ELECTRONIC CONCEPTS

Electronic Concepts is a clear, self-contained introduction to modern

microelectronics. Analog and digital circuits are stressed equally from
the outset, and the applications of particular devices and circuits are
described within the context of actual electronic systems. A combina-
tion of bottom-up and top-down approaches is used to integrate this
treatment of devices, circuits, and systems.
The author begins with an overview of several important electronic
systems, discussing in detail the types of signals that circuits are used to
process. In the following chapters he deals with individual devices such
as the bipolar junction transistor and the metal-oxide semiconductor
field-effect transistor. For each device he presents a brief physical de-
scription and demonstrates the use of different models in describing the
device's behavior in a particular circuit application. Throughout the
book, he uses SPICE computer simulations extensively to supplement
analytic descriptions.
The book contains over 500 circuit diagrams and figures, over 400
homework problems, and over 100 simulation and design exercises. It
includes many worked examples and is an ideal textbook for introduc-
tory courses in electronics. It can also be used for self-study. Laboratory
experiments related closely to the material covered in the book are avail-
able via the World Wide Web.

Jerrold Krenz received his Ph.D. from Stanford University and is Asso-
ciate Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Univer-
sity of Colorado, Boulder. He is the author of several books, including
Microelectronic Circuits: A Laboratory Approach and An Introduction
to Electrical Circuits and Electronic Devices: A Laboratory Approach.
ELECTRONIC CONCEPTS

JERROLD H. KRENZ
University of Colorado, Boulder

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

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© Cambridge University Press 2000

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no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2000

This digitally printed first paperback version 2005

A catalogue recordfor this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Krenz,JerroldH., 1934-
Electronic concepts : an introduction/Jerrold H. Krenz.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p.
ISBN 0-521-66282-6 (hb.)
1. Electronics. 2. Electronic circuits — Computer simulation.
I. Title.
TK7816.K73 1999
621.381-dc21 99-30407
CIP
ISBN-13 978-0-521-66282-6 hardback
ISBN-10 0-521-66282-6 hardback

ISBN-13 978-0-521-66443-1 paperback

ISBN-10 0-521-66443-8 paperback
CONTENTS

Preface page xi
1 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS: A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 1
1.1 Electronic Devices: An Overview 3
The Diode: 3 • The Vacuum Triode: 5 • The Transistor and
Integrated Circuits: 6
1.2 Wireless Communication: A New Era 8
Electrical Tuning: 9 • Vacuum Tube Circuits: 10 • The
Superheterodyne Receiver: 11
1.3 The Telegraph and Telephone: Wide-Scale Interconnections 13
The Telegraph: 13 • Basic Telephone System: 14 • Analog
Telephone Signals: 15 • Digital Telephone Systems: 17
1.4 Television: Time-Dependent Visual Images 19
Analog Television: 20 • Cathode-Ray Tube Display: 21 • Video
Camera Devices: 23 • Digital Television: 26
1.5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum: A Multitude of Uses 28
Frequency Spectrum: 29 • Radar: 30 • Communications
Satellites: 32
1.6 Computers: Transistors By the Millions 35
Logic Circuits: 35 • A Basic Computer: 38 • Memories: 42
1.7 Integrated Circuits: Shrinking Device Sizes and Increased
Complexity 45
REFERENCES 47

PROBLEMS 49

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 56

2 THE SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTION DIODE: THE BASIS OF MODERN

ELECTRONICS 59
2.1 Electrons and Conduction: A Look at Elementary Processes 60
 2.2 Semiconductors: The Role of Electrons and Holes 65
An Intrinsic Semiconductor: 67 • An n-type
Semiconductor: 68 • A p-type Semiconductor: 69
2.3 The Junction Diode: A Quintessential Semiconductor Device 72
The Built-in Potential: 75 • An External Potential: 76
2.4 The Junction Diode: Its Terminal Characteristics 77
Current of a Diode: 78 • SPICE Model: 81
2.5 A Circuit with a Diode: Dealing with a Nonlinear Element 83
Load Line: 84 • An Iterative Approach: 85 • SPICE
Solution: 87
2.6 Modeling the Junction Diode: The Role of Approximations 92
The Ideal Diode Switch Model: 92 • Constant
Forward-Biased Voltage Diode Model: 94 • Diode Model
with a Series Resistor: 95
2.7 The Photovoltaic Cell: Photon-Semiconductor Interactions 100
Photons: 100
2.8 Light-Emitting and Laser Diodes: Optical Communication 107
Light-Emitting Diodes: 107 • Light-Emitting Diode
Applications: 108
REFERENCES 116

