Contents - Analog Electronics-! Contents - Analog Electronics-Il 1.28 Lear Wave Shaping nee 2 124 Camper 1.25 Votiage mut. Studer AS gn eta Chapter 3 Field Effect Transistors enum a Chapter 2 BUT-Characteristics and Biasing.......128 Chapter 2 Sy Semiconductor Diode wrunnnnnennnonee 17 22. nor Curent Component mem 28 23 22 a 23 2 Chapter 3 Transistor Biasing and Ww‘Chapter 4 BUT as an Ampli Ber en ene mn 167 es Chapter 5 Basle FET Amplifier sree 196 9 tQdLe0N en 1 52. TheCommon-Souce AMIE nnn 196 53. CommonDain(Souce Follower Ampifir.201 wi) 54 The Comeon-ate Conf gation on 203 Stet AGREE nnn 28 | Chapter 6 Frequency ResPOMS@ sens si Chapter 7 Differential AmplIfGES enorme 232 a 82 asc eedbock Concept an 83. General lock Diagram of Feedback Amper.248 4 Four asc Feedback Topologies 252 85 Sere Shunt ConSguation nnn 2 Chapter 10 ‘Signal Generators and Waveform Shaping Circuits vmiennmnnennnns 298will) On Semiconductor Physics seas CHAPTER 1.1. Conductor, Semiconductor and Insulator wool) borage | oing # Analog Electronles-1 MADE EASY Distribution Systems, CablesBsulators | 3 Pulser - ‘Gemammay_onduton band easton can ove alg seta resent sposnon OG constrains bard econ araned ects) ate Bown Pare 9g stom These condicion band eecvon ae know as reo elton. ‘Shoe the band-gap energy fa Gysal le a function of interatomic spacing, Ris not E surprising that Ey depends somewhat on temperature. it hes been determined A ‘rpertrntaly at E,orsenn decease mth tomporture athe rae of3 60 1047. gure comatose band by reasenable arauntofthemal or optical energy. The Jo:fral practical purposes we can view tasapostively is tht the conductvty of semiconductors can increase gr cept of aholeas a postively charged particle merely jtors are @ special class of elements having a conductivity between that of a good Is purest form (without nym) Extrinsic Materials |s known es intrinsic semiconductor. Inadltionto the by purposely introducing it (vormamadeeaspubcatonsors ADE EASY (CeconameMADE ERS Distributon Systems, Cables & Insulators 5 NOTE” | ijpematerialis asa whole dlacticaly neuval since dealy he numberof posivelyisiged TF orotansin he nue sil qualtothe numberof ree and obing negate chargedelecrons KA Inthe stucture R tegaue nstanttemperature) the producto electrons ancholes sre ofinrnsc caer concentration. gure. Energy banddogramofrypesemionductor MADE ERSu Taectronics-1 MADE ERSHY Semiconductor ysis 7 temperature ration of minorty carers. In r-type semiconductor, the re calad the inary cartes, In p-type materia the Foran mype semiconductor, % © Mnotty carr concentraton = =——__f_—_ joy carer conc ‘ut, Maly caviar concentration « Doping concent 1 1. Mintycatier concentration = - 7 Doping concentration % ‘Minofy carrier concentration xDoping concenwaton = rf 18, Poakinverse voltage (PIV) rating It's the mairsum reverse biased voltage at which the bode can withstand. Ina sericonducte itmajonty cartier concentration increases the inotty carer concentration decreases Go-+400V ‘hiss due tothe recombinations. 9 1000 4 Scanian compe oem, REISER scan ord corr re gerray patra corpare was] Seton: mor TT horer Oravback of Ss oss conductivity doe tomore energy 906, 1.3. Charge Neutrality Equation ‘Any partol a semiconductor ba is always electrical newt ce Gate Fy O7e5ev 1218 1580v ‘As the anergy gap botween valance band and conduction band of GaAs is mote than Geand Si, 30 thesa are good semiconductor. “Total postive charge densiies = Total nogative charge densities, Explain GaAs is used in C-MOS technology. mtype ° aeaon so only +ve sign) ‘ana8 | Hlectrical Engineering © Analog Electronics MADE EASY MADE EASY Semiconductor Physics | aus Publestone Publston: Similar, for ptype = ne charge density ' charge per unt volume For metal: Janey 1.4 Drift Current | (ezpu] ~ [Zee] iteceursin meas and semiconductor. ‘Semiconductor: doch Ie Vae Vari valooty = nx gxHx ee neeete ferent oonny ed Jos (My Bg) E andwoknow, (o= conductivity) Je08 $0, = (Mn + Phin) Casetsinvrsc semiconductor nap=n, 2 Ss * nH) Erevan Case-It: extrinsic semiconductor 10° << 10'Viem ‘fe>P( for mtype) Ce 48 € = o [Biome Nowa] and oe ptpye, Saga ~ Hy 8 se Vien 10m 1.5 Current Density U) $ [Sea = Nae] “ime eos [a] 1 o ‘resistivity o= Wy +ne v= elocvon moby ‘-srumbertelecton per untvelune t= he obity a)ring © Analog Electronics-1 MADE EASY MADE EASY SemiconductorPhyss | 41 10 _ Poblestions irs = ——— ] Given at, = 1 8 So, BG = Oe tH 1 1018 10 | ° x 108 mNS0c | and 248 108 = 1.42% 10 N06 2 Impurty scattering In Latice scattering a carrier moving theaugh crystal is scattered by a vibration ofl irom Temperature, Frequency of such scattering events increases as temperature increases, Resist 9,=047.0m f= 02-00 | y= O19MAN-s0 fein DR Tatem ya 19500080 Now Bee a ante FIEy Ast mn? 10%om® wetoora, mad | p= SMO oom Te = ent x 108 Detine carrier moblity. Draw a graph showing the variation o carier mobility DxGxy ” TET B RTO x 1980 | in a semiconductor wth Inoroasing temperature. A 100-ohm resistor isto be made at room temperature ForNyp: n= Ny in rectangular slicon bar of 1 emin length and 1 mr? in cross-sectional area by doping it appropriately N= 48x 10% en? with phosphorous atoms. Ifthe electron mobility in sicon at room temperature be 1950 on. aiuto the dopant densty neaded to achieve tis, Neglect the isignfiantcontributon by tne nnsie carriers. ‘What fraction of drift curent is due to electrons in intrinsic “Ger. | acconstant electri ots octron would be accelerate lan = Io Ip ‘teachin elastic col = (Ma KEXA- pay EA stoady sate condtion is reat ‘%tractonof electron curent = Speedie ataino. lof electron current ‘So, dt speed vs propor since, intiste, n= p=, setracton = Px = — 9800-968 or 68% (for on = = aa eD "08 EK (1 Ge) wher, Mobily is detined as dit velocity pet eho cur Coa MADE EASY vernmadeesypubatonson | 0.68 = 0.32 032%MADE EASY Seniconucortmyis | 13 pata Ke Re + wihout lonsiy sido, and tis rE "Incase ofhole current (=e sgn's very-very important ‘movements called fusion current, a Incase of electron current aso (-) (eapispeonion iodo are ciferent. ac) * Tan Fann = Un I) + Uy + 1g = as) (2a £4) 00,22. 4-00¢ E4} u Einstein Relation elation x ben nd moby) Dew {Grom kinetic gas theory) b= strom igure above ertonod, carers moves om one stot ancther side thon concentration decreasos > 2) the tectoncarcettaton pr er at 300 wi be 1, ©) 9M a ‘Given that, An = 018/em® ‘4, = 10 psec = 10% 10 soe Generation rter= 2 = 10% et parsiom*ls © ‘By Mase Action Law apa whee, i= elctron concentration ‘p= holeconcentration16 | Hectic Eogineeing¢ Analog Electronics 4 (b) mone ny=constant Forr-ype pisminorty carter concentration 8 1 For ype semicon =, Ferns soiconsictn, = tH, oo. Ma ‘, ~ rill = 4.20108 tty 15410" pio) Be _ A2eto Toxo ta =2x10° MADE EASY 7.) By the law of electrical noutralty PHNy= +N, a =o Nr n20 p=N, using mass action law ap = nf 0, neh aw oy, r 1 = Bet units: a Janey, Pu viene * Jenene Hence, Ten ew eA ‘So, depends upon carter concentration and lectric Fld oy Semiconductor Diode CHAPTER Introduction properties, we can then discuss spectfic devices in later chapters, 2.1 Representation for n-type and p-type Semiconductors ‘type semiconductor i leo called donor Le. te impury atom wil be donating one electton and it ‘becomes a postive lon. The postive ions als called donor ion SOS see eter Bs See 8 Bor aie %t0+P+o,] Poe s Bo re 04°5 . * wom fi 0 G8? SI 00°98 OGOh way To +8 so 7 =m . Figure 2.1: fr spe materi o ypematril p-type semiconductors also called accoptor |e, theImpunty wile reclving one electron to complete ts covalent bonding and it becomes a negative fon, The negative ion i also called acceptor ion, 2.2 p-n Junction Theory Figure 2.2 shows a pnunction just immediately is formod. Note that itis a single crystal. set haf s ype and right ha is yp. Gx DE ge ‘wi madeeasypublstionsorg18 | Hlectical Engineering Analog arterheignt adjusts itso aotiy carriers across the junc ntensty curve Figure 22s the integral of the function drawn in Figure 220) (cvided Go diode :0.1V-08V, Sidiode:06V-09V —Typicalvale = 0.7 V ee TWOTE:Electnc fed ntensly wil be rasan atthe junction 2.3. Forward-bias Condition (V, > 0V) ‘Atorward bias oF "on" condition is established wh type material and negative terminal toten-ype mater ive terminal of battery is connected to the nin Fue 2 nected to the pr-unction of Figure 2.2. As goon a 37. They then combine withthe fee electrons in the ito te popion. Those eloctrons combine with the holes. a ‘+ Tpaciusion of holes and electrons takes piace because heres adference in ther concentrations % Inthe wo regions. git een sity = ° setae ents tnt erie = TROE RSS _ aS)‘ie in currentas shown in the frward:-bias region ofthe characteristics ol Figure 25. 24 Reverse-bias condition (V, <0 V) ‘The current that exists under reverse-blas conditions is called the reverse saturation current and Is represented by 10° J ‘Also caod as minoty carer curentor leakage current or thermal generated current. leakage curent the device wil ave vory good thormal stably ti highy snekive to temperate, it doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature for both Si and Ge. (2) Leakage curenttor Semconducorbide | 24 2.5 Expression for Diode Current iaics of a semiconductor dode can be detined by Schoey’ equation, Viste tema votage. For positive values of V3 p=, o>" | — (Vpposiive) (23) Fornapaive vals of [les=h] — Wareoatve) ea) withthe help of above equations we can draw the characteristic ofa semiconductor diode whichis shown inFigue2s. Somer oe) MADE EASux 8 Electrical Engineering # Analog Electronics-t “) inimum forward voltage required so that the forward current flows through the diode. tage i also known as: = Offset votage veshold voltage + Kroevotage + Breakvotage ForGedode \=01V —05V; Typicalvalueo2V ForSidiode 6V — 08V; Typical value 07 V CCutin votage decreases wih lure, For 1°C rio in temperature tis reduced by 2.6 mV. “The depletion layer ajunetion ies ‘mostly in the region both the p* and n-regions (a) entirely in the p* ~ regions (©) Positive and negative ions on either side (0) No holes Inthe neighborhood ofthe junction ther depleted of mobile charges, tis called Conditions stated above, the closest approximation of the rat diode to that nslicon ode Ie ww madeeasypublications org MADE EASu opyoh) SemiconductorDiode | 23 () 5 (4) 8x08 a | biased. The V4 charactrstes of euch an ideal lode would be a8 shown 2.8 (@).An dal dode acts tke an the curent es tow in te forward direction, the wich s closed. On the other hand, when the eurent is 0 ‘tow the other way (againt the dection ofthe diode artow) the etch is open mates econ ieee wom a Freee pane rs et OY, (£5) ee ==24 | Electrical Engineering © Analog 4 MADE EASY diode is more than in Ge code. Figure. The dif and cifuson components othe hole current ust cancel at equilibrium: ze ~0,2 m0 = Me 1D Using Einstein relation and puting E = 2 MADE EASY Semiconductorbide | 25 - EH ID Wr as” pds ‘tegratng above equation; we nave ah far = Poe = -Loy-w =inpging, = ne glo he Ew) =Ineymingy = nee x e a (Using y= Vy Vs -@n Ite consider the stp concentration of N donors on 10 be made up of material wit N, acceptorsiom# onthe pside and a 1, we can wits equation (27) 38. Tp Pao, NaN Vow ina Men in Xate | aN a oe sis ‘A sileon abrupt -njunetin at 900 Khas acceptor dana, N= 10% em | ‘and donor density, N= 10" cm? Ite intinsle concentration, N= 15 x 10" cm® calculate the bull- | In voltage, V, Derive the relations used. Solution: ‘Acceptor density, Denar deny, ‘Step Graded Diode or Abrupt pn-junction Diode Itreters to * n diode or pnt lade. The depletion region wll always penetrate mare int lightly doped region and lesser intohighy dopedragion P'ndlode i dlode (omimadespathaiosor MADE conn)26 | lect Enaineeing_¢ Analog Electroniest MADE ERSY Semiconductordlode | 27 1 ‘As we know that, 6" 1 and aE Mo Me Wy No = Wala = WM (29) Equation (29) s known asta ofthe junction. Than abruptp-n junction, the doping concentrations onthe p-side and ni are Ny= 9x ‘and Np= 1 x 10!*/on? respectively. The p-n junction is reverse biased and ‘ota depletion width is 9 mm. Find the depietion width on the p-side. Solin: | Me Wp No e m= 0H, Gren Wome ms8meM, rie “ wa Sune 10%, = wee 03mm FEE 2.9 Space-charge, or Transition, Capacitance C, Aroversebies causes mio carers to move away forthe junction, thereby uncovering mort charges. Hence the thickness ofthe space-charge layer a he junction increases wih reverse voag increase in uncovered charge with appied votage may be considered a capective eect. We may define an incremental capactance C; by o- (2 7 asain charge caused by a change Vin voltage. junction in whieh there ean abrupt change from acceptor ions on one side to donor ons on >> No then Wy i for attused prjunction ‘Athermally generated cartier (part ofthe reverse saturation current) fal down the junction barrier and a energy tom he appied poeta. This carer calles wit acrysaion and imparts sficient energy ‘wumadeeesypubicatonsog == TIFAD 2cenrah) 7 MAD \wnadenypbetensrg)ich are designed win adequate power-dssipaton capabilies to operate inthe breakdown, ioyed as volage-olerence or constant voage devices, Such diodes areknown as avalanche, pees © © igre 2301) TeV characterssefoncvlonchec rene ode (eyAcreutinnhichnchadinde ured reucethevlogeacos, apis ‘angerdvetvaratensineadeirentandauephotoge ‘Symbol and Equivalent iret of Zener Diode ao Bt ——2x a i forward biased Semkanductor Diode Publestore | 31 Winen zener diode is reverse biased 1 levels (1:10. Iie fabricated oniy aloes than breakdown voltage, ro conducting are greater han breakdown voltage (Vq),ore ancmore curtent wl be passing the votage drop across it willbe maintained lmosta constant ands equal o around Dynamic resistance of zener diodes gven by Ev Reape 228) {or ideal zon diode Ris zero as AV, = 0. “The reverse bias breakdown of high speed sllcon tansistors is due to (@) Avalanche breakdown mechanism at both the junctions (©) Zener breakdown mechanism at both the junctions {(c) Zener breakdown mechanism at base-collector junction (@) Zener breakciown mechanism at base-emitter junction Ansa) co) ee aaa)32 | Hlctial Engineering # Analog Electronics! 2.13 Junction Diode Switching Time {= storage tine te oT Pourenn2 ty reverse recovery time): time taken by the led Yor being Teverse bisded fom the forward bias ‘when extemal votage i applied {, (storage time): Te taken by code to discharge in going trom foward bias to averse bias. {yltorward recovery time): tis ime taken by diode in going trom ravere bias to forwarblas as thet inno storage te in Sot, < f, 80 f, plays major role forthe sutching delay of te. 162438 @razc3B Zener diode ‘only the P-egion is heavily doped ‘only the N-ogionis heavily doped ‘bot PandNtegions are heavy doped both P and P-egions are ighty doped (@ tedepleioncapactance much Higher than biased SemkonducterDeode | 33 (6) increases withthe increasein temperature (6) is equaltothe average of the Ferm levels of theo sidos Q.6 Thedepleton capacitance, Gotan abrupty pin Junction with constant doping on either side ‘vari wih RV 98 (0) Cy=Vy (0) Cy=vgt (0 Gav? Cyngi? 1.7 ASilicon PN junction a a temperature of 20°C tration current of 10 pico ravers saturation curentat aoc bias is approximately (@) 30 pA (0) 40pA (©) 50 pA (eA QB. Inaptn junction dlode under reverse bas, the ‘magnitude of electric fields maximum at {@) the edge ofthe dopletenregionon topside (©) theedge ofthe dopiaton egiononther-side (©) thep*njunction {) the centre ofthe dopletion region on the side @.8 Compared to a'p-n Junction with Ny = No = 4o'em?, wrich one othe folowing statements Ig TAUE for a pen junction with Ny = No = (©) decreases by 25 nV (miata Se)34 = ANSWERS 10 2@ 20 40 50D 6 70 8O 20 We ce : sases with decreasing current and Increasing temperate. Dun capactance = Gp = gat aa 4 aay Soa KT o=h 4 4 2. (d) TA2C.98 ‘lane breakin + Coleen ofc wn cng ona. Zener breakdown» upto covalenbond dete song dee tl Pune tough» Em tect. 3. (@) 1 egions ere hay doped ina Zener dogs Pend N bo hereon are rey Doping love of Zane: de 1:18 4 (b) The depletion capectance decoesee wih reressinteroverso bas Boplon wath W w= fis w= ovr bas wings Ae Capacitance = C= FF 1 ond @ac) Inoreasos withthe ncreasein the doping levels ofthe two sides. ‘But in potential or ciftusion potential across a ‘pn unction code. veri) sn Yom Net £5 opten(endopton) bah ar coet (0) Gx vat? ‘The doplet ven capactance of a diode is Gave nod rcp pindr aban in ce lt . () av Me esmwe For 10°C votage across prjunconilldecroase by25 mW. ‘© copyiht) ie Field Effect Transistors CHAPTER) ‘depends on contol of a junction depletion wiath under reverse ilar uncton transistor inthe folowing important characteristics: 3.1 FETVs BJT impedance than BT. FETs unipolar device. The curent flow inFET Is due tomajoty carriers s there are no minoty carr.Thaliy Carers orev the bar Conventional B rain Dis the terminal though which the majorty carriers leave the bar Conventional ‘current entering the barat Die designated by 1p. ‘= Channelisthe region ofn4ype material in gure 3.1 between the wo gate regions through hich the majority cariars move rom source to drain. 