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STABILISED RAMMED EARTH (SRE) WALL

CONSTRUCTION – NOW AVAILABLE IN THE UK
By Dr Matthew Hall,The University of Nottingham, and Bill Swaney, Earth Structures (Europe) Ltd

What can stabilised rammed earth offer? excess of 250 stabilised

earth structures
tabilised rammed earth (SRE) is a low-carbon masonry wall
S material that successfully combines ancient earth-building
techniques with modern commercial technologies and building
including large public
buildings such as the
Juvenile Justice
practices. The finished product is a durable material that is cost- Detention Centre at
effective and infinitely recyclable, but with natural high-quality Dubbo, NSW (see: Figure
aesthetics that are reminiscent of cut sandstone. It is a 1) and, more recently,
commonly reported fact that around half of all global CO2 the Science & Resources
emissions can be attributed to the construction, and more Centre at Lauriston Girls
importantly the operation, of buildings. The reason why SRE is an School, Melbourne, Figure 1 – Orana Juvenile Justice Detention Centre at
effective low-carbon technology is that it tackles both of these Dubbo, NSW, Australia (© Earth Structures Pty Ltd.)
Australia (see: Figure 2).
areas. He has also produced
In the construction phase, SRE contributes very little embodied numerous residential
energy for two main reasons: properties (see: Figure
1. approximately 95% of the component materials are unfired 3) and holiday homes
(see: Figure 4).
2. the use of locally-available raw materials minimises the level
In response to the huge
of transportation required.
potential for stabilised
More recently, crushed recycled demolition rubble from used rammed earth in the
bricks and concrete is increasingly used by SRE contractors United Kingdom, Earth Figure 2 – The Science & Resources Centre at
instead of sub-soils. This offers the advantage of significantly Structures opened a Lauriston Girls School, Melbourne, Australia
reducing landfill by converting the on-site waste materials into a European branch based (© Trevor Mein)
high quality product to make new buildings. This also offers in Northamptonshire.
considerable cost advantages to the contractor by eliminating The managing director of
charges for masonry waste, haulage and disposal. Earth Structures (Europe)
The most significant advantage of SRE is during occupation where Ltd is Australian
the walls act as a source of building-integrated renewable energy. ex-patriot Bill Swaney
This is due to the large thermal storage capacity contained within who has significant
the walls enabling them to be used as a storage battery for experience with a Figure 3 – The Big Springs homestead
passive heating and cooling of the building. This enables number of rammed earth (© Earth Structures Pty Ltd.)
designers to use SRE walls for the combined functions of a load- projects both in
bearing structure and also as an energy-saving device. Many such Australia and the UK.
designs have been shown to offer both significant reductions in Recent examples include
average annual energy consumption and improved levels of the Medal-winning
thermal comfort during occupancy. Australian Inspiration
SRE is a programmable system of wall building that is Garden (Fleming's
manufactured to close tolerances making it highly compatible Nurseries Garden) for the
with existing trade practices. It can be made using local sub- Chelsea flower show in
soils, quarry waste materials, or even recycled bricks/concrete 2004 and a large stables Figure 4 – Passive solar-design holiday home
crushed to an ideal particle size specification. SRE offers a rapid outbuilding in (© Earth Structures Pty Ltd.)
rate of production at typically 10 to 15m2 of 300mm-thick solid Northamptonshire
wall per day. It has a uniquely attractive, layered appearance and (see: Figure 5).
is available in a wide range of natural earthy tones that normally Earth Structures Ltd are
reflect the materials available in a given area. effectively a global
company who are now
Earth Structures Ltd able to direct and apply
their experienced site
Earth Structures (Australia) Pty Ltd is an established and well-
supervisors and trained
respected rammed earth contractor based at Mansfield, Victoria in
workforce wherever it is
Australia. It is a member of the Affiliated Stabilised Earth Group
needed between both
(asEg) of companies, the largest corporate group of rammed earth
the Australian and the
contractors in the world. Earth Structures Ltd was founded in Figure 5 – The stables outbuilding at The Manor,
UK branches. They have
1992 by Managing Director Rick Lindsay. He has completed in Northamptonshire, England (© Earth Structures Ltd.)