PROBLEMS 118

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 129

THE BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR: A N ACTIVE ELECTRONIC

DEVICE 133
3.1 The Common-Base Configuration: A Physical Description 137
3.2 The Common-Emitter Configuration: Same Device, Different
Perspective 143
Equivalent Circuit: 143 • Transfer Characteristic: 144 •
SPICE Simulation Model: 146
3.3 The Common-Emitter Equivalent Circuit: Solving Transistor
Circuits 153
An External Base Bias: 154 • An Emitter Resistor: 155 • An
Emitter-Follower Circuit: 158
3.4 Digital Logic Circuits: Static and Dynamic Characteristics 164
Transistor Operating Regions: 165 • Capacitive Load: 166 •
Logic Families: 170 • Transistor-Transistor Logic: 173
3.5 Amplifier Circuits: Small-Signal Behavior 177
Analog Signals: 178 • Capacitive Coupling: 179 •
Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit: 181 • Hybrid-7r Transistor
Model: 183
3.6 The PNP Transistor: A Complementary Device 190
Complementary Symmetry: 193

vi CONTENTS
REFERENCES 198

PROBLEMS 199

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 210

DESIGN EXERCISES 214

THE METAL-OXIDE FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR: ANOTHER ACTIVE

DEVICE 217
4.1 Field-Induced Carriers: The Physics of a MOSFET Device 221
SPICE Model: 226
4.2 The Common-Source Equivalent Circuit: Applications 231
A Common-Source Amplifier: 233 • A Source-Follower
Amplifier: 235
4.3 MOSFET Logic Gates: Basic Considerations 244
An Elementary Logic Inverter: 246 • A MOSFET Inverter
Gate: 247
4.4 Integrated-Circuit Logic Gates: No Resistors 253
An Enhancement-Type Load: 253 • Substrate Bias: 255 • A
Depletion-Type Load: 257
4.5 Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Logic Gates: An
Energy-Efficient Logic Family 262
The p-Channel MOSFET Device: 262 • A CMOS Inverter
Gate: 264 • CMOS Logic Gates: 268
4.6 Logic Memories: The Basis of Megabytes of Storage 272
A MOSFET Bistable Circuit: 272 • A Flip-Flop Memory
Element: 274 • A Memory Array: 275 • The Dynamic
Memory Array: 278
REFERENCES 283

PROBLEMS 284

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 295

DESIGN EXERCISES 296

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK A N D OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 299

5.1 Negative Feedback: A Key Concept 303
Decibel Notation: 304 • Reducing Distortion: 305 •
Additional Benefits of Negative Feedback: 309
5.2 Stability: Not All Amplifiers Are Equal 316
Amplifier Phase Shift: 317 • Stability: 321
5.3 Analysis of Operational Amplifier Circuits: Basic
Considerations 327
Ideal Op Amp - Input Virtual Short: 327 • Op Amp
Limitations: 331
5.4 Preemphasis and Deemphasis Circuits: Design Examples 339

CONTENTS vii
 Preemphasis Circuit: 340 • Deemphasis Circuit: 341 •
Design: 342* SPICE Verification: 344
5.5 A Wide-bandwidth Amplifier: A Design Example 346
Single-Stage Amplifier: 347 • Two-Stage Amplifier: 348 •
Three-Stage Amplifier: 349 • Final Design: 350 • SPICE
Verification: 352
REFERENCES 355