32:1. FETOperation uncovered charges. 322 FET Static Characteristics the channel region reverse base (wm madeeasypubliations rg Peidefecttansiters 39) om rans wate Vag Figures i causod by the fact thatthe rvorso-bias gate voltage adds tothe tive voltage across the gato junction. votage (is datined as the minimum drain o source votage where the dr nother wor, ts also defined asthe minimum gato source votage wher {doped wih Np donor per cubic meter, an that the jn W, << W,, ence for he space-charge witPoblesions ‘of x and bia) = 6 If in equation (3.1) we MADE EASY Feldehect Transistors | 44. 7 Yas) eae cn ‘curve isa parabola epation region, hen, ulng ahi aw, ho cain current Ty = AQNohtyE = 2bwa Nai ea whore Lis the lang ofthe channe Subehng bt equten (2.2), we ave, fr sal (unde orice) the device i employed. In FET drain current is dit curent since its controled by electric ‘Produced inthe channel, 325. FETparameters ‘We can formally express the drain cuenta, 28 function ofthe gate volage Vag and drain voltage pana aN) 09 L (38) 1. Drain Resistance montana a aL 7 ‘The ratio Vogiy at the salled the ON drain resistance (roy): Fot a JFET we obtain from Ato ‘equation (8), with Vas= 0, oranbically obtained from drain characteristics and also fom transfer characteristics. Typical value T ‘ao"" Favatoin (38) 2 Transconducance or Mutual conductance (9,) ai (wr. itis given as, 9” Bes og (3:10) (mmiaipticioins «CDE ERS cea) | Sa mabe ERST aElectrical Engineering * Analog Electronics-1 ‘where dns the maximum ranscond Equation for g,can also be writen as on Fe Toss Tos |B 19) « Gn = Gro At | 9 2 Ampliteaton Factor) ms SR sata 3.26 Equivalent Circuit of FET FET or MOSFET) Ite also called as ac equivalent circuit an Iva biased JFET, the shape of tho channol Ie as shown in the given figure ‘ofthe materal used 1 more reverse biased than source end J more forward biased than eource end S| |? lo vari withthe distance from source T ‘An n-channel JEFT has fgg, = 2A and V, = 4 V. Its transconductance g, (inmAW) for an applied gate to source voltage Vago! -2 (2) 0.25 ) 05 (0.75 (@) 10 ‘Ans(o) Describe how an FET can be used as a Voltage Variable Resistor (VVR), or Explain how MOSFET structure can bo used asa voltago-variable resistor n integrated circus. Ge wor madeenspubleations 27) a y44. | lecrieal Engineering # Analog Electronics! MADE EASY - estore Figure below shows the FET low-level drain characteristics showing WR: Int he ano sue nce = Feamavainctly a= 8o-(*] a7 Wher, = drain conductance when the biasing is zero and Vas = Gateto source vtiage ‘Application ofthe WR: The WA, canbe used to vary the voltage gain (Ay) ofa multistage ampli ‘as the signal level ie increased. Tis action is called “Automatic Gain Control (AGO)” -Pubiestene metalic contacts to n-daped region ofthe device 332 Basic Operation and Characteristics ena panera eletecTnsotos | 45 Figure3.30:n Channel dept ype MOSFET wth V,=0Vandapled open ‘Metal conta ¥,)-Since ina recor cout the ino nt has a peak value V, whichis very/leege compared wih he offeetwotage V, we assumen the olow that V,= 0. Subjectto tis idealization of he code characteris, th cutentinthe code or load avery > 1.18) 1.7.3 RMS AC Output Current j-flnsha wierwosae tag ‘The output ofrecer s combination of do and aGeorponents, so we can wre 0 whore x sais2n = ACouiputcurrent (1.19) Note that, j= BMS vai of total cuter) {Pa Bex xp foo Boxe = T= the ate ~2theAnalog Electronics-l 72 |, Bestel engine ¢ _ MADE ERs = refi] 1 (1.22) Equation (1.22) gives the gonoral expression to calculate ripple factor for any rec For halt-wave recttier ‘Tomanber = Forhallaaverectferrma ac components 1.21 times the de componentorin ater ‘words we can say that ac componentisstronger than de component. 1+ Since ae component is unwanted 60 ripple factor should be smaller and ideal it shoud be equal 2er0. F 1.7.5 Input Power (Pi) Its the avorago vale of the product of Inetartaneous eusrent trough secondary wincing, Publemions Dideciewts | 73 y-[Pr=bfisia: Osase “Wigs: suse Figure 1.12: Thevotage acess the todeinfgue 1.1110) Fmt + RD) Yqo fa (128) ay ee = (029 ‘ollageis postive, On he other nand, te de votage aos elo proguot of Grect cure tines the op resistence Mi, because to oad is 8 176 efidency fe cotsaniieesir ammaecthessitycarectermesneriouACpoerinocepowrEorsssmarersih, | 175 Noisy 4c ova Vokage VDCNL coup power a ea poner itis the de outptvotage whon load currents 280 (1e.\bow. “Voce eo) (omens MABE ERSu econo) | Grr MADE ERSe womans)74 | Seta engineering» Analog Electronics 1.79 FullLoad DC Output Voltage (VOCFL) Itisthe de ouput voltage when load curentis nonz0r0 (1. Yoon, = Yoo in secondary circuit then de voltage drop occurs across secondary winding and should be subtracted trom maximum de output (ie. Yoon) 189 Voor. — Vper.= Voce intemal de votage drop From above relaton we can draw Thovenin’s model as gwe-y.18:Theverinsequvalent mae! shownin Fig. (1.19. orhenove reife is potential is conducting For each rect rout there Is a maximum voltage to which the dlode fs subjected ‘alo the peak inverse vatage, because toocuss during that pat ofthe cycle when the cd PIV. = Maooulnay In reverse bias condition Ven ta igg a 5 « [Wem =FecFi] whee R= Prey + « tate: Fors opera TW a ere rasa ce onpanolage Ty) 1713 transtor = Voor, decreases with increase in load current fgc because of increase it ‘Transformer {actor is the ratio of de output power and ac rating of transformer secc “ondary incremental de voltage drop. i “winding. For any wi the product of rms voltage across the winding and the rms current through — bevwaning ensessodn-VlvAnpere” 0, Tee Pe 1.7.10 Regulation = RG rang of secondary “The vatiaton of dc output vottage as function of de load curentis called regulation. The pet requlatonis defined as Vroens Vests = TUF 100% Via ‘érogulaton = 2 oe oe ‘ex's Ge) s0forhalt-waverectier,76. | Hetil Engneeing + Analog Electrons aces | 77 28 A - nee 2B A Vg lle FAR saat cond sonywnenthe x and conduton a = TUF = 0.286 5a ‘angle becomes (180* 28). Remember: MaxinunTUFir an atwave rect can be 0.286. 1.7.14 Frequency of Output or Ripple Frequency Shee nut and agp. wevelor have 0 uo wb equa. hats 41.38) Fer16: roandoupavaage noosa et scutpt waves pt but pon usoal oit wl const of higher hamone suncaentarequency These harmonics re cblaned tom igonometc Four aoes of UDA ron below we ee Senos ey 4136 ‘AC component corso! undamentl equency and even haranics 2 ty 4 a, 6 ya amenisarenegiectaathen 2 Yer next 4 Fem aquaton( 14) we can conclude ta aal-wave ects a sores conectanot de source Vn 41.37) ecouce Ya sinatesdeptedinFg (1.1 ‘and ac source > sinaytas depicted in Fig. ( 7) 17.17 Peak Factor Pak tactris defined ah at of peak vat tho ms vaio wt ey. Pe cima | HR *y % Poaklactor= iS value ~(138) Yom Fer hata ct. , Peaktactr = (Yaa Figure 1.17, Vp/2 7 ee econ) Cone a 5Electrical Engineering Analog Electronics Beara Eimer eee _—_—_ 78 | ‘A hallwave rectifir uses @ diode having Internal resistance of 20 Mand load resistance of TAN. If 4: 1 transformer is used and primary votage Is 220 volt ems, 60 He, then ccaloul PIV and ripe frequency jelency and regulation factor Solution: F,=200, A= 10000 AMS votage of secondary winding of vensformer me $5V2 = 77.780 pe te Be +A 20+ 1000 = 078A 4 0 deoutputourrert = fo: = “2 sills Newel Yoo Reeve gx220 = 55 =rms olage Vee = Ba 242ma Vg = leo Vg = 242 10x 1000 = 242 (i) ACoutputcuentis Fig Tia Pag = ing = 121%242 = 20.28mA AC output voltage IS Ving Vow = 1 Vag = 121x242 = 20.28 {i Since diode and A ae in series, s0 de diode currents same as de output current Vaasa = 242108 Vanes ® Ma = TE 2478 Dodecreuts | 79 ™ PIV = Vq=77.78V ” %Efcioney = 40.5% is RA 1000 =307% 21000 = 405% a SeReguatn = Fe s00% Where, A= Rigg R= 0+ 20= 200 20 = Br toon-2% 1.8 Centre-Tapped Full-wave Rectifier “The crcultota contr tapped fullwave recieris shown inFig. 1 twohawave cut which reso connected that conduction takes plac the power cycle and through other diode during the second haf ofthe power cycle ‘ded into two haves, each half having equal number of Wein has N, tums andeach halfof secondary winding ‘When canter trina of secondary winding is grounded, voltage at nodes @ and b wil have equal ‘magnitude but opposte dan;MADE ERSY Diodecreuts | gi. Publesions publestons © Whend Piv=|RVmsinal.., Voom * “Han o¢ Voom = 2a — : NOTE 1. Fll Load DC Output voltage A Vien * Vetlge si est MADE EASY mApE EASY ects | 83 ce rontesions 1) ten fl wave rector will have maximum efciency of 81%, 11. Regulation Factor sxnoguaion = Yat Mies 100% Be (eta) Mon aire ‘4ranafrmerUttaion Factor “a futnave ecter ls corinaton of wo halwave ectiferssotrarstorer utzon actor ith respect * Veen = “ Sry ib nt eT rate vee ae Soc - ‘antomer ete uc med nary dng i cer Dc vokage crop oxcurs across ha <1 acrss one loge at ary tire. Dolan dl eo, (Pen = i ang of primary winding MADE ERS ca (ere MADE EASYMADE EASY (1.50) = Forthe case ofideal diode (ie. A= 0) ‘Maximum (TUF}ny = 0.81 2 Average TUF » TUF 10, = fakTy ‘Consider haltwaverectfer wih capactor ter, - (1.68) ‘Using conservation of charge pincple ‘AQ, = 40, (1.68) ‘ure 1.27: (Nliarerecer wih capacterter () pitondeapacorer eeu votage weer Newco reson TERRE avy wre pontoon titan (70 wb ey land capactorwildscharge sow. Capacto votage decreases tilt = and code remain concn fom 1 + Forte Diode ges rad as 6nd capadtor begin to charge which Gn “Ths above rocessol charging treughilooe and discharging tough R, kee repeating, Cs charges and lechages once dung ane peid Te haere Teatwor* Toure * To tA, Cls erg en Nove Tw) Fomeqialos( we concade al ocbian eral ipl lator capac tier Teton? > Tebare } should be used when A, is large and load current is smaller, a ([Tenauge =] im Caer chess cn ree Relations ‘Assure that be capactor vallage decreases by an amount V during dscharging intra. When cr scharges rom t,t ft losses charge and this amount of charge lot by the capacitors given by C8V) ‘BV represents he decrease in capacitor wotage, sO Chargelost = 4Q, = ca ¥, \When capacitor dlscharges it supplies charge tothe lad resistance. Charge supped the load resi Curing cischarge interval erate of charge flow through Fi)* Tyxowrge96 | etic Engineering Analg Electronic ‘8 peak output votage of 60V across a 6000 resistance. I it is required to de which can limit the peak-to-peak votage across the load to 10, find the value = oc( 200% “Rhalvave reais connected with a power (0) Peakto peak ripple voltage Solution: Peakto-peak ripple votage = V,= 10 Hence output voltage drops from 60 Vto 40 V So, D_coutputvotage = 52242 a5y 45 Hence, Inc = Gyp= 0.008 Discharging tine = as we Weave, also ak to-peak ripple voltage and rms value of ripple voltage. pple factor. jogulation factor. = o( A+ 1 Feeoa0) © 0” Bxs0xadxio® “8 Comparing equations (and We aoe = Broo = 325 «100% =6.25% (11-Section Filter) ot of two capacitors and one inductor connected in the form of T-section. Diodecreuts | 97 1250 g-0 \ sovme Vp = 5858 For FWR with capacitor fit fi Yoo = Mp 208 ae crates ROE ERS iElectrical Engineering © Analog Electronics-Il MADE ERSY RADE og | Srctcaens + Anes sas mane Ens bec | 99 «Above circuits equivalent onterconnacon ot etfir with capac titer and flowed by LC {ter Votag arse G, ea tiangdar waver whese dc corsonent gen by egater ver tan une 7 ‘Unease and ac component has peak'o peak val etal genie ae eae ot ay regs ing league sient sledge | fl SS oh Tour Re + Reactance should be foun at or HR and at 2a, or FW, i 2 Also de ouput otage ls given by recmammacsea | | — tent tr Vag= Yn = = laos N74) roacnepiesecapt| | gh ange maar ary 1.16.1 Load Regulation 3c suples 0 provide decharge pat fr capac: when nat present. a Be if the voltage regulator is not perfect, voltage across the load changes with variations in load current, Texge de voltage wil be present across capacitor even when the ac supply is ‘ums ‘ollage across capacior can cause electric shock if someone touches ‘because he oad current increases wih decrease inioad voltage. caps is algo used in LC'tr eo that he inductor curent can bleed (or fow) trough “The change in load voltage with change in load current is given by @ parametar called load reastance 1 present Wh he helo of folowing igure whores baaderresistance Fi used in rogulation’. ‘iter wo wi imarize the purpose of bleede resistor in ite pelt ae Pgures31 “The value of bleeder resistance should be such that it draws only 10% of oa ead curent ‘% regulation = Yea ase. x 00% 78) safety to operator by providing dscharge path othe eapactor ower supply can be used to provide more voltage. tage dider fr tapping out any desired output 1162 Line Regulation \ariatonsin supply voltage at ranslormer may also cause variation in load voltage, As the input vatage (ire voiage) decreases, oad voltage wil also decrease me “The change In load voltage due to 10% chango in ine voltage ie named as line regulation”. eerie [EMETEORE To] ary 1.16 Voltage Regulators Regulator a electoni croult which malrains DC ouput votage of power supp stable lespective of fluctuations in ac supply and vations in load current.100 | Sete Eo '¢ Analog Electronics-t MADE EASY Diodecreutts | 101. 1.17 Zener Diode Shunt Regulator 1.18 Op-amp Controlled Series Regulator Fig. (1.2) reprecenis@ Zener dode shunt equator. Fig, (1.38) shows an op-emp controled reguitor. gure 1322 rat Hee \V,= Unregulated supply voltage (uctuating de output voltage offer) A, Sancti rh prover osha Curent rah ose ‘Astheris parle connection of Ze Here yey a jet (179) lode operates in breekdown region orf 1.80) (18) Forproper operat of crcl minimum curent through F,i8 Tag, +f. Te 4182) ‘Aso supoly voltage should be suficient fo provide minimum voltage crop across A, and voltage V_ across Zener coda. e=Unn, HR +e 4189) Figure shows an electronic voltage regulats The Zener diode may be “assumed to toque a minimum current of 25 mA for sallsfactory operation. The value of Frequlred for setistactory voltage regulation ofthe ciult is —__. (named MADE ERS - cont) Ceseron MADE EASY‘© Analog Electronics! 102 | Eectrcal Engineering ‘Pig 1.24: ondiornedseesregutocreut FR, provides basing to Zener lode. tage V, appears at the base of Q, ye 1.86) (owe almost through Fi hats Q, and A are etectively rmon-ollctrcorfguration rating as emir olower + Ayiscomectadto provide fa, 2nd, + Decrease in V, cancels inceasein V, nd tus output vltage(V,) remains constant. 14941 Caleulation of V, Voes = Ve= Ve MADE EASY Ve, +Z4Ry can become equal o V, + Vj then diodes D, and D, begin condition This value of is called sensing cxrent (7) Vag, + 1sPs = Vn + Yon te (1.38) lode D, and 0, re conducting hen current rough Q, and A, becomes constant at sensing curent (and an adltonal load current wil flow trough D, and D, branch. Thus current through Q, can not Yaa * Shor cicultloadcurent Cn (199)104 | etic Encneeing_« Analog Electronics ‘Ensy | mave ensu Diodecreuts | 105 Find output voltage ofthe shunt regulator shown pif (®) asy (@) 78V ‘yoltage of 10, when the input varies from 20'V to 90°. The relevant parameters for the Zener diode land the transistor are; V,= 9.5, Vpe=0.3 V; b= 99. Neglect the current through Ra. Then maximum ‘power dissipated in the Zener diode (P,) and the transistor (P,) are 1.21 Wave Shaping “The process of chaning shape of a wavelormIskrown as wave shaping. wns 2 Tiretmemeeneses™® | Meareteereageoemae 1.22 Clipper Ccppers are networks which employ clodesto “lip” away a potion of an input signal without istotng the remaining prtofhe applied wavelorn. 