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Carl Mitcham - 1994 - Thinking Throught Technology. The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy PDF

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Carl Mitcham - 1994 - Thinking Throught Technology. The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy PDF

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THINKING THROUGH TECHNOLOGY "HEUMERSITY OF CABO PRESS CHICAGO AND LOKOON | The Path between Engineering and Philosophy CARL MITCHAM Te Une of Cage se nde Pat One Sepa enne Foe One Senco aaesset ety Tsing tcagh ecwlgy the th teen ning piso / Cart che gn 0 trap hy Nl 29 “ Contents Prefatory Notes and Acknowledgments a Introduction: Thinking about Technology 1 Covtscrions aNb CONFERENCES Thus AND VARIATIONS istvea Tadios inthe Philesopy of Teealogy Enginering Philosophy of Technology » ‘Miciawcat Prttosoriny aN THe PunLosorsty ‘oF Masruracrones [Eansr Kare AND TECHNOLOGY AS ORGAN Projeenon ‘Tainotocy ax Potercs AcconDING 10 PereR Exes AND Oras -rurpaica Dessazn AND TECHNOLO AS [Excounran winit tt KaNrass ‘Tutnor Irene TMEINTELLECTUAL ATTRACTION AND Fowen OF ‘rae Tamara Humanities Philosophy of Technology » Lewis Muuroso: Tie Mvrit oF Tif MACHINE Jost Oxrsca v Gasser: MeorrarIon Magrin Hstoeccen: Ta Question ‘concestine Themionocy Excumsus on OxTca aN Hutoxcook Jacaues Euive: Trcrwotocy As He WAGER oF Seven “pe Cason Three From Engineering to Humanities Philosophy of Technology @ Thur Two Puatosorsnss 28 Tension: A Draroct ‘Two ATrawPrs Ar RECONCILIATION | “Te QuIsTIOn of Maras? PLosoPsy oF [A Brier ron Tie Punacy oF Hevaxrries | Pitosorie oF Tecovocr Four ‘The Philosophical Questioning of Technology [SCIENCE AND IDEAS ‘TeNoLocy AND TouAs Coneerrvat 3502s Uocte anb Enisrinorocicas Issues Enea lesors [asus oF Pourrcat Pra.osorny Reucrovs Issues ‘MerarirsieaL sus (Qureriow ree Questions Nine Eight Five Philosophical Questions about Teche m4 (Onstnv Avion ON rte Heron OF TECHNOLOGY {rele ano Trenotoey Prnvosort oF Tecaotocy VENsus PllosophiaTechnes Ten artTwo Anata sues inthe Philosophy of Tctnoogy Six From Philosophy to Technology 7 ‘Eweineening Oapacrions ro HUMANITIS Putcosonty of THCRNOLOGY DPunuosormest Ortecrions 10 HUManrrss PuiLosoPiY OF TECHNOLOGY ‘Two Usacts or ra Tena "Tecnotocy” Tre Exrewston 09 “Teeanovocy” [A Fuantronx rox PIIROSOPRICAL ANALYSIS Types of Technology as Object Tree Srrcrnuw OF ARTIFACTS ‘Tw or Macrmsns ‘Tae Machine (AND Omtcr) 43 Process ‘Tie ENcivtenine ANALY oF Maciives Pinsicat, CHEMICAL, aNO BlOLocieaL “AnIPACTS ANIMAL ARTIFACTS, SOCIAL ARTIFACTS Tr Paver as Axriract (Ow mie Homan Exrentence oF Toots ano ‘Macitnes Tr SOctaL DIMENSION OF ARTIFACTS Towaxo a Pushousotocy OF ARTIEACTS “Types of Technology as Knowledge Coowreive Drvetorarr ab Mire “Teeusovocr ‘we PrewoweNotocy oF Tecrsteat Set “Maxts, Laws, RULES, AND THEORIES ‘AcAINSY TeciNotocr As APPLIED StENCE Crneaserics Types of Technology as Activity ‘Teertnotocr as ACtivITY “Te Action oF Maxine ‘Tue Process or Ustve ‘no NATURE ‘Acain, ANCIENT vaRsus MopERy TecrNoLocy ‘Types of Technology as Viton Prnvosorsins oF Tecunovocy as VoLion Votsrion as Concerrvat Pow. ‘ReLarion 10 Tecinovocy Puacovorines oF VOLITION Ix RELATION TO ‘Teemotocy ‘Towaro Bees TecwNoLocy ax Weaxness ov riz Witt Conclusion: Continuing to Think about Technology “Ter Ancuatene RevisrTz> Sern, Teerotocy, ax Socrery STUDIES 161 12 ar Epilogue: Three Ways of Being-with Technology ANT SkEPTCIS Excrcrremari Orraest Rowaric Uneastvnse Cova Notes References Index mS ao 383 PREFATORY NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work aspires tobe a critica Intoduction to the philosophy of technology. It might seve asa textbook, but T also hape to make a general contribution to the interpretation of ovat have been termed Postmoder ways of fe and ofthe world of highintensity ate Part I provides a hstoricophilosopheal overview, arguing the need to distinguish two wadiions: engineering philosophy of technology Which emphasizes analyzing the intemal structure of nature of tc nology and humanities philosophy of technology, whichis more con ‘ered with extemal eatons and the meaning of technology. Then Clusion of iustrations i meant to emphasize the historical chaacter ofthe st part Part2 supplies foundation for bridging these tracitions by under- taking a humanities analysis af the bros spectrum of engineering and technology. The argument i that humanities philosophy of technelogy 15 the most philosophical tradition, but that thas led to pay ss tained or detailed attention to what really goes on in engineering and technology. ‘This ook represents but another step in a continuing concern forthe philosophical issues associated with technology. Ae amld-1960s un ‘Sergraduate seeking intellectual purchase on the contetporary World, it as reasonable for me to be atracted by the hypothesis that the Aistngutshing characteristic of our time was not 30 tmuch modern st lence (as was often spsumed) a8 medem technology Exploring this hypothesis led tothe discovery of several traditions ‘of philosophical reflection on technology and to the publiaton of two books onthe tole: Pop and Tecnay: Readings in he Piosph- ‘i roles of Technology (1972, 1983) and Bilgrapy ofthe Ploy INTRODUCTION Thinking about Technology Technology or the making and using of artifacts is a largely unthink- ing activi I emerges rom unatened to ideas and motives, while it produces and engages with unreflected-upon objects, We make dinner, few clothes, bul hovses, and manufacture Industrial products We tse tools en on appliances, answer telephones, drive crs listen 