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ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

SYLLABUS FOR UNIT-I

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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Oil Recovery Processes: Subdivided into
Petroleum Reservoir: A porous and permeable medium
1) Primary 2) Secondary 3) Enhanced oil recovery.
containing brine, oil, and gas which move towards producing
wells under either existing or applied pressure. The porosity
of most of commercially productive reservoirs … 10 to 25%. 1) Primary Oil Recovery:
Permeability of Reservoir Rocks(oil): 0.5 mD to 3500 mD. Sub- Oil is forced out from the reservoir by existing natural pressure
surface reservoir fluids oil, gas and water vary 0 to 100%. of the trapped fluids. This pressure originated in the reservoir
Oilfield water is called brine its salinity 200 to 300000 ppm. from various forces:
Viscosity and Temperature: The crude oil mobility in the a) Expanding force of natural gas
reservoir is influenced by the viscosity of oil. The oil viscosity b) Gravitational force,
is temp sensitive, reducing with an increase of temp. This c) Buoyancy force of encroaching water and
temp is estimated from the mean surface temp of the
d) An expulsive force due to compaction poorly consolidated
location and the geothermal gradient, e.g. 1.80 C/ 100 m.
reservoir rocks.
Thus considering a mean surface temp of 250 C and a depth
of 2000 m, the reservoir temp will be approximately 610 C.
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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

a) Among these forces, the expanding force of high pr natural Gas injection methods can be 3 categories
gas contributes mainly to oil production. • Pressure restoration: Gas is injected into productive
b) The gravitational force is more effective in steeply inclined formation through one well while the other wells are kept
reservoirs, where it facilitates drainage of oil. closed until the pr is restored throughout the reservoir which
c) Encroachment of water from the side or bottom of a reservoir may take a year or more. After achieving desired reservoir pr,
is also an effective displacement of oil. The ability of the edge gas injection can be stopped and production can be started
water to encroach depends on pr distribution & permeability. from other wells through artificially developed pr.
d) Compaction of the reservoir as fluids are withdrawn also is a • In the pr maintenance method gas from producing wells is
mechanism for movement of oil to production wells. recompressed and injected into the selected wells before the
reservoir pr is totally exhausted.
• In the gas drive method, gas is injected into the reservoir
2. Secondary oil recovery: The decrease of pr in the reservoir under pressure which drives the oil in the form of a film or gas
during primary oil recovery may be restored partially by bubbles a head of the gas toward the producing wells.
injecting gas, air, water or aqueous solutions of caustic and
polymer into the reservoir to achieve a high pressure.
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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

After primary oil recovery, the pr of the depleted reservoirs

can be restored by water injection or water flooding.
 In this process, water is injected into the reservoir through
selected injection wells which drives oil through reservoir rocks
toward the producing wells.
 The most common pattern of injection and production wells
is a five-spot configuration as shown in Fig.1.1
 Water is injected in the central well displacing oil to the four
surrounding production wells.
 To improve the efficiency of the water flooding, some
chemicals such as caustic or polymers are added to water to
lower the interfacial tension, making low viscosity emulsion oil
to move to producing wells easily.
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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

