.
2. Return Result(1).
The production ArgumentList : AssignmentExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate AssignmentExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Return an internal list whose sole item is Result(2).
The production ArgumentList : ArgumentList , AssignmentExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate ArgumentList.
2. Evaluate AssignmentExpression.
3. Call GetValue(Result(2)).
4. Return an internal list whose length is one greater than the length of Result(1) and whose items are the items
of Result(1), in order, followed at the end by Result(3), which is the last item of the new list.
 - 39 -

11.3 Postfix expressions

Syntax
PostfixExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression
LeftHandSideExpression [no LineTerminator here] ++
LeftHandSideExpression [no LineTerminator here] --
11.3.1 Postfix increment operator
The production MemberExpression : MemberExpression ++ is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate MemberExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
4. Add the value 1 to Result(3), using the same rules as for the + operator (section 0).
5. Call PutValue(Result(1), Result(4)).
6. Return Result(3).
11.3.2 Postfix decrement operator
The production MemberExpression : MemberExpression -- is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate MemberExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
4. Subtract the value 1 from Result(3), using the same rules as for the - operator (section 0).
5. Call PutValue(Result(1), Result(4)).
6. Return Result(3).
11.4 Unary operators
Syntax
UnaryExpression :
PostfixExpression
delete UnaryExpression
void UnaryExpression
typeof UnaryExpression
++ UnaryExpression
-- UnaryExpression
+ UnaryExpression
- UnaryExpression
~ UnaryExpression
! UnaryExpression
11.4.1 The delete operator
The production UnaryExpression : delete UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. Call GetBase(Result(1)).
3. Call GetPropertyName(Result(1)).
4. If Type(Result(2)) is not Object, return true.
5. If Result(2) does not implement the internal [[Delete]] method, go to step 8.
6. Call the [[Delete]] method on Result(2), providing Result(3) as the property name to delete.
7. Return Result(6).
8. Call the [[HasProperty]] method on Result(2), providing Result(3) as the property name to check for.
9. If Result(8) is true, return false.
10. Return true.
11.4.2 The void operator
The production UnaryExpression : void UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
 - 40 -

1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Return undefined.
11.4.3 The typeof operator
The production UnaryExpression : typeof UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. If Type(Result(1)) is Reference and GetBase(Result(1)) is null, return "undefined".
3. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
4. Return a string determined by Type(Result(3)) according to the following table:

Type Result
Undefined "undefined"
Null "object"
Boolean "boolean"
Number "number"
String "string"
Object (native and "object"
doesn’t implement
[[Call]])
Object (native and "function"
implements [[Call]])
Object (host) Implementation-dependent

11.4.4 Prefix increment operator

The production UnaryExpression : ++ UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
4. Add the value 1 to Result(3), using the same rules as for the + operator (section 11.6.3).
5. Call PutValue(Result(1), Result(4)).
6. Return Result(4).
11.4.5 Prefix decrement operator
The production UnaryExpression : -- UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
4. Subtract the value 1 from Result(3), using the same rules as for the - operator (section 11.6.3).
5. Call PutValue(Result(1), Result(4)).
6. Return Result(4).
11.4.6 Unary + operator
The unary + operator converts its operand to Number type.
The production UnaryExpression : + UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
4. Return Result(3).
 - 41 -

11.4.7 Unary - operator

The unary - operator converts its operand to Number type and then negates it. Note that negating +0 produces −0,
and negating −0 produces +0.
The production UnaryExpression : - UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
4. If Result(3) is NaN, return NaN.
5. Negate Result(3); that is, compute a number with the same magnitude but opposite sign.
6. Return Result(5).
11.4.8 The bitwise NOT operator ( ~ )
The production UnaryExpression : ~ UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToInt32(Result(2)).
4. Apply bitwise complement to Result(3). The result is a signed 32-bit integer.
5. Return Result(4).
11.4.9 Logical NOT operator ( ! )
The production UnaryExpression : ! UnaryExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToBoolean(Result(2)).
4. If Result(3) is true, return false.
5. Return true.
11.5 Multiplicative operators
Syntax
MultiplicativeExpression :
UnaryExpression
MultiplicativeExpression * UnaryExpression
MultiplicativeExpression / UnaryExpression
MultiplicativeExpression % UnaryExpression
Semantics
The production MultiplicativeExpression : MultiplicativeExpression @ UnaryExpression, where @ stands for
one of the operators in the above definitions, is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate MultiplicativeExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate UnaryExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
6. Call ToNumber(Result(4)).
7. Apply the specified operation (*, /, or %) to Result(5) and Result(6). See the discussions below (7.4.1, 7.4.2,
7.4.3).
8. Return Result(7).
11.5.1 Applying the * operator
The * operator performs multiplication, producing the product of its operands. Multiplication is commutative.
Multiplication is not always associative in ECMAScript, because of finite precision.
The result of a floating-point multiplication is governed by the rules of IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic:
 - 42 -

• If either operand is NaN, the result is NaN.

• The sign of the result is positive if both operands have the same sign, negative if the operands have different
signs.
• Multiplication of an infinity by a zero results in NaN.
• Multiplication of an infinity by an infinity results in an infinity. The sign is determined by the rule already
stated above.
• Multiplication of an infinity by a finite non-zero value results in a signed infinity. The sign is determined by
the rule already stated above.
• In the remaining cases, where neither an infinity or NaN is involved, the product is computed and rounded to
the nearest representable value using IEEE 754 round-to-nearest mode. If the magnitude is too large to
represent, the result is then an infinity of appropriate sign. If the magnitude is too small to represent, the result
is then a zero of appropriate sign. The ECMAScript language requires support of gradual underflow as
defined by IEEE 754.
11.5.2 Applying the / operator
The / operator performs division, producing the quotient of its operands. The left operand is the dividend and
the right operand is the divisor. ECMAScript does not perform integer division. The operands and result of all
division operations are double-precision floating-point numbers. The result of division is determined by the
specification of IEEE 754 arithmetic:
• If either operand is NaN, the result is NaN.
• The sign of the result is positive if both operands have the same sign, negative if the operands have different
signs.
• Division of an infinity by an infinity results in NaN.
• Division of an infinity by a zero results in an infinity. The sign is determined by the rule already stated above.
• Division of an infinity by a non-zero finite value results in a signed infinity. The sign is determined by the
rule already stated above.
• Division of a finite value by an infinity results in zero. The sign is determined by the rule already stated
above.
• Division of a zero by a zero results in NaN; division of zero by any other finite value results in zero, with the
sign determined by the rule already stated above.
• Division of a non-zero finite value by a zero results in a signed infinity. The sign is determined by the rule
already stated above.
• In the remaining cases, where neither an infinity, nor a zero, nor NaN is involved, the quotient is computed
and rounded to the nearest representable value using IEEE 754 round-to-nearest mode. If the magnitude is too
large to represent, we say the operation overflows; the result is then an infinity of appropriate sign. If the
magnitude is too small to represent, we say the operation underflows and the result is a zero of the appropriate
sign. The ECMAScript language requires support of gradual underflow as defined by IEEE 754.
11.5.3 Applying the % operator
The binary % operator is said to yield the remainder of its operands from an implied division; the left operand is
the dividend and the right operand is the divisor. In C and C++, the remainder operator accepts only integral
operands, but in ECMAScript, it also accepts floating-point operands.
The result of a floating-point remainder operation as computed by the % operator is not the same as the
"remainder" operation defined by IEEE 754. The IEEE 754 "remainder" operation computes the remainder from
a rounding division, not a truncating division, and so its behavior is not analogous to that of the usual integer
remainder operator. Instead the ECMAScript language defines % on floating-point operations to behave in a
manner analogous to that of the Java integer remainder operator; this may be compared with the C library
function fmod.
 - 43 -

The result of a ECMAScript floating-point remainder operation is determined by the rules of IEEE arithmetic:
• If either operand is NaN, the result is NaN.
• The sign of the result equals the sign of the dividend.
• If the dividend is an infinity, or the divisor is a zero, or both, the result is NaN.
• If the dividend is finite and the divisor is an infinity, the result equals the dividend.
• If the dividend is a zero and the divisor is finite, the result is the same as the dividend.
• In the remaining cases, where neither an infinity, nor a zero, nor NaN is involved, the floating-point
remainder r from a dividend n and a divisor d is defined by the mathematical relation r = n − (d * q) where q
is an integer that is negative only if n/d is negative and positive only if n/d is positive, and whose magnitude is
as large as possible without exceeding the magnitude of the true mathematical quotient of n and d.
11.6 Additive operators
Syntax
AdditiveExpression :
MultiplicativeExpression
AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression
AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression
11.6.1 The addition operator ( + )
The addition operator either performs string concatenation or numeric addition.
The production AdditiveExpression : AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate AdditiveExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate MultiplicativeExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call ToPrimitive(Result(2)).
6. Call ToPrimitive(Result(4)).
7. If Type(Result(5)) is String or Type(Result(6)) is String, go to step 12. (Note that this step differs from step 3
in the algorithm for comparison for the relational operators in using or instead of and.)
8. Call ToNumber(Result(5)).
9. Call ToNumber(Result(6)).
10. Apply the addition operation to Result(8) and Result(9). See the discussion below (11.6.3).
11. Return Result(10).
12. Call ToString(Result(5)).
13. Call ToString(Result(6)).
14. Concatenate Result(12) followed by Result(13).
15. Return Result(14).
Note that no hint is provided in the calls to ToPrimitive in steps 5 and 6. All native ECMAScript objects except
Date objects handle the absence of a hint as if the hint Number were given; Date objects handle the absence of a
hint as if the hint String were given. Host objects may handle the absence of a hint in some other manner.
11.6.2 The subtraction operator ( - )
The production AdditiveExpression : AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate AdditiveExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate MultiplicativeExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
6. Call ToNumber(Result(4)).
7. Apply the subtraction operation to Result(5) and Result(6). See the discussion below (11.6.3).
8. Return Result(7).
 - 44 -

11.6.3 Applying the additive operators (+, -) to numbers

The + operator performs addition when applied to two operands of numeric type, producing the sum of the
operands. The - operator performs subtraction, producing the difference of two numeric operands.
Addition is a commutative operation, but not always associative.
The result of an addition is determined using the rules of IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic:
• If either operand is NaN, the result is NaN.
• The sum of two infinities of opposite sign is NaN.
• The sum of two infinities of the same sign is the infinity of that sign.
• The sum of an infinity and a finite value is equal to the infinite operand.
• The sum of two negative zeros is −0. The sum of two positive zeros, or of two zeros of opposite sign, is +0.
• The sum of a zero and a nonzero finite value is equal to the nonzero operand.
• The sum of two nonzero finite values of the same magnitude and opposite sign is +0.
• In the remaining cases, where neither an infinity, nor a zero, nor NaN is involved, and the operands have the
same sign or have different magnitudes, the sum is computed and rounded to the nearest representable value
using IEEE 754 round-to-nearest mode. If the magnitude is too large to represent, the operation overflows
and the result is then an infinity of appropriate sign. The ECMAScript language requires support of gradual
underflow as defined by IEEE 754.
The - operator performs subtraction when applied to two operands of numeric type, producing the difference of
its operands; the left operand is the minuend and the right operand is the subtrahend. Given numeric operands a
and b, it is always the case that a-b produces the same result as a+(-b).
11.7 Bitwise shift operators
Syntax
ShiftExpression :
AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression
Semantics
The result of evaluating ShiftExpression is always truncated to 32 bits. If the result of evaluating ShiftExpression
produces a fractional component, the fractional component is discarded. The result of evaluating an
AdditiveExpresion that is the right-hand operand of a shift operator is always truncated to five bits.
11.7.1 The left shift operator ( << )
Performs a bitwise left shift operation on the left argument by the amount specified by the right argument.
The production ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate ShiftExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate AdditiveExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call ToInt32(Result(2)).
6. Call ToUint32(Result(4)).
7. Mask out all but the least significant 5 bits of Result(6), that is, compute Result(6) & 0x1F.
8. Left shift Result(5) by Result(7) bits. The result is a signed 32 bit integer.
9. Return Result(8).
 - 45 -

11.7.2 The signed right shift operator ( >> )

Performs a sign-filling bitwise right shift operation on the left argument by the amount specified by the right
argument.
The production ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate ShiftExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate AdditiveExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call ToInt32(Result(2)).
6. Call ToUInt32(Result(4)).
7. Mask out all but the least significant 5 bits of Result(6), that is, compute Result(6) & 0x1F.
8. Perform sign-extending right shift of Result(5) by Result(7) bits. The most significant bit is propagated. The
result is a signed 32 bit integer.
9. Return Result(8).
11.7.3 The unsigned right shift operator ( >>> )
Performs a zero-filling bitwise right shift operation on the left argument by the amount specified by the right
argument.
The production ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate ShiftExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate AdditiveExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call ToUint32(Result(2)).
6. Call ToUInt32(Result(4)).
7. Mask out all but the least significant 5 bits of Result(6), that is, compute Result(6) & 0x1F.
8. Perform zero-filling right shift of Result(5) by Result(7) bits. Vacated bits are filled with zero. The result is an
unsigned 32 bit integer.
9. Return Result(8).
11.8 Relational operators
Syntax
RelationalExpression :
ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression
Semantics
The result of evaluating RelationalExpression is always of type Boolean, reflecting whether the relationship named
by the operator holds between its two operands.
11.8.1 The less-than operator ( < )
The production RelationalExpression: RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate RelationalExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate ShiftExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Perform the comparison Result(2) < Result(4). (See section 11.8.5)
6. If Result(5) is undefined, return false. Otherwise, return Result(5).
11.8.2 The greater-than operator ( > )
The production RelationalExpression: RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression is evaluated as follows:
 - 46 -

1. Evaluate RelationalExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate ShiftExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Perform the comparison Result(4) < Result(2). (See section 11.8.5)
6. If Result(5) is undefined, return false. Otherwise, return Result(5).
11.8.3 The less-than-or-equal operator ( <= )
The production RelationalExpression: RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate RelationalExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate ShiftExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Perform the comparison Result(4) < Result(2). (See section 11.8.5)
6. If Result(5) is true or undefined, return false. Otherwise, return true.
11.8.4 The greater-than-or-equal operator ( >= )
The production RelationalExpression: RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate RelationalExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate ShiftExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Perform the comparison Result(2) < Result(4). (See section 11.8.5)
6. If Result(5) is true or undefined, return false. Otherwise, return true.
11.8.5 The abstract relational comparison algorithm
The comparison x < y, where x and y are values, produces true, false, or undefined (which indicates that at least
one operand is NaN). Such a comparison is performed as follows:
1. Call ToPrimitive(x, hint Number).
2. Call ToPrimitive(y, hint Number).
3. If Type(Result(1)) is String and Type(Result(2)) is String, go to step 16. (Note that this step differs from step
7 in the algorithm for the addition operator + in using and instead of or.)
4. Call ToNumber(Result(1)).
5. Call ToNumber(Result(2)).
6. If Result(4) is NaN, return undefined.
7. If Result(5) is NaN, return undefined.
8. If Result(4) and Result(5) are the same number value, return false.
9. If Result(4) is +0 and Result(5) is −0, return false.
10. If Result(4) is −0 and Result(5) is +0, return false.
11. If Result(4) is +∞, return false.
12. If Result(5) is +∞, return true.
13. If Result(5) is −∞, return false.
14. If Result(4) is −∞, return true.
15. If the mathematical value of Result(4) is less than the mathematical value of Result(5)—note that these
mathematical values are both finite and not both zero—return true. Otherwise, return false.
16. If Result(2) is a prefix of Result (1), return false. (A string value p is a prefix of string value q if q can be the
result of concatenating p and some other string r. Note that any string is a prefix of itself, because r may be
the empty string.)
17. If Result(1) is a prefix of Result (2), return true.
18. Let k be the smallest nonnegative integer such that the character at position k within Result(1) is different
from the character at position k within Result(2). (There must be such a k, for neither string is a prefix of the
other.)
19. Let m be the integer that is the Unicode encoding for the character at position k within Result(1).
20. Let n be the integer that is the Unicode encoding for the character at position k within Result(2).
21. If m < n, return true. Otherwise, return false.
 - 47 -