122.1 Applications 1. Iisused ite ailtide of signal therefore clippers also called “amplitude limiter” 2. Alper canbe used elirinate noise from puse waveforms in cigtl communication. TE al wee LL + Olppers ae classed intotwo-pars: @ Shunttipper: () P85) aw (a) P= 78mW, Py=79W * 85 = 115m, P= 11.9 W (@) P= 95 mW, Py = 89W Solution)og | Besa Engneeing_¢_Anslog econ MADE ERS Diodecreuts | 407 lippar Here Vqis the reference votage and Ris the curent iiting Should not be too large oF 100 small. For proper clipping operation R + Hence we see that the circuit removes a porton ofthe input signal which lies above reference vatlage. This operations called clipping above reerence. ‘Tanstor Characteristics: Itisa graph plotted between ouput votage and input vlage. oe “90 ‘Assume that he diode is ideal then Case: vq 4 Dd operates ntrvardben- Shar cout ae eee R Figure-1.42: Tronsfercharacterses NOTE” Wa Gees pnlleao Was Git age ei hn is doe HO Bo a feleedwivaceres conedionctieal ade rao ate foe ne . T Hee (=v le V; Vp = dade isin reverse bie. YV, D, isa germanium diode with V, = 0.3 V, ‘function of = et corresponding to an input ‘signal v,= 5 sinfa) (vots) over one period when the polarities of the dc source Vq, are reversed. Neglect the effect ofthe forward resistances of diode. case by simply replacing Vo, by-V, n reels othe clipper circuit figure gven in question Conducting states of O, and D, Output 1D, OFF end D, ON % ,OFF and D,0FF Figure 145 Fees + Abovecrcuitrenovesa parton ofinputsignal whichlies below he reference vokage This iscaled clipping below he reerence. ‘Tansfor Characteristics: , ONand 0, OFF 1.223 Twolevelclipper “This crcut performs cipping at wo voltage levels. consists of two diodes and two reference connected as shown below oY 2 y \ Van F Ya Powers ‘Above ercut behaves as two level clipper ony it Va, > Vip110 | Beta Enoieeing_ + Analog Electronic MADE EASY, ‘Apariicular diode circult produces 7 ‘the ouput snown| nthe Input Vj= S sina. Design the clruit. Draw and: Circuit. Neglect tho W Tesistance of diode to be 100 A and the reverse resistance to 7 bo 1 Ma. Solution: Function of Creu Wen the input vtlage is less than 3 vos, then the dhode VW [ied OY Ve is OFF, 30 the output votage Is same a VY, Vyeav| OF |W Vien theinputvotage is greater hana vais. thenthoiods [zaV] ON [SV is ON, 80 the euput wotage is equa 03 vols. Ts given In figure, Now cccuitclagram forthe above input-oxput (transfer) characteristics ease112 | eta Enieeng_ Analog Blecronict MADE EASY | MADE EASH Dlodecreuts | 113 1.23 Linear Wave Shaping and angle of ganis “The process by which waveform of anon sinus 1s ator by transiting the signal through a \dal signal passes though a linear ALC circuit 32. So nar cuit can not 12¢non- sinusoidal signals suc aay re ‘only undergoes phase shit but shape of waveform 1 ‘shaping of siusldal signals but can perform waveshaping Hf fthen |A|= == 308 trangularwavetoms ee. 1 «+ The trequeney at which gan becomes 1 iskown as cut requency or 3-8 frequen 1.231 High Pass RC Cireuit : z peer Tecieattownteow epee anasto How nd hmaveaon der Forhigh pass oxi, cutoff requenoyis i SD ERO (196) sioner [Al +0 Wventen [A/S igh pass eto roves zr gan rin tenuaton low requncy and it provides unity gain to high frequency. (1.92) Iai f= then %90, s0V, = ¥, Henceifnputis alow frequency signal then the cru generates zero output iteect ow requencies, at high frequency signal ten the cuit generates output identical tothe input thus it passes + For high pass cuit gain becemes. Fat a ow requency hence ssa tobe lower cut frequeneyf, | Square WaveResponse Letinput be a square wavetorn varying trom Oto Vand having 60% duty cycle, a tay Figure 1.51: (alpetsqcrenavton(Highpasscest 194) “MMe nd (197) oss) ca See ohne ae)‘© Analog Electronics-t Ens 114 |, Becical Engineers + Atteo: Y7.changes from 0 10 Vy but V, rains zero as eapactor does not alow sudden change of voltage. So trom equation (1.97) Y, changes From 010 Vp + Forocte® Capacitor begins charging through resislance Rand V increases, as aresut V, decreases. Te sae Vjchanges fom Vj,00.and V,cemains constant 80 e=-Ve (1:88) neater carat dha estas Radian shal ino WT (esovecoer oe «poten cee pact ue pes ete att reases slowly and hence V, also varies slowly. Figure 1.52: Wondermefouputaoge age a defined a a decrease in output voltage fom = Oto f= 7/2, Decrease in cunt vo otage across the capactor. Now, relative thor ractonal it Me Te Vn 2RC Be sarm= Mom = ‘eri = 22 «100% | 2 1 1 aut f=gg topo + Htabigh pass circu has ‘waveform. I Tikis high then output waveform vl ifr rom input waveforn, Case + Let AC-<< pulse width (1.9, Ty). In this case V Increases or decreases rapidly. + Output wavetor consists of postive and negative spi + Hence a high pass circuit corwers square wavetor ‘bchaves as efforentiator—excollnt wavesha ‘han pulse width Dedecreuts | 115 (4.302) (1.103) (1.404) (1408) Tt then its output waveform wil be identical to Input In other words, we can say that ime constant ACis much smallor ome) (Comer11g | Becta Eninestng + Ensy Analog Electronics Electrical Engineering ¢ Analog Hlectone*$ _——— 1.232 Low PassRC Circuit Fig. (15) represents alow pass ACirult. Yo gw (1.106) Hoe then 40 Vi=0 Hence cult passes lw frequency by generating outputidentcaltoinpu. The cult also rejects high frequency by generating zero output ‘Now gainforlow pase ckcultcan be calulated a bel: eee A” "Rents Telehe Replacing ACh ganbecaes (1307 Hence magnitude 1.908) andangle ome a +e tyotnecaen [An ocean ee Rok 7 hate (0110) tio then [A|->1 Mioe then |4|-30 .ce low pass cicult provides unity galntofow frequency and zero gino init attenuation to hrequency. MADE ERSY Pubisions Diodecieuts | 117 7 7 a pata + Ansett cto beter cantons atin ery scurevave Response on Let RC << pulse width (10. T,/2) Forlow pass cxcut way, a = Vand V,can etna at ange > A capuchin FERS HSI whee anche ona + Fefomarenalalon psc canbe measecmeme oie ad tie, (113) (tata) (1495)ical Engineering «Analog Electronics = st 2 08 Publications Electrical Engineering_¢ Analog Glectronieyt 118 | FallTime (t) Tenth time taken by output wavelorm ta decrease from 80% to 10%. Forlow pass AC ccut Casert Let RC >> pulse wid (1.0. 2) + Inputwavetorm has de voltage V2. {ion low pass circuit reaches 10 steady state, capacitor gts fully charged to dc voltage present in Input waveform. Thus dc voltage in steady output of low pass circu wil alo be Va/2 and output vwavelorm (steady state) wil be symmetrical wih respect to de voliage. reator then pulse width alow pass circut conver a square waveform into a tiangular haves as integrator —excollent wave-shaping crcut ‘= figh pass AC creutiriroduces tt and ow pass AC eout causes smooth ie {allinthe output wavotorn finputis squarewave. ‘An RC coupled empitir behaves as high pass ccuit at low frequencies and = Distortonin he ouput can be reduced {0 eis ime anda ie o the ampterare negsible. ae i nee eerste wales ake es For nage of shouldbe ver high and ial infinite, (0 1% is potable ama Shwe : For nage % ti (shoud be ver smal andidealy equalto zero = _Trusfordsterenoss ampitcaion of square wavelom ACopled ae hhave avery/large fyand very sme /, and hence shoud a wideband SS Oe 1 219. 1.24 Clamper ai (eee cereal Negative camper (Ads negative DC) Postve camer hs postive 0¢) 1.241 Negative Clamper Figure188 (2) cl Camper Cec () Wavelom When inputs postive, diode operates in forward bias and capacitor charges through diode, i diodes legal it behaves s short cuit and therfore capacicr charges upto the peakinput ‘When input becomes negative capacitor should aischarge but cscharge path snot avalabe so capactor | voltage wll continue to remain V,Thereforeonce capactoris uly charged ts volage remains V,erespectve ot the input being postive o: negative a) Yawn) MAGE EASYlectrcal Engineering © Analog Electronics-l + To overcome the above drawback a iene eee nouns 7 isc soa Drawhack of Practical Camper ‘During negative cycle lode wit be in inf condton tan cancion charges trough esance Aasaresul capaci ola cease nd apes output wavelorm. Hence eat do volag a ae Figure + Negative peak of output gets clamped 100 vot therefore postive clamperis alo peak clamper. ‘+ fdtede has cutn voltage V, then capacitor charges to a voltage (VV). Here nogative peak get clamped to NOTE li, Applying KVL again| VV) t. a can charge upo (V+ V)- Here ctcut adds de votage (V+ Vj) and negative peak ot Sie reference votage (V9) se eT wgels if e = vevomadecospbleatonsorg)EE mabe EASY| MADE EASY Biodecreuts | 123 122 | seca Enieeng_¢ Analog flecronic Ens su 125.1 Voltage Doubler For the network, ekeich v, Find also the time constant Tand show thatthe ‘capacitor does nt discharge Inthe on and off periods. a4 m hat , Fewe147 oad fe ary ae warn. Lat ea ear vavetom tape + Case-t: oe 7 VeninptsnegaiveD, ets lrvardba han capctr Cages tHai0h, Ue ORE Cast ITY, is postive or + Yq tren Vig = Yp't Y= 2 Vp Solution: ‘aden ora poste hal a; 40-V,+2=0, V,=12V eeieaa) 1D operates in forward bias and C, charges through D, upto voltage 2 Vx Sa rretactae ae ly reget cfutlensesy ots en wage V, be preter aoe t 38 a2 Y,eoom Gy Tn \ 12=-2V e I 4 =D wage TAG men ee oe a { 4b} hee ° ” | ‘swing = -22-4-2) =-20 Pure 1.88 When Vs negative D, is foward bas then C, charges through D, upto Vp, When Vis postive oF + Vy Vg = Vt Vp 2 Nop Node Ais at2 Vp ana 0, vl bein forward bia: hence C, charges through D, upto voltage 2 Voy When Ys egative or—Vp Vio * Vp Yn =O Vg = 2%q ‘Dy gets forward bias thon Cy charges though D, upto voltage of Voom Vag = 2 Vq-0= 2 Vp + When V8 postive oF + Via * 2Y q+ V+ Vqn= 4 Yn (G,chazges tough D, upto voiage Vag Vag Vso Vos = 4 Yq? Y= 0 ‘same as nous total swing ime constant RC 0.4 x 10x66 103 © 5.0ms 1 otinput = <1 =1ms Period of input = <5 ‘Aathehal periodof0 6 ms << one cof6.6 ms, the charge onthe capactoris retained both during on tandoff petods. The capacitor gets cschargedin§ + = 28 me. 1.25 Voltage Multipli ac waveform of peak value ¥, and outputs de votage which sani Vp 8 Vou 4 Vp 6 8 called a voltage muti. Vp=DCvotageot? Vp, => Voage doublet Vj= DCvotage ot ¥,, = Votagetiler V=DCvotageot4Y,, = Votagequacruner conyight MADE ERSU124 | Seca egineeing¢ Analog Etcrones «+ instead state voltage Vis present across C, and voltage 2 Vis present across oer th ccapacters. « Devotageof4 V,can be obtained iV is measured across C, and C, combinalon ‘pC outputot 3 V, canbe obiained it V, 1s measured across C, and C, combination. ‘raw the schemate Gecult diagram ofa sic-‘old voltage mutipler. Assuring doa! dietitand Hertical capactor of 10 pF each, calculate the equivalent capactance across the ‘outa terminals ofthe mutiplior. Solution: ‘The circuit lagram is shown below in figure where v= desired utputot the circu espectvey. eRe EE 2%, ‘A sete lier cout Let C be the resutant capacitance across the output. Since CaO, and Ce y= 0, Ce 10 the equivalent capacitance Can be obtained as 1_ 1 Epa To GOT Cs TOF Vo sin(a) and v= 6 Vn are the input anc (&) abity to ghen current in both deecton (©) zeroresistancein both direction ‘cose i does at fall below 6 Vis ay are in series and ( 0a = eon () 0 @ 10 5 Consider the cicutt shown in Figur (0) tthe Ov diev (©) 0:5¥ G1 Inthe cuit shown below the input vas postive and negative swings and v, is te outputthen jonov (4a MADE EASY Scanrectal Engineering _¢ Analog Electronics-t MADE EASY Blecuical Engineering] ° Ani Oe —_————— Publication 126 epss eset | 1.27 as av Pay (@ oka (2a (@ 10% jam (@) S3ma (e) 33mA (© 2ma (oma ‘a.10 Thoideslcharactrsicsctavotagestabzer 0.19 A forward biased Zener cdo benaves a8 @ is (@) tunnel diode (@) constant output voltage with fo internal (0) Schothy doo resltance (6) nociode properties {) constant ouput curent vith ow intemal (6) constant ourputvtiage wihhigh internal 32 relatanco with variable att For ven below, consider the {ollowing statements: /, wil Be similar to ¥, if ee (omaadesnpubionso9 mADE ERS(CHAPTER Bipolar Junction Transistors-Characteristics and Biasing 2.1, Introduction Three terminal devices are far more useful than two-errinal ones, such as diodes stusied early catons, renging tem signal ampifcation to sig way a the terminal device can be used 10 real ‘which i the asc for amp ‘Also. in extreme, the control signal can be used! inal o change from 20/00 a large value, thus allowing the device to act as sw consists of two preunctions, the amiter-base junction (EBY) and the collec “The rans unetion (CL). Depending onthe bas concn forwarcoreverse) ofeach ofthese junctions, erent tf operation of BIT are obianed, as shown In Table 2.1, SNe] weds eB coy ‘apleatons 7 [oot vores bse | Reverso bis OFF ewich 2 [Aawe Forward as | Reverse lat ‘nro “3. | Saurafon | Fowara bas [ Forwrs bles [ON switch “Rrerator [4 [Reso ati | Revers i | Fowas tae ‘Gractosty not uses) | ‘able 2.1 BiTModesofOpeaen Mode refers tothe way how two junctions of BT are biased. + Aswewil soe shorty charge carriers of both polares—tha, electrons and holas— partic Inthe current conduction process in a bipolar vansistor, whic the reason for naming 2.2. Transistors Current Components «+ Fig(2.1) shows various curentcompononts which flow across fowardiased emit juncton 1 ge to hole crossing fom emir into base ing for base into the emir. MADE EASH ea il cen Testor Chaecttesodtaing | 129 Ve Va ‘Figre.2.1 Trenatorcurentcomporentsor ford besed emir incon andareres ase colect con “+ Not al the holes crossing emiter junction Je reach collector junction Je because sore of ther ‘combine wth alecons innype base. ole cuenta J, there must be bulk recombination current Je ge leaving base, 28 + Actually, electoneentar base region through base leading to supply of those charges which have been lot by recombination wih hoes injected into base across Je + emiter were open-circultod so that /—= 0, then Tye would be zero, Under these circumstances, base and collector would act as reverse biased diode, and collector curent/, wouldbe equal othe 29) Jfomlehtoright (base to colecton anc the assumed reference direction fo Fag In {agi agate and fr n-p- transistor, Jog olne various parameters which relat the curent components ciscussed above. 22.1 Emitter Efficiency (7) The omit, o injection, efciency yis defined as po Cutan ofnjcted cars at J. dve to cares of oniter Total emiter current MADE ERSY130 (22) isinjocted electron citusion curent 22.2 Transport Factor (8°) Tranepart factor pis dined as _ Inected carer current resching. Injected carrer curent at Je » Incase of p-r-p transistor we have y= He Bite (23) 22.3 Large Signal Current Gain (a) Largo signal cent gain of common base transistors dtind 9 ratio of the negative of the collect: currentinement othe emit current change from zero (eut-f t01e (24) 85 defined, Is always postive. range of 0.90 9 0,986. ‘pe tee, oy ge He (28) factor and emir efficiency. This statement assumes ‘current crossing Je to hole ists, a= 1 ints active region, then collector (en «Ince regio collector currents essential Independent of caliator voltage and depends onl upon emitter curent. MADE EASY Aiplerduncion Manso Characeitsondiaing | 134 = AIBIT wat behave asa dose Wcolector shored othe base (10. Vzq=0) Suche” BUT s calle ciode connected transistor. fey ef . ‘ e sear ‘ \Whon collector and base are shorted together BJT behaves ke single junction ‘device because current passing through BUT willbe decided by the voltage Vag ‘201088 Je In hie case curant trough ode connected transistor willbe equal te current passing trough Ji. ‘hat reverse saturation curent of the junction at room temperature (300°K)is 10% A, the emiter currents Im Iggottel™ where Teo Reverse saturation curentof Je of “A Ge tanslstor with = 100 has base-to-colecior leakage current Toxo '5uA. Ifthe transistor Is connected for common-emitier operation, find collector current for fp=0 and (I) fy=40pA. Foran npn transitor connoctod as shown inthe igure, Vg = 07 volts. Given # (a)20mA (©) 29m aema (3 sina omnmerons = os) con __ WADE SREY mutes4132 | BeccaLEnaneering_¢ Analog Hectronies oat Oo eee Selution(c) {When two terninas ofa transistor are shorted, tacts as # diode, 2.3 Early Effect \When BUT is biased inactive region the emiter notion (piatevarc-basedbutthe colectrjunctonisrevese- Ye— val biased. heninFig.