B649 Class Presentation -

Embedded Systems
Abhijeet K
Prashant S
 Overview
• Embedded systems overview
– What are they?
• Design challenge – optimizing design metrics
• Technologies
– Processor technologies
– IC technologies
– Design technologies
• Case Studies
 Embedded Systems Overview
• Computing systems are everywhere
• Most of us think of “desktop” computers
– PC’s
– Laptops
– Servers
– Mainframes
• But there’s another type of computing system
– Far more common...
 Embedded Systems Overview
• Embedded computing systems Computers are in here...

– Computing systems embedded

within electronic devices
– Hard to define. Nearly any and here...

computing system other than a

desktop computer
– Billions of units produced yearly, and even here...

versus millions of desktop units

– Perhaps 50 per household and
per automobile
Lots more of these,
though they cost a lot
less each.
A “short list” of Embedded Systems
• Microwaves
• Washing machines
• Printers
• Networking devices
• Automobiles
• Cell phones
• PDAs
• Mp3 players
• Video game consoles
• TVs
• Children's toys
And the list goes on and on
Cost Comparison
 Characteristics of Embedded Systems
• Single-functioned
– Executes a single program, repeatedly
• Tightly-constrained
– Low cost, low power, small, fast, etc.
• Reactive and real-time
– Continually reacts to changes in the system’s
environment
– Must compute certain results in real-time without
delay
 An Embedded System Example -- A
Digital Camera
Digital camera chip
CCD

CCD preprocessor Pixel coprocessor D2A

A2D

lens

JPEG codec Microcontroller Multiplier/Accum

DMA controller Display ctrl

Memory controller ISA bus interface UART LCD ctrl

• Single-functioned -- always a digital camera

• Tightly-constrained -- Low cost, low power, small, fast
• Reactive and real-time -- only to a small extent
Design Challenge – Optimizing Design
Metrics
• Common metrics
– Unit cost: the monetary cost of manufacturing each copy of the system,
excluding NRE cost

– NRE cost (Non-Recurring Engineering cost): The one-

time monetary cost of designing the system

– Size: the physical space required by the system

– Performance: the execution time or throughput of the system
– Power: the amount of power consumed by the system
– Flexibility: the ability to change the functionality of the system without
incurring heavy NRE cost
 Three Key Embedded System
Technologies
• Technology
– A manner of accomplishing a task, especially using
technical processes, methods, or knowledge
• Three key technologies for embedded systems
– Processor technology
– IC technology
– Design technology
 Processor Technology
• The architecture of the computation engine used to
implement a system’s desired functionality
• Processor does not have to be programmable
– “Processor” not equal to general-purpose processor
Controller Datapath Controller Datapath Controller Datapath
Control index
Control Register Control logic Registers
logic
logic and file and State total
State register
Custom State +
register
ALU register
General
IR PC ALU IR PC
Data Data
memory memory
Program Data Program
memory memory memory
Assembly code Assembly code
for: for:

total = 0 total = 0
for i =1 to … for i =1 to …
General-purpose (“software”) Application-specific Single-purpose (“hardware”)
 Processor Technology
• Processors vary in their customization for the problem at hand
total = 0
for i = 1 to N loop
total += M[i]
end loop
Desired
functionality

General-purpose Application-specific Single-purpose

processor processor processor
 General-Purpose Processors
• Programmable device used in a variety of
applications
– Also known as “microprocessor”
• Features
– Program memory
– General data path with large register file and
general ALU
• User benefits
– Low time-to-market and NRE costs
– High flexibility
• “Pentium” the most well-known, but there
are hundreds of others
 Application-Specific Processors
• Programmable processor optimized for a
particular class of applications having
common characteristics
– Compromise between general-purpose and
single-purpose processors
• Features
– Program memory
– Optimized data path
– Special functional units
• Benefits
– Some flexibility, good performance, size and
power
 Single-Purpose Processors
• Digital circuit designed to execute exactly
one program
– Also called as coprocessor, accelerator or
peripheral
• Features
– Contains only the components needed to
execute a single program
– No program memory
• Benefits
– Fast
– Low power
– Small size
 IC Technology
• The manner in which a digital (gate-level)
implementation is mapped onto an IC
– IC: Integrated circuit, or “chip”
– IC technologies differ in their customization to a
design
– IC’s consist of numerous layers (perhaps 10 or
more)
• IC technologies differ with respect to who builds each
layer and when
gate
IC package IC oxide
source channel drain
Silicon substrate
 IC Technology
• Three types of IC technologies
– Full-custom/VLSI
– Semi-custom ASIC (gate array and standard cell)
– PLD (Programmable Logic Device)
 IC Technology: Full-Custom/VLSI
• All layers are optimized for an embedded
system’s particular digital implementation
– Placing transistors
– Sizing transistors
– Routing wires
• Benefits
– Excellent performance, small size, low power
• Drawbacks
– High NRE cost (e.g., $300k), long time-to-market
 IC Technology: Semi-Custom
• Lower layers are fully or partially built
– Designers are left with routing of wires and maybe
placing some blocks
• Benefits
– Good performance, good size, less NRE cost than a
full-custom implementation (perhaps $10k to
$100k)
• Drawbacks
– Still require weeks to months to develop
 IC Technology: PLD (Programmable
Logic Device)
• All layers already exist
– Designers can purchase an IC
– Connections on the IC are either created or destroyed
to implement desired functionality
– Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) very popular
• Benefits
– Low NRE costs, almost instant IC availability
• Drawbacks
– Bigger, expensive (perhaps $30 per unit), power
hungry, slower
 Design Technology
• The way in which we convert our concept of
desired system functionality into an
implementation
 Real Time Systems
• A real-time system is a system that performs
its functions and responds to external,
asynchronous events within some specified
time period.
• There are hard and soft real-time systems.
• What is Hard real-time System?
• What is Soft real-time System?
 Real Time Systems
• Few years ago, real-time applications were
simple and usually placed on dedicated,
customized and isolated hardware.
• Real-time applications today are
getting more and more powerful and yet
complicated.
• telescopes connected to the Internet, cell
phones generating graphic displays, routers
and telephone switches.
 Real Time Systems
• A good real-time operating system is required to
be embedded into those application facilities.
• Why RTOS is needed, cant we use time sharing
OS like UNIX, Linux?
• (RTOS) is an operating system capable of
guaranteeing timing requirements of the
processes under its control.
• For a RTOS, correct timing is the key feature.
Throughput is of secondary concern.
Different Approaches to
implement Real Time
Operating System
Thin Kernel Approach
Nano Kernel Approach
Resource-kernel Approach
Real Time Systems

Figure 1.1: Detail of the bare Linux kernel

Real Time Systems

Figure 1.2: Detail of the RTLinux kernel

Signal Processing and Embedded
Applications: The Digital Signal
Processor
 Digital Signal Processor
• Special-purpose processor optimized for
executing DSP algorithms
• Most of these algorithms perform the same
operation: a multiply-accumulate operation
• Discrete Fourier Transform

• Discrete Cosine Transform

 Digital Signal Processor
• Common observation
Either transform has its core as the SUM OF A
PRODUCT
A=A+B*C

• Digital Signal Processors feature special

purpose hardware to multiply-accumulate
(MAC)
 Digital Signal Processor
• Fixed-Point Arithmetic
 Digital Signal Processor
• Fixed Point Arithmetic
- Low-cost arithmetic as exponent not sent in
same word
- Exponent sent in separate variable
- Blocked Floating Point : exponent variable is
shared by set of fixed-point variables
 Digital Signal Processor
• Accumulator register width more than data
register width

• Accelerate communication algorithms

DSP TI 320C55
DSP – TI 320C6x
DSP – TI 320C6x
 Media Extensions
• Precision require for multimedia operations is
less
• Size of data items is smaller
• Multiple operations can be performed in
single cycle: Single-Instruction Multiple-Data
(SIMD) or vector instructions
 Embedded Benchmarks
• Till Couple of years back: Dhrystone
performance – Benchmark criticized; dropped
by desktop systems 20 years back
• EDN Embedded Microprocessor Benchmark
Consortium EEMBC (pronounced “embassy”)
• EEMBC benchmarks can only be used to
partially access performance
Embedded Benchmarks
Power Consumption and Efficiency as
the Metric
Power Consumption and Efficiency as
the Metric
 Embedded Multiprocessors
• Embedded Multiprocessors = Several General-
Purpose Processors
• Useful where scalability is critical
• Example: MXP processor for use in voice-over-
IP systems
 Embedded Multiprocessors
• Multiprocessing has wide spread application
in embedded computing:
- Software is written from scratch or
significantly modified
- Applications have natural parallelism
Case Study – The Emotion Engine
of Sony Playstation 2
Case Study – Sanyo VPC – SX 500
Digital Camera
Case Study – The Cell Phone
 Concluding Remarks
• Architectural Decisions for general-purpose
applications are less desirable in embedded
applications
• Due to chip area, cost, power, and real-time
constraints
• Programming model for these systems places
more demand on programmer and compiler
to extract parallelism
 References
• Computer Architecture – A Quantitative
approach, 4th edition By John L. Hennessy and
David A. Patterson – Appendix D – Embedded
Systems
• Embedded System design – Unified
Hardware/Software Approach By Frank Vahid
and Tony Givargis
• http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/li
brary/l-real-time-linux/
Thank You