Discussion
Note that comparison of strings uses a simple lexicographic ordering on sequences of Unicode code point values.
There is no attempt to use the more complex, semantically-oriented definitions of character or string equality and
collating order defined in the Unicode 2.0 specification.
11.9 Equality operators
Syntax
EqualityExpression :
RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression != RelationalExpression
Semantics
The result of evaluating EqualityExpression is always of type Boolean, reflecting whether the relationship named by
the operator holds between its two operands.
11.9.1 The equals operator ( == )
The production EqualityExpression: EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate EqualityExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate RelationalExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Perform the comparison Result(4) == Result(2). (See section 11.9.3)
6. Return Result(5).
11.9.2 The does-not-equals operator ( != )
The production EqualityExpression: EqualityExpression!= RelationalExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate EqualityExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate RelationalExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Perform the comparison Result(4) == Result(2). (See section 11.9.3)
6. If Result(5) is true, return false. Otherwise, return true.
11.9.3 The abstract equality comparison algorithm
The comparison x == y, where x and y are values, produces true or false. Such a comparison is performed as
follows:
1. If Type(x) is different from Type(y), go to step 14.
2. If Type(x) is Undefined, return true.
3. If Type(x) is Null, return true.
4. If Type(x) is not Number, go to step 11.
5. If x is NaN, return false.
6. If y is NaN, return false.
7. If x is the same number value as y, return true.
8. If x is +0 and y is −0, return true.
9. If x is −0 and y is +0, return true.
10. Return false.
11. If Type(x) is String, then return true if x and y are exactly the same sequence of characters (same length and
same characters in corresponding positions). Otherwise, return false..
12. If Type(x) is Boolean, return true if x and y are both true or both false. Otherwise, return false.
13. Return true if x and y refer to the same object. Otherwise, return false.
14. If x is null and y is undefined, return true.
15. If x is undefined and y is null, return true.
 - 48 -

16. If Type(x) is Number and Type(y) is String,

return the result of the comparison x == ToNumber(y).
17. If Type(x) is String and Type(y) is Number,
return the result of the comparison ToNumber(x) == y.
18. If Type(x) is Boolean, return the result of the comparison ToNumber(x) == y.
19. If Type(y) is Boolean, return the result of the comparison x == ToNumber(y).
20. If Type(x) is either String or Number and Type(y) is Object,
return the result of the comparison x == ToPrimitive(y).
21. If Type(x) is Object and Type(y) is either String or Number,
return the result of the comparison ToPrimitive(x) == y.
22. Return false.
Discussion
String comparison can be forced by: "" + a == "" + b.
Numeric comparison can be forced by: a - 0 == b - 0.
Boolean comparison can be forced by: !a == !b.
The equality operators maintain the following invariants:
1. A != B is equivalent to !(A == B).
2. A == B is equivalent to B == A, except in the order of evaluation of A and B.
Note that the equality operator is not always transitive. For example, there might be two distinct String objects,
each representing the same string value; each String object would be considered equal to the string value by the
== operator, but the two String objects would not be equal to each other.
Note that comparison of strings uses a simple equality test on sequences of Unicode code point values. There is
no attempt to use the more complex, semantically-oriented definitions of character or string equality and collating
order defined in the Unicode 2.0 specification.
10.10 Binary bitwise operators
Syntax
BitwiseANDExpression :
EqualityExpression
BitwiseANDExpression & EqualityExpression

BitwiseXORExpression :
BitwiseANDExpression
BitwiseXORExpression ^ BitwiseANDExpression

BitwiseORExpression :
BitwiseXORExpression
BitwiseORExpression | BitwiseXORExpression
Semantics
The production A : A @ B, where @ is one of the bitwise operators in the productions above, is evaluated as
follows:
1. Evaluate A.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate B.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call ToInt32(Result(2)).
6. Call ToInt32(Result(4)).
7. Apply the bitwise operator @ to Result(5) and Result(6). The result is a signed 32 bit integer.
8. Return Result(7).
 - 49 -

11.11 Binary logical operators

Syntax
LogicalANDExpression :
BitwiseORExpression
LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression

LogicalORExpression :
LogicalANDExpression
LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression
Semantics
The production LogicalANDExpression : LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate LogicalANDExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToBoolean(Result(2)).
4. If Result(3) is false, return Result(2).
5. Evaluate BitwiseORExpression.
6. Call GetValue((Result(5)).
7. Return Result(6).
The production LogicalORExpression : LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate LogicalORExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToBoolean(Result(2)).
4. If Result(3) is true, return Result(2).
5. Evaluate LogicalANDExpression.
6. Call GetValue(Result(5)).
7. Return Result(6).
Discussion
Note that the value produced by a && or || operator is not necessarily of type Boolean. The value produced will
always be the value of one of the two operand expressions.
11.12 Conditional operator ( ?: )
Syntax
ConditionalExpression :
LogicalORExpression
LogicalORExpression ? AssignmentExpression : AssignmentExpression
Semantics
The production ConditionalExpression : LogicalORExpression ? AssignmentExpression : AssignmentExpression
is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate LogicalORExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToBoolean(Result(2)).
4. If Result(3) is false, go to step 8.
5. Evaluate the first AssignmentExpression.
6. Call GetValue(Result(5)).
7. Return Result(6).
8. Evaluate the second AssignmentExpression.
9. Call GetValue(Result(8)).
10. Return Result(9).
 - 50 -

Discussion
The grammar for a ConditionalExpression in ECMAScript is a little bit different from that in C and Java, which
each allow the second subexpression to be an Expression but restrict the third expression to be a
ConditionalExpression. The motivation for this difference in ECMAScript is to allow an assignment expression to
be governed by either arm of a conditional and to eliminate the confusing and fairly useless case of a comma
expression as the center expression.
11.13 Assignment operators
Syntax
AssignmentExpression :
ConditionalExpression
LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression

AssignmentOperator :: one of
= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= >>>= &= ^= |=
11.13.1 Simple Assignment ( = )
The production AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression is evaluated as
follows:
1. Evaluate LeftHandSideExpression.
2. Evaluate AssignmentExpression.
3. Call GetValue(Result(2)).
4. Call PutValue(Result(1), Result(3)).
5. Return Result(3).
11.13.2 Compound assignment ( op= )
The production AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression @ = AssignmentExpression, where @
represents one of the operators indicated above, is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate LeftHandSideExpression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate AssignmentExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Apply operator @ to Result(2) and Result(4).
6. Call PutValue(Result(1), Result(5)).
7. Return Result(5).
11.14 Comma operator ( , )
Syntax
Expression :
AssignmentExpression
Expression , AssignmentExpression
Semantics
The production Expression : Expression , AssignmentExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Expression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Evaluate AssignmentExpression.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Return Result(4).
 - 51 -

12 Statements
Syntax
Statement :
Block
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
IfStatement
IterationStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
WithStatement
12.1 Block
Block :
{ StatementListopt }

StatementList :
Statement
StatementList Statement
Semantics
The production Block : { } is evaluated as follows:
1. Return “normal completion”.
The production Block : { StatementList }is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate StatementList.
2. Return Result(1).
The production StatementList : Statement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Statement.
2. Return Result(1).
The production StatementList : StatementList Statement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate StatementList.
2. If Result(1) is an abrupt completion, return Result(1).
3. Evaluate Statement.
4. If Result(3) is a value completion, return Result(3).
5. If Result(1) is not a value completion, return Result(3).
6. Let V be the value carried by Result(1).
7. If Result(3) is “abrupt completion because of break”,
return “abrupt completion after value V because of break”.
8. If Result(3) is “abrupt completion because of continue”,
return “abrupt completion after value V because of continue”.
9. Return “normal completion after value V”.
12.2 Variable statement
Syntax
VariableStatement :
var VariableDeclarationList ;
 - 52 -

VariableDeclarationList :
VariableDeclaration
VariableDeclarationList , VariableDeclaration

VariableDeclaration :
Identifier Initializeropt

Initializer :
= AssignmentExpression
Description
If the variable statement occurs inside a FunctionDeclaration, the variables are defined with function-local scope in
that function, as described in section 10.1.3. Otherwise, they are defined with global scope, that is, they are created
as members of the global object, as described in section 0. Variables are created when the execution scope is
entered. A Block does not define a new execution scope. Only Program and FunctionDeclaration produce a new
scope. Variables are initialized to the undefined value when created. A variable with an Initializer is assigned the
value of its AssignmentExpression when the VariableStatement is executed, not when the variable is created.
Semantics
The production VariableStatement : var VariableDeclarationList ; is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate VariableDeclarationList.
2. Return “normal completion”.
The production VariableDeclarationList :VariableDeclaration is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate VariableDeclaration.
The production VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclarationList , VariableDeclaration is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate VariableDeclarationList.
2. Evaluate VariableDeclaration.
The production VariableDeclaration : Identifier is evaluated evaluated by taking no action.
The production VariableDeclaration : Identifier Initializer is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Identifier.
2. Evaluate Initializer.
3. Call GetValue(Result(2)).
4. Call PutValue(Result(1), Result(3)).
The production Initializer : = AssignmentExpression is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate AssignmentExpression.
2. Return Result(1).
12.3 Empty statement
Syntax
EmptyStatement :
;
Semantics
The production EmptyStatement : ; is evaluated as follows:
1. Return “normal completion”.
12.4 Expression statement
Syntax
ExpressionStatement :
Expression ;
 - 53 -

Semantics
The production ExpressionStatement : Expression ; is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Expression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Return “normal completion after value V”, where the value V is Result(2).
12.5 The IF statement
Syntax
IfStatement :
if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement
if ( Expression ) Statement
Semantics
The production IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Expression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToBoolean(Result(2)).
4. If Result(3) is false, go to step 7.
5. Evaluate the first Statement.
6. Return Result(5).
7. Evaluate the second Statement.
8. Return Result(7).
The production IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Expression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToBoolean(Result(2)).
4. If Result(3) is false, return “normal completion”.
5. Evaluate Statement.
6. Return Result(5).
12.6 Iteration statements
Syntax
IterationStatement :
while ( Expression ) Statement
for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( var Identifier Initializeropt in Expression ) Statement
12.6.1 The while statement
The production IterationStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement is evaluated as follows:
1. Let C be “normal completion”.
2. Evaluate Expression.
3. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
4. Call ToBoolean(Result(2)).
5. If Result(3) is false, go to step 12.
6. Evaluate Statement.
7. If Result(6) is a value completion, change C to be “normal completion after value V” where V is the value
carried by Result(6).
8. If Result(6) is a break completion, go to step 12.
9. If Result(6) is a continue completion, go to step 2.
10. If Result(6) is a return completion, return Result(6).
 - 54 -

11. Go to step 2.
12. Return C.
12.6.2 The for statement
The production IterationStatement : for (Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt) Statement is evaluated
as follows:
1. If the first Expression is not present, go to step 4.
2. Evaluate the first Expression.
3. Call GetValue(Result(2)). (This value is not used.)
4. Let C be “normal completion”.
5. If the second Expression is not present, go to step 10.
6. Evaluate the second Expression.
7. Call GetValue(Result(6)).
8. Call ToBoolean(Result(7)).
9. If Result(8) is false, go to step 19.
10. Evaluate Statement.
11. If Result(10) is a value completion, change C to be “normal completion after value V” where V is the value
carried by Result(10).
12. If Result(10) is a break completion, go to step 19.
13. If Result(10) is a continue completion, go to step 15.
14. If Result(10) is a return completion, return Result(10).
15. If the third Expression is not present, go to step 5.
16. Evaluate the third Expression.
17. Call GetValue(Result(16). (This value is not used.)
18. Go to step 5.
19. Return C.
The production IterationStatement : for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt )
Statement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate VariableDeclarationList.
2. Let C be “normal completion”.
3. If the second Expression is not present, go to step 8.
4. Evaluate the second Expression.
5. Call GetValue(Result(4)).
6. Call ToBoolean(Result(5)).
7. If Result(6) is false, go to step 15.
8. Evaluate Statement.
9. If Result(8) is a value completion, change C to be “normal completion after value V” where V is the value
carried by Result(8).
10. If Result(8) is a break completion, go to step 17.
11. If Result(8) is a continue completion, go to step 13.
12. If Result(8) is a return completion, return Result(8).
13. If the third Expression is not present, go to step 3.
14. Evaluate the third Expression.
15. Call GetValue(Result(14)). (This value is not used.)
16. Go to step 3.
17. Return C.
12.6.3 The for..in statement
The production IterationStatement : for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement is evaluated as
follows:
1. Evaluate the Expression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToObject(Result(2)).
4. Let C be “normal completion”.
 - 55 -

5. Get the name of the next property of Result(3) that doesn’t have the DontEnum attribute. If there is no such
property, go to step 14.
6. Evaluate the LeftHandSideExpression ( it may be evaluated repeatedly).
7. Call PutValue(Result(6), Result(5)).
8. Evaluate Statement.
9. If Result(8) is a value completion, change C to be “normal completion after value V” where V is the value
carried by Result(8).
10. If Result(8) is a break completion, go to step 14.
11. If Result(8) is a continue completion, go to step 5.
12. If Result(8) is a return completion, return Result(8).
13. Go to step 5.
14. Return C.
The production IterationStatement : for ( var Identifier Initializeropt in Expression ) Statement is evaluated
as follows:
1. If the Initializer is not present, go to step 6.
2. Evaluate the Identifier.
3. Evaluate the Initializer.
4. Call GetValue(Result(3)).
5. Call PutValue(Result(2), Result(4)).
6. Evaluate the Expression.
7. Call GetValue(Result(6)).
8. Call ToObject(Result(7)).
9. Let C be “normal completion”.
10. Get the name of the next property of Result(8) that doesn’t have the DontEnum attribute. If there is no such
property, go to step 19.
11. Evaluate the Identifier (yes, it may be evaluated repeatedly).
12. Call PutValue(Result(11), Result(10)).
13. Evaluate Statement.
14. If Result(13) is a value completion, change C to be “normal completion after value V” where V is the value
carried by Result(13).
15. If Result(13) a break completion, go to step 19.
16. If Result(13) a continue completion, go to step 10.
17. If Result(13) a return completion, return Result(13).
18. Go to step 10.
19. Return C.
The mechanics of enumerating the properties (step 5 in the first algorithm, step 10 in the second) is
implementation dependent. The order of enumeration is defined by the object. Properties of the object being
enumerated may be deleted during enumeration. If a property that has not yet been visited during enumeration is
deleted, then it will not be visited. If new properties are added to the object being enumerated during
enumeration, the newly added properties are not guaranteed to be visited in the active enumeration.
Enumerating the properties of an object includes enumerating properties of its prototype, and the prototype of the
prototype, and so on, recursively; but a property of a prototype is not enumerated if it is “shadowed” because
some previous object in the prototype chain has a property with the same name.
12.7 The CONTINUE statement
Syntax
ContinueStatement :
continue ;
An ECMAScript program is considered syntactically incorrect and may not be executed at all if it contains a
continue statement that is not within at least one while or for statement. The continue statement is
evaluated as:
1. Return “abrupt completion because of continue”.
 - 56 -