(2.3)he barr with at J's negate Ives ‘as compared to space-chargs width Wt > “The ranson region tjunetonisaregion of covered charges on both sides ofjunction at postions occunied by impuy aor, As the voltage applied across the junction increases, raion egion penetrates despot into collector and base. As neuvalty of charges must are indicated in base region. \fretaurgialbase wth is then the effective electrical nase with is Wg = Wy -W. This modulation cof eecve base width by collector voltage Is known asthe Early effector, Base width modulation. Consequences of Early Effect ‘The decrease Wg withinerease in reverse collector voltage has three consequences 1. When [ga isincreasd he ative base wth of rarsstor decrases sotherareles chars recombination of charg cars win ba base region, As rasut increases wth increas Wes 2, witidecroasein basen he concetatongasent finery carers increased base. AS we hve, ble vier gc sion cunt ans gen by oP a? fe oe We where Wis efective basewicth MADE EASY coy _umaeenypsieatonsors Bipolar nctionTansstorsCharecterstksandBlasing | 133 ae Winecaaein Male ocean det decease nbacnih As aest beans and iter, Duet this ehoting, the negative votage applied a colactor reaches emiter ‘also, Ths results in heavy current flow which can damage the transistor. = 2.4 BIT Configuration ‘+ Aconfiguration refers tothe way three terminals of BJT are used in api. h 4 eno i nema il # | peters ‘Some oo Figen ‘+ Based upon the reference of common node a BVT can be used hrae configurations as given in MADE EAS‘constant, then n= iV) plotted between ouput current and output volage keeping input current constant negative of those for ap-r-p transis. aie hE 5 @ Input votage Veg nd output curent inte Vig = oo) y= bool) (This equations read, "ls some function of of Vag ans Je") “+ Aqualtative understanding o form af input and output characteristics isnot ficult we consider ists of two diodes placed in series "back to back” (with two cath + Inne active region the input code (emiter to base) sbi (direction. Te input characte of Fig, (28) represent simply the forward characters of emitter to base diode for various col votages. MADE ERS eB Siar uncon Tans Characesisndsiing | 135 ees | by Eat fect, i causes increase n colt Cartent we Vegi koptcerstar. Thus cue | | sts downwards | Va nereases + The curve with colectr open represents the charactrstes foward based miter ode. When the collector is shorted o base, the emir curentinerases fr avon Vey since the collector removes minority carers tom thebese, and honcebbasocanatractmarehales om ear Thsmaarsthathe cavevth Vag = Oisshited downwards o Enter cura mA = ‘igure26 Common basehpucharotsisofanplealpa-p ‘gemanumjnctonranstor ‘Calcot vatage op Ven V — Figere27 tpl connor bose up chrocerisisofaparp toni. (utof echeanesatwotonrepensarendezted Notte erpadedvoage sae nthesaturtioneion nad B) err madeeasypublicaionsorg136 | seer eminewno polar sunction Tansstor-Charactersticsandsiasng | 137 ‘The Input Characteristics mvestorap-nphnetiongermanum | ‘Active Region wr avvte region the colector junction is biased in reverse direction and the amir juncton in forwara cive rogion, the colectorcurent is essetialy independent of colectarvotage and depend _ ‘However due to Farly effect hare i small (perhaps 0.5 percent) increase in cs han, but almost equal to unity the magnitude of the colector cents (tight) ess 262. The Output Characteristics cutoff Region Tr character fo /, = O passes trough the og buts otherwise simaroothor charactors, Th pe cmenates is notcancisen wit voltage ax, though the separation i ciclo show becouse /olt cnet naneampherscrmicroamperes. The region olowandtothe ght he = O charactors: cay rentne nfter end colectorunctons are bohreverse-iasod,srferedtoas cutot region. 2.6 The Common-Emitter Configuration Colectoraitrvtage Vax Vo = Figure 2.10 Typical cman emtveraputchoreterstsofapn pgemanium uncon vans Albadnecrespondng > ‘The family of curves may be cided into three regions. These are active 0 regions. These ae a »eut-of region an: . uy region, cutoff ragion anc ‘tive Region + ‘active regionis the areato the right of he ordinate Ve= afew tenths of volt and above MADE EASS a =electical Engineering + Analog Electronics 138 | _— 4 ee polar Junction TransistorsCharatersticsandBising | 139 change ina has large ft ries are normally eubjeced 0 wide variation even use by the fact that Ji he ference between large and meaty 10 to think that cut-off in Fig. (2.10) occurs atthe intersection of th however wo now fnd that appreciable colectorcurentmay exists under these condtions . [p= -le'= Igo ANd Vag 8 reverse voltage ‘magnitude ie ofthe order of 0.1 Vor ‘and 0 V fora silicon transistor. Saturation Region "The saturation gion may be defined asthe one where colect junction (as wellas the emit unBipolar ction Transistors Choractersiesondiasing | 141 wus stor is (@) Both Statement () and Staterer (@) nermalactve (é) reverse activo 020 0.17 Abiocar junction vansistor wih forward curont “Thevensitronoraina mn Tevet eco tender oa 098 wherwednginCE mode, e ee RES Reason (R): When a waneletor is under @ omen oe cae satan on saa, bots entarbase and (@ exattrogon (0) Satuaion region os (O00 colt bate jncions roman unto (©) duterop00 0.10 Thevansisor givenbeonis operating in 6) Reverse scwerogion 2.18. Assodion (A: he calor curentin a BJT (6) Forward actveregion avQ) 2.13 Ifthe transietor shown In the figure isin saturation. then (©) Ais true but Fis false (0) Ais false but Ris te we Ss. |. Lo 3d) 17.0 1) 19.6) 20.0) (@) Bath Aand Rare true and Risthe correct explanation A (©) Both A and Aare true but is NOT the 0.11 Fortre BUT crcut shown, assume thatthe B ofthe vansistorie very argo and Vge= 0.7 V ‘The mode of operation of BLT is Mee —TronsitorBlesng and Therma Sabzation st | 143 ve Transistor Biasing and Thermal Stabilization CHAPTER 3.1. Introduction In BUT forward cheractrstis, we three regions, saturation, actve and cutof. We also cut-off to saturation and vice-versa. Transistor pecia apy 1alfunctions as amplifier, the BVT should operate jon and excursions ino cut-ofor saturation regions shoul be avoided. ‘Teconfine he operation within active region, a sutable operating pont shouldbe chosen on OC lead ling 50 that when an alerting signal is euperimposed, the peak ofthe posive and negative swings dose rotestendintothe saturation and cutoff region as otherwise the peeks wil get fatoned causing storin «+ Toestabish an operating point inthis region tis necessary o provide approxmete crect potential nas Quiescentor Q-point i established, time varying excurs ‘ampe) should cause an output signal (collector voltage or col Hippedion ones ior characterises. 321, TheDCand ACloadLines reactance atte ‘The capacitances consideredin he In Fig. (8.1) we show a comme cercut (he capactors have negli froquency of operation of this 2 gives the ouput characteristics of the transistor used indsfoe consrs biden Se eet a aan ae Fo. ae open ccted under DC corations so the cxcutcanbereaavn as shownbeow + Notethat event wo areteetochoose AR. Ry and Va, we may not operate the ans eer vst Te Fat Vag 0 in active region because various ansistor ratings limits the range of useful operation. Sa ie RR, oa AOE EASE oa (Coron WAGE EAST muumadeeasypubleations. ongEE 144 jin Collector Current eenYwrosionwanavesoontattriahtrepedictonoinesiawereedastie 33.1 Caleultlon of stablgty Factors) Coase cert wore wean sy tht dooatectr cure oud be aadina pariuar crc xt ee Cora nee MRT RSP REEE aoa aan sehen now hat colctor current canbe given byte folowing equation: ler Le Bigs (1 Mig 2) i. see ao ) we conclude tha 7, is unstable dus tofliowing reasons: ee Webes, A, = Blg+(1 + Blog CO) a electrical Engineering # Analog Electronics ERsy MADE EASY _ Transistor BlosingandThermastabitztion | 1.45 MADE ERSY *Equation(@ 4) i road a8 16 functon of, Band Va” By usingparial ferentiation of Equation (3.4) we have represents the doc stat oad Ine ote crout wine as crowning. 2) Bigg + Be alge + He, Mom aie Meo * ge Moe ag = Al, = 8: Algg + 5 AVgg+ S*AB 1485) -Al,shous be salir which is + Instabiliy n J, has two undesired eters 5) Operating point wl drift or vay along the load line which may resutin distorted output and ‘operating int may move into saturation or cut gion. away may eccur which damages a BIT ‘current (J) shouldbe made stable wit ether stabization or compensation Ino is defined asa line which passes through the de operating pont Q, ‘coresponcing othe collector oad R= RelA. under ac condtions. Tis 8 Ineo opis teverve saturation current elector Difecntating above equation wih respect to J; assuming B and Vaere constant ‘te crease inthe concentration of rinorty cars. + temperature inereases by °C hen /,inoresses by 7%. junction. increases wth increase in temperature ds Ale ep co. += BSB + asp Se 1 Foreach 10°C rieintomparat 7, d0bles. tionco wo se tht variation ntemparature causes change In and a8 sae: Vatiatons in Vee : = 593m 75g en Vecisorearavetage of enitorncton When tamperturenrease By 7 aA 28m im Me «25m + ferry erat 2 as bean Gant Stn doen an + + ‘ince smal stabi actor ie dasrd so ideal stability factor shoud be equa! 01 Hence changes inteperature create change n Vacue to which base curent (i) changes, tom equation (8.2) we conclude that collector current also varies. Variations in «aries einer due to transistor replacernentor duo o variations in temperature transis isreplacedwih another transistor B valve wil vary because itis Pract it to ind two transistors having exactly equal. ven ransistor Balsoincreesas with increase in temporature supra He oy cern orn fe rom above discussion we conclude tat J, is unstable due to variations in Jo, B Stop-s:Substive Ye in $= ep. 1 OS gala ele eae 12 Wee Yoo ®) enadeesspubleators.o a WDE ERS we TRADE ERS a—_—_—— rica Engingeting «Analog Electronies-I1 TransistorBiasing and ThermalStabllztion | 447 146 | Sei Engines + Solution: ea 7 = Fate ‘Stabilty factor: ah Slope of AC lod ine is = =~ a Bei RIAL 6 ‘Operating Point: This may be found Irom the forward characteristics by wing the bias equation As the characteristics are not glen we proceed as folows. ae ‘Applying KVL tothe BE loop 3.5 Fixed Bias Greuit InFig.2.4(a), the base curentis de called fixed Blas as Vac and Fg ae xed {rom supply volage Vazby esr Fy This ypeotbasingis tes.aa _— 148 MADE EASY ‘Similarly by applying KVL in output oop where, a + BVco Ble 39) MADE EASY Transistor Basingand ThemmalStabilzaion | 1.49 3.6 Collector to Base Bias Circuit ‘An improverent in bias stably I obtained if tapping for bias is taken fom the collector terminal instead o! fom the callctor supoly point a shown n Fig. (25). vegan (8) ei (sahvecancaalan® BOR /31"8 Hy 7 et) 2.51. stabity Factor ean 8, a foneraen Gotan Rei i mh ae ° He $o, stabilty factor, rom equation (3.7), 15 ‘toy Sy pet bo avy cor aa te otc ort tine att sew stg A tact cp wees 1B 0 a ayo os cro 8 VOW MO ‘aya <0 4 aevmrewengent ae Pec cicn oentirdet ay is fcaiigA + [EERE cuit shown boow, etna 19) cote anihatt ian rotoravencen iste ap eto (@2and@ 1) ww can cee pring pir grendasa cout. tna votge lam 2A a4 rer 7 AA Stabiity Factor San ied TV ar BV Asante secre aunty an teersing emt (wth tect Woheve Me . Fa Solution: ig ~ Fa + Re poo cane «AV ae Quiescent current = eee Putting above value in equation (3.7), we have: Pa Ea 2 vee = ‘Applying KVL in collector to emitter loop. S= = Vag = Fite + Vee Tepe (8.14) = VoomMos -2=44, -s000 FaRe ot 7 Te 92x10™ ewapping Vt neler bat op 342 Adee Tg Ra Vee * Yoo Here stability factor ls smalier than (B + 1), hence an improvement in stability i obtained aver fixed bias: Ry = Moo Mee. =Vee circuit. 343 Diadwanage oe ye Hee 22-0084 areas coperdsipon i Rbectes ual zon sible aCoTE ey ie aero tree db ri fen ieblgntoa 7040 La et caac: base cae regal edt wih age Sibyl cha acre oie seutcnexes (onrieopaicenag NDE SEES Cems mabe ERSY ‘wodeepbniog)© Analog Electronics 150 | Ss! Ensineetng 37 {en drecton ofreverse-basing he ert junction, Sines this juncton mast be frwarc-biased, the base otage le obtared ron supply trough i, natwor Note that R= FR -+9, ten base to ground age Vays independent off, Under these ocumtances we may vet that SFE For stabity Ri, and Re must be kept as smal as posse raat (0 Snplitatanoftebaseceutin Faby we ofThevenstherem “The given sal-bias cicut canbe simpified by using Mevenin’s theorem. Thevenn's equvalont can found between base and ground es shown inFig 8.6(b). PEE Hoe eee eee ee betes (owaaoeyabeonors TmADE ERS a = bles 37a S —___TenstorBiosngandThemalstebizaron | 151 z vat Frm 4.18) ) em 618) ey [Wee =Veo Tee + Fe)—ToR | (3.19) {By using equations (2.18) and (319) we can easily calculate operating poitor set-bies ccuit ‘Stability Factor Tocalculate stabily facto, ciferenat equation (3.17) wih espectto fe a. ate +R Pating above valuoin equation (3 (3.20) rtage wich accompanies the jecpackcaused by, rantance xa ranclance a feguencee det ‘consideration is very small. teaEaEQVEGEE—_—___ tectieal Engineering # Analog Electronics 152 R= 70-56=14K0 Fromaquaton (3 2) wo can sovetor AR, a nZse0 ga 2A Behe a Wo ind RP = 2.12 ard Ry = 212 14= 29008 a ith, «296K he S<3 re i Shobbase caren’ g'80¥69 By ie 4 vocesets nd femenatre 8} o010. od ree tea ante: may somone (2) 2 shoe rose, estan Fomecuer 0) ‘V = (0.090) (2.96) + 06 + (0.030 + 1.5) (1.4) = 2.83V 2.96%225 - =236k0. A= a8 26%2.83 y= 228828220010 “Resuming that the fof the tansisior Is extremely iarge and Vge= 0.7 V. to Inthe figure are = 0.5 mA, Vog= 8.75 (0) foe 1A, Vop= 4.7 (0) [p= 0.5MA Vee: (0) I= 1 MA, Vee=2.5V (@) f= 05mA Voe=3.9V Ee mradeeasypubaionsor3 XR MADE ERSY TeansstrBiesingand Thermalstabitzaton | 453 MORO cotentone 381 Solution) Yn = allay ter x5 4 Fig = Pll, = Sen ke (e:Bislarge ty ~0) Yee = Veo =teRo —tePe (le=1 a8 I ~0) Yq = 5-22 1-03%1 Ve = 28V Bias Compensation ‘Tne colectorto-base circuit and the sltbiascrcult are used tot the variations in operating colector ‘current caused by veratine in oo. Vee NG B, These crcuts are examples of feedback amplifiers, ‘where is found that asa consequence o feedback thre is reduction in ampification of signal this loss in signal gains itlerebein any particular application. then tis often possible use compensating techniquesto reduce the ciftin operating pont, Very oten bot stabization anc compensation techniques are usedito provide maximum bigs and thermal stabilization, Diode Compensation forV,_ Actcultutizng sol bia sabllzaton technique and ode ‘compensation s shown in Fig. (3.7). The iodeiskopt biased Inorward eect by source Vayandresstance A Ifdode |sofsamematerial andtype asthe vansistori, then votage V, across diode will have same temperature coaficient (-25mVPC)as the base to emitter voltage Vachave. lHwe write KVL around the base circuit of Fig. (3.7), thenMADE EASY Transistor BiasingandThermalstabilztion | 455 154 | Seca endnceing_¢_ Anson slecronir MADE EASY saat oooeweee-—o Punestors Diodes are used to compensate which of the following transistor cicut 382 Diode Compensation for lig ‘The diode compensation circu shown in Fig. (38) otter stabilzation 2. Mee a8 r9 Used to compensate ep and Vqe due to variation intemperate. | ‘But thermistos and sonsstrs are used o compensate against vatations in, and Vee (822) =v Since te diode is reverse biased, i follows that the eurret through = 1-15) 90wehave (©) 19and47V (@) 98 and 4.7 V esentaly constant. 383. Thermistor and Sensistor Compensation “There isamethod of ransstr compensation which inahves the use of terperatue-senstive resistive elements rather gure 3.9 Thermite comperston Cliinceasenlethtemperate tis found experimentally thatthe steady-statstemperatuerse a callectr junctions proportonato he ower dissipated a thejunction, or here Tjand T,arethe junction and ambient temperature, respectively n degrees centigrad the power in wats ssipatod at collector junction. Te constant of proportional scaled resistance.aE ~—S ase | Steve Eanetng_ + Analog Hecronert MADE EASY ecicalEngineering_¢_Anelog Hestonicyt _ es ietors | MADE EASY i vlatens ————_—_______ensitorBisng ond Therma Stolen + Thevalue of thermal resistance depenc ize of transistor, on convection or radiation to the ‘ = 157 crncnoge enforced cooing (ved), ancon the teal connection fhe device to metal Conon to prevent thermal runaway canbe obtained by contin equations (3.26), (3.27) and (3.28): 80 7 Veo" 2d Rg + R)-S-(007 log) < 3 aay In Equation (8.28) righthand side is a positive quantty and this wl be ' wil be possible on Voo~2d +R) $0 it ‘Add Voc on both sides, BVpg 2 (e+ R$ Vos ve - ide, Ay s Yoontd hes Ry = ¥E ‘She supoledinmandacue’s epectcabon dae a * vas és indeatodn 79. (240) Z| Euston (30) geste condone avd hal naw, 29.3. TheCondtionfor Therma Stability ‘Wonow obtain terestictonstobemettinernainnaway ©2040 ¢® e100 at whi neat can be dsspatd at, 2 « am <3, swe cterntat Equaton(2.2) wth eopectaTand ests EqUaton (2.25), wecbian ae LS ape anatehanel eile eoletor current is fg==1 A. Fn i pm : (0 tv tel and ‘This condition must be satisfied to avoid thermal runaway. (1) the largest vaDSEL@ At con rout nse stable ofoUES 26, Ble a BF” We Bos’ aT, Now we have, Re OE @ Be = TE S07) i ue @.10 Tocalclte 3 conscer BUT creut e (Poneramplerwthavanstemerciped oad)—EE————___ gp | Stel tgnning + Aly Hee weet Yq woe sate9 ye t0-5 o R708 oy Shon Ma 40-15=25> Ml =20V, te chancoutlontneny sate The sity face Scared om oon 170005 943 S= Ot gre, 000/5~ ‘Substtuing in equation (2.29), we obtain (40-241 19) 043) 007X5%109 < 5 @<809" OW [BIT is biased with @ power supply of 12. For minimum heat dissipation, (o) ov (@) >9Vbut<12V @ Sentinel isp, evant shad be eolded om thermal rr-way. ae 2 Ves Ves 2 Ves 6V Integrated Circuits (ICs) refered tobias BVT in amplifiers which are formed on PCB Salfiasci ot be used io bia BITIn ICampifers because Rare Fae larger ‘andtheyrequre greater area of soon hip. “The chip aoa required io fabricate a resistrie proportional othe valve ofesistance, 1 Tetabriate higher resistance arge chip areas required; therelor BIT is biased IC am using special cout krown a8 curent io Constant Current Source (Current Mirror) 3.1 (0, and thus establishes a vollage across intum appears between the base and emir of ‘Since Q, 1 identical 0 ,, he eter curent of wil be equal emiter cent of 2s ‘appcoximatoly equal yr (cwnimadcenypubetonsor eo. ant (va tft p= UA. “Thus, we can say that as ong as Q, is maintained inactive region, ts collector current ‘Analysis TransitorBising and Thermalstablization | 159 ‘The colectorcutents Jo, and Jo, fr transistors Q, and Q, canbe approximately expressed as fq ole ey = ego 331) 2) From equations (81) and (3.32) and we may wite “ Fox nie aos (333) Since, Vee, = Veep we obtain ie ‘eo since bat the ransistrs ae KGL atthe colactor of 0, aves he = Te, a,+ lop es) a let tea ew t(142 Tete ge del 5 48.5) Solving equation (3.36). may be expressed as B Te=ges lar Be 635 whet fom Fig (8.12) ean be eoen tobe = oa Yar Ig eM a YE (08 Vg 07 V8 ra) 37) Solution: (From equation (3:36), we have soma = 125_,,10-07 waa" A, A, =9.18kQ, (2) ln using equation (336), he valu of Fs ound tobe A, =915kO { almost uni ana the output current /, is equal to the ‘constant, Typical, varies by about 3% for 50 << 200.EE 60 | Seal Esncerng_¢ Analog Electrons maADE EASY | MADE EASY Poptestone TeanslstorBiasing and Thermalstabization | 161. 