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recently been asked to supervise new SRE building projects in software add-ons
Thailand and Korea. This unique ability allows them to for use with
confidently apply the proven technique of SRE in the UK market, AUTOCAD. Once
thus providing the same high levels of quality and workmanship the architect's
that has made it so successful in Australia. drawings for a
building/structure Figure 8 – The use of StabilformTM to produce solid
The Patented have been cavity-insulated SRE wall elements for a residential
completed, Earth property in Benalla, Australia (© Earth Structures
“StabilformTM” Pty Ltd.)
Structures Ltd can
System
supply an all-inclusive quotation expressed as a cost/m2 of wall
StabilformTM is a face including set-up costs, labour and materials.
patented formwork
system specifically Research and development
designed to meet the
special requirements of Dr Matthew Hall is a Lecturer in Sustainable Technology at the
SRE. It has been School of Built Environment, The University of Nottingham. The
developed and School has a worldwide reputation for research in sustainable
perfected for over 25 technologies and has been ranked number one in the UK for the
years and has been last three consecutive years (2002-2004) in the building category
successfully used to of the UK University League Tables published by the Times Higher
produce several Education Supplement. Matthew has been researching rammed
thousand SRE earth construction since 2001 and has chiefly investigated the
structures throughout mechanisms of moisture ingress and migration in rammed earth
Australia. The wall materials in order to assess their suitability for the UK
StabilformTM system climate. Dr Hall is now collaborating extensively with Bill Swaney
Figure 6 – An isometric view showing the allows architects to of Earth Structures (Europe) Ltd in order to further research and
configuration of typical SRE wall elements in design buildings and develop SRE. He also instigated the successful construction of the
a building produced using the StabilformTM structures using a first SRE public building to be fully accepted under all relevant
system (© Affiliated Stabilised Earth Group) sections of the 2002 Building Regulations for England and Wales
highly programmable
(Hall, Damms & Djerbib, 2004). The building is intended for use
range of standard-sized as a bowls pavilion/community centre and was designed and
SRE wall elements (see: constructed in collaboration with Chesterfield Borough Council in
Figure 6). Each wall 2003.
element is made up of
'lifts'; these are generally Structural properties
600mm high and can be The minimum characteristic unconfined compressive strength (f'cu)
a range of different
for SRE is 3.5 N/mm2. This is easily achievable and has already
standard lengths such as
been deemed to satisfy Part A: Structural Stability of the Building
1,200mm, 1,500mm,
Regulations 2000 (Hall, Damms & Djerbib, 2004). Compressive
2,400mm etc (see: Figure
strength can be tested prior to and during the construction phase
7). A typical 2.4m high
in order to ensure quality control. The test specimens are
wall, for example, will
produced as 100mm cube samples as per BS 1881 for concrete
have the appearance of
(Hall & Djerbib, 2004a). The f'cu can be increased up to >10N/mm2
four lifts in height giving
to suit particular applications and this is normally achieved
the walls a unique
through alterations to the mix design.
aesthetic form. The
Standard reinforced concrete, steel channel or timber lintels can
StabilformTM standard-
be used with SRE walls (see: Figure 9) and require a minimum
sized units are also
bearing depth of 300mm (Hall, Damms, and Djerbib, 2004). Steel
available to produce Figure 7 – An elevation showing the
reinforcement can also be cast inside SRE walls either horizontally
special shapes such as configuration of typical SRE wall elements
produced using the StabilformTM system or vertically. This
45° & 90° corners, 'T'
allows the
sections, 'Z' sections etc. (© Affiliated Stabilised Earth Group)
construction of
In addition, SRE can be
tall, slender wall
used to form gable ends, columns, arched openings, radius curved
sections that are
sections and any other custom-sized wall section, although a
resistant to
greater cost is normally incurred for this service.
buckling, as
Window and door openings can either be full height, or they can
demonstrated by
be cast into the wall section using block outs (see: Figure 8).
the 8m high
Designing SRE buildings with the StabilformTM system offers the
300mm thick
advantage of increased quality control, speed and reduced Figure 9 – The use of wide-span lintels with SRE
steel-reinforced
construction costs. The dimensions for standard lifts and elements
SRE walls used for walls at The Charles Sturt University campus building,
are available in printed format or even in electronic format as NSW, Australia (© Earth Structures Pty Ltd.)