The efficiency of water flooding also can be improved by 3. Enhanced oil recovery (EOR):
lowering the water-oil mobility ratio. EOR processes have as their objective the increase of recovery
M = kw µo/ ko µw from depleted reservoirs by secondary recovery methods like
Where Kw = Effective water Permeability, mD waterflooding or gas injection. EOR processes can be divided into
three major categories.
Ko = Effective oil Permeability, mD
1. Chemical……. Used to recover mainly light oils
µw = Water viscosity, cP
2. Thermal……… Used to recover mainly heavy oils
µo = Oil viscosity, cP
3. Miscible……… Used to recover mainly light oils
 Mobility ratio > 1 , is unfavorable as water is more mobile than
oil. Water will finger through oil zone. Various subdivisions of EOR methods are illustrated through line
 Mobility ra o ˂ 1, is favorable as displacement of oil by water diagram in Fig.1.2
is piston like in water flooding.  Thermal Processes: Least uncertainty, promising approach for
 Mobility ratio can be reduced by adding some chemicals like 70% of world’s EOR production
alcohols, sugar, glycerin, polymers etc. to the injected water.  Surfactant flooding is the most complex and high uncertainty. If
its formulation is properly controlled in the reservoir, it can also
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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Chemical Flooding Processes: Fig. 1.3
1. Surfactant flooding
2. Polymer flooding
3. Caustic flooding
 Displacement mechanism in surfactant and caustic flooding is
based on the formation of ultra-low interfacial tension
 In polymer flooding, injection of surfactant followed by
polymer flooding, results in controlling mobility for EOR.
 Heavy oil means low sp gr ( ˂ 200 API ), i.e. high viscosity oil
needs thermal process to increase oil mobility for EOR.
 Thermal Processes: 1) In-situ combustion 2) Steam injection 3)
Wet combustion.

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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

In-situ Combustion:
o The crude oil near the wellbore is ignited using chemicals,
downhole electric heaters or gas burners.
o Continuous air injection promotes movement in the burning
zone toward the producing wells.
o Propagation of a continuous burning zone results in almost
complete removal of all reservoir liquids
Steam Injection :
• Steam is injected into reservoir either continuously or in cycles.
• Continuous steam injection involves both injection and
production wells, whereas cyclic injection involves one well
only which serves as both injection and production well.
• Steam floods are easier to control than in-situ combustion.
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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Wet Combustion: Miscible Displacement Process:

 In the in-situ combustion process, a large amount of heat is  The oil in the reservoir can be dissolved by the injection of a solvent
left behind as waste heat. such as alcohol, refined Hc, condensed Hc gases, LPGs or CO2
 The heat utilization and efficiency of the process can be  The injected solvent reduces the capillary forces that cause oil
improved by periodical water injection. retention in the pore spaces of the reservoir rocks.
 Superheated steam forms in an evaporation front and travels  In this process, the injected solvent slug is followed by the injection
behind the combustion front. of a liquid or gas to force the solvent–oil mixture out.
 The important advantage of this process is that the amount of  This miscible displacement process can be subdivided into
residual oil left to be burned as fuel by the burning front is 1. The Miscible slug processes.
considerably decreased which in turn displaces more oil and 2. The Enriched gas processes.
less air is required to burn a unit volume of oil in the reservoir. 3. The High-Pressure, Lean gas processes
4. The Mutual solvent & CO2 processes

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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

The Mutual Solvent Process:
Miscible Slug Process:
• It consists of injecting solvents ( e.g., alcohols) which are
• It involves the injection of a slug of liquid HCs (50% of the miscible both in reservoir oil and water
pore volume of the reservoir) followed by gas or water
• These solvents form a single phase in the reservoir & improve
injection to drive the slug through the reservoir.
oil recovery. A very high concentration of these solvents is
Enriched Gas Process: required to maintain the single phase.
• The injected slug (10-20% pore volume) of enriched natural • In the Carbon dioxide process, the mechanism of CO2
gas is followed by lean gas or lean gas and water. miscibility in oil is similar to that in high-pr. lean gas process.
High-pressure lean Gas Process • Under the right conditions of pressure, temp, reservoir oil
• It consists of injecting a lean gas at a high pr in order to composition; CO2 can create a miscible front which moves as a
cause retrograde evaporation of crude oil and formation of a single liquid phase and efficiently displaces reservoir oil.
miscible phase between the reservoir oil and the gas. • CO2 miscibility can be achieved at pressures as low as 1500 psi.