12 ‘adios, and watch televisions. In our technological society all this hap pens mastly by habit—but even ines technologically framed cultures {he context of making and using snot dierent, although the kinds of making and using certainly are, and arifice elf less prevalent ‘The need to think about technology is nevertheless increasingly manifest Indeed, the inherent compleity and praca eficacy of ‘modern technologies cll forth diverse kinds of thinking —sientic Sind technical. of course, But also economic, peychologis, politica, And so forth Within such «spectrum of approaches and issues, what does it mean to think philosophically about technology? What basic Stance and distinctions characterize such hiking? Such are the prin: pal issues to be addressed, and though them a perhaps even more Fundamental question: Why ty to think philosophialy about tecknal- ogy at all’ What i there about technology thats aot sdesutely a “Grose by other Kinds of thinking from the scenic and technolog cal tothe psychotogieal and polical And what are the eslts? What ‘does philosophy tell us about technology? Background and Sandpoint Inthe background ofvetaly all science and technology studies there lurks an, uneasiness regarding the popula belie in the unqualified ‘maral probity and clanty ofthe mosem technological project Ths “uneasiness hasbeen nourished not only by philosophical refestion, 2 abetn but also by the common experience of the citizens of technological soxiaties over the past four decades—as all of os have been forced in divisive ciumetances to address ethical ies associated with ‘nuclear weapons and power plans, developments in inforination tech ‘ologies fom telegraphs to computers, biomedical technologies space fexpleration, technological disasters, and environmental polltion Consider for instance the following abbreviated and selective che soley: 1845 First atomic bomb exploded by the United States J. Robert, (Oppentieimer witnessing the test explosion in Nev Mevico, {quotes fo hum from the Bhegaoad Git, am become Death, the shatorer of words” atomic bombs dropped on Eiroshime nd Nagata: publication ofthe at nse of the Bletin fe ‘Ati Sent, Yo explore clay ai formulate the opinion and responsbiils of scientists in opard tothe probes brought about by the release of mule energy” Sn “to luce the public”= 1946 First electron computer (lectronic Numerical Integrator and Computer or ENIAG), which inites pubic discussion ofthe posblity of arial inte 1949 Soviet Union tess is atomic bomb-—to be followed by Great Britain (1950), France 1960), China (0964), and Indi 197). 1950 First Kidney tranaplant-—to be fallowed by transplants of Uvers (0963), lungs (960), hearts (1967), and s0 on 1951 Fust hydrogen bomb expated by the United States—to be followed by the USSR (1952) United Kingdom (1957), China (0967, and France (968); US. Census Bateau buys te fst ‘commercial computer (UNIVAC) 1953 James Watson sid Francis Crick dlscover DNA, a discovery that will become the bass of biotechnology, bioengineering, and eventually the largest biological reset project in ft the International Human Genome Project (1980-present #9 sequence ad map the complete Maman genamne> In this period of es than tn yeas nuclear energy, computers, bio- technologies and biomedical tecnalogies ll ome onthe world stage. Energing rom human thought they also challenge tas becomes a> parent almost inunedately 1954 Launching of USS Nauti, ist nuclear submarine —to be followed by the fst nuclear cate amir the USS Emtprise (360, 1955 Fst commercial electricity from nuclear power; vention of theth contol pil Bertrand Russel and Albert Ensen au & Toko eonokay 3 manifesta calling on scientists o become mare invalved In politics challenge tht i taken up Fo ears ater by Eonvening at Pugiah, Nova Scotia the hata a series of CConferentes on Science and Word firs (subsequently Texown asthe Pugwash Conferences). 1987 Soviet Union launches Spur, the fst artifact to obit the arty nuclear rector at Windscale, England, suffers» near teldoven, creating a radioactive cloud that drifts across ‘Wester Europe; the Kyshtym dump for radoactve materials txplodes inthe Ural Mountains, contaminating over Rive Fhundred square mules with radioactive debris” 1950 Integrated reat invented. 1960 Laser invented 1961 Yuri Gagarin becomes the frst human being in space: ‘Balidouide i banned in Europe ater causing more than freeny five hundred bith defects 1962 Marner (Unite States) becomes the fs spacecraft o explore ‘other planet (Venus) This second period sues the new powers put to use within tad ‘ional human economic and political ameworks, but with increas: Ingly conflicting results. Then comes a period of tying to adapt oF alter thove frameworks, punctusted by more technological disasters 1963 Limited nuclear test ban treaty mucesr submarine USS Threster {gos down at sea—to be joined by the USS Sapion (968) snd Stleast the Soviet auclear submarines (i 1970, 183, and 80) 1964 IBM makes $10 milion grant to found the Harvard University Program on Technology and Society® 1965 Largest power failure tn history backs out Nev York City and prt of ine northeastem sates—to be repeated on smost a8 [frye a scale in 1977 1966 0.32 carrying four hydrogen bombs crashes near Palomares, Spain, cntatinating a wie aren with radioactivity proposal {ereite a national data tank in the United States opposed by ‘ta processing professionals on eicl and political grounds 1967 The tanker Torry Congon breaks apart and spills 3 milion {alone of erude ol nto the beaches of southem England il pill subsequently become cosamon occurences around the ‘xl from ol well Blowout, Santa Barbara (1868) fo Exxon Vales, Alaska (196); Brac, Shetland [ands (1999), 1968 Pope Fl VI ioues Humahae te rejecting the use of artical contraception. 