PROBLEMS 356

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 363

DESIGN EXERCISES 366

ELECTRONIC POWER SUPPLIES 369

6.1 Rectifiers: From Alternating to Direct Current 371

The Half-Wave Rectifier: 371 • Full-Wave Rectifier - A
Center-Tapped Transformer: 373 • Full-Wave Rectification -
A Bridge Rectifier: 374
6.2 Filters: Reducing Load-Voltage Fluctuations 380
Capacitor Filters - Half-Wave Rectifiers: 380 • Capacitor
Filters - Full-Wave Rectifiers: 383 • A Nonideal
Transformer: 384
6.3 Zener Diode Regulator: An Improved Output Voltage 390
6.4 An Electronic Regulator: Nearly Ideal Power Supply 396
A Basic Operational Amplifier Regulator: 396 • An Electronic
Regulator with a Zener Diode Voltage Reference: 398 • An
Electronic Regulator with a Band-Gap Voltage
Reference: 399 •The Electronic Switching Regulator: 404
6.5 Batteries: An Increasingly Important Electrical Energy Source 406
REFERENCES 411

PROBLEMS 412

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 419

DESIGN EXERCISES 421

APPENDIX A FABRICATION OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 423

A.I Integrated Circuit Transistors 424

A.2 Fabrication Processes 427
Crystal Growth and Wafer Fabrication: 427 • Epitaxial
Deposition: 428 • Doping: Thermal Diffusion: 428 • Doping:
Ion Implantation: 429 • Thermal Oxidation: 429 • Optical
Lithography: 429 • Etching: 431 • Thin Films: 431
A.3 Summary 432
REFERENCES 432

viii CONTENTS
 APPENDIX B THE DESIGN PROCESS 434
B.I Bipolar Junction Transistor Circuits (Chapter 3) 435
A Single-Transistor Logic Inverter: 435 • Design: 435 •
A Single-Transistor Small-Signal Amplifier: 436 • Design: 437
B.2 Metal-Oxide Field-Effect Transistor (Chapter 4) 439
Biasing a MOSFET Circuit: 439 • Design: 439
B.3 Negative Feedback and Operational Amplifiers (Chapter 5) 442
A Small-Signal Amplifier: 442 • Design: 443
B.4 Electronic Power Supplies (Chapter 6) 445
Power Supply With a Selectable Output Voltage: 445 •
Design: 445
REFERENCES 449