3.12 Widlar Current Source ‘The basle current miror of Fig. (@.12) has a fitation. ‘Whenever we neediow valve curent source, te value of the resistance Fi, requredis suticieny high and can not ‘fabricated economically in'C cicuts. Fa) tov icra ih parody hore ForB>> 1, ine erteriedl Oy Hean besos at ‘Assume Veg = 10V, Vae=0.7 V, B= 125, Uso V;= 25m\. than Veg, and ii Solution: For the Wilercuent source of Fig. (3.13), wo must fst decide a suitable valve fry we choose “Taking natural logarithm ofboth sides, we oet Vac, = Vetn{ 2 momo vol = From equation (339) and (3.41), we obi 3.13 Current Repeaters i a eee ta* ‘Alton between, andthe relerence current obained by wring KCL athe collector point (ode's' ag = Hey Tot ty (Assuring B= 8; = Bforisortical transistors) Inthe Wiel exrent source Joy << 1, therefore theterm Jo, /Bmey be neglected in equation (3 7 ts tated)Engineering # Analog Electronics MADE EASY 162 | see! MADE EASY TonsitorBasngandThermalsabtzaton | 163 SE Tipesi ace ren ao Te Ta Ta, By mange orate ae ay gst O, 0, Oy The sna can alsobe achieved by usngemterresstance as } b inthe Wilt curent sures. oes DS rg Resume B= 15. si owe: ktioncmoo0e seluon: Ie, isso eau to — Me=Mye . 9-070, hal casino 1a, = flu lol 103) 5) : 113) em getsessscerabe 4982) Caleitefy sngocuaten 43) (853) 194 = Selvin transcondentl equation byt Tey = 0.0287 mA 354 3.14 Wilson Current Source (958) “Thetal ouvert couceshownin (8.18) roids an ourputcurers which near eau gn : deo oats avery righ outputs. Tresitorence iota aca os) 3.14.1 Analysis is extremely small ertor for modest values of B. The output resistance of a Wison current mir ssiee Vac, = Vary Toy = Te, 206 Io, = Jey “Te =e Se ve esr gost (= 92) Hasire ir cut: (Geopymane MADE ERASE pins)Q4 The it ‘below shows current mirror Provides. Tagen See sapere 2 on fo 7 ema that the emit area of transistor O, is halt than that of ansistor 2, = 1A Vee =0.7V, the (@) 10Ka, (@) Ska 2 Forthectroutin igure, values of ard Veg ©) 931Ka (6) 45540. (@) 95.1 yA.2V 9 a (&) 95.1 pA,102V. as of vansistorinthe Sed x t a @ toms (6) 25s (© some (© 100m MADE EASe MADE EASY Transistor Bisingand TheemalStabilzaton | 165 Q.7 When a voltage divider biased ampifir has ‘Select correct answer using the codes given (o) 1.3and4 (@3.4.5end6 os 2 make the operating point of transistor independent of temperature variation of ‘transistor. as folowing statements: The bias 3) make the operating pointindependent of replacement of te sare type, GeorS. Which of the statements given above are mmitterbias amplifier crcut improves by 1 decreasing the value ofA 2. increasing he value of Re. 3. decreasing the value of Re 4, increasing the value oF. ‘Increasing he value of Re. Which ofthe above statements are correct? 2ony _ (b) Zand only TendSonly (6) 1.2and3 Q.13. Assertion (A): A frodbias BIT circu exhibits (@) 1ana2 (©) Sands (0) 2and3 (0) 4end5 In a waneietor biased inthe otthe correct explanation ofA (©) Ais tue but Ris falco (6) Ais aise but Ris tuo 2.14 Statement (I): The bas stablty of sat bias _mpitior circuit canbe improved by ncreesing the values ofboth baseresitor (and omiter resictor (7) of Vag with temperature Variation of hp with temperature Variation of eg with temperature ‘Variation of Pipe with transistor replacment Variation of Vpe with transistors The base resistor (provides voltage to baseterminal and emitor resistor (F) which provides negative feedback fg with transistor eplacement166 MADE EASY Both A and R are Tuo but Ris NOT the false : (@) Statement (is false but Statement (I) is tne. ‘Assertion (A): The operating poirtintansisor Reason (R): Reverse satur ‘appromately doubles for every intemperate 3) (@) Both A and Rare tue and As the corect explanation of A or BJT as an Amplifier (CHAPTER | ‘Based upon the value of signal variation, ample can be ciassiied in wo typos: (@ - Smallsignel apitior 198 inthe value of AC signal wit respect to DC value. An than the DC value is known as smal signal amplifier.= erresenamoter | 169 168 | Seca Enoneaing_ Analog lcroiet 4.2. Graphical, Fig. (4:1) shows basic bipolar verter ceut welch Includes a sinusoidal signal source in series wi (43) It vag << Vp then we can expand the exponential tem in Taylor series, keeping only the linear terms, ‘This approximation s meant by small signal. We then have (44) 45) 00 large, then the output signal furrent then produces a time-varying Induces an ac collectocemiter votage as shown inthe igre The ao ‘colectoremiter votage, oF ouput voltage. in than the sinusoidal input signal, 80 that the creut has produced ‘r= ti] «Revers voage gil BT when pt ade open cute.EE ————_ _ MADE EASY MADE EASY para esanamentet 05171. 470 | etl Engineering + Anton Hectic af], -romangmtsemarnimannnwecesnani = Output conductance of BUT when input node is open circu. cc | vaooa | 2160) a 2910" cr | 208 aeyan | 040uAN wor | 200m 432 [Approximate Conversion Formulas for Hybrid Parameters (48) [tears mat | (49) Iie = (1 Me) Poe = Pow te Peay 44.10) te signat-souce resistance, Te mpedance we i amplifier input impedance Z, oF ote: TC praretrsnteesct C8 parartrsarecbsndy ichargng hess Pardo the sboweiabe : 431 4.4. Analysis of Transistor Amplifier Circuit Using h-Paray | tis ey nacassry to conect an exert ose wo-potscwerehor (a2) Hence (4.13) Substutng, In equation (4.13), we obtain 14.14) 44.15) roses ee mae ian (10 aaah thlondcitace Y= the input impedance is a function of the load impedance. Peete Voltage Gain orVotage Amplification (416) MADE ERSu :MADE EASY ssresenAmpiiter | 473 172 | Eecicl Egineing Analog Frem equation (49), weave A Az AZ a 462%) Zz isthe curent gain fran ideal cunt source (one wth nite AAA. Voltage Amplification A, by Taking into Account the Source Resistance R, ‘This overal votage gain A,, is defned by fs, he voltage and curert gains, taking source impedance Zz Acs An (422) Aya Melb taa M (as) ‘The reatonship is obtained by dividing equation (4.18) by equation (4.21), andi valid, provided the From equivalent input crit ofthe amir, shown in Fig 4.6 (a) current andvolage ganeratorshave same soutce resistance R YZ, Ye ZR 446 Output Admittance REO KE By denon, the output impedance Z, = 1/¥, is obtained by seting source voltage V, to zero, load Ae A pa Ra 638) Impedance 2, oinfnty and by civing he output terminals fom a generator V, ifthe cutentcrawn fom i +P Yet tren where equation (4.17) has been used. Not that. =O; then Ay, = A Be tees ain or an deel voltage source (one wih zero interna restance),Inpact 2 if ih VjaOand A == 423) iy, the source resistance has an Pecan ral votage ampiticaton. For example; resistive and equal magnitude to, 7 weniger 428) 7 A i FromFig. (4.5). with = 0, ey | i r Fuh ehh +h v=o a fe . non wy 4@ Ea 28% hee 628) . L iE Substiutng the expression for equation (4.26) in equation (4.24), we obtain + Fr aR 2 7 Re MA2n) Fure-46 rouccotlavoniseramolsing a) Tenniiequaetrbesouctond (Noone of source resistance. tthe source impedance’ resistive, load Z, external tothe ampli ithe output 445. Current Amplification A,, by Taking into Account the Source Resistance R, rte input source's a Curent generator, inparall wih resistance A, as indicated in Fig 46 (0) this overall current gan Ais defined by c FromFig.48(0) ma 4A Ao 7aR m% aS ADE ERS e ADE ERSaEE——__ 174 | Seva nsec + analog Beconert mabe EAsy | MADE ERS srrasanampter | 175 Curent gain (A): 1 ad ne ratio lege 0 = TT NTE Ryg ATR” 1420010 AT RIO? Inputimpedance (2): “Applying KYL in inputioop “The h-parametors ofthe transistor y= 110 y= 2 Solution: Recrawing the AC equivalent ercult = + Ng Xx AT HQ) x 10° 100.548, AxAT 100548%4.7 Zz 18 Votage gain (A, ‘Output impedance (Z,) ‘Stop 1: Disable external sources presenti the input ‘Stop 2: Dieconnect load resistance Fi rom output ercult. ‘Step 3: Astume that votlage Vs applied at ouput por and curent fowing info output rode thon Rlvcalodted 8 V7, tea L A 4 2 | mF Ema VOD mi ue % | KL etx rode Tem BV Ih 7 Benen de grid 0 Inploop 7040) + 18401 + HV, «0 oore + oh 2x10 ¥, * Beem” 256% 10°EEE 476 | Seta Engieeing_ Analog Becton 45 ‘We can then relate the smalsignal input base current to ‘he small-signal input voltage Poptesons = Wwe mati rand g,, we ind using these new parameters, we can develop a simplied “Remember: The resistance ris called afuslon reslatance or base-emitter input resistance. “We note hat 168 functon of point parameters. Jar transistor we intally consider the c ‘the output colecter current isindepend function only ofthe base-emitter volta 169n= BME tea, Teo cae srresenampiter | 177 4432) (49) ay A ann Mal eM iv) (61)178 | Hlectcal Engineering # Analog Electron Il. i ves oe as cto ene RE Edel een Ce ee ee arg tecunruaaecy co ® Figur 4.10 Filer estsof Ting the cuputresance 446.1 Expanded Hybrid-Tl Equivalent Circuit Fg, (4.11) shows an expanded hybrid equivalent orcut, \Which includes two additonal resistances rand ews (en open crcl). However the resistance does provide some feedback be ‘ut and input which means thatthe base currents slight function of emitter votage. Puntesion asTasanAmplifier 179——————————— MADE EASY Pigre-4.12 Acommonemitercecat wit vaage diver biasing cet ond coupling cpactor ‘Te potac equivalent ckcultot above transistor we wil fallow the flowing steps ‘Replace the transistor by its equivalent crcut All de voltages should be short-circuited. ‘+ Allcoupting and bypass capacitors are ac shor-crcut ‘equivalent ckcuitin which the couping capacitor is assumed tobe a short-cic thecrcuitshown inFig. (4:12). (Assume the transistor pararntersare: B= 100, Vagyn)= 0.7 V. and Va 100 Sohition: DC Solution: MADE EASY sstesonAmpliier | 481 = fag 0952109 _ Son e006 SAY and Ye 100 sas O° Tq 085x107 ‘a deection which produces a negative output voltage We can relate the contol voltage V, tothe input votage V, by avotage divider. We have, Figie4.14 Two portequnaencreutfortheorler NOTE 7 Consider the wo: por equvelent Grcul showninFig (#14), We can determine he fect ofthe source resistance Rn cor win he amplifier input resistance: R,, Using ¢ votage-dvider equation, we find he nput voltage tothe amps 187 es =0780 = (carsas)™ -07% ero ce184 | Flctice Engineering « Anatog Electronics Using the exact expression forthe vol Arn > Reon se wo assure tat INF, >> Read f>> Re then (479 Ante (400) which isthe cern gin othe ranean 4674) 4.10 Common-Base Amplifier signal curont gain. The current gains dened as (478) (676) “arn al current gain, as fotows:ing_® Analog Electronics: MADE EASY ‘Teak ats F approaches ny and Fi appronahes 7, ho ho coord di becones ne soreereu cert gan wich hen by = So Bn Aon TB 148 iy tere ais the conorbase cent ga othe venir Ife write a KCL equation at input we obtain, b= es aaaleronieav 1 Trento, Rano rages en) Fo. (420) howe acreutvedia caste cup Areniace. Theindependen sauce, haa bons tates z00 iting &KOLequten steno wo fd (42) the indopendont source gn also Z8r0. Consequenty the terminals 483) MADE EASY 4.11 Multistage Amplifiers There are many possible mutstage coniguations; we wil examine some of therm here, inorder to Understand the typeof anaysis require. 4.11.1 Darlington Pair Configuration near pico we dst hw a pr ant wh much ge cre ob g 4.28) shows mat-rnsisor confgurason caled Dartington pars Darngtn configura, ‘that provides increased current gain. oe y 5 ea e |y i. He » 7 + + 0 “f Fgure-4.26 ()Darngtonpacontgrton()Smalsgnlequventct Todetermine te small-signal curent gain (asa) Therefore, 405) bust (4.86) Theourputourentis —— y= GVe, + rel eg = Be BI +B) (47) where, Joly =Bp The overall curent gains, MADE EASY Sani) Come a)ssresonampltter | 193 (4.89) \hich'ssame ast or single-stage common-emitor ampli, This resutis expected: ‘gain of common-base circuits essential unity own in Fig. 427 (a). The © amie (2) Students Assignments 2.1 inthecroutshawnbelow capactor C, ie used wean K0L onto et wef 3 ee Dn = Me (40) Soin for conta voiage Vey (rating hat Ye, =¥), Yq = % . Me ") ao) ae where, Be Saf. The euputvolgs Yo= Ore Yo= Gm On (492) “Therefore, te smasignal vege gainis 4 EachtrarisorinDarngtonpairSeoFg, bow) aaa has Pye 100. Te overal Pg of composts oe og) Aun ipa dear transista neglecting the leakage cures is conn) (ccooran MADE ERSYMADE EASY 194 | Becca Engineering Analog Electronics ae Select corectanswor using the code given below: +t 0.7 Consider the ftlwing parameters ofahyorid- equivalent cuit BT 4. Tanecancctnce (9) parameters vary with sm increase)? Select he correct answer using the code given below: (@) only and 2 (B) only2and3 (© onlytand3 (@) 1,2and3 2.8 ThevotagogainA, ofthe cicuitshown bolowis tesistanoe Fl ho ovr anecondveace gain of -1 MAW, a volage gain of ~4 and aurasonanoiter | 195 Both Aand are rue and isthe correct in class Amods. The Q point cannot be fhked near Io=0. Reason (Ri): The poste hal cyclo the input They arerealrumbersat audio requences 1 2. They are easy tomeasure 3 They vary widely wih temperature ane ey oma) (aUe Basic FET Amplifiers ipsa eet St estas The output votageis CHAPTER} Ve== Gn Ven GoTo) : 0 “The input gate to- sauce votage s a), v= (ata) sot smatsgna votage ganic Pe Yoo 10V,R, = 70.940, % Per 1V.K c OSMAN and O01" Rou R= a { Sotaon: J 1¢ Calewatons: «C a Thedeorquescent gee t Vaso Vint Thesmal-signal raneconductance gals then Bn 28 ¥o- Yn) 2 20s)e01-15)198 | Hlectical Engineering © Analog Electronics ‘The amplifier nput resistance ie Hence the smal-signal voltage gainis Av nll) aa = an rolls (5298,) ~ A= 8.62 Input and Output Resistance: The anpiirinptresistanceis A= Aille=7091201 2208 ka andthe ampli cup resistance is y= Fall’g=5il100 = 470 4a 52.1 Common Source Amplifier with Source Resistor ‘Asource resistor, tends o stabilize the O-peint against vanatons in transistor parameters[Fig.(5 3) However, source resisio also reduces the signal gain faon n which he body effect shouldbe taken nto account. 110-6 V supply <0 tha the body and substrate {terminals re not at same potential. However, nthe folowing example, we wil neglect his effect. SS BasieFeTAmpliers | 4.99 Determine the small-signal voltage gain of a common-source circuit Containing a source resistor. Consider the circuit in Fig. (6.3). The transistor parameters are: Viv 0.8 V, K,= 1 MAN? and d= 0. awe: Smatgalquvaetcauto WMOSconmen owe angler ue rst soliton: FromDC enayss ofthe cut, we fda Vagg= 150. gg =050!MA arid Vag 6:25 The small sional ransconductance is y= 2K [Vas Vp) ™ 2(1)(1 50-08) = 1.40 maN ‘nd amalsignal resistance is Wo =-Onles Weng KVL equation rom neinpt around he gat sce lop, we nd Y= Var OaNedR,= Vel GaP) « Vye TanbE ERSU = in MABE ERSS ———caacopumanniag) (econ——————- 202 | Ext ngieeing_¢_ Analog Econ t mabe EnsY | MADE EASY —__tasicterampites: | 203 Tre outages a es) 12 (a0 tog # KV equation om pata inten = 7 ‘ee, ouveteil 7 ro) ‘rere, hegaetbsaucevotages Teoupuresisarcistten sto 610 a 7 % 4 610 fe Tolle | a BS aia mal signal volago gan aserce lowe crautinFG. ‘Te Vs irltosto source rouvotage\, by panune mat ne creutparametor are Voy 12V Fy = THD, R = 489 KLANG 0.75 kans ho vee (Ba \s tas) | Yarsata parameter are Vy. 5 V, Ky= 4 mANE and 2x0.01 "Also assume Ryd ko =F where =I, s input eistance tthe api. So, we have the smal-signal votage gan, ‘Selene ‘evs ani eeu ae fg = 797 wand Vag = 281 The ssignlvarsconditance i ants (ata) — Vio To, Fe Gn = 2 .Vason Vp) = 218) (2.91 a=) a svar vans rsetanceia - Tag Re ir) Tp loot =110.0 z ‘pe pring restanceis Bs 53:1. tnputand Outputimpedance Th smat gral cage gan hon becre aon ae ona pa eawtance is dened nig. 6.8 (0) whichis he Tove equal ot bias aa a ar ee (pep risarc ho gate of MOSFET i esoraly nine, be rps, i Tenisarces oo prone ons ofoc ay = Aa ae — Ce ee me — Tare” “irernagnas artis sal ioral olape panes han Tend poave, wich means niin, oe $y en Ou tra ne ouput sgl votage sn pase wih he not 7a vlage figuration re: eens fxotebrsgeset ocaeute ne atonal ott eitarce we ot andoprde’ salsa sources ea Teeeppy etstieage tse cub Sreearcatee cut Eee meron emote tm ouput imetare's po caro ih i otredby nee en Writing @ KCI. equation at output source terminal produces Figure 10: c) Common gatecreut oe)BasicFeTAmplites | 205 Bg te Fora common gato arcu shown nig (510), detomine a auipalvolago ik ——-2 i Me for @ given input current, Assume that the circut parameters are: Ig=1 MA, V+ = 5 V, Ve = BV, Ta Fg= 10040, Fy= 40 and A= 1040, Th arltr paramore ar: ys 1, Ky= 1 MAN! and h “ . ne Em = Consider tat input of 100 sina nA and = 504. fp + Tagore wre eager econ Fe: 6) Sse tte ane To log=RiVocy- Ya)? Te ouostvotagois 5 sen =o) Fell A) Wing KV equation rune Vaso *2V n= 2K Vaso Vi) =2(1)(2=1)=2mav whera1=~GaVqr The gate \, 9) We can wie he ouputourentas ‘The small-signal votage gain is found o be as 1(gx) (%) A= te Galella or) ‘The output votage is Vp = I, £0 we find. Tie [| fa_) (aah a-Be(aa) (esta a) We may nie that >> Rand >> 1 ten te eztnt gain essential unity * Common Oat for Example 6 and 8.7 54,1 Input and Output Impedance le ‘The lnput resistances defined as Ipgg= 8A, Vog=-2V Yor4Virgem A= 8 Cpa" 2PF, Cyy BF, Cy = 0 Cun 8 pF Og,= 6 pF Find the lower cutoff frequency due to C, only (a) 183.7 Hz (b) 239.5 Hz (¢) 238.7 He (@) 1885 HeMADE EASY soser#ranplies | 207 eases Cre rand Z, of the creult are respectively Bma@and 2 kA (©) nfinty and 2 Ma. \ « (@) 2 Ma and 20/11 KS. (@) infinity and 20/11 ka. Soition:() 2 iajgtgeonssa Z-2Ma 1 2 238.732 y= Glo =20K 2k ka. FARSI hss “The higher cut-off frequency due to input capacitors is Tp and Vo, under DG conditions are respectively (sae Deena TEV ‘aroma ard (sense (9 oarsre (Asmat (@ Sasmaana7S¥ sets) sete Pa rom Seomatn Ie Pain Vege 2¥ fe Rry= Pale y Bo Ont Gt Ow ‘p= tox('-¥8) Cra hlxcSpacarestot= 1-4) Co i a3 : 8 Gt Oigt 0A) Ge = oft-(SJ] ser o Goer + hee ES LG Vos = Voom tp Ro = 20- 5.625 MA x 2k0 u ao Me oot + 1 ta” Bang, i Given for a FET, g,,=95mA\, total capacitance = 500 pF and voltage {tin of =30. The bandwidth will be (©) 6.3 MHz (@) 3MHz ‘Common Data for example 6.8 and 5.9 Given (y= 2040, fpgg= 0A, Vy =-BV aw = 63MHz Note: As with the BUT common-base circu the MOSFET commor-gatoampitir is useul ithe input.1 The transfer characteristics of a JFET is shown inthe gue, for Vy = BV. Thevalves Oleg Vy 2.3 Fora.common source circuit shown in figure, theinputand cutputimpedances are, (@) amAVol — (B) SA, Vol. (© 5mAovot — (@) OmA.-4 Volt 2 Lomlrequency smal-signl FET modelis, 2 ° N40 oe Ye . wl (0) Go= Gro cr (8) p= Gre Pubkeations aa sosicFeTAmpites | 209 a7 Which ofthe following are the characteristics foe HOV lortinn a bipolar junction varsistor 7 ‘ (b) tarda pot i. 2ends —(d) Senda * as lve ofA, required to sol bias 4 he fan W channel JFET with V, = ~10 V, = os Togs = 407A and Vasg=-5V? (@) 2900 (0) 5000 + (© 7502 | (@ 1500 2.9 In ampitier applications, FET is oporated in the (2) controlled resistor region (0) controlled source region (6) avalanche breakdown region (@) none these below, atabias pointof 2.10. In FET levice data for M: device {a) both the junctions are reverse biased transconductance parameter (0) one uncton s reverse biased andthe other 40 uAIV2, threshold Apeverdbiesed (©) one junction has reverse bias on both fs ofthe junction {@) one junction has reverse bias on one side % and forward bias on the other Ingst tA Vya-5V (Assume C,, Cand 6,0 be very large) @ +8 ©) -18 ow 2.6 —Thesmal-signalrosistance le, aVs/a.)in ‘channel MOSFET M 20 2 40 6 70) BO) Br M8 mevnaan af tetera postdocs eae shown inthe igus (a) 128 O35 ox 1 paEES MADE ERSH const) (Ccsorste MADE EASY ‘wvaradeesypblstons or)Frequency Response Re or rl galley Frequency Response | 244 the gain is almost constant, The 1d gain. The bandwidth of the arpiior (et) sForbetierperiornance oan amp, bandwith mustbe root Alargerbanawaih indicates better reproduction o input signal ie. higher qually of signal ‘nan ampiiier “Gain BW product (GBM)"is alvays constant ‘= Thophase sitforihe signalin misfrequency regions 180 atlower cute requency vy vi wy Vi joa ([amm THADE ERS a——E—————— MADE EASY FrequencyResponse | 213 212 | Hela Engineering ¢ Analog Electronics MADE EASY ~ 61) « 6.48) where, 80, relative gan of am 16.18) Butas we know that, ‘ = [fe] 617) Wel = |e Hence gan ofthe ampliiorathigh frequencies is Wel= ps 6.8 nol saa 623. High Frequency Analysis of Multistage Amplifier Trereaegatanptera non tequnoy grey Identical stages are cascaded nor-interactvey thon the ys gven by Yin a multistage ample ‘nur relative gain of multistage aria lAe| = Ifthe frequency of operation f= f reduced to V2Electrical Engineering ¢ Analog Electronics 214 ‘Squaring on bath sides, Aer saving, we have wert |e member: « iin=21non fj = 06M, Sthen fi = 05tty 1 inarutsiage ampli higher cut requeney reduced 624. Low Frequency Analysis of Multistage Amplifier Thevclave gan ofan ample stow requery is oven by lel = qe 1) h-(F) Wr numberof such stages ae cascaded nornleractivaly, then (619) fe BW = fy= for BW fy) FreavencyResonse | 215 (62) (620) (622) ruttstage amplifier bandwidh is reduced due to decrease in higher cut requency and Equation for cut-off frequencies in a multistage amplifier designed with'n’ number of ; noridertal egtrcing pe lel = = Lower cut-off frequency, cater +i, He (6.23) Ifthe frequency of operation is =f, then above equation gets modified to _are lower cut-off irequencies of individual stages. + 20 srcsnnte omenatowocan ae : ~ santas. wo 7s oe [oe es aa scones) | Connon SEE216 | Hectic Engineeing © Analog Electrons: (628) (627 "= The major dissavariage of single stage empilier is that produces small gain bandwith produc. To get larger GEW produc, apis are connected In = B.S ed Frequency fesponse | 217 put terminals ofa network itcan bereplaced Impedance 2, int output 3 7 Fgure-6.4: Perino Miler Theorem Here values of Z, and Z, canbe calculated as flows: SRE STON, IF Y, > Vg hen J, flows into 2", 80 FREER wen two iene stages win uppercut frequency are cascaded, overall euf requercy fat (a) 14 (b) 20, trae {Daher (Say A, = VAN) Sotto: ge’ cutot requenyin mutstage ampsors when cascaded gon by | oo) « 2 cascade amplifier have Individual upper eutot | est approximation forthe upper eu Hequercy ( 330mHe {@ Soom 46.30) (631) € co) sonmadesspubeatonson)made EASY 216 | ee Engneing_¢_ Analog Betronier ne | MOTE” [#77 Sunposeinhe mers heoremiZ happens tobe capactor. then mpcants wit |B, “ee i “ y= a os Figures Here C, and Gare given as C.=CU-A) one e.c4e? (632) where, oe Ses SS [BREREIER dan se cpectrce onion Tio ZF Aung wren not 2, vats the put capactarce due to Mile io!” (b) 40 pF | 12 PF (d) 10 pF 0 ‘capacitance due to Miler efoct = (1 ~A)Cay=[1= C20) x 2pF = 42 PF 6.4 Frequency Response : BJT Bot bipclr ansistors and FETshave ternal capacitances tht infuence the high-frequency response erverut. In tis secon, we wil st develop 2n expanded small-signal hybrid-r mode! of bipolar ‘enetstorby taking these capactances into account We wl then use his model analyze frequency characterstos of bipdlr transistor Expanded Hybrid-ITEA Fig, 65 (a) shows an npn bi 6a, in common-emiter configuration, along wth smal-signal asso integrated circu ‘and’, 8" and! points o °) ‘gure 46: [)Common-emiternentipclarrarssrwith sma sgrlcmesandvateps (Cotsen ofp ipl reir rere cs) MADE EASY rent Gain ‘smplfied equivalent crcutf rane n which wehave neglected paastioressiances re roan. & Colvin eitance and subatatecapactance C, Also, the caletoris connected ‘wsignal ground, ‘Pure-69:Stliedybrit-nequvaet cel ferdetermining the short-cut an iting KCL equation at nput node, we find that, re ae vfime.+ca] (63 Jal, jot, a MADE ERSS ‘eedeepibtonso)FrequencyResponte | 221 ‘A bipolar transistor has parametors fy = 180, C, =2 pF and G, = 0.8 pF and {ig biased at log = 0.5 mA. Detormine the beta cut frequency. Solon: jehave, = Bole. 190(0.028) (635) Werave, Teg 05x08 OKO So beta cut frequency is 1 7 9° Fale, 30)” Bex Trio x(OS+Dx10* (637 omg From equation (5.28), we ean write tho smal-signal curren gain inthe fm nye (oar "e ( = (eat) oe ( (e29 6 ‘The magaiude ot Myis gainis ut, 28 we hava previously assumed. (642) rent gain magnitude. The corner frequency, which ato Atthe cut of frequency fy (40) = 643) Normal, >> 1, which pies that >>. Then equation (6.4) can be writen as Bob j * 4044) cated b transistor. There, tom equation (6.44), the outa in-bandwidth produc ofthe transistor, of more comronl the unty-gain bandwith From equation (6.40), the unity gain bandwith is Z 1). oe i “seca CG) {648} Jhows the phase ofthe current gen. With increase in frequency, high frequencies, the collector curent ‘ADE ERS Coon) con MADE EASY ‘wow madecasypubliationsorg |TheC, capacitance sdotemined as fy= 79a which yo, NOTE Ls, Silay wo Gan calculate the small-signal current gain forFET. The capac Cand Cy represent the interaction beween gate and chanoo iverson, er source and drain terminals, respectively the devices biased innosat Tegion and drain to source voltage Is small, the channel inversion charge ‘appreximataly ufo, which means tha, MOSFET with parameters K,= 0.25 MAN, Viy= 1V, 2= 0, Cp, 0.04 pF and G,,= 0.2 pF Assume thet traneietor Is biased at Vag = 9. ‘Seition: The transconductance is ay = 2K Vos Ven “The unity gain bandwith or tequency is Frequency Response | 223 On 10° he f =, «70x 10H Bally Gg” BOR OORT “O72 TH 6.5 High Frequency Response of Common-Emitter and Common-Source Figure-6.2(!: High fequencycqaletcretoeommen emir amp MADE EASY oe)MADE EASY (650) valent capacitance is Cy, = Cy + Ciy and be equivalent bythe capacitance, Figg = FTF IIR, The upper corner 465) by assuming C, and Cy a8 open circuit. We find that, ratte] y= 0.7, Va=e, C= 35 pF and G, = 4 pF. From DC ana we nd hat fg =1.08:rA i= BUe (150) (0.026) Simiishe ag” H0axt0F 979K fea, 109109 ond Gq~ {= 120° _296maw ‘The Miter capacianceis then Gp= G,(1+ ont) =6, [14 on(RlF)] or y= att + (396) and the upper $-d8 fraquency isthoretore, 2x[s ralT4ols. 7a. TJ O°) G5 582) x10 y= 2.94 Miz Fequneytesons | 295 aly te midband gainis Ale = aot [Ally = 126 6.6 High Frequency Response of Common-Base and Common-Gate Circuits Fg. (6.15) shows a common-base circu. The cut crfiguation Is sare as common-emiter cult considered previously. except a bypass capactor is added othe base and tne pur capectvely coupled othe emit, ‘igure-6.12: Common boseampliter Fig. 6.14 (@) shows ahigh-requency equivalent cicut, wth coupling and bypass capacitors replaced by shor cxcuts. Figure-6.16:()Hghequrcycommon aseequlaletceuit Se MADE ERSU ee aFigure 6.140 Equvaminpcet iting KCL equation atthe emit, (653) (658) (685) 1 fe ape oer, During andiysis, we assume that G, is open circuit. Capactance C,, wil also produce an upper 3-08 frequency, alven by i ea! Bete (6.58) cr) Determine the upper current Frequencies and midband gain of a eommon- base cireut. Consider the circutt shown in Fig. (6.13) with circuit parameters: V" = § V, V = -6My Ry=0.1 kA, Ry = 40KO, Ry = 5.72KD, Ag O.SKR, Re = SKA and A, = 1042, The transistor parameters are: B= 150, Vaggy = 0:7 V, Va =, C= 35 BF and C, = 4 pF. same the previous example; threlor, [og = 1.03 mA, g,,= 99.6 MAN —— —— regency Repose. | 227 = pg = 0875. | ‘The upper -dB frequency cortesponding 0 Ci ‘The time constant assocated wih “The upper 308 trequency corresponding * Big, Bx(TGSIO) 1.9 MHZ Soin this cae, fis the dominant pole frequency. “The magrituse of midband votage gains Nee Iau = onl = ga.6,sll10) = [Aly = 255 67 itter and Source Follower Circuits acting eectvely as short crcl. 1 Re Coy : Pique 15: Enterta eevee senmdeypuleters)MADE EASY Publeatone be Figur-.1:( Pgh quency equa crc withefectvelnutbaseipedane) MADE EASY FrequencyRespone | 229 ‘Substituting the expression oxy, 2 = 5 x[t+ on RO + RL ate, This can bewniten as 4660) Since, c(t +) 's small, requency very high Ite make ing assumption, we can determine an approximate value of one pols. In many 1ancoat (1+ Gy RE) In parallel wth C+ Gq) is lerge compared to A. It ‘worneglect Fi. then the tne constants Hore womay dtr, Mes am04](65 + 77Seae) (663) and heS-dBtequency (or polis Y= (b+ an4 IPE fee ie Votage ¥,¢ gen by zi (oninienettinto ADE ERSu ee) WY Ceara MADE ERSY naa)230 | Hectical Engineering # Analog Electronics: lower croutin Fig (6.15) with parameters V* = 5 V, V-= -5V, Ay =0.1 KO, A, = 40 40, = 0.5 KO and A, = 10 kA. The transistor parameters ar: B= 150, Vagos) = 0.7 V. Va =, Cy = 35 PF and Cy = 4 BF. Solution: ‘The dc analysis yilds fn = 1.02 mA Thoretere, g,= 88.2 mAN and r= 382KO. ‘Thozoros oceursat Tho time constants hereore, > (lhl nF 72] ‘The3-d8 frequency (or pole) is then, 1 Seams 281 Mie 2x(0.566% 10) hag er, as spuatve omer’ as (@) of increasing impedance ofthe shunt capacitors o2 2.4 —Thotrequoney cuveals of inhigh frequency range because of ieee (@) decreasing impedance ofthe coupling as as a7 (©) decreasing impedance of the shunt capactors reasing Impedance of the coupling (@) decteasing impedance of the shunt ccapactors ‘Anampliforis assumed have. single-pole (28 ‘An apn BAT has dq = 38 mA, C, = 10°F, (C= 4% 10°F, and DC eurent gain By = 90, nsistor fpand f are (@) f= 164 10 He ana y= 147% 10% He (©) = 1.47% 102 andl = 1.641082 =138% 10H andl = 1.47% 10%He (f= 147 108s analy =1.33%10%H2 ‘The ac schematic of an NMOS common- source stage is shown inthe figure below, ‘where pat ofthe biasing cicuts has been omitted for si For the n-channel MOSFET M. nV AN, a lerth modulation eect are to be neglected, lower cutcffequency inHzotthecirut as as a0 emer iepente | 231 @s x on (am ‘An ampliior has two identical cascaded stages. Each stage has @ bandwicth of 20 Kitz. The overall bandwith shall approximately Which one of the following ‘approximate upper 3-48 frequency ampli? (@) 4x10 () 22x 10H (© 4x 10H (a) 44x 108 He ‘The peak cuputolatined ampifersat6 MHZ ‘and has quay factor of 69. The bandwidth ‘and’ a8 frequencies shallbo (@) 100MH2, 6.05 Miz and 5.95 Miz (©) BMH, OMHZ ana 3 Mie (©) 600k, 66 MHz and 5.4 Miz () 100Kti2, 6.05 Miz and 5.95 M2 ‘Student's Assignments | Answer Key 2@ 20 42H 60 2a 8 & 10. (6) a ero EET a)Q7 Differential Amplifiers CHAPTER) 7.1. Introduction 7.2 The Differential Amplifier the d-ampiifie. There are two input terminals and one output terminal orton tothe dference between two input signal. a, = Vp the output votage is zero. We only abil Va= V~ Ve way 73 Publeatons ___Derentstampanes | 233 gs Se a) = Vp. the tferenta-mode input signaliszeroand the common-mode input citferentia-mode voltage is Vj= 20 nV and the basic cerentiaampitiercrcult configuration usign BUT. The cuit alanced-outout ternal ampli. Actualy tore aofourcileretal ‘8d to be dual input otherwise itis a single-input 1age ie measured between wo calectors, tie referedMADE EASY rs) value of Ver. ‘The votage at the emitter of transistor Q, is approximately equa to _acoss Fi, 10 be negigibly small. Knowing the value oferta cut atthe collector Ve, as flows: EASY DiferenalAmplites | 235 732. ACAnalysis Fig. (74) shows the resuting AC equivalent crcutof dual, balanced output iterential ampli, Figure-74: (a) ACeuvlertcicut nputandout wovetorms 733, VoltageGain ‘Whig KV for loops | and il in [Fig 7.4) gives us “Fel tig) = 0 8) Vig ~P oy ~oleg Relig ti) = 0 7s) curentotatins b =\y/Be and by "i Pac yet Ya Fa tly Pall hd «0 R Veg “Birla alg “Fila the) =0 Generally F/B nd PB: vans rover Sl hereoe we can neglect hem hers fr spicy (7.10) an) Ve Voo=Rele (78) + ReVp Trust clacton age Vl Faye ae = Vow Woo Fele)~(Max) 2 Ven Vara Pale on Fercotecbantance wc ceri Selgsta Ven by ug equos (4) an spac Decait ab cpurave pot e= Inga Vir = Ve 9) (ommdenoictin mADE consis) | Convio MADE EASY nae)13 © Analog Ele MADE EASY Tre ouput voage Yo Veg Moy = Pal -(-Pela) = Rolo, Roly = Pall~ig) shoe is. oa) Vg Vp, Vp asthodferonce of input votages, we can wie the wtage-gain equation of Guan, balanced ouut ciferental ampiforasfolows: % ae Anya 716) (sistance that would be measured at either ro resistances Ry, and Ry 10 very smal c88 Rand Rn equatn rm, oan WADE EASY MADE EASY 7 DierentclAmpliies | 237 I Fe>> re whlch berowitenas 2 )2 Rand r,+ Ra) =A Therefore, equation (7-18)can = Fhe (7.19) Similar, te input resistance R, seen rom the input signal souce Vo, is dined as, eel oa Substituting the valve of i and solving, we obtain Fig = 2B oe fe (r2i) = [Ym | ndash eaualrtreiance at woukbemeasiedat eter opti pa resstanceR, measured between collacir C, and ground Thus, (Chase Fe] (22) 73.6 Common Mode Rejection Ratio ‘The abil fa ciferential ampifertorjoctacormon made signals describedint ‘Mode Rolection Ratio (CMR). The CMFA is a igure of meio the di-amp and own | Fal (723) For an idea itterentia-ampiir, A, = 0 and CMRA = = Usually, the CMR s expressed in decibels, as olows: OMAR, =000 £4 (724) inp 's advantageous to use @ dferertial ampific wit higher CMR since ths amplifier e reject common-mode signals, NOTE Worave dacissod masta ho pareraan Gla pd bnancod Sap Sarl xls conan: rte renainng vee cong atone we can proceed nse KA238 | Hees Enienring_+ Analog Becton mavE EASY MADE EASY Publications Pubheations << wetanpates | 239 4 FET Differentis lifi wer ee ot 7. ial Amplifiers oan oa; fe wo can use FETs stead of UT. Fortunate, he volage-gin { on ung Ba canal bo eer conguaon using FE, cont ote toloing replacement wine Pho : Ree feo Om Ferinsarc, ne volage-gen che FET dua balanced apt cterentl aroer baredtom fusion 718) a Arig as (725) } clicatons are given ft the dueinp, balanced ouput : let larn Fea 4.710, Pig = Py = 800, +Vog = 10V,-Ver=—10V ‘ bas = 100 and Vge = 0.716 V typical Determine th og and Verges Determine the vag oat. Determine the input end output reitances. Solan: (2) rato w wl cute vais td Vag flows ey ten MM 10-0718 «9665 ma ane Fa” e400 5 = Pa 100, rch . oes TR Vaso Veo* Y= Pelca 2 Deore 2 Zn) (0.900 mA) = 8.54V (0) Teac oie resistance, pn Bm o5 7 Tema” 0988mA~ 729 Tero, substsng he known vues inte vohage-gin econ, (7.16) we bia, () The lnputresitance soon tom each input eure Gen as “ ratte |= Re © oe ff 7 chen | ma RSS so | Comeering ® Analog Electronics! 