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the Champion costs. This also gives the added comfort benefits of radiant heat
Forms Print as opposed to using the air within a building as the transfer
Factory (see: medium, as with most conventional central heating systems.
Figure 10). According to Standards New Zealand (1998), in the absence of
laboratory test data the thermal resistivity (R) of an SRE wall can
Durability and be calculated using:
moisture R = 2.04d + 0.12
Where: d is the cross-sectional thickness of the wall element in
ingress
metres.
Testing has According to Part L1 of the Building Regulations 2000 for England
proven that SRE and Wales the cross-sectional design of an external wall element
Figure 10 – The Champion Forms Printing Factory, materials rarely in dwellings can demonstrate compliance by having a minimum
Victoria, Australia (© Earth Structures Pty Ltd.) have any U-value of 0.350 W/m2 k (ODPM, 2002). A comparison between
problems meeting the calculated U-values for conventional masonry wall designs
the requirements of even the most severe durability tests (Walker and typical SRE wall designs has been provided in Table 1. One
& Standards Australia, 2002). Tests have been performed on a possible Part L-compliant SRE wall design is to install internal dry
series of full-size SRE walls in a climatic simulation chamber. The lining or timber stud walling including insulation bats. This
5-day test routines simulated high levels of wind-driven rainfall technique has the advantage of retaining the full aesthetics of
based on the standard test procedure provided by the rammed earth on the exterior, and also provides a key for
BS 4315-2: 1970 Methods of test for resistance to air and water movable interior partition walls. Unfortunately, with this method
penetration – permeable wall construction [water penetration] the benefits from the wall's thermal mass are effectively isolated
(BSI, 1970). High- from the interior of the building by the insulation. An alternative
pressure spray nozzles is to apply profiled insulation cladding, for example, on the
were used to simulate a external wall face. This allows the wall's thermal mass to stay
sustained rain shower connected with the interior of the building, and also provides a
where the equivalent of more conventional aesthetic for commercial properties, for
84mm (3.3”) of rainwater example, allowing SRE to be used in areas where an exterior
run-off is applied to the appearance that matches adjacent properties is desired.
face of each test wall A new solution has been
every hour for 6 hours in developed by Earth Structures to
a given 24-hour period construct SRE solid cavity walls
(see: Figure 11). Both incorporating rigid insulation bats
Figure 11 – An SRE test wall being exposed
the degree of moisture to pressure-driven water penetration testing
(see: Figure 12). This approach
ingress and material loss in the climatic simulation chamber at has been so well-received by their
(due to erosion) in each Sheffield Hallam University (© Hall M) clients that it is now being used
SRE test wall was on most new SRE projects. Earth
observed to be insignificant (Hall, 2004). By comparison, Structures have successfully built
previous tests on a series of stone walls had shown both full several new buildings using this
penetration and significant internal leakage via the mortar joints method, both in Australia and the
within three hours. UK, and the demand is increasing.
Figure 12 – The construction of an
Moisture ingress in SRE due to capillary suction has been SRE cavity walls are still built SRE wall incorporating solid cavity
observed to vary greatly depending upon soil type, and that the using the Stabilform system, but insulation and stainless steel wall
performance of the material can be greatly increased through they incorporate a solid cavity fill ties (© Earth Structures Pty Ltd.)
optimisation of the soil grading (Hall, 2004). Capillary moisture of rigid insulation material such
ingress in well-graded rammed earth has been observed to be as extruded polystyrene or polyisocyanurate. The inner/outer
typically lower than that of vibration-compacted C30 concrete leaves are both typically 175mm thick and are tied using stainless
(Hall & Djerbib, 2004b). Earth Structures also use a proprietary steel cavity wall ties. This design solution retains the thermal
water-repellent admixture for SRE walls that, in addition to mass properties of the rammed earth inside a building, and yet
correct soil grading, can give significant further reductions in the prevents excessive heat loss through the wall fabric in winter. It
level of moisture ingress. also ensures that both the interior and exterior appearance of the
rammed earth is not hidden in any way.
Thermal properties
Acoustic properties
As with most masonry wall materials, SRE walls have an
inherently low thermal resistivity. However, SRE walls have a very SRE is an extremely dense masonry wall material where the dry
high capacity to store heat energy – commonly referred to as density (pd) is typically 2,100 kg/m3. The weighted sound
'thermal mass'. In simple terms, this means that they do not reduction index (Rw) of a solid masonry wall is strongly dependent
readily prevent the flow of heat energy but, owing to their high upon the dry density of the wall material. According to the 'mass
density, they can absorb and store it. High thermal mass can be rule' for a solid masonry wall, as defined by BS 8233 (1999), we
used to great effect by architects along with passive solar design can calculate Rw using:
in buildings. By reducing the need for heating/cooling in a Rw = 21.65log10 m’–2.3
building this can have the effect of significantly lowering fuel Where m’ = the surface mass of the wall (kg/m2)