12.8 The BREAK statement

Syntax
BreakStatement :
break ;
An ECMAScript program is considered syntactically incorrect and may not be executed at all if it contains a break
statement that is not within at least one while or for statement. The break statement is evaluated as:
1. Return “abrupt completion because of break”.
12.9 The RETURN statement
Syntax
ReturnStatement :
return [no LineTerminator here] Expressionopt ;
An ECMAScript program is considered syntactically incorrect and may not be executed at all if it contains a
return statement that is not within the Block of a FunctionDeclaration. It causes a function to cease execution
and return a value to the caller. If Expression is omitted, the return value is the undefined value. Otherwise, the
return value is the value of Expression.
The production ReturnStatement :: return [no LineTerminator here] Expressionopt ; is evaluated as:
1. If the Expression is not present, return “abrupt completion because of return undefined”.
2. Evaluate Expression.
3. Call GetValue(Result(2)).
4. Return “abrupt completion because of return V”, where the value V is Result(3).
12.10 The WITH statement
Syntax
WithStatement :
with ( Expression ) Statement
Description
The with statement adds a computed object to the front of the scope chain of the current execution context, then
executes a statement with this augmented scope chain, then restores the scope chain.
Semantics
The production WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Expression.
2. Call GetValue(Result(1)).
3. Call ToObject(Result(2)).
4. Add Result(3) to the front of the scope chain.
5. Evaluate Statement using the augmented scope chain from step 4.
6. Remove Result(3) from the front of the scope chain.
7. Return Result(5).
Discussion
Note that no matter how control leaves the embedded Statement, whether normally or by some form of abrupt
completion, the scope chain is always restored to its former state.

13 Function Definition
Syntax
FunctionDeclaration :
function Identifier ( FormalParameterListopt ) Block
 - 57 -

FormalParameterList :
Identifier
FormalParameterList , Identifier
Semantics
Defines a property of the global object whose name is the Identifier and whose value is a function object with the given
parameter list and statements. If the function definition is supplied text to the eval function and the calling context
has an activation object, then the declared function is added to the activation object instead of to the global object. See
section 0.
The production FunctionDeclaration: function Identifier ( ) Block is processed for function declarations as
follows:
1. Create a new Function object (15.3.2.1) with no parameters,the Block as the body, and Identifier as its name.
2. Put this new Function object as the new value of the property named Identifier in the global object or the activation
object, as appropriate (see above).
The production FunctionDeclaration: function Identifier ( FormalParameterList ) Block is processed for function
declarations as follows:
1. Create a new Function object (51.3.2.1 with the parameters specified by the FormalParameterList,the Block as the
body, and Identifier as its name.
2. Put this new Function object as the new value of the property named Identifier in the global object or the activation
object, as appropriate (see above).

14 Program
Syntax
Program :
SourceElements

SourceElements :
SourceElement
SourceElements SourceElement

SourceElement :
Statement
FunctionDeclaration
The production Program : SourceElements is evaluated as follows:
1. Process SourceElements for function declarations.
2. Evaluate SourceElements.
3. Return Result(2).
The production SourceElements: SourceElementis processed for function declarations as follows:
1. Process SourceElement for function declarations.
The production SourceElements: SourceElement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate SourceElement.
2. Return Result(1).
The production SourceElements: SourceElements SourceElement is processed for function declarations as follows:
1. Process SourceElements for function declarations.
2. Process SourceElement for function declarations.
The production SourceElements: SourceElements SourceElement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate SourceElements.
2. Evaluate SourceElement.
 - 58 -

3. If Result(2) is a value completion, return Result(2).

4. Return Result(1).
The production SourceElement: Statement is processed for function declarations by taking no action.
The production SourceElement: Statement is evaluated as follows:
1. Evaluate Statement.
2. Return Result(1).
The production SourceElement: FunctionDeclaration is processed for function declarations as follows:
1. Process FunctionDeclaration for function declarations.
The production SourceElement: FunctionDeclaration is evaluated as follows:
1. Return “normal completion”.

15 Native ECMAScript objects

There are certain built-in objects available whenever an ECMAScript program begins execution. One, the global
object, is in the scope chain of the executing program. Others are accessible as initial properties of the global object.
Many built-in objects are functions: they can be invoked with arguments. Some of them furthermore are constructors:
they are functions intended for use with the new operator. For each built-in function, this specification describes the
arguments required by that function and properties of the function object. For each built-in constructor, this
specification furthermore describes properties of the prototype object of that constructor and properties of specific
object instances returned by a new expression that invokes that constructor.
Unless otherwise specified in the description of a particular function, if a function or constructor described in this
section is given fewer arguments than the function is specified to require, the function or constructor shall behave
exactly as if it had been given sufficient additional arguments, each such argument being the undefined value.
None of the built-in functions described in this section shall initially have an arguments property, nor is one ever
automatically added during execution in the manner described for script functions in section 10.1.8.
Every built-in function and every built-in constructor has the Function prototype object, which is the value of the
expression Function.prototype (15.3.3.1), as the value of its internal [[Prototype]] property, except the
Function prototype object itself.
Every built-in prototype object has the Object prototype object, which is the value of the expression
Object.prototype (15.2.3.1), as the value of its internal [[Prototype]] property, except the Object prototype
object itself. Every native prototype object associated with a program-created function also has the Object prototype
object as the value of its internal [[Prototype]] property.
None of the built-in functions described in this section shall implement the internal [[Construct]] method unless
otherwise specified in the description of a particular function. None of the built-in functions described in this section
shall initially have a prototype property unless otherwise specified in the description of a particular function.Every
built-in function object described in this section—whether as a constructor, an ordinary function, or both—has a
length property whose value is an integer. Unless otherwise specified, this value is equal to the number of named
arguments shown in the section heading for the function description; for example, the function object that is the initial
value of the indexOf property of the String prototype object is described under the section heading
“indexOf(searchString, position)” which shows the two named arguments searchString and position; therefore the
value of the length property of that function object is 2. Sometimes the same function object is described under
more than one heading to emphasize its different behaviors when given different numbers of actual arguments; in such
a case, unless otherwise specified, the length value is the largest number of arguments shown in any applicable
section heading. For example, the function object that is the initial value of the Object property of the global object
is described under four separate headings: as a function of one argument (section 15.2.1.1), as a function of zero
arguments (section 15.2.1.2), as a constructor of one argument (15.2.2.1), and as a constructor of zero arguments
(15.2.2.2). The largest number of arguments described is 1, so the value of the length property of that function
object is 1.
 - 59 -

In every case, a length property of a built-in function object described in this section has the attributes { ReadOnly,
DontDelete, DontEnum } (and no others). Every other property described in this section has the attribute
{ DontEnum } (and no others) unless otherwise specified.
15.1 The global object
The global object does not have a [[Construct]] property; it is not possible to use the global object as a constructor
with the new operator.
The global object does not have a [[Call]] property; it is not possible to invoke the global object as a function.
The value of the [[Prototype]] property of the global object is implementation-dependent.
15.1.1 Value properties of the global object
15.1.1.1 NaN
The initial value of NaN is NaN.
15.1.1.2 Infinity
The initial value of Infinity is +∞.
15.1.2 Function properties of the global object
15.1.2.1 eval(x)
When the eval function is called with one argument x, the following steps are taken:
1. If x is not a string value, return x.
2. Parse x as an ECMAScript Program. If the parse fails, generate a runtime error.
3. Evaluate the program from step 2.
4. If Result(3) is “normal completion after value V”, return the value V.
5. Return undefined.
15.1.2.2 parseInt(string, radix)
The parseInt function produces an integer value dictated by intepretation of the contents of the string
argument according to the specified radix.
When the parseInt function is called, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString(string).
2. Compute a substring of Result(1) consisting of the leftmost character that is not a StrWhiteSpaceChar and
all characters to the right of that character. (In other words, remove leading whitespace.)
3. Let sign be 1.
4. If Result(2) is not empty and the first character of Result(2) is a minus sign -, let sign be −1.
5. If Result(2) is not empty and the first character of Result(2) is a plus sign + or a minus sign -, then
Result(5) is the substring of Result(2) produced by removing the first character; otherwise, Result(5) is
Result(2).
6. If the radix argument is not supplied, go to step 12.
7. Call ToInt32(radix).
8. If Result(7) is zero, go to step 12; otherwise, if Result(7) < 2 or Result(7) > 36, return NaN.
9. Let R be Result(7).
10. If R = 16 and the length of Result(5) is at least 2 and the first two characters of Result(5) are either “0x” or
“0X”, let S be the substring of Result(5) consisting of all but the first two characters; otherwise, let S be
Result(5).
11. Go to step 22.
12. If Result(5) is empty or the first character of Result(5) is not 0, go to step 20.
13. If the length of Result(5) is at least 2 and the second character of Result(5) is x or X, go to step 17.
14. Let R be 8.
15. Let S be Result(5).
16. Go to step 22.
17. Let R be 16.
18. Let S be the substring of Result(5) consisting of all but the first two characters.
19. Go to step 22.
20. Let R be 10.
 - 60 -

21. Let S be Result(5).

22. If S contains any character that is not a radix-R digit, then let Z be the substring of S consisting of all
characters to the left of the leftmost such character; otherwise, let Z be S.
23. If Z is empty, return NaN.
24. Compute the mathematical integer value that is represented by Z in radix-R notation. (But if Z contains
more than 20 significant digits, all digits after the 20th may be ignored, at the option of the
implementation.)
25. Compute the number value for Result(24).
26. Return sign ⋅ Result(25).
Note that parseInt may interpret only a leading portion of the string as an integer value; it ignores any
characters that cannot be interpreted as part of the notation of an integer, and no indication is given that any
such characters were ignored.
15.1.2.3 parseFloat(string)
The parseFloat function produces a number value dictated by intepretation of the contents of the string
argument as a decimal literal.
When the parseFloat function is called, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString(string).
2. Compute a substring of Result(1) consisting of the leftmost character that is not a StrWhiteSpaceChar and
all characters to the right of that character.(In other words, remove leading whitespace.)
3. If neither Result(2) nor any prefix of Result(2) satisfies the syntax of a StrDecimalLiteral (see 9.3.1),
return NaN.
4. Compute the longest prefix of Result(2), which might be Result(2) itself, that satisfies the syntax of a
StrDecimalLiteral.
5. Return the number value for the MV of Result(4).
Note that parseFloat may interpret only a leading portion of the string as a number value; it ignores any
characters that cannot be interpreted as part of the notation of an decimal literal, and no indication is given that
any such characters were ignored.
15.1.2.4 escape(string)
The escape function computes a new version of a string value in which certain characters have been
replaced by a hexadecimal escape sequence. The result thus contains no special characters that might have
special meaning within a URL.
For characters whose Unicode encoding is 0xFF or less, a two-digit escape sequence of the form %xx is used
in accordance with RFC1738. For characters whose Unicode encoding is greater than 0xFF, a four-digit
escape sequence of the form %uxxxx is used
When the escape function is called with one argument string, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString(string).
2. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
3. Let R be the empty string.
4. Let k be 0.
5. If k equals Result(2), return R.
6. Get the character at position k within Result(1).
7. If Result(6) is one of the 69 nonblank ASCII characters ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 0123456789 @*_+-./, go to step 14.
8. Compute the 16-bit unsigned integer that is the Unicode character encoding of Result(6).
9. If Result(8), is less than 256, go to step 12.
10. Let S be a string containing six characters “%uwxyz” where wxyz are four hexadecimal digits encoding the
value of Result(8).
11. Go to step 15.
12. Let S be a string containing three characters “%xy” where xy are two hexadecimal digits encoding the
value of Result(8).
13. Go to step 15.
14. Let S be a string containing the single character Result(6).
 - 61 -

15. Let R be a new string value computed by concatenating the previous value of R and S.
16. Increase k by 1.
17. Go to step 5.
15.1.2.5 unescape(string)
The unescape function computes a new version of a string value in which each escape sequences of the sort
that might be introduced by the escape function is replaced with the character that it represents.
When the unescape function is called with one argument string, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString(string).
2. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
3. Let R be the empty string.
4. Let k be 0.
5. If k equals Result(2), return R.
6. Let c be the character at position k within Result(1).
7. If c is not %, go to step 18.
8. If k is greater than Result(2)−6, go to step 14.
9. If the character at position k+1 within result(1) is not u, go to step 14.
10. If the four characters at positions k+2, k+3, k+4, and k+5 within Result(1) are not all hexadecimal digits,
go to step 14.
11. Let c be the character whose Unicode encoding is the integer represented by the four hexadecimal digits at
positions k+2, k+3, k+4, and k+5 within Result(1).
12. Increase k by 5.
13. Go to step 18.
14. If k is greater than Result(2)−3, go to step 18.
15. If the two characters at positions k+1 and k+2 within Result(1) are not both hexadecimal digits, go to step
18.
16. Let c be the character whose Unicode encoding is the integer represented by two zeroes plus the two
hexadecimal digits at positions k+1 and k+2 within Result(1).
17. Increase k by 2.
18. Let R be a new string value computed by concatenating the previous value of R and c.
19. Increase k by 1.
20. Go to step 5.
15.1.2.6 isNaN(number)
Applies ToNumber to its argument, then returns true if the result is NaN, and otherwise returns false.
15.1.2.7 isFinite(number)
Applies ToNumber to its argument, then returns false if the result is NaN, +∞, or −∞, and otherwise returns
true.
15.1.3 Constructor Properties of the Global Object
15.1.3.1 Object( . . . )
See sections 15.2.1 and 15.2.2.
15.1.3.2 Function( . . . )
See sections 15.3.1 and 15.3.2.
15.1.3.3 Array( . . . )
See section 15.4.1.
15.1.3.4 String( . . . )
See sections 15.5.1 and 15.5.2.
15.1.3.5 Boolean( . . . )
See sections 15.6.1 and 15,6,2.
 - 62 -

15.1.3.6 Number( . . . )
See sections 15.7.1 and 15.7.2.
15.1.3.7 Date( . . . )
See section 15.9.2.
15.1.4 Other Properties of the Global Object
15.1.4.1 Math
See section 15.8.
15.2 Object Objects
15.2.1 The Object Constructor Called as a Function
When Object is called as a function rather than as a constructor, it performs a type conversion.
15.2.1.1 Object(value)
When the Object function is called with one argument value, the following steps are taken:
1. If the value is null or undefined, create and return a newobject with no properties (other than internal
properties) exactly as if the object constructor had been called on that same value (15.2.2.1).
2. Return ToObject(value).
15.2.1.2 Object()
When the Object function is called with no arguments, the following step is taken:
1. Create and return a newobject with no properties (other than internal properties) exactly if the object
constructor had been called with no argument (15.2.2.2).
15.2.2 The Object Constructor
When Object is called as part of a new expression, it is a constructor that may create an object.
15.2.2.1 new Object(value)
When the Object constructor is called with one argument value, the following steps are taken:
1. If the type of the value is not Object, go to step 4.
2. If the value is a native ECMAScript object, do not create a new object; simply return value.
3. If the value is a host object, then actions are taken and a result is returned in an implementation-dependent
manner that may depend on the host object.
4. If the type of the value is not String, go to step 6.
5. Create a new native ECMAScript object to serve as a “wrapper” for the string value.
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original String prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of String.prototype (15.5.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "String".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set to value.
Return the newly created native object.
6. If the type of the value is not Boolean, go to step 8.
7. Create a new native ECMAScript object to serve as a “wrapper” for the boolean value.
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Boolean prototype object,
the one that is the initial value of Boolean.prototype (15.6.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Boolean".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set to value.
Return the newly created native object.
8. If the type of the value is not Number, go to step 10.
9. Create a new native ECMAScript object to serve as a “wrapper” for the number value.
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Number prototype object,
the one that is the initial value of Number.prototype (15.7.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Number".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set to value.
Return the newly created native object.
 - 63 -

10. (The type of the value must be Null or Undefined.) Create a new native ECMAScript object.
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the Object prototype object.
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Object".
The newly constructed object has no [[Value]] property.
Return the newly created native object.
15.2.2.2 new Object()
When the Object constructor is called with no argument, the following step is taken:
1. Create a new native ECMAScript object.
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the Object prototype object.
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Object".
The newly constructed object has no [[Value]] property.
Return the newly created native object.
15.2.3 Properties of the Object Constructor
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Object constructor is the Function prototype object.
Besides the internal [[Call]] and [[Construct]] properties and the length property, the Object constructor has
the following properties:
15.2.3.1 Object.prototype
The initial value of Object.prototype is the built-in Object prototype object (15.2.4).
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.2.4 Properties of the Object Prototype Object
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Object prototype object is null.
15.2.4.1 Object.prototype.constructor
The initial value of Object.prototype.constructor is the built-in Object constructor.
15.2.4.2 Object.prototype.toString()
When the toString method is called, the following steps are taken:
1. Get the [[Class]] property of this object.
2. Call ToString(Result(1)).
3. Compute a string value by concatenating the three strings "[object ", Result(2), and "]".
4. Return Result(3).
15.2.4.3 Object.prototype.valueOf()
As a rule, the valueOf method for an object simply returns the object; but if the object is a “wrapper” for a
host object, as may perhaps be created by the Object constructor (see section 15.2.2.1), then the contained host
object should be returned.
15.2.5 Properties of Object Instances
Object instances have no special properties beyond those inherited from the Object prototype object.
15.3 Function Objects
15.3.1 The Function Constructor Called as a Function
When Function is called as a function rather than as a constructor, it creates and initializes a new function
object. Thus the function call Function(...) is equivalent to the object creation expression new
Function(...) with the same arguments.
15.3.1.1 Function(p1, p2, . . . , pn, body)
When the Function function is called with some arguments p1, p2, . . . , pn, body (where n might be 0, that
is, there are no “p” arguments, and where body might also not be provided), the following steps are taken:
1. Create and return a new Function object exactly exactly if the function constructor had been called with the
same arguments (15.3.2.1).
 - 64 -

15.3.2 The Function Constructor

When Function is called as part of a new expression, it is a constructor: it initializes the newly created object.
15.3.2.1 new Function(p1, p2, . . . , pn, body)
The last argument specifies the body (executable code) of a function; any preceding arguments specify formal
parameters.
When the Function constructor is called with some arguments p1, p2, . . . , pn, body (where n might be 0,
that is, there are no “p” arguments, and where body might also not be provided), the following steps are taken:
1. Let P be the empty string.
2. If no arguments were given, let body be the empty string and go to step 13.
3. If one argument was given, let body be that argument and go to step 13.
4. Consider the first argument.
5. Let P be ToString(Result(4)).
6. Let k be 2.
7. If k equals the number of arguments, let body be the k’th argument and go to step 13.
8. Consider the k’th argument.
9. Call ToString(Result(8)).
10. Let P be the result of concatenating the previous value of P, the string "," (a comma), and Result(9).
11. Increase k by 1.
12. Go to step 7.
13. Call ToString(body).
14. Let F be the newly constructed Function object.
15. The [[Class]] property of F is set to "Function".
16. The [[Prototype]] property F is set to the original Function prototype object, the one that is the initial value
of Function.prototype (15.3.3.1).
17. Set the [[Call]] property of F to a method such that, when it is invoked, the executable function will be
invoked whose formal parameters are specified by P and whose body is specified by Result(13). The
string value P must be parsable as a FormalParameterListopt; the string value result(13) must be parsable
as a StatementListopt. (Note that both P and Result(13) may contain whitespace, line terminators, and
comments.) However, if either P or Result(13) is syntactically incorrect, or otherwise cannot be
interpreted as part of a correct ECMAScript function definition, then the [[Call]] property of F is not set
and a runtime error is generated..
18. Set the [[Construct]] property of F to a method that, when it is invoked, constructs a new object whose
[[Prototype]] property is equal to the value of F.prototype at the time the [[Construct]] method is
invoked (but if this value is not an object then the value of Object.prototype is used), then invokes
F as a function (using its [[Call]] property) with the new object as the this value and the arguments
given to the [[Construct]] method as the arguments. If the result of invoking the [[Call]] method is an
object, that object becomes the result of the invocation of the [[Construct]] method; otherwise the new
object becomes the result of the invocation of the [[Construct]] method.
19. If the toString method of F is later invoked, it will use “anonymous” as the name of the function in
rendering the function as a string.
20. Compute, as an integer number value of positive sign, the number of formal parameters that resulted from
the parse of P as a FormalParameterListopt.
21. The length property of F is set to Result(20). This property is given attributes { DontDelete,
DontEnum, ReadOnly }.
22. Create a new object as if by the expression new Object().
23. The prototype property of F is set to Result(22). This property is given attributes { DontEnum }.
24. The constructor property of Result(22) is set to F. This property is given attributes { DontEnum }.
25. The arguments property of F is set to null. This property is given attributes { DontDelete, DontEnum,
ReadOnly }.
Note that it is permissible but not necessary to have one argument for each formal parameter to be specified.
For example, all three of the following expressions produce the same result:
new Function(“a”, “b”, “c”, “return a+b+c”)
new Function(“a, b, c”, “return a+b+c”)
 - 65 -

new Function(“a,b”, “c”, “return a+b+c”)

A prototype property is automatically created for every function, against the possibility that the function
will be used as a constructor.
15.3.3 Properties of the Function Constructor
15.3.3.1 Function.prototype
The initial value of Function.prototype is the built-in Function prototype object (15.3.4).
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.3.3.2 Function.length
The length property is 1. (Of course, the Function constructor accepts more than one argument, because it
accepts a variable number of arguments.)
15.3.4 Properties of the Function Prototype Object
The Function prototype object is itself a Functionobject (its [[Class]] is "Function") that, when invoked,
accepts any arguments and returns undefined.
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Function prototype object is the Object prototype object
(15.2.3.1).
It is a function with an “empty body”; if it is invoked, it merely returns undefined.
The Function prototype object does not have a valueOf property of its own; however, it inherits the valueOf
property from the Object prototype Object.
15.3.4.1 Function.prototype.constructor
The initial value of Function.prototype.constructor is the built-in Function constructor.
15.3.4.2 Function.prototype.toString()
An implementation-dependent representation of the function is returned. This representation has the syntax of
a FunctionDeclaration. Note in particular that the use and placement of whitespace, line terminators, and
semicolons within the representation string is implementation-dependent.
The toString function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a Function object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.3.5 Properties of Function Instances
Every function instance has a [[Call]] property and a [[Construct]] property.
15.3.5.1 length
The value of the length property is usually an integer that indicates the “typical” number of arguments
expected by the function. However, the language permits the function to be invoked with some other number
of arguments. The behavior of a function when invoked on a number of arguments other than the number
specified by its length property depends on the function.
15.3.5.2 prototype
The value of the prototype property is used to initialize the internal [[Prototype]] property of a newly
created object before the Function object is invoked as a constructor for that newly created object.
15.3.5.3 arguments
The value of the arguments property is normally null if there is no outstanding invocation of the function in
progress (that is, the function has been called but has not yet returned). When a non-internal Function object
(15.3.2.1) is invoked, its arguments property is “dynamically bound” to a newly created object that
contains the arguments on which it was invoked (see 10.1.6 and 10.1.8). Note that the use of this property is
discouraged; it is provided principally for compatibility with existing old code.
15.4 Array Objects
Array objects give special treatment to a certain class of property names. A property name P (in the form of a string
value) is an array index if and only if ToString(ToUint32(P)) is equal to P and ToUint32(P) is not equal to 232−1.
Every Array object has a length property whose value is always an integer with positive sign and less than 232. It
 - 66 -

is always the case that the length property is numerically greater than the name of every property whose name is
an array index; whenever a property of an Array object is created or changed, other properties are adjusted as
necessary to maintain this invariant. Specifically, whenever a property is added whose name is an array index, the
length property is changed, if necessary, to be one more than the numeric value of that array index; and whenever
the length property is changed, every property whose name is an array index whose value is not smaller than the
new length is automatically deleted. This constraint applies only to properties of the Array object itself and is
unaffected by length or array index properties that may be inherited from its prototype.
15.4.1 The Array Constructor Called as a Function
When Array is called as a function rather than as a constructor, it creates and initializes a new array object.
Thus the function call Array (...) is equivalent to the object creation expression new Array (...) with
the same arguments.
15.4.1.1 Array(item0, item1, . . .)
An array is created and returned as if by the expression new Array (item0, item1, . . .).
15.4.1.2 Array(len)
An array is created and returned as if by the expression new Array (len).
15.4.1.3 Array()
An array is created and returned as if by the expression new Array ().
15.4.2 The Array Constructor
When Array is called as part of a new expression, it is a constructor: it initializes the newly created object.
15.4.2.1 new Array(item0, item1, . . .)
This description applies if and only if the Array constructor is given two or more arguments.
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Array prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of Array.prototype (15.4.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Array".
The length property of the newly constructed object is set to the number of arguments.
The 0 property of the newly constructed object is set to item0; the 1 property of the newly constructed object
is set to item1; and, in general, for as many arguments as there are, the k property of the newly constructed
object is set to argument k, where the first argument is considered to be argument number 0.
15.4.2.2 new Array(len)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Array prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of Array.prototype (0).The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object
is set to "Array".
If the argument len is a number, then the length property of the newly constructed object is set to
ToUint32(len). If the argument len is not a number, then the length property of the newly constructed object
is set to 1 and the 0 property of the newly constructed object is set to len.
15.4.2.3 new Array()
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Array prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of Array.prototype (15.4.3.1).The [[Class]] property of the newly
constructed object is set to "Array".
The length property of the newly constructed object is set to +0.
15.4.3 Properties of the Array Constructor
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Array constructor is the Function prototype object.
Besides the internal [[Call]] and [[Construct]] properties, the Array constructor has the following properties:
15.4.3.1 Array.prototype
The initial value of Array.prototype is the built-in Array prototype object (15.4.4).
 - 67 -

This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.

15.4.3.2 Array.length
The length property is 1. (Of course, the Array constructor accepts more than one argument, because it
accepts a variable number of arguments.)
15.4.4 Properties of the Array Prototype Object
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Array prototype object is the Object prototype object
(15.2.3.1).
Note that the Array prototype object is itself an array; it has a length property (whose initial value is +0) and
the special internal [[Put]] method described in section 15.4.5.1. In following descriptions of functions that are
properties of the Array prototype object, the phrase “this object” refers to the object that is the this value for
the invocation of the function. It is permitted for this to refer to an object for which the value of the internal
[[Class]] property is not "Array".
The Array prototype object does not have a valueOf property of its own; however, it inherits the valueOf
property from the Object prototype Object.
15.4.4.1 Array.prototype.constructor
The initial value of Array.prototype.constructor is the built-in Array constructor.
15.4.4.2 Array.prototype.toString()
The elements of this object are converted to strings, and these strings are then concatenated, separated by
comma characters. The result is the same as if the built-in join method were invoked for this object with no
argument.
15.4.4.3 Array.prototype.join(separator)
The elements of the array are converted to strings, and these strings are then concatenated, separated by
occurrences of the separator. If no separator is provided, a single comma is used as the separator.
When the join method is called with one argument separator, the following steps are taken:
1. Call the [[Get]] method of this object with argument "length".
2. Call ToUint32(Result(1)).
3. If separator is undefined or not supplied, let separator be the single-character string ",".
4. Call ToString(separator).
5. If Result(2) is 0, return the empty string.
6. Call the [[Get]] method of this object with argument ToString(0).
7. If Result(6) is undefined or null, use the empty string; otherwise, call ToString(Result(6)).
8. Let R be Result(7).
9. Let k be 1.
10. If k equals Result(2), return R.
11. Let S be a string value produced by concatenating R and Result(4).
12. Call the [[Get]] method of this object with argument ToString(k).
13. If Result(12) is undefined or null, use the empty string; otherwise, call ToString(Result(12)).
14. Let R be a string value produced by concatenating S and Result(13).
15. Increase k by 1.
16. Go to step 10.
Note that the join function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array
object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method. Whether the join
function can be applied successfully to a host object is implementation dependent .
15.4.4.4 Array.prototype.reverse()
The elements of the array are rearranged so as to reverse their order. This object is returned as the result of the
call.
1. Call the [[Get]] method of this object with argument "length".
2. Call ToUint32(Result(1)).
3. Compute floor(Result(2)/2).
 - 68 -

4. Let k be 0.
5. If k equals Result(3), return this object.
6. Compute Result(2)−k−1.
7. Call ToString(k).
8. ToString(Result(6)).
9. Call the [[Get]] method of this object with argument Result(7).
10. Call the [[Get]] method of this object with argument Result(8).
11. If this object has a property named by Result(8), go to step 12; but if this object has no property named by
Result(8), then go to either step 12 or step 14, depending on the implementation.
12. Call the [[Put]] method of this object with arguments Result(7) and Result(10).
13. Go to step 15.
14. Call the [[Delete]] method on this object, providing Result(7) as the name of the property to delete.
15. If this object has a property named by Result(7), go to step 16; but if this object has no property named by
Result(7), then go to either step 16 or step 18, depending on the implementation.
16. Call the [[Put]] method of this object with arguments Result(8) and Result(9).
17. Go to step 19.
18. Call the [[Delete]] method on this object, providing Result(8) as the name of the property to delete.
19. Increase k by 1.
20. Go to step 5.
Note that the reverse function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array
object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method. Whether the reverse
function can be applied successfully to a host object is implementation dependent .
15.4.4.5 Array.prototype.sort(comparefn)
The elements of this array are sorted. The sort is not necessarily stable. If comparefn is provided, it should be
a function that accepts two arguments x and y and returns a negative value if x < y, zero if x = y, or a positive
value if x > y.
1. Call the [[Get]] method of this object with argument "length".
2. Call ToUint32(Result(1)).
3. Perform an implementation-dependent sequence of calls to the [[Get]] , [[Put]], and [[Delete]] methods of
this object and toSortCompare (described below), where the first argument for each call to [[Get]], [[Put]]
, or [[Delete]] is a nonnegative integer less than Result(2) and where the arguments for calls to
SortCompare are results of previous calls to the [[Get]] method. After this sequence is complete, this
object must have the following two properties.
(1) There must be some mathematical permutation π of the nonnegative integers less than Result(2), such
that for every nonnegative integer j less than Result(2), if property old[j] existed, then new[π(j)] is
exactly the same value as old[j],. but if property old[j] did not exist, then new[π(j)] either does not
exist or exists with value undefined.
(2) If comparefn is a consistent comparison function for the elements of this array, then for all
nonnegative integers j and k, each less than Result(2), if old[j] compares less than old[k], then π(j) <
π(k).
Here we use the notation old[j] to refer to the hypothetical result of calling the [[Get]] method of this
object with argument j before this step is executed, and the notation new[j] to refer to the hypothetical
result of calling the [[Get]] method of this object with argument j after this step has been completely
executed.
A function is a consistent comparison function for a set of values if (a) for any two of those values
(possibly the same value) considered as an ordered pair, it always returns the same value when given that
pair of values as its two arguments, and the result of applying ToNumber to this value is not NaN; (b)
when considered as a relation, where the pair (x, y) is considered to be in the relation if and only if
applying the function to x and y and then applying ToNumber to the result produces a negative value, this
relation is a partial order; and (c) when considered as a different relation, where the pair (x, y) is
considered to be in the relation if and only if applying the function to x and y and then applying ToNumber
to the result produces a zero value (of either sign), this relation is an equivalence relation. In this context,
the phrase “x compares less than y” means applying Result(2) to x and y and then applying ToNumber to
the result produces a negative value.
4. Return this object.
 - 69 -

When the SortCompare operatoris called with two arguments x and y, the following steps are taken:
1. If x and y are both undefined, return +0.
2. If x is undefined, return 1.
3. If y is undefined, return −1.
4. If the argument comparefn was not provided in the call to sort, go to step 7.
5. Call comparefn with arguments x and y.
6. Return Result(5).
7. Call ToString(x).
8. Call ToString(y).
9. If Result(3) < Result(4), return −1.
10. If Result(3) > Result(4), return 1.
11. Return +0.
Note that, because undefined always compared greater than any other value, undefined and nonexistent
property values always sort to the end of the result. It is implementation-dependent whether or not such
properties will exist or not at the end of the array when the sort is concluded.
Note that the sort function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array
object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method. Whether the sort
function can be applied successfully to a host object is implementation dependent .
15.4.5 Properties of Array Instances
Array instances inherit properties from the Array prototype object and also have the following properties.
15.4.5.1 [[Put]](P, V)
Array objects use a variation of the [[Put]] method used for other native ECMAScript objects (section
8.6.2.2).
Assume A is an Array object and P is a string.
When the [[Put]] method of A is called with property P and value V, the following steps are taken:
1. Call the [[CanPut]] method of A with name P.
2. If Result(1) is false, return.
3. If A doesn’t have a property with name P, go to step 7.
4. If P is "length", go to step 12.
5. Set the value of property P of A to V.
6. Go to step 8.
7. Create a property with name P, set its value to V and give it empty attributes.
8. If P is not an array index, return.
9. If A itself has a property (not an inherited property) named "length", andToUint32(P) is less than the
value of the length property of A, then return.
10. Change (or set) the value of the length property of A to ToUint32(P)+1.
11. Return.
12. Compute ToUint32(V).
13. For every integer k that is less than the value of the length property of A but not less than Result(12), if
A itself has a property (not an inherited property) named ToString(k), then delete that property.
14. Set the value of property P of A to Result(12).
15. Return.
15.4.5.2 length
The length property of this Array object is always numerically greater than the name of every property
whose name is an array index.
The length property has the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete }.
15.5 String Objects
15.5.1 The String Constructor Called as a Function
When String is called as a function rather than as a constructor, it performs a type conversion.
 - 70 -

15.5.1.1 String(value)
Returns a string value (not a String object) computed by ToString(value).
15.5.1.2 String()
Returns the empty string "".
15.5.2 The String Constructor
When String is called as part of a new expression, it is a constructor: it initializes the newly created object.
15.5.2.1 new String(value)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original String prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of String.prototype (15.5.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "String".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set to ToString(value).
15.5.2.2 new String()
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original String prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of String.prototype (15.5.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "String".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the empty string.
15.5.3 Properties of the String Constructor
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the String constructor is the Function prototype object.
Besides the internal [[Call]] and [[Construct]] properties and the length property, the String constructor has the
following properties:
15.5.3.1 String.prototype
The initial value of String.prototype is the built-in String prototype object (15.5.4).
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.5.3.2 String.fromCharCode(char0, char1, . . .)
Returns a string value containing as many characters asthe number of arguments. Each argument specifies one
character of the resulting string, with the first argument specifying the first character, and so on, from left to
right. An argument is converted to a character by applying the operation ToUint16 (section 9.7) and regarding
the resulting 16-bit integer as the Unicode encoding of a character. If no arguments are supplied, the result is
the empty string.
15.5.4 Properties of the String Prototype Object
The String prototype object is itself a String object (its [[Class]] is "String") whose value is an empty string.
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the String prototype object is the Object prototype object
(15.2.3.1).
In following descriptions of functions that are properties of the String prototype object, the phrase “this String
object” refers to the object that is the this value for the invocation of the function; it is an error if this does
not refer to an object for which the value of the internal [[Class]] property is "String". Also, the phrase “this
string value” refers to the string value represented by this String object, that is, the value of the internal [[Value]]
property of this String object.
15.5.4.1 String.prototype.constructor
The initial value of String.prototype.constructor is the built-in String constructor.
15.5.4.2 String.prototype.toString()
Returns this string value. (Note that, for a String object, the toString method happens to return the same
thing as the valueOf method.)
 - 71 -

The toString function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a String object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15,5,4,3 String.prototype.valueOf()
Returns this string value.
The valueOf function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a String object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.4.4 String.prototype.charAt(pos)
Returns a string containing the character at position pos in this string. If there is no character at that position,
the result is the empty string. The result is a string value, not a String object.
If pos is a value of Number type that is an integer, then the result of x.charAt(pos) is equal to the result of
x.substring(pos, pos+1).
When the charAt method is called with one argument pos, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString, giving it the this value as its argument.
2. Call ToInteger(pos).
3. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
4. If Result(2) is less than 0 or is not less than Result(3), return the empty string.
5. Return a string of length 1, containing one character from Result(1), namely the character at position
Result(2), where the first (leftmost) character in Result(1) is considered to be at position 0, the next one at
position 1, and so on.
Note that the charAt function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String
object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.4.5 String.prototype.charCodeAt(pos)
Returns a number (a nonnegative integer less than 216) representing the Unicode encoding of the character at
position pos in this string. If there is no character at that position, the result is NaN.
When the charCodeAt method is called with one argument pos, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString, giving it the this value as its argument.
2. Call ToInteger(pos).
3. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
4. If Result(2) is less than 0 or is not less than Result(3), return NaN.
5. Return a value of Number type, of positive sign, whose magnitude is the Unicode encoding of one
character from Result(1), namely the character at position Result(2), where the first (leftmost) character in
Result(1) is considered to be at position 0, the next one at position 1, and so on.
Note that the charCodeAt function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a
String object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.4.6 String.prototype.indexOf(searchString, position)
If the given searchString appears as a substring of the result of converting this object to a string, at one or
more positions that are at or to the right of the specified position, then the index of the leftmost such position
is returned; otherwise -1 is returned. If position is undefined or not supplied, 0 is assumed, so as to search all
of the string.
When the indexOf method is called with two arguments searchString and position, the following steps are
taken:
1. Call ToString, giving it the this value as its argument.
2. Call ToString(searchString).
3. Call ToInteger(position). (If position is undefined or not supplied, this step produces the value 0).
4. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
5. Compute min(max(Result(3), 0), Result(4)).
6. Compute the number of characters in the string that is Result(2).
7. Compute the smallest possible integer k not smaller than Result(5) such that k+Result(6) is not greater than
Result(4), and for all nonnegative integers j less than Result(6), the character at position k+j of Result(1) is
 - 72 -

the same as the character at position j of Result(2); but if there is no such integer k, then compute the value
-1.
8. Return Result(7).
Note that the indexOf function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String
object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.4.7 String.prototype.lastIndexOf(searchString, position)
If the given searchString appears as a substring of the result of converting this object to a string, at one or
more positions that are at or to the left of the specified position, then the index of the rightmost such position
is returned; otherwise -1 is returned. If position is undefined or not supplied, the length of this string value is
assumed, so as to search all of the string.
When the lastIndexOf method is called with two arguments searchString and position, the following steps
are taken:
1. Call ToString, giving it the this value as its argument.
2. Call ToString(searchString).
3. Call ToNumber(position). (If position is undefined or not supplied, this step produces the value NaN).
4. If Result(3) is NaN, use +∞; otherwise, call ToInteger(Result(3)).
5. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
6. Compute min(max(Result(4), 0), Result(5)).
7. Compute the number of characters in the string that is Result(2).
8. Compute the largest possible integer k not larger than Result(6) such that k+Result(7) is not greater than
Result(5), and for all nonnegative integers j less than Result(7), the character at position k+j of Result(1) is
the same as the character at position j of Result(2); but if there is no such integer k, then compute the value
-1.
9. Return Result(8).
Note that the lastIndexOf function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a
String object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.4.8 String.prototype.split(separator)
Returns an Array object into which substrings of the result of converting this object to a string have been
stored. The substrings are determined by searching from left to right for occurrences of the given separator;
these occurrences are not part of any substring in the returned array, but serve to divide up this string value.
The separator may be a string of any length.
As a special case, if the separator is the empty string, the string is split up into individual characters; the length
of the result array equals the length of the string, and each substring contains one character.
If the separator is not supplied, then the result array contains just one string, which is the string.
When the split method is called with one argument separator, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString, giving it the this value as its argument.
2. Create a new Array object of length 0 and call it A.
3. If separator is undefined or not supplied, call the [[Put]] method of A with 0 and Result(1) as arguments,
and then return A.
4. Call ToString(separator).
5. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
6. Compute the number of characters in the string that is Result(4).
7. Let p be 0.
8. If Result(6) is zero (the separator string is empty), go to step 17.
9. Compute the smallest possible integer k not smaller than p such that k+Result(6) is not greater than
Result(5), and for all nonnegative integers j less than Result(6), the character at position k+j of Result(1) is
the same as the character at position j of Result(2); but if there is no such integer k, then go to step 14.
10. Compute a string value equal to the substring of Result(1), consisting of the characters at positions p
through k−1, inclusive.
11. Call the [[Put]] method of A with A.length and Result(10) as arguments.
12. Let p be k+Result(6).
 - 73 -

13. Go to step 9.
14. Compute a string value equal to the substring of Result(1), consisting of the characters from position p to
the end of Result(1).
15. Call the [[Put]] method of A with A.length and Result(14) as arguments.
16. Return A.
17. If p equals Result(5), return A.
18. Compute a string value equal to the substring of Result(1), consisting of the single character at position p.
19. Call the [[Put]] method of A with A.length and Result(18) as arguments.
20. Increase p by 1.
21. Go to step 17.
Note that the split function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String
object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.4.9 String.prototype.substring(start)
Returns a substring of the result of converting this object to a string, starting from character position start and
running to the end of the string. The result is a string value, not a String object.
If the argument is NaN or negative, it is replaced with zero; if the argument is larger than the length of the
string, it is replaced with the length of the string.
When the substring method is called with one argument start, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString, giving it the this value as its argument.
2. Call ToInteger(start).
3. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
4. Compute min(max(Result(2), 0), Result(3)).
5. Return a string whose length is the difference between Result(3) and Result(4), containing characters from
Result(1), namely the characters with indices Result(4) through Result(3)−1, in ascending order.
15.5.4.10 String.prototype.substring(start, end)
Returns a substring of the result of converting this object to a string, starting from character position start and
running to character position end of the string. The result is a string value, not a String object.
If either argument is NaN or negative, it is replaced with zero; if either argument is larger than the length of
the string, it is replaced with the length of the string.
If start is larger than end, they are swapped.
When the substring method is called with two arguments start and end, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToString, giving it the this value as its argument.
2. Call ToInteger(start).
3. Call ToInteger (end).
4. Compute the number of characters in Result(1).
5. Compute min(max(Result(2), 0), Result(4)).
6. Compute min(max(Result(3), 0), Result(4)).
7. Compute min(Result(5), Result(6)).
8. Compute max(Result(5), Result(6)).
9. Return a string whose length is the difference between Result(8) and Result(7), containing characters from
Result(1), namely the characters with indices Result(7) through Result(8)−1, in ascending order.
Note that the substring function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String
object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.4.11 String.prototype.toLowerCase
Returns a string equal in length to the length of the result of converting this object to a string. The result is a
string value, not a String object.
Every character of the result is equal to the corresponding character of the string, unless that character has a
Unicode 2.0 lowercase equivalent, in which case the lowercase equivalent is used instead. (The canonical
Unicode 2.0 case mapping shall be used, which does not depend on implementation or locale.)
 - 74 -

Note that the toLowerCase function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a
String object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.4.12 String.prototype.toUpperCase
Returns a string equal in length to the length of the result of converting this object to a string. The result is a
string value, not a String object.
Every character of the result is equal to the corresponding character of the string, unless that character has a
Unicode 2.0 uppercase equivalent, in which case the uppercase equivalent is used instead. (The canonical
Unicode 2.0 case mapping shall be used, which does not depend on implementation or locale.)
Note that the toUpperCase function is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a
String object. Therefore it can be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.5.5 Properties of String Instances
String instances inherit properties from the String prototype object and also have a [[Value]] property and a
length property.
The [[Value]] property is the string value represented by this String object.
15.5.5.1 length
The number of characters in the String value represented by this String object.
Once a String object is created, this property is unchanging. It has the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete,
ReadOnly }.
15.6 Boolean Objects
15.6.1 The Boolean Constructor Called as a Function
When Boolean is called as a function rather than as a constructor, it performs a type conversion.
15.6.1.1 Boolean(value)
Returns a boolean value (not a Boolean object) computed by ToBoolean(value).
15.6.1.2 Boolean()
Returns false.
15.6.2 The Boolean Constructor
When Boolean is called as part of a new expression, it is a constructor: it initializes the newly created object.
15.6.2.1 new Boolean(value)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Boolean prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of Boolean.prototype (15.6.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed Boolean object is set to "Boolean".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed Boolean object is set to ToBoolean(value).
15.6.2.2 new Boolean()
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Boolean prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of Boolean.prototype (15.6.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed Boolean object is set to "Boolean".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed Boolean object is set to false.
15.6.3 Properties of the Boolean Constructor
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Boolean constructor is the Function prototype object.
Besides the internal [[Call]] and [[Construct]] properties and the length property, the Boolean constructor has
the following property:
15.6.3.1 Boolean.prototype
The initial value of Boolean.prototype is the built-in Boolean prototype object (15.6.4).
 - 75 -

This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.

15.6.4 Properties of the Boolean Prototype Object
The Boolean prototype object is itself a Boolean object (its [[Class]] is "Boolean") whose value is false.
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Boolean prototype object is the Object prototype object
(15.2.3.1).
In following descriptions of functions that are properties of the Boolean prototype object, the phrase “this
Boolean object” refers to the object that is the this value for the invocation of the function; it is an error if
this does not refer to an object for which the value of the internal [[Class]] property is "Boolean". Also, the
phrase “this boolean value” refers to the boolean value represented by this Boolean object, that is, the value of
the internal [[Value]] property of this Boolean object.
15.6.4.1 Boolean.prototype.constructor
The initial value of Boolean.prototype.constructor is the built-in Boolean constructor.
15.6.4.2 Boolean.prototype.toString()
If this boolean value is true, then the string "true" is returned. Otherwise, this boolean value must be false,
and the string "false" is returned.
The toString function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a Boolean object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.6.4.3 Boolean.prototype.valueOf()
Returns this boolean value.
The valueOf function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a Boolean object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.6.5 Properties of Boolean Instances
Boolean instances have no special properties beyond those inherited from the Boolean prototype object.
15.7 Number Objects
15.7.1 The Number Constructor Called as a Function
When Number is called as a function rather than as a constructor, it performs a type conversion.
15.7.1.1 Number(value)
Returns a number value (not a Number object) computed by ToNumber(value).
15.7.1.2 Number()
Returns +0.
15.7.2 The Number Constructor
When Number is called as part of a new expression, it is a constructor: it initializes the newly created object.
15.7.2.1 new Number(value)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Number prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of Number.prototype (0).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Number".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set to ToNumber(value).
15.7.2.2 new Number()
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Number prototype object, the
one that is the initial value of Number.prototype (15.7.3.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Number".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set to +0.
 - 76 -

15.7.3 Properties of the Number Constructor

The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Number constructor is the Function prototype object.
Besides the internal [[Call]] and [[Construct]] properties and the length property, the Number constructor has
the following property:
15.7.3.1 Number.prototype
The initial value of Number.prototype is the built-in Number prototype object (15.7.4).
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.7.3.2 Number.MAX_VALUE
The value of Number.MIN_VALUE is the largest positive finite value of the number type, which is
approximately 1.7976931348623157e308.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.7.3.3 Number.MIN_VALUE
The value of Number.MIN_VALUE is the smallest positive nonzero value of the number type, which is
approximately 5e-324.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.7.3.4 Number.NaN
The value of Number.NaN is NaN.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.7.3.5 Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY
The value of Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY is −∞.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.7.3.6 Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY
The value of Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY is +∞.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.7.4 Properties of the Number Prototype Object
The Number prototype object is itself a Number object (its [[Class]] is "Number") whose value is +0.
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Number prototype object is the Object prototype object
(15.2.3.1).
In following descriptions of functions that are properties of the Number prototype object, the phrase “this
Number object” refers to the object that is the this value for the invocation of the function; it is an error if
this does not refer to an object for which the value of the internal [[Class]] property is "Number". Also, the
phrase “this number value” refers to the number value represented by this Number object, that is, the value of the
internal [[Value]] property of this Number object.
15.7.4.1 Number.prototype.constructor
The initial value of Number.prototype.constructor is the built-in Number constructor.
15.7.4.2 Number.prototype.toString()
This number value is given as an argument to the ToString operator ; the resulting string value is returned.
The toString function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a Number object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.7.4.3 Number.prototype.valueOf()
Returns this number value.
The valueOf function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a Number object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
 - 77 -

15.7.5 Properties of Number Instances

Number instances have no special properties beyond those inherited from the Number prototype object.
15.8 The Math Object
The Math object is merely a single object that has some named properties, some of which are functions.
The Math object does not have a [[Construct]] property; it is not possible to use the Math object as a constructor
with the new operator.
The Math object does not have a [[Call]] property; it is not possible to invoke the Math object as a function.
Recall that, in this specification, the phrase “the number value for x” has a technical meaning defined in section 0.
15.8.1 Value Properties of the Math Object
15.8.1.1 E
The number value for e, the base of the natural logarithms, which is approximately
2.7182818284590452354.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.8.1.2 LN10
The number value for the natural logarithm of 10, which is approximately 2.302585092994046.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.8.1.3 LN2
The number value for the natural logarithm of 2, which is approximately 0.6931471805599453.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.8.1.4 LOG2E
The number value for the base-2 logarithm of e, the base of the natural logarithms; this value is approximately
1.4426950408889634. (Note that the value of Math.LOG2E is approximately the reciprocal of the value
of Math.LN2.)
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.8.1.5 LOG10E
The number value for the base-2 logarithm of e, the base of the natural logarithms; this value is approximately
0.4342944819032518. (Note that the value of Math.LOG2E is approximately the reciprocal of the value
of Math.LN2.)
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.8.1.6 PI
The number value for π, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, which is approximately
3.14159265358979323846.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.8.1.7 SQRT1_2
The number value for the square root of 1/2, which is approximately 0.7071067811865476. (Note that
the value of Math.SQRT1_2 is approximately the reciprocal of the value of Math.SQRT2.)
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.8.1.8 SQRT2
The number value for the square root of 2, which is approximately 1.4142135623730951.
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.8.2 Function Properties of the Math Object
Every function listed in this section applies the ToNumber operator to each of its arguments (in left-to-right order
if there is more than one) and then performs a computation on the resulting number value(s).
 - 78 -

The behavior of the functions acos, asin, atan, atan2, cos, exp, log, pow, sin, and sqrt is not
precisely specified here. They are intended to compute approximations to the results of familiar mathematical
functions, but some latitude is allowed in the choice of approximation algorithms. The general intent is that an
implementor should be able to use the same mathematical library for ECMAScript on a given hardware platform
that is available to C programmers on that platform. Nevertheless, this specification recommends (though it does
not require) the approximation algorithms for IEEE 754 arithmetic contained in fdlibm, the freely distributable
mathematical library [XXXREF]. This specification also requires specific results for certain argument values that
represent boundary cases of interest.
15.8.2.1 abs(x)
Returns the absolute value of its argument; in general, the result has the same magnitude as the argument but
has positive sign.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is −0, the result is +0.
• If the argument is −∞, the result is +∞.
15.8.2.2 acos(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the arc cosine of the argument. The result is expressed
in radians and ranges from +0 to +π.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is greater than 1, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is less than -1, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is exactly 1, the result is +0.
15.8.2.3 asin(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the arc sine of the argument. The result is expressed in
radians and ranges from −π/2 to +π/2.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is greater than 1, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is less than -1, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is +0.
• If the argument is −0, the result is −0.
15.8.2.4 atan(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the arc tangent of the argument. The result is
expressed in radians and ranges from −π/2 to +π/2.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is +0.
• If the argument is −0, the result is −0.
• If the argument is +∞, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to +π/2.
• If the argument is −∞, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −π/2.
15.8.2.5 atan2(y, x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the arc tangent of the quotient y/x of the arguments
y and x, where the signs of the arguments are used to determine the quadrant of the result. Note that it is
intentional and traditional for the two-argument arc tangent function that the argument named y be first and
the argument named x be second. The result is expressed in radians and ranges from −π to +π.
• If either argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If y>0 and x is +0, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to +π/2.
• If y>0 and x is −0, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to +π/2.
• If y is +0 and x>0, the result is +0.
• If y is +0 and x is +0, the result is +0.
• If y is +0 and x is −0, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to +π.
 - 79 -

• If y is +0 and x<0, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to +π.

• If y is −0 and x>0, the result is −0.
• If y is −0 and x is +0, the result is −0.
• If y is −0 and x is −0, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −π.
• If y is −0 and x<0, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −π.
• If y<0 and x is +0, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −π/2.
• If y<0 and x is −0, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −π/2.
• If y>0 and y is finite and x is +∞, the result is +0.
• If y>0 and y is finite and x is −∞, the result if an implementation-dependent approximation to +π.
• If y<0 and y is finite and x is +∞, the result is −0.
• If y<0 and y is finite and x is −∞, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −π.
• If y is +∞ and x is finite, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to +π/2.
• If y is −∞ and x is finite, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −π/2.
• If y is +∞ and x is +∞, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to +π/4.
• If y is +∞ and x is −∞, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to +3π/4.
• If y is −∞ and x is +∞, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −π/4.
• If y is −∞ and x is −∞, the result is an implementation-dependent approximation to −3π/4.
15.8.2.6 ceil(x)
Returns the smallest (closest to −∞) number value that is not less than the argument and is equal to a
mathematical integer. If the argument is already an integer, the result is the argument itself.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is +0.
• If the argument is −0, the result is −0.
• If the argument is +∞, the result is +∞.
• If the argument is −∞, the result is −∞.
• If the argument is less than 0 but greater than -1, the result is −0.
The value of Math.ceil(x) is the same as the value of -Math.floor(-x).
15.8.2.7 cos(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the cosine of the argument. The argument is expressed
in radians.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is 1.
• If the argument is −0, the result is 1.
• If the argument is +∞, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is −∞, the result is NaN.
15.8.2.8 exp(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the exponential function of the argument (e raised to
the power of the argument, where e is the base of the natural logarithms).
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is 1.
• If the argument is −0, the result is 1.
• If the argument is +∞, the result is +∞.
• If the argument is −∞, the result is +0.
15.8.2.9 floor(x)
Returns the greatest (closest to +∞) number value that is not greater than the argument and is equal to a
mathematical integer. If the argument is already an integer, the result is the argument itself.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is +0.
 - 80 -

• If the argument is −0, the result is −0.

• If the argument is +∞, the result is +∞.
• If the argument is −∞, the result is −∞.
• If the argument is greater than 0 but less than 1, the result is +0.
The value of Math.floor(x) is the same as the value of -Math.ceil(-x).
15.8.2.10 log(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to natural logarithm of the argument.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is less than 0, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0 or −0, the result is −∞.
• If the argument is 1, the result is +0.
• If the argument is +∞, the result is +∞.
15.8.2.11 max(x, y)
Returns the larger of the two arguments.
• If either argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If x>y, the result is x.
• If y>x, the result is y.
• If x is +0 and y is +0, the result is +0.
• If x is +0 and y is −0, the result is +0.
• If x is −0 and y is +0, the result is +0.
• If x is −0 and y is −0, the result is −0.
15.8.2.12 min(x, y)
Returns the smaller of the two arguments.
• If either argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If x<y, the result is x.
• If y<x, the result is y.
• If x is +0 and y is +0, the result is +0.
• If x is +0 and y is −0, the result is −0.
• If x is −0 and y is +0, the result is −0.
• If x is −0 and y is −0, the result is −0.
15.8.2.13 pow(x, y)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the result of raising x to the power y.
• If y is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If y is +0, the result is 1, even if x is NaN.
• If y is −0, the result is 1, even if x is NaN.
• If x is NaN and y is nonzero, the result is NaN.
• If abs(x)>1 and y is +∞, the result is +∞.
• If abs(x)>1 and y is −∞, the result is +0.
• If abs(x)==1 and y is +∞, the result is NaN.
• If abs(x)==1 and y is −∞, the result is NaN.
• If abs(x)<1 and y is +∞, the result is +0.
• If abs(x)<1 and y is −∞, the result is +∞.
• If x is +∞ and y>0, the result is +∞.
• If x is +∞ and y<0, the result is +0.
• If x is −∞ and y>0 and y is an odd integer, the result is −∞.
• If x is −∞ and y>0 and y is not an odd integer, the result is +∞.
• If x is −∞ and y<0 and y is an odd integer, the result is −0.
• If x is −∞ and y<0 and y is not an odd integer, the result is +0.
 - 81 -

• If x is +0 and y>0, the result is +0.

• If x is +0 and y<0, the result is +∞.
• If x is −0 and y>0 and y is an odd integer, the result is −0.
• If x is −0 and y>0 and y is not an odd integer, the result is +0.
• If x is −0 and y<0 and y is an odd integer, the result is −∞.
• If x is −0 and y<0 and y is not an odd integer, the result is +∞.
• If x<0 and x is finite and y is finite and y is not an integer, the result is NaN.
15.8.2.14 random()
Returns a number value with positive sign, greater than or equal to 0 but less than 1, chosen randomly or
pseudorandomly with approximately uniform distribution over that range, using an implementation-dependent
algorithm or strategy. This function takes no arguments.
15.8.2.15 round(x)
Returns the number value that is closest to the argument and is equal to a mathematical integer. If two integer
number values are equally close to the argument, then the result is the number value that is closer to +∞. If the
argument is already an integer, the result is the argument itself.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is +0.
• If the argument is −0, the result is −0.
• If the argument is +∞, the result is +∞.
• If the argument is −∞, the result is −∞.
• If the argument is greater than 0 but less than 0.5, the result is +0.
• If the argument is less than 0 but greater than or equal to -0.5, the result is −0.
Note that Math.round(3.5) returns 4, but Math.round(-3.5) returns -3.
The value of Math.round(x) is the same as the value of Math.floor(x+0.5), except when x is −0 or
is less than 0 but greater than or equal to -0.5; for these cases Math.round(x) returns −0, but
Math.floor(x+0.5) returns +0.
15.8.2.16 sin(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the sine of the argument. The argument is expressed
in radians.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is +0.
• If the argument is −0, the result is −0.
• If the argument is +∞ or −∞, the result is NaN.
15.8.2.17 sqrt(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the square root of the argument.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument less than 0, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is +0.
• If the argument is −0, the result is −0.
• If the argument is +∞, the result is +∞.
15.8.2.18 tan(x)
Returns an implementation-dependent approximation to the tangent of the argument. The argument is
expressed in radians.
• If the argument is NaN, the result is NaN.
• If the argument is +0, the result is +0.
• If the argument is −0, the result is −0.
• If the argument is +∞ or −∞, the result is NaN.
 - 82 -

15.9 Date Objects

15.9.1 Overview of Date Objects and Definitions of Internal Methods
A Date object contains a number indicating a particular instant in time to within a millisecond. The number may
also be NaN, indicating that the Date object does not represent a specific instant of time.
The following sections define a number of functions for operating on time values. Note that, in every case, if any
argument to such a function is NaN, the result will be NaN.
15.9.1.1 Time Range
Time is measured in ECMAScript in milliseconds since 01 January, 1970 UTC. Leap seconds are ignored. It
is assumed that there are exactly 86,400,000 milliseconds per day. ECMAScript number values can represent
all integers from iMin = –9,007,199,254,740,991 to iMax = 9,007,199,254,740,991; this range suffices to
measure times to millisecond precision for any instant that is within approximately 285,616 years, either
forward or backward, from 01 January, 1970 UTC.
The actual range of times supported by ECMAScript Date objects is slightly smaller: exactly –100,000,000
days to 100,000,000 days measured relative to midnight at the beginning of 01 January, 1970 UTC. This gives
a range of 8,640,000,000,000,000 milliseconds to either side of 01 January, 1970 UTC. This span easily
covers all of recorded human history and a fair amount of unrecorded human history.
The exact moment of midnight at the beginning of 01 January, 1970 UTC is represented by the value +0.
15.9.1.2 Day Number and Time within Day
A given time value t belongs to day number

Day(t) = floor(t / msPerDay)

where the number of milliseconds per day is

msPerDay = 86400000
The remainder is called the time within the day:

TimeWithinDay(t) = t modulo msPerDay

15.9.1.3 Year Number
ECMAScript uses an extrapolated Gregorian system to map a day number to a year number and to determine
the month and date within that year. In this system, leap years are precisely those which are (divisible by 4)
and ((not divisible by 100) or (divisible by 400)). The number of days in year number y is therefore defined by

DaysInYear(y) = 365 if (y modulo 4) ≠ 0

= 366 if (y modulo 4) = 0 and (y modulo 100) ≠ 0
= 365 if (y modulo 100) = 0 and (y modulo 400) ≠ 0
= 366 if (y modulo 400) = 0
Of course all non-leap years have 365 days with the usual number of days per month and leap years have an
extra day in February. The day number of the first day of year y is given by:

DayFromYear(y) = 365⋅(y−1970) + floor((y−1969)/4) − floor((y−1901)/100) + floor((y−1601)/400)

The time value of the start of a year is:

TimeFromYear(y)= msPerDay⋅DayFromYear(y)
A time value determines a year by:

YearFromTime(t) = the largest integer y (closest to positive infinity) such that TimeFromYear(y) ≤ t
The leap-year function is 1 for a time within a leap year and otherwise is zero:
 - 83 -

InLeapYear(t) = 0 if DaysInYear(YearFromTime(t)) = 365

= 1 if DaysInYear(YearFromTime(t)) = 366
15.9.1.4 Month Number
Months are identified by an integer in the range 0 to 11, inclusive. The mapping MonthFromTime(t) from a
time value t to a month number is defined by:

MonthFromTime(t) = 0 if 0 ≤ DayWithinYear(t) < 31

=1 if 31 ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 59+InLeapYear(t)
=2 if 59+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 90+InLeapYear(t)
=3 if 90+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 120+InLeapYear(t)
=4 if 120+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 151+InLeapYear(t)
=5 if 151+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 181+InLeapYear(t)
=6 if 181+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 212+InLeapYear(t)
=7 if 212+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 243+InLeapYear(t)
=8 if 243+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 273+InLeapYear(t)
=9 if 273+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 304+InLeapYear(t)
= 10 if 304+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 334+InLeapYear(t)
= 11 if 334+InLeapYear(t) ≤ DayWithinYear (t) < 365+InLeapYear(t)
where

DayWithinYear(t)= Day(t)−DayFromYear(YearFromTime(t))
A month value of 0 specifies January; 1 specifies February; 2 specifies March; 3 specifies April; 4 specifies
May; 5 specifies June; 6 specifies July; 7 specifies August; 8 specifies September; 9 specifies October; 10
specifies November; and 11 specifies December. Note that MonthFromTime(0) = 0, corresponding to
Thursday, 01 January, 1970.
15.9.1.5 Date Number
A date number is identified by an integer in the range 1 through 31, inclusive. The mapping DateFromTime(t)
from a time value t to a month number is defined by:
DateFromTime(t) = DayWithinYear(t)+1 if MonthFromTime(t)=0
= DayWithinYear(t)−30 if MonthFromTime(t)=1
= DayWithinYear(t)−58−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=2
= DayWithinYear(t)−89−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=3
= DayWithinYear(t)−119−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=4
= DayWithinYear(t)−150−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=5
= DayWithinYear(t)−180−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=6
= DayWithinYear(t)−211−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=7
= DayWithinYear(t)−242−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=8
= DayWithinYear(t)−272−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=9
= DayWithinYear(t)−303−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=10
= DayWithinYear(t)−333−InLeapYear(t) if MonthFromTime(t)=11
15.9.1.6 Week Day
The week day for a particular time value t is defined as

WeekDay(t) = (Day(t) + 4) modulo 7

A weekday value of 0 specifies Sunday; 1 specifies Monday; 2 specifies Tuesday; 3 specifies Wednesday;
4 specifies Thursday; 5 specifies Friday; and 6 specifies Saturday. Note that WeekDay(0) = 4, corresponding
to Thursday, 01 January, 1970.
15.9.1.7 Local Time Zone Adjustment
An implementation of ECMAScript is expected to determine the local time zone adjustment by whatever
means are available. The local time zone adjustment is a value LocalTZA measured in milliseconds which
 - 84 -

when added to UTC represents the local standard time. Daylight saving time is not reflected by LocalTZA.
The value LocalTZA does not vary with time but depends only on the geographic location.
15.9.1.8 Daylight Saving Time Adjustment
An implementation of ECMAScript is expected to determine the daylight saving time algorithm by whatever
means are available. The algorithm to determine the daylight saving time adjustment DaylightSavingTA(t),
measured in milliseconds, must depend only on four things:
(1) the time since the beginning of the year

t – TimeFromYear(YearFromTime(t))
(2) whether \t is in a leap year

InLeapYear(t)
(3) the week day of the beginning of the year

WeekDay(TimeFromYear(YearFromTime(t))
and (4) the geographic location.
The implementation of ECMAScript should not try to determine whether the exact time was subject to
daylight saving time, but just whether daylight saving time would have been in effect if the current daylight
saving time algorithm had been used at the time. This avoids complications such as taking into account the
years that the USA observed daylight saving time year round.
If the underlying operating system provides functionality for determining daylight saving time, the
implementation of ECMAScript is free to map the year in question to an equivalent year (same leap-year-ness
and same starting week day for the year) for which the operating system provides daylight saving time
information. The only restriction is that all equivalent years should produce the same result.
15.9.1.9 Local Time
Conversion from UTC to local time is defined by

LocalTime(t) = t + LocalTZA + DaylightSavingTA(t)

Conversion from local time to UTC is defined by

UTC(t) = t – LocalTZA – DaylightSavingTA (t – LocalTZA)

Note that UTC(LocalTime(t)) is not necessarily always equal to t.
15.9.1.10 Hours, Minutes, Second, and Milliseconds
The following functions are useful in decomposing time values:
HourFromTime(t) = floor(t / msPerHour) modulo HoursPerDay
MinFromTime(t) = floor(t / msPerMinute) modulo MinutesPerHour
SecFromTime(t) = floor(t / msPerSecond) modulo SecondsPerMinute
msFromTime(t) = t modulo msPerSecond
where
HoursPerDay = 24
MinutesPerHour = 60
SecondsPerMinute = 60
msPerSecond = 1000
msPerMinute = msPerSecond ⋅ SecondsPerMinute = 60000
msPerHour = msPerMinute ⋅ MinutesPerHour = 3600000
 - 85 -

15.9.1.11 MakeTime(hour, min, sec, ms)

The operator MakeTime calculates a number of milliseconds from its four arguments, which must be
ECMAScript number values. This operator functions as follows:
1. If hour is not finite or min is not finite or sec is not finite or ms is not finite, return NaN.
2. Call ToInteger(hour).
3. Call ToInteger(min).
4. Call ToInteger(sec).
5. Call ToInteger(ms).
6. Compute Result(2) * msPerHour + Result(3) * msPerMinute + Result(4) * msPerSecond + Result(5),
performing the arithmetic according to IEEE 754 rules (that is, as if using the ECMAScript operators *
and +).
7. Return Result(6).
15.9.1.12 MakeDay(year, month, date)
The operator MakeDay calculates a number of days from its three arguments, which must be ECMAScript
number values. This operator functions as follows:
1. If year is not finite or month is not finite or date is not finite, return NaN.
2. Call ToInteger(year).
3. Call ToInteger(month).
4. Call ToInteger(date).
5. Compute Result(2) + floor(Result(3)/12).
6. Compute Result(3) modulo 12.
7. Find a value t such that YearFromTime(t)==Result(5) and MonthFromTime(t)==Result(6) and
DateFromTime(t)==1; but if this is not possible (because some argument is out of range), return NaN.
8. Compute Day(Result(7)) + Result(4) − 1.
9. Return Result(8).
15.9.1.13 MakeDate(day, time)
The operator MakeDate calculates a number of milliseconds from its two arguments, which must be
ECMAScript number values. This operator functions as follows:
1. If day is not finite or time is not finite, return NaN.
2. Compute day ⋅ msPerDay + time.
3. Return Result(2).
15.9.1.14 TimeClip(time)
The operator TimeClip calculates a number of milliseconds from its argument, which must be an ECMAScript
number value. This operator functions as follows:
1. If time is not finite, return NaN.
2. If abs(Result(1)) > 8.64e15 (that is, 8.64 ⋅ 1015), return NaN.
3. Return ToInteger(Result(2)) + (+0). (Adding a positive zero converts −0 to +0.)
15.9.2 The Date Constructor Called As a Function
When Date is called as a function rather than as a constructor, it creates and initializes a new date object. Thus
the function call Date (...) is equivalent to the object creation expression new Date (...) with the
same arguments.
15.9.2.1 Date(year, month, date, hours, minutes, seconds, ms)
A date object is created and returned as if by the expression new Date (year, month, date, hours, minutes,
seconds, ms).
15.9.2.2 Date(year, month, date, hours, minutes, seconds)
A date object is created and returned as if by the expression new Date (year, month, date, hours, minutes,
seconds).
15.9.2.3 Date(year, month, date, hours, minutes)
A date object is created and returned as if by the expression new Date (year, month, date, hours, minutes).
 - 86 -

15.9.2.4 Date(year, month, date, hours)

A date object is created and returned as if by the expression new Date (year, month, date, hours).
15.9.2.5 Date(year, month, day)
A date object is created and returned as if by the expression new Date (year, month, date).
15.9.2.6 Date(year, month)
An attempt to call the Date function with two arguments generates a runtime error.
15.9.2.7 Date(value)
A date object is created and returned as if by the expression new Date (value).
15.9.2.8 Date()
A date object is created and returned as if by the expression new Date ().
15.9.3 The Date Constructor
When Date is called as part of a new expression, it is a constructor: it initializes the newly created object.
15.9.3.1 new Date(year, month, date, hours, minutes, seconds, ms)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Date prototype object, the one
that is the initial value of Date.prototype (15.9.4.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Date".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set as follows:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. Call ToNumber(hours).
5. Call ToNumber(minutes).
6. Call ToNumber(seconds).
7. Call ToNumber(ms).
8. If 0 ≤ ToInteger(Result(1)) ≤ 99, Result(8) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(8) is Result(1).
9. Compute MakeDay(Result(8), Result(2), Result(3)).
10. Compute MakeTime(Result(4), Result(5), Result(6), Result(7)).
11. Compute MakeDate(Result(9), Result(10)).
12. Set the [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object to TimeClip(UTC(Result(11))).
15.9.3.2 new Date(year, month, date, hours, minutes, seconds)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Date prototype object, the one
that is the initial value of Date.prototype (15.9.4.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Date".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set as follows:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. Call ToNumber(hours).
5. Call ToNumber(minutes).
6. Call ToNumber(seconds).
7. If 0 ≤ ToInteger(Result(1)) ≤ 99, Result(7) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(7) is Result(1).
8. Compute MakeDay(Result(7), Result(2), Result(3)).
9. Compute MakeTime(Result(4), Result(5), Result(6), 0).
10. Compute MakeDate(Result(8), Result(9)).
11. Set the [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object to TimeClip(UTC(Result(10))).
 - 87 -

15.9.3.3 new Date(year, month, date, hours, minutes)

The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Date prototype object, the one
that is the initial value of Date.prototype (15.9.4.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Date".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set as follows:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. Call ToNumber(hours).
5. Call ToNumber(minutes).
6. If 0 ≤ ToInteger(Result(1)) ≤ 99, Result(6) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(6) is Result(1).
7. Compute MakeDay(Result(6), Result(2), Result(3)).
8. Compute MakeTime(Result(4), Result(5), 0, 0).
9. Compute MakeDate(Result(7), Result(8)).
10. Set the [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object to TimeClip(UTC(Result(9))).
15.9.3.4 new Date(year, month, date, hours)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Date prototype object, the one
that is the initial value of Date.prototype (15.9.4.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Date".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set as follows:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. Call ToNumber(hours).
5. If 0 ≤ ToInteger(Result(1)) ≤ 99, Result(5) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(5) is Result(1).
6. Compute MakeDay(Result(5), Result(2), Result(3)).
7. Compute MakeTime(Result(4), 0, 0, 0).
8. Compute MakeDate(Result(6), Result(7)).
9. Set the [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object to TimeClip(UTC(Result(8))).
15.9.3.5 new Date(year, month, day)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Date prototype object, the one
that is the initial value of Date.prototype (15.9.4.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Date".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set as follows:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. If 0 ≤ ToInteger(Result(1)) ≤ 99, Result(4) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(4) is Result(1).
5. Compute MakeDay(Result(4), Result(2), Result(3)).
6. Compute MakeDate(Result(5), 0).
7. Set the [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object to TimeClip(UTC(Result(6))).
15.9.3.6 new Date(year, month)
An attempt to call the Date constructor with two arguments generates a runtime error.
15.9.3.7 new Date(value)
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Date prototype object, the one
that is the initial value of Date.prototype (15.9.4.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Date".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set as follows:
 - 88 -

1. Call ToPrimitive(value).
2. If Type(Result(1)) is String, then go to step 5.
3. Let V be ToNumber(Result(1)).
4. Set the [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object to TimeClip(V) and return.
5. Parse Result(1) as a date, in exactly the same manner as for the parse method (15.9.4.2); let V be the
time value for this date.
6. Go to step 4.
15.9.3.8 new Date()
The [[Prototype]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the original Date prototype object, the one
that is the initial value of Date.prototype (15.9.4.1).
The [[Class]] property of the newly constructed object is set to "Date".
The [[Value]] property of the newly constructed object is set to the current time (UTC).
15.9.4 Properties of the Date Constructor
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Date constructor is the Function prototype object.
Besides the internal [[Call]] and [[Construct]] properties and the length property (whose value is 7), the Date
constructor has the following properties:
15.9.4.1 Date.prototype
The initial value of Date.prototype is the built-in Date prototype object (15.9.5).
This property shall have the attributes { DontEnum, DontDelete, ReadOnly }.
15.9.4.2 Date.parse(string)
The parse function applies the ToString operator to its argument and interprets the resulting string as a date;
it returns a number, the UTC time value corresponding to the date. The string may be interpreted as a local
time, a UTC time, or a time in some other time zone, depending on the contents of the string.
If x is any Date object whose milliseconds amount is zero within a particular implementation of ECMAScript,
then all of the following expressions should produce the same numeric value in that implementation, if all the
properties referenced have their initial values:
x.valueOf()
Date.parse(x.toString())
Date.parse(x.toGMTString())
However, the expression
Date.parse(x.toLocaleString())
is not required to produce the same number value as the preceding three expressions and, in general, the value
produced by Date.parse is implementation dependent when given any string value that could not be
produced in that implementation by the toString or toGMTString method.
15.9.4.3 Date.UTC(year, month, date, hours, minutes, seconds, ms)
When the UTC function is called with seven arguments, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. Call ToNumber(hours).
5. Call ToNumber(minutes).
6. Call ToNumber(seconds).
7. Call ToNumber(ms).
8. If 0 ≤ Result(1) ≤ 99, Result(8) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(8) is Result(1).
9. Compute MakeDay(Result(8), Result(2), Result(3)).
10. Compute MakeTime(Result(4), Result(5), Result(6), Result(7)).
11. Return TimeClip(MakeDate(Result(9), Result(10))).
 - 89 -

The UTC function differs from the Date constructor in two ways: it returns a time value as a number, rather
than creating a Date object, and it interprets the arguments in UTC rather than as local time.
15.9.4.4 Date.UTC(year, month, date, hours, minutes, seconds)
When the UTC function is called with six arguments, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. Call ToNumber(hours).
5. Call ToNumber(minutes).
6. Call ToNumber(seconds).
7. If 0 ≤ Result(1) ≤ 99, Result(7) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(7) is Result(1).
8. Compute MakeDay(Result(7), Result(2), Result(3)).
9. Compute MakeTime(Result(4), Result(5), Result(6), 0).
10. Return TimeClip(MakeDate(Result(8), Result(9))).
The UTC function differs from the Date constructor in two ways: it returns a time value as a number, rather
than creating a Date object, and it interprets the arguments in UTC rather than as local time.
15.9.4.5 Date.UTC(year, month, date, hours, minutes)
When the UTC function is called with five arguments, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. Call ToNumber(hours).
5. Call ToNumber(minutes).
6. If 0 ≤ Result(1) ≤ 99, Result(6) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(6) is Result(1).
7. Compute MakeDay(Result(6), Result(2), Result(3)).
8. Compute MakeTime(Result(4), Result(5), 0, 0).
9. Return TimeClip(MakeDate(Result(7), Result(8))).
The UTC function differs from the Date constructor in two ways: it returns a time value as a number, rather
than creating a Date object, and it interprets the arguments in UTC rather than as local time.
15.9.4.6 Date.UTC(year, month, date, hours)
When the UTC function is called with four arguments, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. Call ToNumber(hours).
5. If 0 ≤ Result(1) ≤ 99, Result(5) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(5) is Result(1).
6. Compute MakeDay(Result(5), Result(2), Result(3)).
7. Compute MakeTime(Result(4), 0, 0, 0).
8. Return TimeClip(MakeDate(Result(6), Result(7))).
The UTC function differs from the Date constructor in two ways: it returns a time value as a number, rather
than creating a Date object, and it interprets the arguments in UTC rather than as local time.
15.9.4.7 Date.UTC(year, month, date)
When the UTC function is called with three arguments, the following steps are taken:
1. Call ToNumber(year).
2. Call ToNumber(month).
3. Call ToNumber(date).
4. If 0 ≤ Result(1) ≤ 99, Result(4) is 1900+Result(1); otherwise, Result(4) is Result(1).
5. Compute MakeDay(Result(4), Result(2), Result(3)).
6. Return TimeClip(MakeDate(Result(5), 0)).
 - 90 -

The UTC function differs from the Date constructor in two ways: it returns a time value as a number, rather
than creating a Date object, and it interprets the arguments in UTC rather than as local time.
15.9.4.8 Date.UTC(year, month)
An attempt to call the UTC function with two arguments generates a runtime error.
15.9.4.9 Date.UTC(year)
An attempt to call the UTC function with one argument generates a runtime error.
15.9.4.10 Date.UTC()
An attempt to call the UTC function with no arguments generates a runtime error.
15.9.5 Properties of the Date Prototype Object
The Number prototype object is itself a Number object (its [[Class]] is "Number") whose value is NaN.
The value of the internal [[Prototype]] property of the Date prototype object is the Object prototype object
(15.2.3.1).
In following descriptions of functions that are properties of the Date prototype object, the phrase “this Date
object” refers to the object that is the this value for the invocation of the function; it is an error if this does
not refer to an object for which the value of the internal [[Class]] property is "Date". Also, the phrase “this time
value” refers to the number value for the time represented by this Date object, that is, the value of the internal
[[Value]] property of this Date object.
15.9.5.1 Date.prototype.constructor
The initial value of Date.prototype.constructor is the built-in Date constructor.
15.9.5.2 Date.prototype.toString()
This function returns a string value. The contents of the string are implementation dependent, but are intended
to represent the Date in a convenient, human-readable form in the current time zone.
The toString function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a Date object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.9.5.3 Date.prototype.valueOf()
The valueOf function returns a number, which is this time value.
The valueOf function is not generic; it generates a runtime error if its this value is not a Date object.
Therefore it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.
15.9.5.4 Date.prototype.getTime()
1. If the this value is not an object whose [[Class]] property is "Date", generate a runtime error.
2. Return this time value.
15.9.5.5 Date.prototype.getYear()
This function is specified here for backwards compatibility only. The function getFullYear is much to be
preferred for nearly all purposes, because it avoids the “year 2000 problem.”
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return YearFromTime(LocalTime(t)) − 1900.
15.9.5.6 Date.prototype.getFullYear()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return YearFromTime(LocalTime(t)).
15.9.5.7 Date.prototype.getUTCFullYear()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return YearFromTime(t).
 - 91 -

15.9.5.8 Date.prototype.getMonth()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return MonthFromTime(LocalTime(t)).
15.9.5.9 Date.prototype.getUTCMonth()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return MonthFromTime(t).
15.9.5.10 Date.prototype.getDate()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return DateFromTime(LocalTime(t)).
15.9.5.11 Date.prototype.getUTCDate()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return DateFromTime(t).
15.9.5.12 Date.prototype.getDay()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return WeekDay(LocalTime(t)).
15.9.5.13 Date.prototype.getUTCDay()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return WeekDay(t).
15.9.5.14 Date.prototype.getHours()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return HourFromTime(LocalTime(t)).
15.9.5.15 Date.prototype.getUTCHours()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return HourFromTime(t).
15.9.5.16 Date.prototype.getMinutes()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return MinFromTime(LocalTime(t)).
15.9.5.17 Date.prototype.getUTCMinutes()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return MinFromTime(t).
15.9.5.18 Date.prototype.getSeconds()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return SecFromTime(LocalTime(t)).
15.9.5.19 Date.prototype.getUTCSeconds()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return SecFromTime(t).
 - 92 -

15.9.5.20 Date.prototype.getMilliseconds()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return msFromTime(LocalTime(t)).
15.9.5.21 Date.prototype.getUTCMilliseconds()
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return msFromTime(t).
15.9.5.22 Date.prototype.getTimezoneOffset()
Returns the difference between local time and UTC time in minutes.
1. Let t be this time value.
2. If t is NaN, return NaN.
3. Return (t − LocalTime(t)) / msPerMinute.
15.9.5.23 Date.prototype.setTime(time)
1. Call ToNumber(time).
2. Call TimeClip(Result(1)).
3. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to Result(2).
4. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.24 Date.prototype.setMilliseconds(ms)
1. Let t be the result of LocalTime(this time value).
2. Call ToNumber(ms).
3. Compute MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), MinFromTime(t), SecFromTime(t), Result(2)).
4. Compute UTC(MakeDate(Day(t), Result(3))).
5. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(4)).
6. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.25 Date.prototype.setUTCMilliseconds(ms)
1. Let t be this time value.
2. Call ToNumber(ms).
3. Compute MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), MinFromTime(t), SecFromTime(t), Result(2)).
4. Compute MakeDate(Day(t), Result(3)).
5. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(4)).
6. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.26 Date.prototype.setSeconds(sec [, ms ] )
If ms is not specified, this behaves as if ms were specified with the value getMilliseconds( ).
1. Let t be the result of LocalTime(this time value).
2. Call ToNumber(sec).
3. If ms is not specified, compute msFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(ms).
4. Compute MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), MinFromTime(t), Result(2), Result(3)).
5. Compute UTC(MakeDate(Day(t), Result(4))).
6. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(5)).
7. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.27 Date.prototype.setUTCSeconds(sec [, ms ] )
If ms is not specified, this behaves as if ms were specified with the value getUTCMilliseconds( ).
1. Let t be this time value.
2. Call ToNumber(sec).
3. If ms is not specified, compute msFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(ms).
4. Compute MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), MinFromTime(t), Result(2), Result(3)).
5. Compute MakeDate(Day(t), Result(4)).
6. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(5)).
7. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
 - 93 -

15.9.5.28 Date.prototype.setMinutes(min [, sec [, ms ]] )

If sec is not specified, this behaves as if sec were specified with the value getSeconds ( ).
If ms is not specified, this behaves as if ms were specified with the value getMilliseconds( ).
1. Let t be the result of LocalTime(this time value).
2. Call ToNumber(min).
3. If sec is not specified, compute SecFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(sec).
4. If ms is not specified, compute msFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(ms).
5. Compute MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), Result(2), Result(3), Result(4)).
6. Compute UTC(MakeDate(Day(t), Result(5))).
7. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(6)).
8. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.29 Date.prototype.setUTCMinutes(min [, sec [, ms ]] )
If sec is not specified, this behaves as if sec were specified with the value getUTCSeconds ( ).
If ms is not specified, this behaves as if ms were specified with the value getUTCMilliseconds( ).
1. Let t be this time value.
2. Call ToNumber(min).
3. If sec is not specified, compute SecFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(sec).
4. If ms is not specified, compute msFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(ms).
5. Compute MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), Result(2), Result(3), Result(4)).
6. Compute MakeDate(Day(t), Result(5)).
7. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(6)).
8. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.30 Date.prototype.setHours(hour [, min [, sec [, ms ]]] )
If min is not specified, this behaves as if min were specified with the value getMinutes( ).
If sec is not specified, this behaves as if sec were specified with the value getSeconds ( ).
If ms is not specified, this behaves as if ms were specified with the value getMilliseconds( ).
1. Let t be the result of LocalTime(this time value).
2. Call ToNumber(hour).
3. If min is not specified, compute MinFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(min).
4. If sec is not specified, compute SecFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(sec).
5. If ms is not specified, compute msFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(ms).
6. Compute MakeTime(Result(2), Result(3), Result(4), Result(5)).
7. Compute UTC(MakeDate(Day(t), Result(6))).
8. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(7)).
9. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.31 Date.prototype.setUTCHours(hour [, min [, sec [, ms ]]] )
If min is not specified, this behaves as if min were specified with the value getUTCMinutes( ).
If sec is not specified, this behaves as if sec were specified with the value getUTCSeconds ( ).
If ms is not specified, this behaves as if ms were specified with the value getUTCMilliseconds( ).
1. Let t be this time value.
2. Call ToNumber(hour).
3. If min is not specified, compute MinFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(min).
4. If sec is not specified, compute SecFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(sec).
5. If ms is not specified, compute msFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(ms).
6. Compute MakeTime(Result(2), Result(3), Result(4), Result(5)).
7. Compute MakeDate(Day(t), Result(6)).
8. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(7)).
9. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
 - 94 -

15.9.5.32 Date.prototype.setDate(date)
1. Let t be the result of LocalTime(this time value).
2. Call ToNumber(date).
3. Compute MakeDay(YearFromTime(t), MonthFromTime(t), Result(2)).
4. Compute UTC(MakeDate(Result(3), TimeWithinDay(t))).
5. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(4)).
6. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.33 Date.prototype.setUTCDate(date)
1. Let t be this time value.
2. Call ToNumber(date).
3. Compute MakeDay(YearFromTime(t), MonthFromTime(t), Result(2)).
4. Compute MakeDate(Result(3), TimeWithinDay(t)).
5. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(4)).
6. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.34 Date.prototype.setMonth(mon [, date ] )
If date is not specified, this behaves as if date were specified with the value getDate( ).
1. Let t be the result of LocalTime(this time value).
2. Call ToNumber(date).
3. If date is not specified, compute DateFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(date).
4. Compute MakeDay(YearFromTime(t), Result(2), Result(3)).
5. Compute UTC(MakeDate(Result(4), TimeWithinDay(t))).
6. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(5)).
7. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.35 Date.prototype.setUTCMonth(mon [, date ] )
If date is not specified, this behaves as if date were specified with the value getUTCDate( ).
1. Let t be this time value.
2. Call ToNumber(date).
3. If date is not specified, compute DateFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(date).
4. Compute MakeDay(YearFromTime(t), Result(2), Result(3)).
5. Compute MakeDate(Result(4), TimeWithinDay(t)).
6. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(5)).
7. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.36 Date.prototype.setFullYear(year [, mon [, date ]] )
If mon is not specified, this behaves as if mon were specified with the value getMonth( ).
If date is not specified, this behaves as if date were specified with the value getDate( ).
1. Let t be the result of LocalTime(this time value); but if this time value is NaN, let t be +0.
2. Call ToNumber(year).
3. If mon is not specified, compute MonthFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(mon).
4. If date is not specified, compute DateFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(date).
5. Compute MakeDay(Result(2), Result(3), Result(4)).
6. Compute UTC(MakeDate(Result(5), TimeWithinDay(t))).
7. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(6)).
8. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.37 Date.prototype.setUTCFullYear(year [, mon [, date ]] )
If mon is not specified, this behaves as if mon were specified with the value getUTCMonth( ).
If date is not specified, this behaves as if date were specified with the value getUTCDate( ).
1. Let t be this time value; but if this time value is NaN, let t be +0.
2. Call ToNumber(year).
3. If mon is not specified, compute MonthFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(mon).
4. If date is not specified, compute DateFromTime(t); otherwise, call ToNumber(date).
 - 95 -

5. Compute MakeDay(Result(2), Result(3), Result(4)).

6. Compute MakeDate(Result(5), TimeWithinDay(t)).
7. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(6)).
8. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.38 Date.prototype.setYear(year)
This function is specified here for backwards compatibility only. The function setFullYear is much to be
preferred for nearly all purposes, because it avoids the “year 2000 problem.”
1. Let t be the result of LocalTime(this time value); but if this time value is NaN, let t be +0.
2. Call ToNumber(year).
3. If Result(2) is NaN, set the [[Value]] property of the this value to NaN and return NaN.
4. If Result(2) is not NaN and 0<=ToInteger(Result(2)) <=99 then Result(4) is ToInteger(Result(2)) + 1900.
Otherwise Result(4) is Result(2).
5. Compute MakeDay(Result(4), MonthFromTime(t), DateFromTime(t)).
6. Compute UTC(MakeDate(Result(5), TimeWithinDay(t))).
7. Set the [[Value]] property of the this value to TimeClip(Result(6)).
8. Return the value of the [[Value]] property of the this value.
15.9.5.39 Date.prototype.toLocaleString()
This function returns a string value. The contents of the string are implementation dependent, but are intended
to represent the Date in a convenient, human-readable form appropriate to the geographic or cultural locale
15.9.5.40 Date.prototype.toUTCString()
This function returns a string value. The contents of the string are implementation dependent, but are intended
to represent the Date in a convenient, human-readable form in UTC.
15.9.5.41 Date.prototype.toGMTString()
The function object that is the initial value of Date.prototype.toGMTString is the same function
object that is the initial value of Date.prototype.toUTCString. The toGMTString property is
provided principally for compatibility with old code. It is recommended that the toUTCString property be
used in new ECMAScript code.
15.9.6 Properties of Date Instances
Date instances have no special properties beyond those inherited from the Date prototype object.

16 Errors
This specification specifies the last possible moment an error occurs. A given implementation may generate errors
sooner (e.g. at compile-time). Doing so may cause differences in behavior among implementations. Notably, if runtime
errors become catchable in future versions, a given error would not be catchable if an implementation generates the
error at compile-time rather than runtime.
An ECMAScript compiler should detect errors at compile time in all code presented to it, even code that detailed
analysis might prove to be “dead” (never executed). A programmer should not rely on the trick of placing code within
an if (false) statement, for example, to try to suppress compile-time error detection.
In general, if a compiler can prove that a construct cannot execute without error under any circumstances, then it may
issue a compile-time error even though the construct might neverbe executed at all.
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