240 | 7.5 Constant Current-Bias MADE EASY ERs Diferentiatamplites | 241 “The collector curent I intransietor' xed and must be invariant because no signals injectedin ether the performance equations obtained forte ferent ‘applicable ocifferetial ampliiers with constant current bis, ‘The transistors have P= 100. Determine Input citferential resistance F, overall votage galn | ieaueis tics ound i Ganado pee Yan wr eave connon mode een ao no clas etre we acca Joading effect) is = 7 Me “eae jasod at an emitter current of 0.5 mA in case of symmetric feed, hee feed is nat a sv ts wl be shilarin bot cases. | Veg = Voy —Voes =O, ve _ 250 ORR, fetta te R tante= = BOM -s00 Theta, ey # Ing = HE) + Input diferent resistance can naw b Re Ree Because the wo haves che ciferenta apie ae symmetcal cachhasha tthe cure Tha vi B i= 1500 | is Fg = 2100 1180+ 150) Vpe -[PiaVer (P+ Pe) ~ Vac Ry = 404000 lye Meio a) 28 Fg = 40.4000 7 Given Fo= 10K (wonmadeeasypubleationsoxg capi) ecooon MADE EASY vewnaseenspubeationsor9)fo Rg= 1040) ‘The overal ferential votage gan can now be found as MMe Mea ‘Common mode gain = Fe ae oF Ant Re (where ee = 200k) Were 0.02 Rin worst case = tO Am F200? = 5x 104 Worst case Cu come» 20100 A an (2eopion MADE ERnSu \wvmadeeasypublations org)Student's Assignments inthe dtfrentil ampliter ofthe gure, the 8 of he curentsouro® ees 1e common-mode gain is a2 (© 4603 3 Inanigea! ctteren ‘igure, alge valu of ( (eomimadesspueatnsorg ngineering_¢ Analog Electronics (@ Increases both the differential and (©) decreases the iferrtiat- ede gain only (@) cecreases the commen med gain only as lestage dif ifr, the 1 offset voltage is bascaly dependent 2nd (b) Vee Nd ly © fpardp ©) VgeandB 5 Adiferentl ampiierhas inputs, Vj = 1050. and V, = 850 pV with CMAR = 1000. Whats the eror inthe difeenta output? (@) 10% 1% (am - @oaom ‘Student's Assignments | Answer we 2@ 2M £0 5 ©) “Abe ERSH a) CHAPTER Feedback Amplifiers ‘oonmadeesyubatonso)‘¢ Analog Electronics-tt 821 Ideal Closed-toop Signal Gain Sa AS, a) ‘where Ais amplification factr, and feedback signal is Sa = BS, (82) case is feedback transfor function, At he summing node, we have e3 (8.4) Eauaton(¢4) canbe rearanged Aya Be 0 3 48.5) ‘Equation (8.5) can be written, ae (eo eas = Ae fop-gen For apt edback wo ase tab pave aac Cnbiigauatore hand (2 we oan oppure en 822 Gain Sensitivity feedback transer function fis a constant, then taking the darivatve of A, with respect to A, from ‘equation (8.8), produces ~ dy a 1 GA” TAA” Gaga" GepAF (es) (010) 190 nclosed-loop gain is ess than the corresponding FeedbackAmpifers | 247 ‘General feedback eystom with parameters A= 10? and A,= 100. '¥ he magnitude of A decreases by 20 percent, wha isthe corresponding percent change in A? Ant nee Charge hte penlep ans h> hy = osandtn! ALR, % vooratio.a= = 1009 109 100, 4 A er ease 300% 100. Dm 14A,pat+ Ox 60 Hence Ags x Oxo? 4, ere Ag = Hae; (©) curtent series ype of feedback (6) curentshunttype of feedback 2 Anamplier with votage gain A,= 40 has =9k0=F, x= 558 y= 28.900, 108 = 60 100 «199 == 1 700) a Rye Bos e3ka (@) 200 ara 250 ka. 200 Dard 10 ka (©) Skit and 250 ka (© Ska and 10Ka Q3 ACE ampitr has an untypassed resist, ‘The output signal sampled and he feedback signal yare (@) voltageand current (©) curent and curent (©) curontand votage (© votagearavotage MADE EASY Q5 — Trehigh requency response of an ampiior is given by A=A,/(1 + java.) where ‘A,= 1000 and a, = 0% radlaoc. Negative {eecback wih B= 91000 is now given. The value, now's (@) 10Fradsec () 10radoec (© 1Wradsec (6) roneot hese 28 —Theteecbackempiirshouinigurebelow as as oo a0 Ae i I — series feedback with arge input aagpesitoret fanceandlarge output impedance. 11 Thefeedbackusedinthe creutshown (©) voltage -seriesfoeoack wit iage input canbe classified as impedance and ow output impedance, (©) voltage - shunt tesaback with ow input Impedance andlow output mpedanct (6) current - shunt feedback wth low Impedance and output mpadance. infgue 0.7 Twononinverting ampli, onohaving a unty one @ de (@) Suntseriesfoodback unt shunt feedback ravave tage tree Toshsce he as gan wih feedback A as rag conte votage cose cores surfed ‘and A, = 50KQ, the ‘of Aand A, tend to be (2) eae seties nace cinerea ness medcracerf=D8 ewe, 12 Thermo tendvct ine opanp cout ae now wuenslday wnrapestn aoe seas = MADE ERSS ~~ seeemhaspamania)2a fe he (a) Re e) Re 419 ve Fe, fe ai 7 © Fe o-® CHAPTER ¥ 2:15. wien (@) Curent Curertfeasback (©) Vlotage-votage feedback (6) Curren-Votage feedback (@) Votage-Curertfoedback 2.13 Assertion (A): A large nogatwe feedback is Operational Amplifier (b) 2,9and4 fandSonly (6) 2and-4only bed where various stages of op-amp are discussed. 40) 15.) 9.2 Block Diagram Representation of A Typical Op-Amp 0.14 The given cicuthas afeodback factor ot Yes laeacovpaterttortowee “opm -upledhigh gain amplifier usually consisting a one r more lowed by a level anslator and an output balanced (single-ended) mediate stage is wel above itis used ater intermediate (nataspaiaog) ——~RBE ESS = WADE ERSY ‘wor madeensypubeatons.or264 | + The inal stage is usualy 2 increases the output votage wel-designesoutput stage __ LLU T7Thew operalonel ampere a versal Gevios hat canbe usedio amplify DC as wal ‘as AC input signals and was orginaly designed for computing sven mathematical functions as addon, subtraction, mutilation, and integration. Thus the name ‘operational amplifier sims from orga use for hese mathematical operations nase (or same polar signal atthe output. On the otherhand, alot DC voltage applied to this input produces an 160" out-of-phase posit poaly) signal atthe ouput = Votage tthe nor ewering inp (vos) = V, = Voltage atthe inverting input (vols) put voltage (vot) [At these voltages are measured wih respecto ground : tihere, A. Large signal vltage gan, which s specified onthe data sheet for an op-amp, Ie Hee (9.1) 94 ‘op-amp responds equally well o both DC and AC input ‘does not behave this way. A practical op-amp has some OC us are grounded. The factors responsibie fr this and the 953 95 Input Offset Current “The algebraic ference between the currents none inverting and +The maximum input offset current for the InputOffset Voltage Inputettsetvotage isthe witage thal mus ‘outbi,as shownin Fig. 9.6 (a) The sma te vale of Ve Operatonalémplfer | 265 Current sant gis te everege ofthe curnts tha low into the inverting end non-inverting not + Ig= 50D nAmaxirur or the 10 74 «Note hat the two input currents Zp, and fy ar actualy the base curents ofthe frst diferent ampifier stage. rare: marin gents are on-inwerting terminals is referred to as input offeet current a, [2e=Va—‘al] rue Sbaia pemating beans oro nti, ae terminals is improved. the difarnce between /g, 2M ls, becomes smal docreasos further. be apped between to input terminals ofan op-amptonuthe ‘the beter the input terminals are matched % rent and votage due tom ature. These non-ideal DC characteristics that add OT + Inputotiset current. + Therma ditAnalog Electronics-lt 266 | HetKal Engineering « MADE EASY ‘Thus, the output offset votage ofan op-amp i cosed-loop configuration (Inveting or nor-averting) Is ‘iven by equation (26). OperationalAmplifer | 267 MADE EASY rowever decreases (ols-of) st higher gain remains constant atlow requencies en (28) in olls-of at the rate of -20 dB/dacade or-6 dBloctave "© Frequency al which openloop galh olan op-amp becomes equal io 1 caled uly {gain frequency or unity gain bancwiath (UGE). "= _UGBistne productof open loop gain and bandwith ts also caea gain bance product toi oa te) Aco me ‘A TAType p-aip has gain bandwid producto WE Anan nvring mpiferusrg tis o-anp and having a volage gan of 248 i ent a. -c0 band 9.6 saa i j Sesaroparplse discern, Res pebep apie res Gea MADE ERASE ccoonit) | (Scinron TARDE EASY |ownsieanybeionag)268 | feel sngeing * Analog Eecroniest MADE ESS MADE ERSY a cperaionatamotter | 269 9.6.2 SlewRate The rate of change of the outputs ‘Slew rat (SA) Is defined asthe maximum rato of change in output voltage per unit of time and is ve = Vpe@cosat ‘expressed in volts per microseconds. In equation form, Ca on) {and the maximum rate of change of output occurs when coset = 1. That, 012) (ara) a 77 Sew rae ndlcales how rapidly he adpitdl an op amp can change n respavse| a changein the nput reaver. a + Teale olen a sued new p doe eames ne whee, 4p sana oe great han ew at, then cistron occurs. : ay) ‘wave input frequency 2 MHz and 8 V peekto peek amplitude. ‘What isthe slow rato ofthe op-amp? ‘Aigre3.7 Duivngthesowotecuaton Te ution sine waves lowoguletenchractraes . Yor Waste “a at most any signal source can civetand theres no lading of az me =e) ae RABE EEG ==270 | Estes Ensineeing_ + Analog Electronics MADE EASY ‘can be brought close o ideal values by this method. 9.8 Equivalent Circuit of an Op-Amp = wollage at the non-inverting input termina with especto ground vg = vollage at the inverting trminal wh respect to round ‘Figure 9.8 Eqaletcrcitotanopame cicats tat the op-amp amplifies the difence between the two input vollages the input voltages themselves. 9.9. Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve Equation (8.15) is basic opamp equation in whic the output ofa vtage is assumed tobe 200. The ‘graphical representation ofthis equation is shown in Fig. (9.9), where the cuputvollage vi pleted ‘aginstinputcference votagev., Keeping gain constant Cperatonalampliter | 274 ppiving negative feedback it wore conneced between @ Crerariammameckopaencner yw OLe |O aes vat coker ENCE o> 7 ly infinite). f we assume thatthe circuit is “working” and 98 at terminal 3, then the voltage between the op-amp input terminals 1 ideally 210. Specialy, I wo call the cutput voltage as V, than 4 aE aoe SRST cen)272 | Hlectical Engineering ¢ Analog Electronics. MADE EASY Operationalampiiter | 273 ¥ som rr) Trerefra he csecoop vole gains An ee (920) MR ‘Because of the minus sign associated wih closed-loop gain, tis configuration is called inverting configuration. ‘We can abo determine te input resistance seen by the voltage source V, Duet vitual ground we have, fromequaton (9.18), The inputresistance ‘This shows thatthe input resistance ssen by tho source isa function of ony, and is result ofthe “virtual ground concept Since there are no coupling capacitors nthe op-amp circu the input and output vollages, as Curronts inthe resietors, can be de signals. The inverting op-amp can then amply de volag TEER ete gains ote op-amp out fortwo ata ofthe gain aac? Hpk The itora ewichin the ON stat has nogigbi resitance, BS sin hate essa st ‘te % ¥ | — v1 : v0 O ev ye entlone : ‘Solution: : ‘When he switch is ON, the ccuts shown below: 7 Astonia rs so1a yet 7 Where with curent go? ansoa | f ncherce draws zou Law| 2. We can then apply Om aw to and RL -alRt) _ ~F0n11004 100) _ Yani Re Gain, Am RR RR, Tooxi00 | wwomadeeasypbcationsorg copie) ( Scopyrign MADE ERsy ‘rmmadeeypbicatons ag)274 |, Ret Engneeng ‘¢ Analog Electronics: MADE EASY Operaonalanpiier | 275 he switch s OFF. he cheitis shown below i 3 © -9 When the switch is OFF. the cutis nS ie 8 8, cca = wR Me. 100 _ VW" F007 a4 Aaa ).the closed loop gain Ais found as Yen Fel A, 8 A TE" ue RIRY ~ " 9.10.1 EffectofFinite Open-loop Gain 9.10.2 Amplifier with aT-Network Consider the op-amp cut shown in Fig. (8.13) wth a Fetworkin the feedback loop. At the Input, we rave 49.22) Equation (0.2) showsthatfA-> = fe deal Govedtonp vage gan reduce to that gen by equaon Wa canchowite fal (9.20). “1 Eee ial ha Yor Oniahan-u(B oz) tfwe sume curents atnode V, we have the wich canbe writers eM Male aon 25 “Tho iavorng op-emp shown below hasan open oop gant 100. The closed loop gain v8 t010 028) we oa spear >. 27 (Cetinatecpabicniontng MADE EAsS © canyon) ememaserspancas)276 | Elect Engineering * Analog Electronix ERs “Resuming the operational amplifier to be Idea, the gan Vjq/V,fr th cirout shown i figure is @-1 (o) 20 {6)-100 (@) -120 Sound) Yavno Laie votage aint op ao ae an eect | ‘Atnogatve terminal o-% ,0-% ote Atrodex 220, MeWe ,Va-0 9 aeage Yebseiov<0 pan Me, “ott ; | Moye = 16 7° Moat. Yo= 320 ‘Thats, he ourpu voltage is weighted sum of input signals Vi, Vp». Vp This crust is therefore calod weighted summer. Notethat each summing cooticientmay be ndependenty adjusted by aching ‘the corresponding “feein resistor (R10) (0) 880, 2a, Tha ad (o #06 40,22 saan ka Solution:278 | Hlecical Engineering ¢ Analog Electronics MADE ERSY MADE EASY OperctionalAmpiter | 279 Given, (ev (©) 10v mutipying by 12 we get Curent is gion by As, y= iy 80 "==, en open circult. The closed- a ‘Solving for closed-loop votage ‘so we can set F = Oto crate a 4, From this equation, we can lifer to connect source with hgh impedance tolow-inpedance load, The gain of buter Yee Angel (econ MADE ERS ‘warwmadeessypublcatonsorg cites J280 | Hectic Engineering _¢ Analog Electronics: MADE EASY 41. Unity gan and no phase shit. 2. Infinite gain and 180" phase shit. ‘3. Very high input impedance and very low output impedance. 4, Itle@ butlr amplifier, Which of tose statements are corect? (a) 1and3 (@) 2end4 (0) 1, 3and 4 (@) 1,2, 9end4 Solution: Votiage flower is abut cit With uty gain andina phase shift 9.14 Current-to-Voltage Converter ‘ Consider the circuit in figure (10.18). The input resistance st vitual round rode s (928) MADE EASY OperatonaiAmpiter | 284 9.15 Voltage-to-Current Converter Consier the cut given in gue (819). The inverting teminal() sot at ital ground. From the vital Shor concep, Y= Vand we also note Y= Y= |Z, Eavating the curentand i, we have (938) “Taking the sum of cunts at (9.29) Solving for(¥,— 2) rom equa (9.40) 4) -() wn Ihrer toma denne. Ze can ne Get sch hat hcl 6260. pa eely Ris” Ae sas quion errors (249) which means tat the oad currents roportenaltoinputveltage andisindopendent othe load impedance 98 ong as the ouput voltage remain between allowed ints 9.16 (ceerione262 | Hectic Ensineing + Analog Blecvoniert MIDE ERS Operaionaamptier | 283 =f 46 % = Bey, 4 Pigure-9.20()0Merenlompir win, «0 Fig. 9.20) shows the circu with V, =O. Since the Curent into the op-amp is zero, and Ai forma 952) (959) However an inspection of equation (9.49) nV, =, the inputs called eammon-Electrical Engineering Analog Electronics ERs 284 (987) (@-5¥,+25%, Bevi2sy, Salton) Op Guta votage at ering tem! epg votage a non-merin ormina2 = uo(-S)-u(-22)—y v(-282) 5 % (©) -6¥,+9¥%, (0) -25V,+3¥, a Output vetage due voltage at noninverting terminal keeping voiage at inverting terminal zero wrn*("2)- vord( 2) Va = Wx: Ve =3% Soaccarding o superposition theorem, net output voltage Vee Vote Vp=BU43V, Calculate GMAA for the op-amp cirout - __Operatonalampliter | 295 9.17 Integrator and Differentiator (0.22) shows a generalized invertng ampli for which the vollage transfer function has ei general frm as calculated ear, that, feed ee) be (058) vie arr ooze necrcn. Two speci cro canbe dele tom his gowalzed inverting ampitiec z= Note fuera 1d Z,10 a capacitor. The impedance are then 2, = R, The output vtage is (059) Equation (9.5) represents integration in time domain fV, ithe vollage across the capacitor at t= the output votage is “ oe pactor at =0,286 | Hectia Engnering_o Analog Electronic: 7 RG, val'=Ye— where isthe variable of integration. Fig. 822 () summarizes these results, “The second generalized inverting op-amp uses a capaci % Bang yz me The ouput volage is Yash OY, MADE EASY (9.60) Z, and a resistor for Z,, a8 shown in Fig. 9.22(c). Tho impedances ae Z, = 18C, and Z, = Ry and the voltage transfer Equation (8.62) represents cifeentation In ime domain, and v.18 as follows: a mac The crcuttin Fig. 922(c)istherefor aciteronator, (a) 10cos (1009 (©) 10*fcos(100%)d¢ (8) 10% Zcos((001) ‘Solution: (a) KOLatnode 1, ye _ at 10010108 1 ad 70 0 (nonradanypReog MADE ERSY MADE EASY PuBlestons SreratonaiAmpiier | 287 Ye coe Y= Yen costont 1 00x 10% 107x100 *+ high gain stably win iow temperate costicint. + Low0Cotiset + Lowoutputimpedance ‘There are specially designed op-ampe such as yA 725 to meet above sated requirements ofa good Instrumentation ampiier Monet (single chip) inerumentation ampli are also avaiable commercially such as ADS2t, ADS@4, ADE20, ADE24 by Analog Devices, LM-363.XX (XX + 10,100:500) by National Semiconductor and NATO, Consider the basic diferent voltage V, is ven by, -¥) 4965) ) and te impedance seen by iSoulpUt Vé=V, However iV, # V,eutentfows in Rand A, MAGE ERSeMADE EASY ° ‘igre9.23 (teetering sine camp, Animprovedinsvumentaton ample, isrumentatn amphi sng rnedrbidge wera veo eee) (908) Since, no curent ows ino opamp, the curent/Howing (upwards) in is = (V V4VRand passes through theres Fe Wa Rrey=Za-w+y% sr) od Ve = I= Byway (968) Poting the values of Vand Vin equation (2.66), we obtain (womimadeespeionors ecenratt) OperationalAmpliier | gg ze a8 (9.69) Im equation (969), we choose = 25K0 (sey) and F”=25kN ; A= 500, then a gain of (1+2x22%2) ot cant ston he tre gant reson ane cn be 9.19 Log Amplifier Consideriho cicut given nig. (8.24. The lode eto be forward biased, so the input votage ie ited ‘oposiive values. The diode. b= (00) (970) the code issuer fxward biased, he (-1) tem neglected anc chodecurentcan be rewitan as, b= 101 (971) “Te input curt canbe writen as, u ot 4972) MADE EASYcS 290 | Elect Engineeing_» Analog Etacronicet MADE EASY MADE EASY ely Pubtestons Pubbestions a erttionat amir | 291 19774) ol 75) In the op-amp circuit shown, assume that the dlode current Follows the ‘equation =1,exp(VIV,). For Vj= 2. Vp = Vz, and for Vj= 4, V, = Viz. The relationship batwoon V,292 | Elects Engineering ¢ Analog Electronics = MIDE Fornegatveinput 2. V <0, diode D, conducts and D, is off The negat ‘output V, postive and causes Do conduct. Theci V, becomes erations, The principal slow rato ofthe op-amp. As the input passes trough zor, the op-ame /Must change from0.6V10-0.6 Vor vie versa as cy rece oF absolut value cults shown in Fig, 9,30 (a). For postive input. ¥;> 0, diode nD, is oft Both the op-amps A, and A, act as inverter as shown in equivalent circuit in (4) None of these Solution) In postive hat cycle, Dis reverse biased V, = O because op-amp is open a output In negative half cyte, Dis forward biased 0, lode D,'s OFF and D, ig ON. Letthe ourput votage of op-amp A, be ° Since the de terminalis also at votage V. valentcircuits shown Ing. 9.90). Put to A, is zero, the Ivering input rough Fand heinputcurent lows MADE ERSU (Ceo i MADE ERSU onodeenpibiononios)MADE EASY Putestons Operatonaianotitn | 295 23 Theinputoteetvotagen an Op-Ampiedueto ¢ - 5 | R ivi (oxo) * eringamperasshominFg,930(0,Theoupny, | % Me (-34)=« (es1) | + utp wave .30(0) he (@) Ratko (b) R= 10KQ 2 cpt potive even when ingle negave, For (Azz e) AesoKn [is +2enly ie poesble tobi nepave ott fo: tre does. 16 The wane charactors forthe precision - : rector shown bolo (sue al ee i. (Pane end practeal does) S L © Inert oman gue20(rotaréoazwoetons oe eee m A | Maj of commercial vale Op-Aps the output voliage (@) -6sin ot (0) 6sin ot y= 20KQ. The value of to generate 1 KHz (0) sinat (© 28net signal at Vos TiRDE EASY a) m= RDE296 | Electrical Engineering * Analog Electronics MADE EASY (@) -2ma (0) 4ma (© -6ma (@-Bma @-v wav (© so7v @ av @+15v © Anns anne @.12 Te opamp in the figue has an input offset maa vatage ofS mV: 2.20. Assertion (A) : In normal operation the rom .f 10000, then lnvering and inverting input terminals of an ‘operational amp ar al aont sere pte. Feeason (R): Thetwo terminals ae connected together L {@) Both A and Rare true and Ris the correct explanation ofA @o (o) 5mv (©) Both A and R are true but Ris NOT the (@ +18V0r-15V (@) +50Vor-soVv 2.13. The VjoF the op-amp circuit shown is (@) vokage gain ©) bandwan —() @.18 Consider te folowing statements 1. Sraycapactance st heinputterrinalofan ‘p-amp ottecvely introduces an ational hase lag networkin feecbacklcop, 2. Stray capactance dapenes upen he value 3 @ m0 istances has higher apacitance. —_ aS a)10 Signal Generators and Waveform Shaping Circuits CnarTer 10.1 Introduction There are wo distinct diferent approaches forthe goneration of sinusoids, perhaps the mast commonly Used o tho standard waveforms, The fst approach employs apositive-feedback loop consisting ofan the biock dlagram of However, here the input MADE EAS Signal Generatorsand Waveform Shaping iruts | 299 Jagan |_“© om L oan” = iy rset hy % Figure 10.1: Osler Bokdgran Inthe block ciagram of Fg. (10, v= % Using tee reatonshs, to folowing equation cbanad 10.22 Oscillatortypes Bocaus iSespred use, many aiforet typeof oscil ae avaliable. These osclatorypes table ‘pes of compan uted | Feasney of asain | Tpat of waver gnarl Csr Asso roan AF) | Sua Loner asoteqney RF) | Sasa wave Ch ner Radoteaany RFC) | Teme wave Sooo wont Note: Inevery practical oscilatorhe loop is ited by ne onset of nor-inear © onrahe MADE ERS rw madeeasypubiationsorg light largerthan unity, and the amplitude of te oscillationsjeting ®t 300 | 10.3 The Phase-Shift Osci mADE Figure 102 AnFETphoesitoetor ‘Atthatfequency of sellaton, B= +. inorder that | Bl shal notbe less than unity, required that | Abo at east 29. Hence an FET with < 29 cannot be made to ascliae in euch a cut vinere K= RR. The condition for sustaining of oscillation 'S given by ioakee2] os) Remember: The value of K which g tobe 27 andor this optimum value of F/R, we find minimum hy turns out MADE EAsy Signal Generators and Waveform Shaping Cuts | 301 10.3.2 Phase-Shift Oscillator with Op-Amp 1 0085 a ao (108) Att teatney. he gan Amt be ans 2, Thats, | -2 (107) « (R=2R] co) ‘The disadvantage of RC phase shit ox thatthe frequency of farther we wil stad te oscitators in whieh frequency can be altered b FEEENIN 10F1oscttor nos givn paso ahi rotor an shown below Th ] ‘minimum gain required for oscillation is non aes (@)-29 1 ©s (® 29 e iainog —=SCsMIADE ES (Cccone MADE EASY somumadeessypestionsor)MADE EASY MADE EASY StnlenetersondWrdomShphng cheats | 303 1 eveRC) ©) Garo) ony Rn fet oop = H( 1 () ieancy = Xetiee= se Mew sato=Z i Sate loop gain BA2 1 (fr osciatons) aoe Aeon 529 é é : =m osMADE EASY lation for the following cult and the val a ‘The given circuits Wien Bridge oscltor which canbe redrawn as Below: , Frequency of oscillations: 1 fe 2SRORO > t. Be f22 10 xO.01K 10 x 11x 10? 0.087 XI = f= 47s916 He Tha relation betwoen Rand Ris given by: For Op-amp design WB, Fe. Bee : = 2, = 10K = 2h, = A= 5 ka lal= Signa Generatorsand Waveform Shaping Greuts | 305 resonance, We assur that he ransstor frequency response 19h frequency tha the oscation frequency is detormined by the external elements “uh t 2 ‘igure 10.8:Thescequlent cut, MOSFET Clas exclror 0.10.7) hon sl sn ect tithe copter Te arate oUpirsance ‘peanbuinusede AKL emanate cura node es brs oies—Me o0 (1010) oe Cy and avolage divider produces (10.19) scat equation, [om +204 If we assume that osilation has started, thenhave #166242 + 5,+0)+(a0+2) =0 Letting s=jo, we obtain306 | Hletical Engineering * Analog Electronics Signal Generators and Waveform Shaping Creuts | 307 resonant frequency ofthe LC circuit. From tho real partof equation (10.14), the condition for 1 He = ant (10.18) Frequency ofoscilatonis, tmalara) cape A Ak Ay Sy THO) HAN Ke Woon 2, + 4% = Othon, For osciations to stat, AB > 1 BoP Zen MeZs= ih despa epee ter ° a ee Bn =< Load impedance, AZMz,+Z) (2) Harty ocietor With fasten = 79.8 Mz The gainwinauteedackis (Capt cst w= 509M “AZ, | (¢) Hartley oscillator Wit ene = 159.2 MHz a ae | (8) Colpitts osc th agen = 159.2 MHZ “2 Suton) Feedback act, p= | Thotank crcuitishaving wo capactrs and one inductor, otis Cpt ceil andtrequency a “Me Azz, | 1 oop gan, S° BETH sh) EE AED | Ree Forlop gun tobe rel. X, + %,+%,= ato oy (eorophase sit Tau actee aa dg Gt BS 2222 ge ting vaues ely = ro a raeS a Gy | : 1 = ape fe aelioxi® 10 | 2xvi0 i © Copyright MADE EASYMADE EASY Signal Generators and Waveform Shaping Creuts | 399 ae= 505+ (10.19) From equation (10.18) and fom fi series resonance ata, 0.8: Theocequiroen Bs Hariexcttr ‘Thesnalye's ofthe Hal 's essentially dental tothato the Copits oscar The frequency ‘of cscilaion, neglecting ransst is (1020) anda paralelresonance tw, (10.8) Thus fors =jawe.can wrt Zim) as (S28 (1022) 0G (a? =a From equation (10.20) and (1 a =e a)‘Signal Genertorsand Waveform Shaping Creuts | 34.4 FEEEEERNIDY] te inp sciatsrcvouk chown bow xpromson tore) 310 | Electrical Engineering # Analog Electronics- ee "The Tolowng table shows the range of frequency fo he operation of diferent coseitatrs pares [SNe] Osemaror Phase ott | 1 Have TON cap fr0We 100 MH 2. Ineoatneresitance| > wows | for has an equivalent inductance of L= (G,= 101F. Find the series and paral frequencies Solution: Given Sovies resonant requancy Parallel resonantrequency, a_i ERT copyright312 | Hlectiical Engineering # Analog Electronics- = iages are assumed to be eymmetrical about voltage at which the output changes states. Pgure10.12:0)verngcompartorcrat 10.9 Zero-Crossing Detector Iroterence voltage Vp is set equal input passes through zero. Such an © igor 10.13:Aero-oning detector cavetsasnusid no asquae wave, FF ! ‘Signal Generetorsand Waveorm shaping Creuts | 313 10.9.1 Square Waves froma SineWave If he input to an op-amp com Setectoris used, a symmou ‘has vertical sides which tthe inputto the ideal comparator shown in the igur ‘of BV (peak to poak) without any DC component, then the output ofthe compar ue Wea ete te) 12 © 1 (0) 6 (@ 12 tam receives signals fom a numberof diferent sources and t form to a computer ora communication c nthe analog information is converted int. age over: (romminadeaspubetonsorg MADE copys) MAGE EASY314 | Hlectial Engineering * Analog Electronics-! Signl Generatorsand Waveform shaping Cieuits | 315 ‘sample and hold circuit should have 2. High output impedance 4. Low output impedance EEE 40-0: 1. High inputimpedance 3. Lowinput impedance ofthe above statement re come? (@) 2nd Sonly (@) 1 and 4 only Solution: ld) Samole and hold circuit uses op-amp and an op-amp has high input impedance and low output impedence. 10.11 Basic Inverting Schmitt Trigger igure 10.15 0 Shige cat Votape rar chorecersicosnpuveiogeincrass ‘MADE EASY = ocran) (am MADE ERSu state, namely V,= Vy whichis the high state. Then A Ye aoa) (1025) 4 (ate ‘As long asthe input egnal isles than V,, the ouput remains ints high state. The crossover voltage ‘curs when Y= V, and is dated as =(2— a Yn= (peta) (1026) year than Vp tba votlage athe inverting terminals greater than atthe nonveting A, -[] lace Tre crossover votage now occur when Y= Vn cfd avy rae, complete transfer characterises tharfoce show a hysteresis effect. 0, vollage Van be writen as Ye where, t,= A.C, ALI=T, Ve =-BV, (1038) sigh. The pulse width i then T=4, (1039) uch that B = 1/2 then tho puse with is [r=089%] (1040) ‘Wo can show that for V,<« Vpand B= 1/2, the recovery tme is (7"— 7) = 0.4%, 4 aya we assume ¥, << Ypand two let ® » ° igure 10.19: age monostblemutiatervotoer ver tine) (ciputragerpuset)Capacorvatageand| © Output 10.14 The 555 Circuit : ‘The 555 monolithic integrated circuit tmer was frst introduced by Signetics Corporat: bipolar technology, The S65 isa ator ouput goes high, producing @ high output ati stor on and an extemal timing capacter (not shown MADE ERSS =) MADE EASY Signal Generatorvand Waveform Shaping Crauts | 321 Pubkeatons v0 =0. ‘ 7 {A't=0, 0n he appcaton of igpe v (negative going i Pte) < Voo/ 9 causes ouput of comparator Co be high ie. S= 1. Tie wi et the Mipsop win =O. This gum t0ats neSsereatcmecedera ‘novotlemutiaer makes output voltage V, = 0, Due to 3 = 0, the decharge322 | Electrical Engineering « Analog Electronics! MADE EASY transistor Q, will gat tuned of, Nate that ater the termination of tigger pulse thei-top wil remain in G0 state (since S= 0, A= 0.0 n0 change in state). The ting capactor charges up exponentially 1041) 4op. Output @ then discharge transistor, lowing the tiring capactor to ischarge to near zar0 volts. The crcult thus rtums fo its quiescent state. ‘When vi) = (28) he treseld comparator ouput goes high. esting 4920s high an tho output oth 555 goes ow. Te hign output at 3 tuns on ‘row ite austpselscoumnestononitin (041) west) =(2)/"ant Thon (2-40-29 10.42) ‘Solving for T, we have T= RC In9) = 1.1 RC (1043) ‘The width ofthe output puis is function of only the extemal time constant AC; itis independent of the ‘supply vokage Vand any internal cut parameters, 10.143 AstableMultivibrator Figure (10.22) shows a typical extemal crcult connection forthe SSS operating asanastablerulvbraor also called, 213 V*. The thresold comparator output then goes high, forcing the fi-fop output G to go high. The discharge: transistor tums on, and the tring capactor C discharges through Fig and the discharge transistor The capacitor rc 7 : crete vee (2) ain an seme we (8), en i T i the trigger comy r switches stages and sends G low igure ¥0.22: AstablemutibratiorSSScrcuit Tauren tur ch de nig cect greed hon chore srotatote (3) oo ona Vd0)= Yoo +(4 Yoo ) mMnApE EASY Signal Generators and Waveform Shaping Circuits | 323 = ve 2Mon at, a= ee 3 3 Tein T=OSGTH, AIC (048) When he tring capactaris charging, dung hetime << Ty the capaci votage is ue Bv om or tg = PC ite = To the capactrvotage reaches the ager lve anc tyr e2yr ores 10.48 Mtg) tv =2v (10.48) song equston (0.4) tring capac charge te Tl (0040) “The period T ofthe astable mutvirator cycieis the sum ofthe charging period, and he dscharging periad Tp, The frequency of oscilationis therefore, ao 410.50) Tip+Tp * OGG FORO “The duty cyceis defined as the percentage of ime the output is high during one period of oscitation. During the charging time T>the outputs high during the cischarging tine, the outputs ow. The ty cysbistherefre, te Aaah cycle = 2 x 100% =» ata Duy cyte = Be r00% Rae 00% Equation (1051) shows thatthe cutycyete for this coulis always greater than $0 percent. ‘Aseuming the gain Ao the op-amp tobe represented by A = 2 where ais the gain-bandwidth- product ofthe op-amp, analyze the given circuit and determine Under what condltion, the circuit can generate sinusoidal signal ‘at the output? What Is the frequency of the output waveform if Mitr YAO) = Veo ~ "Hee" Ryo tkO. Ry =940,0,= 0.1 pF and R= 10k0? rn, aarti ) os ce) a. mabe ERS rueepibeonaos)324 | Hectal Engineering «Analg Electronics MADE EASY ensu ns eee oaedetemeaeaae| tee ide fects eet atte ea Given Rye 1k, R= Oko Wie = 10x 10° x0. + 9x 1081 =O tone f | 0°} 49010°-0 Farias ve _ P= 9x 108 Gainotoo-am, ant “e 7 ee pxio ~ Now from the above diagram, Ar @= 3x 10 radisec Ay Ry @ 3x10 7 -2 me late 7 rect gh oe aN ” TsRG, ™ ov Ax wren vpn tf MRL 9 [diet 1 9[gttshi| | 5 [(R)+ Fe) (1+ 8R,C,) nARe.E 16 BRC» ea FRO) ee, Lat aoe (e)3Vtosv ‘) 8Vt06v 1+ Fe (c) 36Vt06V (@) 3.6Vto5V “i Solution (0) Thevoage Vevaries between Vary Nex, : 1 fegieweamkeeait eat lip FRC WP HOH I O11" ‘Therefore, voltage V, varies between 3 V and6 V. Now Ke aie Boden tect bette nn = aa‘The phase shit invoduced by Wien bridge @ a (b) 180° (o) 2em3 2c 210 | | : | 11 Owaetminena.amepueretae moan (1 Aageangu ne at Thea option oe «4c coven naz. pen et op tn gon 00 __ = ‘Signal Generators and Waveform Shaping Circuits. | 327 0.13 Consde’hefoioning saterentsinrespectt tie convert Wenig ceils shovninthe iguebocw (8) AC to DC converter and astable ivrator eee 2.16 Thetunctonct he dade Dinthetimer ckcut R shown below isto Inthe folowing astable muitvibrator circu, which properies av, dependon R.? 2. Schmit vigger cuit exhibits hysteresis 5 phenemenon 3. Tho output of a S he chit triggor will bo Q.18 Which one othe folowing ses of circuits can be chtained by using @ 555 timer?