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According to the Building Regulations (2000) Approved Document References

E: Resistance to the Passage of Sound, as amended July 1st 2003,
in order to demonstrate compliance the laboratory values for new BSI, 1999, BS 8233 – Sound Insulation and Noise Reduction for
internal walls within dwelling-houses, flats and rooms for Buildings: Code of Practice, British Standards Institute, London
BSI, 1970, BS 4315-2: 1970 – Methods of Test for Resistance to
residential purposes must have a minimum Rw of 40 dB. A typical
Air and Water Penetration: Part 2 – Permeable Walling
300mm thick SRE wall, with an assumed dry density of 2,100
Constructions (water penetration), British Standards Institute,
kg/m3, would have a weighted sound reduction index (Rw) of 58.3
London
dB and so easily satisfies the requirements of Part E. Hall M, 2004, 'The Mechanisms & Migration of Moisture Ingress in
Rammed Earth Walls', PhD Thesis, Sheffield Hallam University,
Summary England
Hall M, Damms P & Djerbib Y, 2004, "Stabilised Rammed Earth
The exciting potential of stabilised rammed earth (SRE)
(SRE) and the Building Regulations (2000): Part A – Structural
construction is now commercially available as a low carbon
Stability", Building Engineer, 79 [6] pp. 18-21
building material anywhere in the UK. The collaborative
Hall M & Djerbib Y, 2004a, "Rammed Earth Sample Production:
partnership, between Bill Swaney of Earth Structures (Europe) Ltd
Context, Recommendations and Consistency", Construction and
and Dr Matthew Hall of the University of Nottingham, brings
Building Materials, 18 [4] pp.281-286
together a wealth of construction knowledge and experience,
Hall M & Djerbib Y, 2004b, "Moisture Ingress in Rammed Earth:
combined with the latest developments in research and Part 1 – The Effect of Particle-Size Distribution on the Rate of
development. SRE can be used for any low- or medium-rise Capillary Suction", Construction and Building Materials, 18 [4]
masonry wall structure, and has already successfully been used to pp.269-280
demonstrate compliance with relevant sections of the Building McMullan R, 1992, Environmental Science in Building, Third
Regulations (2000) for England and Wales. Edition, Macmillan Press Ltd, Hampshire
Standards New Zealand, 1998, NZS 4297: 1998 Engineering Design
For additional information about SRE please feel free to of Earth Buildings. 1998, Standards New Zealand, Wellington, New
contact the authors: Zealand
Dr Matthew Hall, School of the Built Environment, ODPM, 2003, Building Regulations 2000 – Approved Document E
The University of Nottingham, University Park, (amended): Resistance to the Passage of Sound, The Stationery
Nottingham NG7 2RD. Tel: +44 (0) 115 846 7873. Office (TSO), Norwich
E-mail: [email protected] and/or ODPM, 2002, Building Regulations 2000 – Approved Document L1
Bill Swaney, Earth Structures (Europe) Ltd, (amended): Conservation of Fuel & Power in Dwellings, The
The Manor, Hall Lane, Ashley, Market Harborough, Stationery Office (TSO), Norwich
Leicestershire LE16 8HE. Walker P & Standards Australia, 2002, HB195: The Australian Earth
Tel: +44 (0) 1858 565436. E-mail: [email protected] Building Handbook, Standards Australia International, Sydney

Table 1: A comparison between the calculated U-values for both 'conventional' masonry and SRE wall designs

Cross-sectional wall design Thickness (mm) U-value

(W/m2 k)
Solid brick wall 215 2.300*
Internal plaster finish 15
Solid SRE wall 300 1.370
Outer leaf brickwork 102.5
Insulation-filled cavity (e.g. EPS; where k = <0.04) 60 0.450*
Lightweight concrete block 100
Plasterboard 13
Solid SRE wall 300
Air cavity (+ vapour barrier) 38 0.290
Internal timber stud walling inc. mineral wool bats 100
Plasterboard 12
SRE (cavity wall) inner leaf 175
SRE (cavity wall) outer leaf 175 0.335
Celotex Tuff-RTM Zero GA3050Z cavity insulation 50
SRE (cavity wall) inner leaf 175
SRE (cavity wall) outer leaf 175 0.245
Celotex Tuff-RTM Zero GA3075Z cavity insulation 75
* Data provided by McMullan R, 1992

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