Index 451

CONTENTS
PREFACE

The field of electronics or microelectronics today encompasses a vast quantity

of knowledge and practice. The topics that can be covered in a basic course
must, by necessity, be limited to avoid a mere encyclopedic cataloging of various
electronic circuits and systems. There are, however, a set of underlying concepts
that one needs to grasp to understand electronics. It is the goal of the author to
provide students and instructors with an accessible treatment of those modern
electronic concepts along with appropriate applications. Applications are con-
sidered essential to grasp the utility of general concepts as well as to appreciate
their limitations. The approach used in the text is to cover a limited number of
topics well, as opposed to a cursory coverage of a very wide range of topics that
may do little more than leave one with an extensive vocabulary.
The text provides more than adequate material for a one-semester, junior-
level electronics course. A good working knowledge of linear circuits along with
a reasonable understanding of calculus and physics is required. Although there
is a progression in the complexity of the material covered, the text provides a
flexibility in selecting the material to cover. The author has attempted to provide
sufficient descriptive material to indicate not only what is being done but also to
show how a particular circuit is used. Examples with detailed solutions utilizing
analytic solutions and computer simulations conclude most sections. In addition,
numerous references are cited to allow the interested student to learn more about
a particular topic.
An unique feature of the book is its introductory chapter, which provides an
overview of several electronic systems. This chapter makes the learning task more
interesting for the students and serves to introduce them to the signals that elec-
tronic circuits are used to process. Electronic circuits were developed to fulfill par-
ticular needs. At the same time, the evolution of electronic systems depended on
what could be done with the electronic devices then available. The text provides a
combination of a top-down and a bottom-up approach. Systems are considered
as well as basic physical concepts that are necessary for understanding devices.
The text provides a transition from the coverage of introductory circuit theory
courses that tend to deal only with two-terminal linear devices for which simple
 circuit models are valid (v = /\R, etc.). Although, for circuit theory, it is seldom
necessary to distinguish between the model and the device it describes, this is
not the case for electronic devices. In Electronic Concepts, a student is gradually
introduced to the use of different models used for a single device. The particular
model employed depends on the nature of the circuit in which the device is used
and the signals involved. The treatment of circuits with nonlinear devices and
with three (and at times four) terminals is recognized as a significant conceptual
leap for students.
The second chapter, The Semiconductor Junction Diode, includes a brief qual-
itative discussion of semiconductor physics. Although it is recognized that an
in-depth knowledge of semiconductor physics is very important, the author feels
that this can best be accomplished in a concurrent or subsequent theory course.
Electronic Concepts discusses electrons and holes moving as the result of potential
differences, thereby providing a basis for an intuitive understanding of semicon-
ductor devices. Load lines, the diode equation, and various diode models used
to approximate the behavior of diodes are introduced. The basic principles of
photovoltaic cells and light-emitting diodes are discussed as well as important
applications.
The bipolar junction transistor is introduced in Chapter 3 before the coverage
of field-effect devices in Chapter 4. Treating field-effect devices first does have
a certain appeal because, for some applications, the field-effect models are sim-
pler than those of bipolar junction transistors. However, the bipolar junction
transistor is a direct extension of the junction diode, and this type of transistor is
considerably more convenient for doing laboratory experiments. An understand-
ing of individual semiconductor devices, as viewed from their terminals, as well as
the concepts related to using devices for amplification and switching is stressed.
Chapter 4 provides a brief qualitative physical discussion of MOSFET devices
and introduces approximate analytical expressions for their terminal behavior.
Although the behavior of analog circuits based on the small-signal behavior of
devices is covered, the main thrust of this chapter is digital circuits. Both the
static and dynamic behaviors of logic gates using device configurations suitable
for integrated circuits are determined. Following a treatment of bistable circuits,
semiconductor memories are discussed.
Negative feedback, along with operational amplifiers, is the subject of
Chapter 5. The feedback nature of operational amplifier circuits is stressed be-
cause the frequently used "ideal op amp" treatment of basic circuit texts generally
glosses over the feedback nature of op amp circuits. Negative feedback, although
introducing a higher order of complexity, is shown to offer many improvements
over circuits without feedback. It is also emphasized that if feedback is not used
properly, undesirable behavior can occur. Analog design techniques using op
amps are highlighted in this chapter.
A concluding chapter on electronic power supplies treats rectifiers, filters, elec-
tronic regulators, and batteries. A knowledge of this material, all too frequently
omitted in basic electronics courses, is necessary for the design of nearly all elec-
tronic systems. This chapter may be covered immediately after Chapter 2 if the
electronic regulator section is omitted.

xii PREFACE
 Appendix A on the fabrication of integrated circuits carries one beyond the
electronics circuits emphasis of the text. It provides a glimpse of the physical
and chemical techniques used in the fabrication process and a perspective on the
actual physical structures and sizes of devices. Appendix B, The Design Process,
carries through the design of a few sample electronic circuits. Explanations are
provided for each step so that the student may appreciate the rationale for the
design decisions.
Computer simulations are used throughout the text. It is assumed that students
are familiar with SPICE, that is, that they have used it in a linear circuits course
(if not, numerous basic reference texts are available). Circuit files, common for
all versions of SPICE, are included for all simulation examples. Although the text
uses Probe (MicroSim) graphs, similar presentations can be obtained with other
programs.
Problems requiring analytical solutions as well as computer simulations are
also included. There are considerably more problems and simulations than can
be used for a one-semester course, and thus instructors can vary assignments
from semester to semester and reduce the use of solutions from previous classes.
Computer simulations are limited to circuits that can be run on personal com-
puters with the student version of the PSPICE program. Open-ended, design-type
exercises are also included.
Laboratory experiments that relate directly to the theory of each chapter are
also available on the World Wide Web:
http://www.cup.org/titles/66/0521662826.html

A portable document format (.pdf extension) is used for the experiments so that
they may readily be downloaded and printed. Detailed experimental steps are
employed to guide a student through a set of measurements and observations, and
minimum effort is required on the part of the instructor. Alternatively, portions
of experiments may be used for classroom demonstrations.