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INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR) Techno-economics:
 This technique involves the injection of selected microorganisms  The EOR processes require large initial investments and careful
into the reservoir and the subsequent stimulation and monitoring during application, whereas the rate of incremental
transportation of their in-situ growth products. oil recovery is low and extended over a long period of time.
 This unique process seems superior in many respects, however, it  The EOR projects require an extensive economic evaluation
has certain constraints. and forecasting because of low rate of returns of investments.
 Populations of various types of microbes have been found in  To determine the feasibility of any EOR project, initial reservoir
subsurface reservoir down to a depth of about 2000 m. definition, stratigraphy and hydrology are to be determined.
 The prevalent theory is that the microbes were introduced by  Highly trained personnel are required for all phases of EOR
drilling, well completion, and well WOR or by w/ injection. implementation.
 Petroleum reservoirs are not biologically sterile which encourages  However, two EOR methods, CO2 flooding and thermal
for fundamental research to discover microbes, technology that recovery methods are proving to be successful.
can lead to EOR.

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EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection
o Gas injection may be either a miscible or an immiscible
Introduction: displacement process. The type of process can be determined by
o Gas injection is the oldest injection process for the purpose of the base of oil & gas, temp, pr conditions.
maintaining reservoir pr and restoring oil well productivity. o Gas can be injected into a reservoir to maintain the pr ( dispersed
o Recent gas injection applications have been intended to increase gas injection) or to attempt to bank and sweep oil to the producing
the ultimate recovery, considered as EOR applications. wells (gas-cap injection).
o The success of EOR project depends o Oil recovery could be greatly increased by pressure maintenance,
1) upon the mechanism by which the injected fluid displaces the particularly in the case of oils having a high formation volume factor.
oil (displacement efficiency), o Elkins and Cooks (1949) noted that the volume of gas injected and
2) on the volume of reservoir which the injected fluid contacts the associated change in oil viscosity and formation volume factor
(sweep efficiency) may be principal factors to determine the oil recovery.
o Gas, because its adverse viscosity ratio (higher mobility ratio) is o The volume of reservoir contacted by the gas must be as high as
inferior to water in recovering oil. Gas may offer economic possible to obtain the maximum benefits.
advantages, however, because of its availability and relative ease o For massive carbonate reservoirs with good permeability, injection
of injection. Thus gas injection is still the preferred secondary pressure does not appear to have a large effect on final recovery.
recovery method in certain cases. 23 24

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EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection
o The effect of the reservoir’s permeability profile on gas sweep
efficiency may be evaluated by a short-term pilot test. Predictive Techniques:
o It may also provide necessary data to calculate required gas Two major predictive techniques, the Welge (1952) & the
volumes so that gas compressor can be designed. Tarner (1944), either one is applicable to the analysis of both
sandstone and carbonate reservoirs.
o Four recommendations were suggested in the pilot test
Welge Method:
1. The rate of gas injection and its duration should be sufficient
to result in significant changes of produced gas/oil ratio. The  The advantage of Welge method over Buckley-Leverett
daily injection rate should at least equal the volume of fluids technique is, the curve showing the saturation distribution in
by first-row producing wells. the reservoir is not required in the former method.
2. Gauging facilities should be adequate to ensure accurate  The average gas saturation is used to determine the recovery,
measurement of the performance of first row wells. where as the terminal gas saturation near the out flow face,
defines the fractional flow of oil, fo , and hence the flowing
3. The test period should include a time period prior to and after
gas/oil ratio at any desired time during production.
the injection of gas to establish gas/oil ratio produced.
 As a result, a considerable amount of time required for
4. Continuous monitoring is preferred. When possible, the pilot
calculation and plotting is saved.
test should be conducted early in the life of the field. 25 26

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Predictive Techniques: (continued)
Predictive Techniques: (continued)
Assumptions
1. The reservoir is a single homogeneous layer, & linear flow.
2. Gas displaces oil saturated with gas at a constant pressure.
3. Oil displacement is immiscible.
4. Flow occurs in one direction only.
With these assumptions, the fraction of oil at the flow face is
Fo = NP / (GP + NP ) ………….(4.1), & Gi = GP + NP ……………. (4.2)
NP = Sga …………………………(4.3)
The fraction of oil flowing is thus the slope of the cumulative
oil produced verses the cumulative gas injected, expressed in
pore volumes:

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EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Predictive Techniques: (continued)

Procedure:
1) Review the relative permeability data obtained from core
analysis. If more than one set of data is available, choose a set
which appears to be most representative.
2) Approximate the irregular shape of the reservoir with a linear
model. An idealized length and cross-sectional area of the
reservoir to flow must be determined.

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• Eqn. 4.13 is sensitive to the assumed conditions such as gas velocity, Frequently a field has been produced for a period of time prior
permeability, and geometric configuration of reservoir. It tends to to initiation of gas injection. Welge predictive technique steps
yield GOR values higher than those occurring in the field for the followed except that calendar time is used.
same cumulative recovery.
• This method is sensitive to the throughput velocity, vo .
• Inasmuch as the velocity is in the denominator of the gravitational
term (column 4, eqn. 4.9) rapid displacement reduces the size of the
gravitational term and increases the fraction of gas fg , flowing
through the reservoir, indicating a lower displacement efficiency.
• On the other hand, where the gravitational term is sufficiently
large, fg can approach zero; this implies countercurrent flow of gas
updip and oil downdip, resulting in gravity drainage which yields
the maximum displacement efficiency.
• If a gas cap overlies the oil zone, drainage can be vertical and cross-
sectional area to flow can be very large. Gravity drainage will yield
high recoveries unless the vertical permeability is low.
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EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Reservoir Performance:
 The recovery of oil by vaporization is the primary intent of
cycling operations where as gas injection is to provide a pressure
gradient which moves the oil toward nearby producers.
 Oil recoveries with gas cycling operations could range 15-70% of
immobile STB depending on the characteristics of reservoir fluids
 The total (primary + secondary) recovery from the Pickton
reservoir was estimated 73%
 Table 4-II & Figs. 4.2, 4.3 show the theoretical effects of oil gr., pr,
temp and the quantity of gas cycled upon the ultimate oil
recovered. The viscosities for the oil and gas cannot be
extrapolated to field performance.
 The recovery of stock tank oil per unit of pr decline should be
predicted reservoir fluid composition.
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EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Gas Injection in Carbonate Reservoirs:
The benefits obtained by the gas injection are dependent upon
horizontal and vertical sweep efficiency of the injection gas. The
sweep efficiency depends on the type of porosity system present.
Intercrystalline intergrannular porosity systems:
 Gas injection of the Panhandle dolomite reservoir, Texas,
classified as Intercrystalline-intergrannular porosity system.
 Wells located in the areas having lower permeability to be
chosen because reservoir pr is higher in this area and thus helps
retard the fingering of gas.
 Preference also is given to the wells with low GOR and lower
saturations. Deepening of producers prior to the initiation of
injection helped improve vertical coverage.
 Well cleanout and acidizing programs yield better results after
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Fracture-matrix porosity system:

Representative data collection is difficult for reservoirs with a Vugular solution porosity system:
well-developed fracture-matrix porosity system consisting of As a gas conservation measure and in order to increase ultimate oil
low permeability and inter-connected fractures. recovery in vugular-solution porosity system, gas was injected into
As a result, calculations of recoverable oil will seldom yield the Westerose D-3 pool, Alberts, Canada.
volumes equal to those determined by material balance Based on reservoir pr behavior, it was determined that all pools on
calculations. This divergence is greater where the permeability the reef trend are, in pr communication with each other. To predict
of the reservoir matrix is low. the performance of this field a 2D modal was developed.
Factors directly responsible for this difference are The model parameters were adjusted until there was close
1. Significant differences between the pr in the tight rock matrix agreement between the reservoir modal & 20 yr production history.
and pr in the interconnected fractures The results of the simulation studies indicated that D-3 Pool had
2. Difficulties in determining the quantity and distribution of the lost, so gas injection was stopped.
gas saturation within the rock matrix, fractures. This does not mean that it can not be successful in other reef
3. The quantity and rate of water influx during repressurization. reservoirs. However, the need to understand the geology of the
A well developed fracture matrix porosity system can result in reservoir completely when selecting method of EOR.
severe channeling of injected gas or water influx with little
benefit to the ultimate recovery of oil. 45 46

Inert Gas Injection:

Promising substitutes in place of Natural gas are 1) Pure Nitrogen The advantage of inert gas is
gas & 2) Inert gas mixture, i.e., N2 which is presently emerging as 1. Its availability
one of the best EOR methods. Currently, more than 30 oil fields 2. Lower cost.
in US are under nitrogen gas injection. It is less expensive and
3. Prevention of oil encroachment into the gas cap if gas cap is
more easily available.
available.
Following mechanisms can be applied for Nitrogen EOR
4. Higher recoveries compared to water drive in reservoirs having
depending on pr, temp and the properties of injected gas and
low permeability.
reservoir fluids
5. Residual inert gas at abandonment rather than saleable natural
1. Pressure maintenance: It can be quite applicable in volumetric
gas
reservoir to keep pr above the bubble pt or the dew pt.
6. Reliability of the supply.
2. Immiscible displacement: It is effective if mobility ratio is
favorable and if structure and density difference between
injected and reservoir fluids allow gravity segregation to occur
3. Miscible displacement: It can occur only in a narrow range of
fluid composition, pr, volume & temp. through either direct or
multiple contact. 47 48

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Candidates for gas Injection:

 Oil fields that have low oil saturation in either primary or secondary
gas cap are prime candidates for gas injection for EOR.
 Further shrinkage of oil is reduced by gas injection.
 In reservoirs having high permeability and high vertical span, gas
injection may result in high recovery because of gr. segregation.
 In thick formations in the presence of sufficient vertical
permeability the injected gas would move to the higher structural
positions.
 In reservoirs containing volatile crude oil, vaporization of lighter
components also will result in higher recovery efficiency.
 Vaporization of immobile oil in the flow path can play an important
role in higher oil recovery by pr maintenance & gas cycling.
 The successful injection of gas into an oil reservoir having a large
amount of dissolved gas and a large shrinkage factor
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Abstract
Microorganisms produce a variety of compounds that are able
to mobilize oil trapped in reservoirs and improve oil recovery.
These compounds include surfactants, solvents, miscible
gases, acids and polymers. The mechanisms by which these
microbial processes work are similar to other enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) methods. Biosurfactants, solvents, miscible
gases, and acids increase oil mobility in porous media by lowering
interfacial tension and decreasing oil viscosity. Biopolymers
are able to modify permeability of porous media and
have recently been explored for profile modification. Some
microorganisms can also metabolize specific fractions or
compounds in crude oil, and this mechanism has been proposed
by some as a way to enhance recovery.
At the current time there have been no microbial EOR
(MEOR) processes developed specifically for heavy oil. Nonetheless,
some microbial processes have proven both technically
successful and cost-effective for lighter oils and hold
potential for heavier oils as well. In particular, the MEOR
process that appears most promising for heavy oil is the use of
solvent- and gas-producing bacteria to reduce oil viscosity.
There are some fundamental reasons why this process is
favored over other MEOR processes for heavy oil.
We have shown that solvent- and gas-producing bacteria
combined with a biosurfactant-producing strain were effective
for improving oil production in a medium-weight crude oil in
the field. The microbial system used in this demonstration was
also shown to improve heavy oil recovery in the laboratory.
BDM Petroleum Technologies is developing other microbial
processes, including combinations with alkaline surfactant
53 technology, which specifically target heavy oil reserves 54

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