4 nnd 1969 Nell Armstrong becomes the irs human being to st fot on the moan: US Congress passes the National Envionmental Protection Act that exabishes the Environmental Protection, “Agency EPA): nti of Society Ethics, and the Life Sciences (kon informally asthe Hastings Center founded to promote investigation ofthe ehical impact of advances being made "in expan wansplantaion, human experimentation, prenatal dlagnosis or geet disease, the prolongation of lie, and contol of hutnan behavior Pennsylvania Sate University and {Comnall Unversity tate imerseplinary scence, technology ‘and society (STS) program tobe joined by Engineering and obi Poly (EP) 3 Camogie Mellon University (1970) the Value Tesi and Sty (VIS) Program Santond (0973) and related programe a a plethora of ater schools from Uchigh Univesity to MIT; Greenpeace found 1970 US. Congress il funding forthe superaoni transport (SST) Celebration ofthe ist Eatth Day * 1971 Founding ofthe Kennedy Insite of Ethics a Geongetoven University “to offer moral perspectives onthe major policy issues of our time,” but wily a special emphasis on blocs tnd the ethics of “in vito fertizton, abortion, euthanasia fenetic engineering, organ tansplantation, Mesustalnng fEchnologies, and the allocation of heattvare resources * 1972 Thece Bay Ares Rapid Trait (BART) engineers ae fre for criticizing te safety ofa proposed automatic tran contol Sytem, and seven months leer BART tain overrans a station injuring five pasengers, and for the frst ime professional engineering Societies support the white blowing rights of tengincers state of Electrical and Eketonic Engineers THEE) the Largest professional engineering society nthe wor, tstablshes a Committee on the Socal npeations of ‘Technology; pesticide DDT is banned by the EPA; U.S. Congress passes Clean Water Act and establishes the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), National Science Foundation sets up Ells and Values in Science and Technology (EV IST) Program o fund research founding ofthe News of he Program on Public Conceptions o Sac which wil become the Journal Scene, Teonoley and Human Vues at Harvard nd, Aa an then of the Society forthe Socal Sdies of Sconce 8S) Cubot Rome publishes The Lins o Growth United Nations Conference on the Human Environment Stockh Conference. ‘Tals ten years of new initiatives i astesament and contol 38 one ofthe mon cretive im scence and technology policy history. Bit now technological achievements and disasters enter into an almost normal rhythm, which tests or extends public perceptions and soca sti 1973 First spacecraft to achieve escape velocity from the soar system (Phoeer 10), US. Congress pases Enaangered Species Act st fereially engineered organiany Arab of embargo and word 1974 Soest establish a voluntary moratorium on recombinant BNA poet engnenne” BCID ccs oe Far ing "3 passengers and cew—or a result is Iter revealed, of {ow faut te egieerig design of cargo by 0 ‘ypro chemical factory at isberough, United Ringler, Blows {pling 28 workers ™ 1976 Hs sucessful landing om Mars Viking 1) the high-ranking "Relea nner st ene Hectn gn 0 poe the ‘dangers of clear power® chemical plant explodes neat Mil ay eens 8 cloud of dioxin that hls ens of fhowssnds of animal 1975 Soviet Conmos 354 with nuclear reactor aboard disintegrates ‘over northern Canada et test-tube baby 2000 resisens forced to leave Lave Canal, New York, bocase of chemleal {ovine three fred BART engineers receive the ft TBEE Aveard for Outstanding Service inthe Pubic Interest 179 Pata meltdown i he clear veacior a Thee Mile [land computer malfunction inthe North Amercan Ait Defense ‘Gommand headguarters puts United Sates forces on red alert 1981 Concrete skywalls tthe Hyatt Regency hotel in Kansas City elapse klng 1¢ people snd inpring 200 more: formation of Ear Fst 196 First artical heat implanted 1983 Wave of computer break-ins by teenage computer hackers * 1964 Union Carbide plan in Bhopal, India explodes, ling more {han 350 people in the worst industrial alent in sony ‘Worldwatch insitte toes Bt “State ofthe World” report. 1985 Brits scents repor that thinning of stratospheric ozone has been curing over Antartc each pring since 197; breakdown of Wall Stret computer necessitates the Dorowing (of $0 blion to proces stock factions. 1986 Space shte Cileger explodes, ling seven astronauts, one a highschool science teacher fire burns through the core of Soviet nuclear resto t Chernobyl spewing thal radiontve debris over Uteine, Europe, andthe world lant chemical spi inthe Rhine iver. 1967 Montreal Frotoco sign by twenty-four countries to cual ‘hlouorocarbon production that is causing srtorphieric zone depletion, World Commission on Envtonment and Development, chaired by Gro Brundland, sues its report, Our Canon Futre, trying to bridge the conflicts between vironmentaliats and developinentaits with’ al for Sustainable development’ 1969 Former president Ronald Reagan, knighted in London and {inducted int the French Academy mans praises he democrat impact ofthe electron revelation in ooo Sauna and ration techn 1990 Switching fate Blacks half al als for day on long sian AT ines felon 1991 ra sets fire oo wells in Kua in an ac of ecoteroricm, 1992 Earth Summit in Rlo de Jato yields iernational Wea 0 protect biodiversity. 