Boulder, CO

PREFACE xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS: A CENTURY

OF PROGRESS

Our daily lives are shaped by electronic systems. In the home we have a myriad
of electronic accessories: radios, TVs, VCRs, hi-fis, camcorders, cassette and CD
players, telephone answering machines, microwave ovens, and personal com-
puters. Not so obvious but just as much a part of our lives are sophisticated
electronic controls such as the microprocessor engine control of our car. We
utilize a telephone system that functions with electronic devices to amplify and
transfer telephone signals. Our conversations are carried around the world using
a combination of microwave or fiber-optic links and satellites. Electronic radar
systems are relied on for a safe flight from one airport to the next, and electronic
sensors and computers "fly" a modern jet airplane. Modern medical practice
depends on extremely complex diagnostic and monitoring electronic systems.
Moreover, the commercial and industrial sectors could no longer function with-
out electronic communications and information processing systems. The video
monitor is a pervasive reminder of the new electronic world.
For better and at times for worse, electronics has changed our lives. Although
we are in constant touch with what is happening around the world, we are
also at the peril of weapons of unimaginable destructive power that rely on
electronic developments. An understanding of electronics is imperative not only
for designing and using electronic systems but for directing the evolution of
electronic systems so that they serve to improve the human condition.
It has been stated that to move forward we must know where we have been.
The 20th century is the era of electronics - it was only after 1900 that the de-
vices we now describe as electronic appeared. The use of the term electron-
ics in the current sense did not occur until 1930 (Siisskind 1966). This intro-
ductory chapter starts with a very brief overview of electronic devices and is
followed by a discussion of wireless systems: radio. The first application of
electronic devices, the vacuum tube diode invented in 1904 and the triode in-
vented in 1906, was for radio receivers. Radio communications was not only
nearly a decade old at the time the tube was invented, but most of the systems
of the first decade of the 1900s did not use tubes. The vacuum tube, without
exaggeration, can be described as having revolutionized radio communications,
resulting in the generation of coherent transmitting signals and highly sensitive
and selective receivers. The vacuum tube, following its first telephone use in
1913, also became an important component of telephone systems. With vacuum
tube amplifiers and multiplexing circuits, long-distance telephone service greatly
expanded. With the development of digital systems made possible by the tran-
sistor and integrated circuits in the latter half of the 20th century, telephone
switching and transmission systems were again significantly improved.
The development of electronic devices, on the one hand, depended on a knowl-
edge of basic physical principles: the behavior of electrons in a vacuum and the
interaction of electrons with matter. On the other hand, electron devices were
frequently developed to fulfill perceived needs. The characteristics of electronic
devices dictated those applications that could be realized. Television, discussed
in Section 1.4, illustrates the interrelatedness of the development of electronic
devices and circuits with a particular application. An analog television system
was developed in the 1930s and was commercially introduced in the late 1940s.
Over the rest of the 20th century, television was based on this analog system, and
the only enhancement was the introduction of a subcarrier for color information.
At the close of the 20th century, a digital system, totally different, and therefore
incompatible with the analog system, was developed. Although this digital sys-
tem, from a transmission perspective, is considerably more efficient, the signal
processing required is very complex. Without the development of very-large-
scale integrated (VLSI) circuits during the 1980s that could do the encoding and
decoding, digital TV would not have been possible.
The electromagnetic spectrum (Section 1.5) is used for a variety of radio, TV,
and other communications services. Although early radar systems can be traced
back to the 1930s, it was the impetus of World War II that resulted in a rapid
development of this technology. New electronic devices capable of transmitting
and detecting extremely high-frequency signals ( f > 1000 MHz) were invented.
Communications satellites, first launched in the 1960s, also relied on these ex-
tremely high-frequency (microwave) devices.
Digital electronic circuits have revolutionized computing. Early computers,
until about the mid-1960s, relied on vacuum tube circuits. These computers,
from today's perspective, not only had minuscule processing capabilities, but,
owing to the limited reliability of vacuum tubes, were frequently down. Solid-
state devices resulted not only in a tremendous improvement in reliability but
made possible machines with much greater computing capabilities. With ultra-
large-scale integrated circuits, desktop computers emerged with a computing
capability that a decade earlier was available only in large mainframe machines.
Needless to say, electronic devices and circuits have become common for many
applications in addition to those discussed. Power electronics is dependent on
electronic switching devices and circuits. Frequency and voltage transforma-
tions, as well as alternating-to-direct-current and direct-to-alternating-current
conversions can often be efficiently achieved using electronic systems. In medical
electronics, a variety of electronic sensing circuits have been developed along
with computer systems to process and display the data. Furthermore, electronic

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
systems, such as heart pacemakers, have been perfected to augment body func-
tions. Electronic sensing and control systems dependent on simple micropro-
cessors are now used in applications ranging from programmable thermostats to
automobile ignition and fuel systems. More complex sensing and control systems
involving large computing capabilities are used for automated manufacturing sys-
tems. Although it is beyond this introductory chapter to discuss these and other
applications, it should be recognized that similar electronic devices and circuits
are often used by these different systems. A knowledge of basic concepts, the
subject of this text, is a prerequisite for understanding both the simplest and the
most esoteric of electronic systems.

1.1 ELECTRONIC DEVICES: A N OVERVIEW

The thermionic valve or vacuum tube was developed in Great Britain by Sir John
Ambrose Fleming (Pierce 1950; Shiers 1969). This tube relied on what is known
as the Edison effect, a current being produced by the hot filament of a light bulb.
Fleming, through a series of experiments with bulbs having an electrode near the
hot filament, deduced that this current was due to negative electric charges. We
now understand the current to be due to electrons emitted by the hot filament that
are collected by the electrode. To the extent that only electrons are responsible
for this current, the current to the electrode is only in one direction; in a high-
vacuum tube, a current corresponding to the movement of positive charges does
not occur.

THE DIODE
Fleming's valve consisted of a hot filament (corresponding to the incandescent
filament of a light bulb) heated by a current produced by an external battery.
The emitted electrons were then collected by a plate surrounding the filament
(Figure 1.1). Even though the physical current is that due to electrons traveling
from the filament to the plate, the plate current />, is, by convention, a positive
quantity because a current is defined in terms of the movement of hypothetical
positive charges. A positive plate voltage vp attracts electrons, thus increasing
the current, whereas a negative plate voltage repels electrons, yielding either

Figure 1.1: Vacuum tube diode and typical characteristic.

10 -

mA 5 •
Vp

1 1 1—4—I 1 1—• Vp

-3 0 3

physical symbolic volts

representation representation typical characteristic

1.1 ELECTRONIC DEVICES: AN OVERVIEW 3

 a very small or zero current. This nonlin-
10 I ear effect results in a current in only one
direction (/p > 0). For significant negative
voltages, the current of a well-evacuated
m A 5 ••
tube is essentially zero.
At about the same time that Fleming
introduced his vacuum tube, Greenleaf
semiconductor -1 -.5 0 .5 W. Pickard was experimenting with a point-
diode symbol volts contact semiconductor detector (Douglas
Figure 1.2: Semiconductor diode and a typical char- 1981). This device may be considered the
acteristic. precursor of modern solid-state devices. In
addition to the detector using silicon de-
veloped by Pickard, a similar detector using Carborundum was developed by
Henry H. C. Dunwoody in 1906. Point-contact diodes were extensively used
until the junction semiconductor diode was introduced in the 1950s.
A semiconductor diode has a nonlinear characteristic, as does the vacuum
tube (Figure 1.2). The current of the diode /£> increases very rapidly with diode
voltage VD (for an ideal semiconductor diode it may be shown that the current has
an exponential dependence on the diode voltage). The rectification property of a
diode, which allows a current in only one direction, wasfirstused for the detection
of radio signals. The detection problem provided the impetus for the development
of vacuum tube and semiconductor diodes. Represented in Figure 1.3 is a basic
radio receiver with a typical amplitude-modulated carrier signal. Although carrier
frequencies of 50 to 100 kHz were common for early communications systems,
the present radio broadcast band consists of signals with carrier frequencies of
540 to 1600 kHz. For an on-off system (continuous wave or CW), the carrier
is simply keyed on and off to form a pattern of dots and dashes. However,
for amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
in accordance with the modulating signal; for example, that of a voice signal
produced with a microphone.
It should be noted that the period corresponding to the carrier frequency
is generally much smaller than that associated with the time scale over which
appreciable variations in the modulating signal occur. In a radio receiver, the

Figure 1.3: An elementary diode radio detector.

antenna

tuned circuit

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
energy received by the antenna
is coupled to the tuned circuit
which, ideally, excludes all other
signals with different carrier
frequencies. A diode rectifier is
then used to convert the carrier
signal vc(t) to a signal with a
single polarity. For the circuit
shown, the capacitor C\ tends
to smooth the detected signal. physical representation symbolic representation
Without the capacitor, a signal Figure 1.4: A triode vacuum tube.
similar to the top half of vc(t)
would result.