1993 Brite Stats House of Represeriatives votes 282 to 143 to stop funding the multbilion dolar superconducting supercolicer [As such a chronology shows, the late 1960s and early 1870s were a ‘watershed in increasing conciousness of problems associated. ith {technology and in atemptsto develop mechanisms for socal contol ‘During the 198s Joha Naicbits technological “megatrends” became Richard Lamm’ “megatraumas"™ and Charles Perrow discovered high-tech word of "normal accidents" By the 190s it had become leat that not only would those who eiclaed technology have to teke ‘nto account is many obvious bene, but those who defenied me em technology woul have to seriously consider faves of complexity tnd frality in both the environment and the techncophere and 10 ansider the moral arguments ofits ris ‘Thee are, at the same time, reasons to be uneasy withthe rush toward ethical discussions of technology ae part of what has been called the “applied turn” in phlosopby The philonphy of technol ‘oy as currently practiced is heavily laden with such topic sein ‘mental ethics, bioethics, nuclear ethics, computer and information eth= ‘cs. development, sciencetechnology policy studies, and global climate change Although itis true that oral problems pres in upon us and demand decisions its equally ta that such decisions need tobe made with as lite haste and as mich general understanding 2 possible. It isnot dear to what extent plalosophy can contribute di teclly tothe effectiveness of decision making under pressure At the ‘very least the practical doubts of philosophers such as Socrates and Sartre—to cite two extreme cases should aise suspicions that its unique contribution tothe challenges of our time night lie elsewhere ng so etogy 7 and be less direct. Certainly the ned for decisiveness should not be ‘confused with decisiveness about neds forts to integrate the general philosophical discussion of technol ‘gy and specie moral ines have been singularly limited, Leis 12 ‘matkable for instance, that none ofthe standard texts in engineering, tthice contains any serous analyse of the engineering process as Such." The absence of theoretical analyses of technology Is only slightly less pronounced in other fields of applied ethics, The effort ofthis book in movderate contrat to prevailing inca tions, to emphasize general pilosophicalideas—that fundamental theoretical issues dealing with technology By standing back from the demands of practice and exploring basic philosophical questions, i sims tocreate more space, more open ground." Through this approach itmay ultimately be possible to make a more profound contbution to ethical reflection than by immediate engagement with particular ‘moral problems. Certainly ethics i in no way rejected ane indeed ‘on one interpretation this book may be read as th prolegomenon to Incetably more explicit ethical reflections on technology. Coton and Conterencas istrially an interest in theoretical sues surrounding technology at Teast accompanied, ifs did not wholly precede, the curent ethical emphasis. Although I will say more about the ideas of the founders of the philosophy of technology anv basic texts inthe fed, to begin it ray be helpful to review some collective developments that reflect fundamental concerns and have taken place during roughly te third, pivotal period chronced above “The early anthologies and collections reflect an atempt to incorpo- rate and integrate theoretical with practical issues. Although the Hist uropean collaborative work Hans Preyer, Johannes C. Papalekas and Georg Weipper. eds, Teck in tcnscen Zealter (965) —is ‘Soncermed with the “technologcal age,” ite aim i o elucidate funda ‘ental attudes toward this Historia situation.» Klaus Tachels ed ited volume, Herusorderang de Teck (1967, ikewise moves from an eightypage essay tiled "Technical Development and Socal Change” toa scanning of Documents onthe Classication and Iner- pretation of Technology”? ‘In English, Zenon Pylyshyns Poetics on he Computer Reon (0970) ike many other collections dealing with this aspect of echo ‘ogy begins with "theoretical ideas” (algorths, automata, and eyber- netic) before turning to dacussons ofthe man: machine and machine- society relationships ® The Mitcham and Mackey anthology and bili ‘ography—Phiophy and Technolgy (1972) and ibogapy of the Ph IouplyofTecielogy (1973)—tkewise emphasize both theoteial and practical issues and thelr interlations. Broader documentation of the movement in question can be drawn from review ofa series of formative conferences The fst established ‘Philosophy conference to feature a paper explicilyon the plosop hy of tochnology was quite eany the 19H Worl Congres of hilo although the topic remained largely dormant among professional ph lowophers until tr World War The, in the early 160i conjunc tion with a revived series of Intemational Congresses of Pallosophy> ‘one can identify a growing institutional effort to address technology 4 both a theoretical and_ a practical issue. Donald. Brinkman’ “LHfomme et Ia technique” Congress XI (1983, in Brussels) or ine stance focuses on alteative essential conceptions of technology ad ‘humanity Congress XII 1958) at Venice ancl Pada suddenly contains 8 whole series of rolevant papers. Congres XII (1960 in Messco Cy ‘duplicates this situation, so that Congress XIV (1968) at Vienna intro- sdaces a special colloquium tiled "Cybernetics and the Phlowphy of Technology.”® Ths development calminates with World Congress XV (0973) at Varna, Bulgaria, onthe general theme "Science, Technology, snd Man Since then (1978, Dissedort, and 1982, Montreal) technology has under many guises become a regular feature of these international meetings, but with a marked shift toward lhical politcal sues. ‘World Congress XVII 188, Brighton, England) inched sessions on, for example ethical problems in population policy inthe treatment of animals, in contemporary medicine, and in genetic engineering. on the hhumanization of teennaiogy onthe dangers of nuclen ar on cology and on global probiems in the light of systems analysis but none on epistemological or metaphysical issues associated with technology. At Congress XIX (1983, Moscow), eth general theme of "Mankind at 3 Ting Pint he acl empha nthe own of teccogy remains pronounce ‘This same period witnesses the convening of a numberof national canferences on philosophy and technology: Most notable are an East- fem European conference tiled "Die marsiatisch- Leninstiche Philo pie und de technische Revolution” (1965) and a colloquium ofthe International Academy ofthe Philosophy of Slences in Pars in 1968, ‘with proceedings published under the ite Cidsation cig ta nthe United States the Sit philosophy conference that can prop- ccly best tke technology os tein wat 9163 wrkahop PN Iseophy na Technological Culture” sponsored bythe Catolc Giver- sy of Atperica (CUA). Ae indeated by the Bl technology was fpproached aan lus im the philosophy of care in a manner teeing Eas nll concer dca ere prized around te wencetechaclogy and the tcnalogy human ‘ture relstonhip that epistemology and pilosophiel anthro ‘of technology as well ecology an ehice Pipe yer oe the Center the Stuy of Democratic Insttutions andthe plore of Enemas Bric convened ssc cou tempat fo the CUA contrnce under the heading “The Techno Oris” Although sessing the technology soit elatonship, na Peclly the thes of Jacgues Eu that technology ete autonomons End defining characteristic of modern sciety—the English rotation SF Ells Lt Tchine (958) wes beng prepared under Center 85 ‘ces—here the emphasis was on social feo ad hee was some ‘nt lets of note than atthe Cahole workshop to daw prac ‘Sleonchusion, make moral evaluation, or offer eteal guidance. “he ist shonly gathering fo ake pilonophy of technology a8 & theme init gon ngAL howevey, and not yo ade up BY wa of theories of culate or wcity a ganized by Mlvin Kranberg, ofthe Socety forthe History of Tecnology’ a8 a spec syepostum atthe eighth annual SHOT meeting held in Son Francisco tn December 1965 in canjncton with a meeting ofthe American Association for the Advancement of Scence, with proceedings published the nex year IRexpanded frm in the SHOT joss Teco and Cure in vo ths eympost consisted! of papers by Joneph Agassi an HeneykShalinwahi dealing with uations ofthe ration between Science an technology andthe epistemological rotur of ecnolog il tinkng epectvly followed by commentaries rm )-0. We Soman i The ame tthe ror Tow Ph hy of Technology was taken from an unvead contribution by Mano akg who was prnailed on toalter eile in publeatont Tech: ology as Appli Scence” The stme emphasis on theoretical sues Elam excep howe by Mumford and Feibleman—~and the author ofA tlotucke Tecinigitsphie (978), two. volumes that stress largely theoretical sues, Rapp wrote to Durbin suggesting aint German: [American conference, Hid at Bad Homburg, Germany in 1981, this inated a series of biennial SPT meetings. The second conference was hosted by Polytechnic Institut of Nev Yorks 1983; he third by the Technological University of Twente at Enschede, the Netherlands in 1985, the fourth by Vigna Polytechnic University in Blacksburg, Vir fina, in T967, «Ath took place in Bordeaux, France, in 1965; sixth the Univesity of Puerto Rico, Mayagde, in 1991; 2 seventh near Valen, Spain in 1955. "Although SPT has exerted gensne effort to remain tie to its or it, open to both theoretical and practical philosophy there has been Sn appreciable shift oword ethical issues, The proceedings ofthe 1981 fd Homburg conference, or instance are divided info five parts, and fnly one is not dedicated in some form to ethical concer, The New ‘York conference fected om theoretical and practical aspects of com puters and information technology but over two-thirds of the pub- [hed popers ate actully ethical poltieal At Enschede the conference theme was "Technology and Responsibility” and for Blacksburg the focus was “Thi Workt Development and Technology Transfer” The theme for the 1989 mesting was "Technology and Democracy” fr 1951 s Discoveries of Technologies nd Technologies of Discover” and for 1983 "Technology and the Environment” “Appropeately enough, the practical interest ofthe SPT meetings in France and Spain bot had more than merely discursive implications ‘As an outgrowth of the Bordeaux mesting there emerged the assoc- sted Francophone Soci pour ls Philosophie de In Technigue with Daniel Crezuelle as erganzing secretary. Representative f the new _Seneraton of scholars who acvely prepared fhe way for this profer Sonal goup ae Gilbert Hotois an jan Yves Goff Hottos Le Sige ltecigue (1988) ia challenging rethinking of the question of teh nology. Gofs La Philaophie dt la ehique (1988) in the widely re spected "Que sais” series provides a balanced general introduction tothe held, In Spain, likewise, the SPT meeting was an ocasin for promoting further development of anew interdsciptinary and interuniversity in tative called the Instituto de Investigaciones sabre Caeneia yTecno- Jogla (NVESCID.* Ass result of ts work hosing the SPT conference, INVESCIT and its progzam to promote the socal aesexsment of foh nology projected it Influence even more strongly beyond the Iberian Peninsula and ino a growing network of international lianees More- cover, José Sunmartin, the president of INVESCIT and author of two books investigating the challenge of biotechnology Los ues rad {ores (1987) and Tecnologie futury urs (199), re elected the ist president of SPT from outside North Americ, ‘The sit toward practical issues that hs taken place within SPT and is allied associations only reflects much more profound pressures from society at lrge as demonstrated by the previous chonile. There thas continues to be need to affirm the vitality of theory —an af mation that can perhaps best be made not so mich with specifi arg iments a by crically examining the historical development ofthe pi losophy of technology and by pursuing cognitive inquiry in the presence of technological phenomena Themes ad Variations In defense ofthe theoretical stance, this book undertakes the two tasks Just named, precisely to india the proper apprsch, basic conceptual Aistinetions and fundamental problems win which » comprehen sive philosophy of technology resides. At the very beginning iis p> proprate to pot forth the leglumacy and interrelation of these Gro fake Like philosophy in general, the philosophy of technology shoud includes leat two diferent but related kinds of reflection, It need to ‘besvare ofits own history and ableto articulate a set of systematically integrated issues. Without the fit, ii abe to overlook insights of kg ony 18 he pst that cam enc its present the sty of history encourages teepet for alerts nd guards ogsinat ntl porch TWafout the scond hale to degenerate into» hodgepodge of uments, to be abvays a heap an never woe 28 Arise might Sy inded tthe ginning ofthe history of piesophy nthe Wes, itlsthe Staperite who provides a Kind of tad n spurs of Both these elements of pionoph “The te pnp parts of his book—chapters Sand 6-10—thss sim to sketch outa istry ofthe philosophy of technology and to Tighligt tic conceptual distinctions and ssceated ase. The hi tonal component spp, however be more tha st» descp ive Noy of ames, dats, an evete—sihough H perforce icles tome of tht Ad the concept snaps attempts more than simple tralyls My aims pilocophia story and substantive indication of iSoucs an ilaminton snd interpretation ofthe chronology and con Cepts therein. Trough rection onthe history ofthe pssophy of Iino atep cde he prope poi approach tre fo pont toward bask concepts; tough eecton on a moiade tr concepts and asus the plonopyof ecology, ike 8 core ined stem wo lumina ts hetory and pont tthe properly lo topical approach. These aspect are to sdes of One coin, muvally ‘Plorning oe afin, Decne ofthis mutel mation, neither the two pts norte cont poner chplrs fr ast near sequence Indeed thinking snot mucha linear, deductive process ata ecrsve pocere Each part thas takes either is tors ors analyte approach, Bt then cles thetopic asa whole ints own particular plane of refrence tain beth topect Prt {strane history while articulating aes of 86 nieanc, Part 2 sates the atclation of conceptual distinctions, Mie appeaingtoand making ose of history In alton, each males ore att fo hint at relations with the ethical esos that are the ‘more prominent features af contemporary philosophy of echelon ‘Chapors? and? sketch the stoncal ogi that dsipline caled te phosophy of technology by distinguishing two suite dfretap- rose atempts by engineers and technologies themes ore [ea technolo ptoeophy and stempts by scholar the Mina ites, copecly phenomesologits and oes f9 undertand modem technology withina nenmeneticornespreaive fener. The pt thay ats ito call attention, fit o the thought oF oherwise ma {Heced engineer pblasophers nd, second, to often ignored teas of ‘fel known pilosophert—andto nate some othemplick aguments tissue among them. Chapter 3 then examines intermediate positions, but argues the philosophical primacy of the humanities epproach. The’ terminology here— engineering, philosophy of technology” versus "humates philosophy of technology” which will on oxcaton bbeabbreviated a EPT and HPT-is chosen to emphasize two commu nities of discourse without prejadging the content ofthat discourse Later will comment more on this special terminology Here tis suf lent simply to nove that, despite posible uses of “humanistic” as a9 Adjective for alla associated withthe humanities it would be ise leading to contrast engineering and "humanistic" plowophy of tech nology, since such a wording eould connote either tha engineers are not Humanist inthe sene of being concerned withthe haan which most of them surely are) or tha all members ofthe humanities comme nity espouse some kind of pllosophical himanism (which many’ of them surely de nob. The terms, though clumsy —and even precisely by means of thelr awhwardnese—are designed to keep oper a Spe cial point. “The thd chapter suggests But does not elaborate the full scope of ‘questions that are part ofa properly comprehensive philosophy of technology inthe humanities tradition, a weakness that chapter 4 une derakes to remedy. ts playful opening compares the phlosopy of technology with the philosophy of scence, then ft proceeds to lng «spectrum of issues ranging from the conceptual and epatemetogicl through the ethial and plial tothe metaphysical Chapter’ returns ‘o-expilyhistoricophiesophial investigations, focusing now on the period before the nse of moder technology, a the sae time that it ‘xtondsthe themes presented by chapter 4 Part tums to more analytic tasks and sees to famish a conceptual framework fr further exploration. The common concern of chapters (10 is noe fundamental in the philosophy of technology forthe ‘more careful elucidation of technology tet ints verse aspects nd 4 more intensive acquaintance an the part of siden of phlosophy ‘with the selfunderstanding and ideas of engineers and technologets Such a need is no doubt firmed by the very divergences ofthe two communities of discourse narrate in chapters and 2 Chapter by way of ineduction, gives an internal summary of the state ofthe argument and considers some objections. By doing soit clears one stage and sets another that x itundertakes fo move from the philosophical history ofthe philosophy of technology to philoso Phy of technology It notes how the term “technology” used in nar row and brood senses by engineers and by scholars inthe humanities; St defends the broader connotations but then distinguishes four modes of the manifestation of technology in the road sense. ‘Chapters 7-10 explore in deal diverse categories of technology the modes of is manifestation, suggested by the provisional analy of hapter 6. Chapter 7 Tocases on abject Or arhfets, chapter Bon feehi- ‘al knowidge and engineering science chapter 9on technological a tivity and chapter 10an technological volition, Conceptual distinctions tre drawn between tools and machines; engineering knowledge is ‘entities entaling a dstinetve epistemology and engineering de- sign is put forth as an activity worthy of distinctive analysis: Analysis of tchnology ae volition rere ance again to historicoptlosophic] fonsiderations, while atthe same time peinting tovvard ethical ess. Indeed in the course of elaborating on distinctions between techn ogy a object a knowledge, ae activity an as waitin, Tae a nm. ber of conceptual, epistemological, etica-politcal, and metaphysical questions. In these chapters are numerous echoes of isues intally feted in chapter 4 lnsofar a such analyses provide for the informative {nd hell ordering of diverse iss related to technology they con stitute a confirmation ofthe very distinctions on which they ae based “The conclusion provides rif reprise and restatement ofthe points Aeveloped in these ten chapters, considers the implications for teh ‘ogy and the humanities, and points toward further research The ep\- Igoe offers a synthesis that, based on the analytic distinctions of par 2rretums othe historical interests of part and reintrprets alterna tives in the philosophy of technology. PART ONE Historical Traditions in the Philosophy of Technology Slowly do they develop to maturity Even in matunty picophiece ‘ego change and alteration, advance and cay. Eventhough tae Tod since the Industrial Revolution might wel be termed the nee feshnology” development of the philosophy of technclony sonata ‘searly stages; unt quite recently there was litle dacaseon a on, One historical complication in the bisth ofthe philosophy of technol 287 18 that not only was it somewhat overdus it mee tor cee a gutgronth of» singe conception. The phlsophy of technology get {ated a fraternal wins exhibiting sibling rivlty sven nthe nee iechnclogy Is taken as an objective genio, indicating heme bein ‘ea with hen philosophy of technology refers to an eet by eat F- from the humans, epecally phwopher to lake echclogy eriously asa theme for disciplined reficction. The fst child eae, tb more protechnology and analytic the second somerrhat eee. Galan interpretative. Before tying to decide which s ma soy affliated with philosophy ive tis appropriate Snply te oes, sone diferences in character CHAPTER ONE Engineering Philosophy of Technology What may be called engineering philosophy of technology haste dis teton of being the fsthorn of the philosophy of technology twins thas clear historical priosty i the explicit se ofthe phrase “pilose phy of technology” and unt quite recently was the only tradition to ‘xiploy it Two early anticipatione of the term —"mechanial philoso _Phy” and “phlosophy of manufacures”—also pont toward the overt {emporal priority of engineering philosophy of ecology Mechanical Philosophy andthe Pilosoty of Manutctres “Mechanical philosophy” is a phrase of Newtonian provenance for ‘hat natural philosophy which dss the principles of mechanics to ex pin the word, in George Berkeey’s words ae “mighty machine" lis most vigorous early exponent was the English chemist Robert Boyle—knovin to his contemporaries as “the restorer of mechanical philosophy” that is of the mechanistic tomnism of Demociis— ‘whose Machonzal Quali (1675) sought to explain col, heat, mage tian, and other natural phenomena an mechanical principles. Isaac Newton, inthe Pracatio” tothe fst edition of his Philosophie nate rai princiia mathenatice (1687), notes that mechanics has been ‘wrongly Limited tothe manual ars, whereas he uses io investigate the “forces of nature” and to "deduce the motions ofthe planets, the ‘ames the moon, and the sea” Indeed, he wishes he “could derive the rest ofthe phenomena of Nature by the ame kind of reasoning ‘om mechanical principles” (That mechanical principles in the prac thal arts themselves called for philosophical analysis was tobe argued ‘century later by Gaspard Frangos-Clais Marie Riche de Prony i is -Mdcanigte sophie 1799), 20 Howat Tadbo Pp Tea The eg creasing struggle over the connotation ofthis root metaphor-—-imec lanists using I with appeoval and extending ts application fom na lure fo society romantics rejecting. He appropriateness in diverse ‘contexts In 182, for example an American oathematic teacher te lawyer) named Timothy Walker (1812-1856) took it upon himself respond to Thomas Carly’ eric of mechanics in Signsaf the Ties (1829). Walker didnot lly appreciate Caves contrat between me chanicr and dynamics as ples of hutnan acon and feling, nov could hehave anticipated Carles subsequent al for a neintegation of dy ramics with mechanics by “capaine of industry” (at and Pret, 184). Instead, Walkers "Defense of Mechanical Philosophy” makes the characteristic argument that mechanical philosophy’ the tn means for emancipating the human mind noth thought and practice nd that though ie corelate, technology, ft maker democratically ‘sailable the kindof freedom enjoyed only by the few in a society ‘sod on slavery. “Tio years ltr in 1835, th Scottish chemical engineer Andrew Ur (A777) coined the phrase “philosophy of manufactures” to desig ate his “exposition ofthe general principles on which productive in Gustry shouldbe conducted with seltacting machines” which he con. twats 0 "the philosophy ofthe fine at" (pp. Land), Ure exposition ‘clades a numberof conceptual cues tht have confined to concen the philosophy of technology: distinctions between craft and factory Proctuction, mechanical and chemical processes, the clasication of "machines, the posit of rules for invention, and the socoeconomig Implications of "automatic machinery” Beenose Ure discussion i ‘coupled with an unabashed apology forthe factory system Macs re fers tohimas “the Pindar ofthe automatic factory” his analytic si ‘is usually overlooked Butin extending analyses made by Adam Smith and Chaeles Babbage Ure nevertheless advances an appeoach that ancestor to operations research, systems theory, and cybernetics lasted by texts such as Nodber Wiener’ casi Cytori (848 fand related we mst Kapp and Tecnology a gan Proscton Forty years ater Ure book, it was the German plovopher Ei app (150-1896) who coined the phrase "Philosophie der Techni ‘Because Kapp is an unusual philasopher—especilly unas for 3 German philtsopher-and the litle known originator of the term tenth and mineteenth centuries witnessed, however an in| “philosophy of technology” his lie and thought deserve special at “To begin with, his childhood was unstable, certainly les etable than that of his younger contemporary KaMl Mars (18-1833). He was the Tas of tive children born toa court clerk in Ludwigtadt Batis, Tis parents and ewe siblings died of typhus when he was sand he eventually went to live with his elder brother Friedrich, ho was 2 {gymnasium teacher. This pointed him toward an academicearer, and [Ser receiving his doctorate n classical philology frm the University ‘of Bonnin 1828 with »disertation on the Athenian sate, he teturned to teach under his brother in the gymnasium at Minden, Westphalia But his interests were not limited othe elsscs and in particular he was sttongly influenced by the thought of both Georg W. FE. Hegel (0770-1981) and Kart Rite (1779-1955). ‘Along with Mars, Kspp was a lefving Hegelian His major schol arly study, he two volume Verglichenealgeine Erde (1888), = tals, as do Marx economic and philosophic manuscripts from the year before, an attempt to translate Hegels dynamic kiealism into Ermer materialist ers, But whereas Mares materialism aimed 80s thesize Hegel theory of history with the new scence of economs, Kapp materialism sought to relate history to Ritter’ new science of geography. Kapp “comparative universal geography” anticipated ‘rhat might today be called an envionmental pileophy: On the one hand, this work stesced, like Ries, the formative influences of geo, raphy especially bodies of water, on sociocultaral orders. Rivers land Seas, and oceans alfet not only economies and general cultures, but political structures and miltary organzations. On the oer hand, apps adaptation of Hegelian dialectic called forthe “colonization” and transformation ofthis ervionment, both extemal at invermall. Tn a crucial section ofthe Phenomenol of Spr 0807) Hegel a3 Iyzesthe dynamic of what he presente as one of the moet ndamental of social elatons the master-slave relationship. The master affirm Js digaty and fre hime! fom the physical environment. demands thatthe slave supply his needs Todo tis the slaves must undertake technological work, and through work realize ther own inerent dige ‘ly, independent of oppression by other human beings. Slaves ‘ology but also that we ty to see witha fareaching View, the interactions between technology and society. (p20) Having set the stage, Engelmeie then proceeds to spell out the scope ota general inquiry into technology. ‘We must investigate what technology represent, which pr ‘mary pols purses in its branches hat Kinds of methods ‘uses, wher its territory ends, which neighboring sre of ‘human activity survound tts relaonship sesence ar th {cs ete [Wie should develop total picture of technology, in which we analyze as many technical manifestations a pos. Sib fr technology le the sping in the eat woe cock Of Hunan development (p21) But ashe concludes near the end of the introductory installment, the very concept of technology remains to be clarified by thinkers and technologiets working together "because whal many takers have twalten about thas not been teated technically enough, and what has been stn by technalogits has not always Been logical enough ip. 22). Subsequently Engelmeier focises the social Funeton often. (ogy then analytic questions ofthe dentin of technology the ma- ‘hie, technological creativity and invention Tha 1911 paper, “Philosophie der Technik Engelmeier restated this thesis forthe World Congress of Philophy IV. Beginning with ade scription of "he empire of technology” and is intensification he con Siders the stages of abstraction in technology axguing Hat plulosophy ‘of technology aa neceseny Gna sage, “Technology i the inner Flea. fall purposefl action” (p. 58), grounded in the anthropological ‘value of 2 tecnclogical wil, “which springs from the utltaran

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