THE VACUUM TRIODE

The next significant development that, in effect, ushered in the electronics age,
was Lee De Forest's addition of a control electrode or grid to Fleming's vacuum
diode. This resulted in the triode vacuum tube. A sketch of the physical device,
which is referred to as a triode because it has three elements, is presented in
Figure 1.4. The third element, the grid, is a cagelike wire structure surrounding
the filament of the tube. An externally applied grid potential regulates the plate
current of the tube.
For normal operation, the grid is at a negative potential (relative to that of
the filament), which tends to repel electrons emitted by the hot filament. The
more negative the grid potential UG? the smaller the plate current ip for a given
plate voltage vp (Figure 1.5). Because electrons are repelled by a negative grid
potential, the grid current is essentially zero. (The exceedingly small grid current
that does occur is due to positive ions produced by ionizing electron collisions
with the air molecules of the imperfect vacuum. Although the grid current of
De Forest's early tube may have been significant, those of later tubes with good
vacuums were truly negligible.) As a result of this essentially zero grid current, the
power utilized by the grid circuit is extremely close to zero. Herein lies the worth
of the triode vacuum tube. Its plate current and voltage are not only controlled
by the grid voltage, but essentially zero power is required to do the controlling. It
is not a perpetual-motion device (a power
source is required for the plate circuit) but, for Figure 1.5: The plate characteristic of a typical
triode vacuum tube.
many applications, it is the next best thing!
To illustrate the utility of a vacuum tube tri-
ode, consider the typical characteristic of Fig- -8
ure 1.5 and suppose that a constant current volts
source of 10 mA is connected between the fil- mA
ament and plate of the tube (ip = 10 mA). For
a particular value of grid voltage, the resultant
plate voltage corresponds to the intersection
of the curve corresponding to that grid volt- 100 200
age with the 10-mA coordinate (shown as a volts

1.1 ELECTRONIC DEVICES: AN OVERVIEW

 dashed line in Figure 1.5). A grid voltage of —4 V, for
example, results in a plate voltage of 180 V; a grid
voltage of - 6 V in a plate voltage of 220 V, and so
forth. The transfer characteristic of Figure 1.6 is thus
volts obtained. Of particular importance is that a relatively
small change in grid voltage results in a fairly large
change in plate voltage. The slope of the characteristic
of Figure 1.6 is approximately - 2 0 . This implies that
a 1-V change in VQ results in a change of —20 V in vp.
-12
The minus sign signifies that an increase in VQ results
in a decrease in vp. This circuit therefore has a voltage
Figure 1.6: The transfer characteristic
of the triode of Figure 1.5.
gain with a magnitude of approximately 20.
The first triode vacuum tube of De Forest was used
to detect radio signals (in place of the diode of Figure 1.3); it was initially de-
scribed as an oscillation valve. However, because vacuum tube triodes have the
ability to amplify as well as to detect radio signals, tubes were soon used for
a multitude of applications, including the generation of high-frequency radio
signals.

THE TRANSISTOR AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Solid-state devices, transistors, have replaced vacuum tubes for most, but not
all, electronic applications. The symbolic representation and typical characteristic
of a modern metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) are
given in Figure 1.7. For the device shown, free electrons from the source of the
MOSFET semiconductor device flow to its drain. In a manner analogous to that
of the grid of the vacuum tube, the free-electron current is controlled by the gate
potential of the MOSFET device. The gate current, like the grid current of a
triode, is essentially zero. The free electrons, however, are produced by a doped
semiconductor rather than by a hot filament, thus resulting in a much more
efficient device. Furthermore, the voltage levels required for a typical MOSFET
application are considerably smaller than those of a typical triode vacuum tube
circuit.

Figure 1.7: The metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).

h
10-
Drain iD
e—
volts
Gate

Source
Symbolic representation 0 2 4 6 8 10

6 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS