A a en terested in ruiry "Natnfor as ong see eon ‘ernerber Hs et Osprey ‘ook nan the rend raking tetas since pubiened 3 ‘hreespart sequence en he ‘alan ry 1940-48 (en-st-Arme 240,40 8383, Smsterponetonn. hee 1011-90, end tve-por omy 1990-25 Qa 347, 0,226, 200.8 290, CONTENTS ‘THE BACKGROUND, 1894-1931 STRENGTH & ORGANISATION, 1931-45 High command structte sntry divisions Types A, B & C iniy regiments, battalions & companies + cavalry brigades # armoured units CHRONOLOGY, 1931-41 ‘THE PACIFIC CAMPAIGN, 1941-42 * Chronology, December 1941-June "The Japanese Army in summer 1942 UNIFORMS, 1931-42 * Enlisted men's uniforms, Type 90 (1980) & Type 8 (1938) * officers uniforms ‘insignia: rank arm of service — specialist & proficiency badges ~ armbands ‘headgear: peaked service cap ~ fel caps — steel helmets ~ sun helmets ‘ footweat: leather ankle hoots— fabi~ officers’ foorseear PROTECTIVE & SPECIALIST CLOTHING *# Greatcoats# officers raincoat # mantles * cold weather clothing: winter sureoat & coat = far hats ~ snow camouflage — winter footwear spec prot INFANTRY EQUIPMENT ‘+ Enlisted men’s officers? WEAPONS Small arms # swords ¢ support weapons ‘clothing: tankers’ uniform —antichemical clothing ~ working dress THE PLATES INDEX "1 14 21 36 39 40 43, 48‘Sop ng ann og ‘uate nr it FO Boe ‘grap horas tb hte gene HIGHLAND LIBRARIES 03070014 Dedication Acknowledgements “is ack wou not ai bmn pene what hh f= ‘ner peo rl woul eno ane Seger Ane, Fran Chin Parte aka goto Rohr Fle ond Gord oot xh tomes na rig nd ‘Now Thomas chap wih ak carte Sx ay, Darke rr gearus ewe pata Author's Note ‘he ype covered wo boon sear a $a in orn ne esata ks chenogeay ut sha ret tro pes n at Insane Nal orig Foes Peresute Fr one May Paice ent) lb covering sca Artist's Note ‘Se rproaicn copie wim tary te “Pub ry ht hay cn tar en coneipenaines | otoio ~ superir pate ot the 40m ta tary Regiment, tt (oye) taney Pr one fl tn the Sty Se, Hot wenn the tanned peakes mere) fervica ce. withthe Tpe 9, {530 unto which caro ie ‘eth swatowt” colar patches, Intent is equipmant into ‘Youle pang out nthe te vont wiped at New ‘ine in $948 Garand THE JAPANESE ARMY 1931-45 (1) 1931-42 THE BACKGROUND, 1894-1931 T: Janusese Bure ARM was at war continuously for over 14 y with the historians might argue that Japan had in one way or another been in conic since the frst Sinogapanese war of 1894. The viewory over the Chinese in this, Japan's First foreign war for centuries, gained her conteol over Formosa (Taiwan), the Liaotung Peninsula and the Pecadores Islands. These gains were consolidated a few years later when t Japanese Imperial Army and Navy won a bitter campaign against the ‘ther imperial power in the region, Tsarist Russa. ‘The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 ended in the defeat of the Russian forces on land and sea, and removed any immediate check to Japan's expansion in Asia; and in 1910 she annexed Korea. Her victories over the Russians established Japan ~ sunk in largely medieval stagnation only half century earlier ~ ‘as: new world power which should not be taken light Japan's limited involvement on the Entente (Allied) side in World War | gained her the former German Pacific colonies in the Marshal, Caroline and Marianas islands, and also a tochold in- mainland China chaotic counay, fragmented between competing warlords, was a constant temptation, and Japan — like the other powers - exploited Chinese weakness to obtain trading concessions which Ted 10 de fata rule over various enclaves. Under the terms of the Washington ‘Treaty (1922) the USA, Britain, Japan and France were to limit naval shipbuilding and desist from fontfying Pacific colonies; but Japan did not abide by this agreement. Japan's rapidly expanding popillaion was outstripping her ability 10 Feed them. Her dash for industrialisaion demanded rave materials ~ ‘oul, metals, rubber, and particularly oil ~ whieh dhe home islands could not produce. Trade in these vital commodities with what was termed the ‘Southern Resources Area’ — basically the European and American colonies in SE Asia and the Pacific ~ could not be guaranteed in times of international tension or war. A miltarist, chauvinistic government took power in Japan, and from 1982 onwards nine out of 11 prime ministers ‘would be military officers. Japan's bellicose antivide would guarantee intemational tension and consequent trade embargoes, whieh would further provoke the Japanese government to consider military adventures to seize territory and resources, During the 120s Japan built up a great deal of fluence oxer Chang ‘Teolin, the Chinese warlord who was the effective ruler of Manchuria “The Japanese supplied Chang with weaponry and military advisors, anc in return expected him to support Japanese interests. His defeat by the Nationalist forces of Chiang Kaishek in 1928 quickly led wo Chang‘wearing the Type 20 norm eth errant iain” soe Pate A ‘The captain coe) ha raves Unocal style seen na number st potoarap ofthe pve. Note the Eurapean-te sbres ‘ergnte. Php Panoborn ‘Tolin’s asasination by Japanese agents. His still substantial fore in Manchuria were taken over by hisson Chang Hsueb-iang "The Young Marshal” = who was expected 10 become a puppet of Japan interests ike his late father. He was required, a the} very least, to protect the large Japanese investment jn Manchuria, When Gang Hsuelstiang instead pledged his loyalty to the new Nationali government of Chiang Kaishek in Nanking, the Japanese Kwangtung Army began co prepare an imsasion of Manchairs, ‘Conspiracy and politcal violence were already the norm among Japan’s various factions. Acting) fon their own initiative, a group of officers ofthe} Kwangwung Army expladed a bomb on the) Japanese-convolied South Manchurian Railay’ ‘on the night of 18 September 1831, This incident was blamed on the local Chinese garrison, and! was used as a pretext fora Japanese advance inta Manchuria, Victory allowed them 1932 the puppet state of Manchukuo under the nominal rule of Pui, formerly the last emperor of China; and during the 1990s Japan sent some} 700,000 colonists and officals to exploit this ‘new frontier’, which was sich in natural resources and agricultural potential. From Manchuria’s Tong border with China the Japanese Impericl Army looked hungrily at the huge potential spoils to the south, so inadequately protected ‘while Chinese Nationalist and Communist armies struggled agains ‘one another world less than a hundred years before. The contradictions in Japanese sotiew were mirrored in the Imperial Army, which embraced any new Iniltary technology while sil clinging to the attitudes of a medieval and sentially feudal society. These contradictions created an army whieh ign observers - fatally misunderstood and al enemies, but fatally vulnerable to them teas an enigma to most f tunderestimated by its pore fee it had shown its peculiar weaknesses, The resourcefulness, aggressive tactics, f ‘uaflinehing obedience of the Japanese soldier were to bring this army Sletory after victory during the war against China inthe 1980s, and in the ightningoffensives against American, British Commonssealth and Duteh forces in Asia and the Pacific in 1941/42, These human qualities would not, homever, prove sufficient when pitted against the industrial might dix! cruly modern military euluate of te United States. In vetrospect the Japanese Imperial Army was already on the road to defeat even ait won its fist spectacular victories in December 1941 atical bravery and ‘The Japanese soldi Japanese society hae! been author liberal democracy, with its emphasis om the rights owed by the group 10 the individual. was a foreign concept (and one which the regime of the 1980s explicly held up to contempt asa proof of Western degeneracy) Japan asa ‘shame’ rather than a quilt’ society selfesteem and social approcal depended upon conformity and obedience to the group. The masses bros aceepted the cult of emperorworship ~ the belief that Japan's monsarehs were descended from the sun goddess Amateratsu, and thus enjoyed a stcred Iegiimacy. The sanetion of heaven extended to every instruction of the imperial government, from ministerial pronouncement to the shouted order of the humblest functionary or simy NCO. The regime controlled and manipulated the medi and every public expression of opinion, bombarding the population from Childhood onwards with ceaseless patriotic propaganda. Civilians were encouraged and coerced by every means to identify with the national interest asit was defined by the government; and a complex, overlapping, network of social control was exercised at neighbourhood, school, and workplace levels. For deep-seated cultural reasons most Japanese acquiesced with this Orwellian system; the tiny minority ‘who did not (egg the small Communist Part and few courageous intellectuals) were quickly iden lfied and arvested. Most Japanese lived in pove in small farming villages or labourers’ quarters in the cities, and even at hamlet or city block level any tunorthodox opinion or behaviour attracted the tention of aia or selfappointed informers Such a docile and patriotic society lent itself admirably 10 the raising of an obedient conscript army. During the preavir and wartime years every community had a military clerk who. kept intrusively thorough records about 200-300 households, forwarding reports to the local military headquarters. At the age of 20 every male ‘earliest times, and Japan at war In the 14 yeats from September 1981 to September 1945 the Japanese Imperial Army was to see service from the frozen wastes of China and the Aleutians to the tropical forests of Burma and New Guinea. As an instrument of Imperial ambition it conquered huge territories in Asi and millions of people from China to the farslung islands of the South Pacific became subjects of the japanese Empire. The basic motive For thi convulsive military effort was to secure by conquest the raw materials which were unavailable on the home iskands (Ostensibly rom December 1941 thi militaryexpansion was presented as liberation of fellow Asians from the yoke of white colonialism, and a ‘benign incorporation into a “Greater East Asien Go-Prosperity Sphere’ under the guidance of their ‘elder brother" Japan. In practice only the) fimsiest pretence of emancipation was tolerated, and large numbers of Japanese functionaries, backed by the army's bayonets, spread out over Asia to govern and plunder without merey, japanese troops inflicted great sufering not only on their enemies but also on the populations of conquered nations — and would suffer greatly in thet ur The Japanese Imperial Army of the 1931-15 period was a strange’ ‘combination: a wellarmed and wellirainee! modern force, yet imbued with the ancient, introverted traditions of a people who had only cemenged From centuries of selFimposed isolation from the modern ‘vas summoned! for a medical, In due course, if he Dressed oretenat, an the man fn the rit the winter coat Hoodgear ea mine fear ‘hhc fr hata (Peter Nowa’ tminary tires)was pawed as fit and depending on his working and family status, he would be called up for ewo years’ active service - most who passed in Class A were assigned to the infantry The red calkup paper (akagami) was delivered via the local police and the military clerk, often in the early hous of the morning. The ‘conscript’ relatives and neighbours would send him off with a blesing, «4 modest feast, banners and cheers: in wartime he would be presented With a ‘thousand-titch bel (ser 'inbar, a sash made by his womentolk land neighbours which supposedly gave supernatural protection, His family were expected to demonstrate pride at the honour of theirson or hnusband being found worthy 10 serve the emperor. No show of anxiety ‘over his fate wasallowed (or over their own, should he die ~the outlook for widows and orphans was grim). The departing conseript was usually reassured by the sllage mayor that if he fell he would be memorialised at Yesukuni, the national shrine to the war dead in Tokyo. In a sense he was already dead ~ his life was dedicated to the emperor, whose representatives might choose to spend it as they saw fit, A red sun flag would be flown over his house until he returned! ~ or fel, in whieh case aa black streamer was added. If he died his family might hope to receive small box supposedly containing his ashes: in fact, using wartime it vas often empty, or contained a share of whoever’s remains his unit ‘right have hastily cremated if they got the chance Ia man survived his two years in China or Manchuria, he was demobilived into the reserve and renumed home. But until the age of 40 he was liable for recall at need, and it was not uncommon fora man ° terms of active service with his regiment, perhaps rising through the NOO ranks as he dl! so, After the outbreak of the ‘Greater East Asia War’ in December 1941 men were liable for unlimited recall for the duration (unless they were members of parliament, mayors, village headmen ~ or local military clerks), Beyond teaching military skills, dhe purpose of army training was to instil absolute and unques- tioning obedience to superior orders, Discipline was extremely harsh, routinely enforced by brutal Deatings, and physical violence was the normal ‘means of punishing a junior throughout service. The new recruit was deliberately bullied, Alegradied and victimised by his seniors. Bven a fest lass private ad to be addressed with a formal show of respect, and the gull between officers and enlisted men was almost unbridgeable. Seasoned combat NCOs were often humiliated by inexperienced but arrogant junior officers, who enjoyed physical privileges which set them much farther apart from their men than had been tolerated in Western armies for generations past. The cult of unthinking obedience to the hierarchy and dedication wo the nation at whatever cost~ the socalled. ‘Yamato damashi' or “Japanese sen bresk dering the Hating ia om etnies ie te est One tabi the Inerptins on he {abana ar rom the Lat tr, ‘andthe wearer ttoheeing {Guomingang Party Archon) Iraterety mounts ofeor rears te Tipe 90 (1090) wit Sion utr, with eater opines ana wrtine gountets Intrestiony be he a otis nol move Western tam ‘rena tough sourees ‘ese Ias belonging to an (Peter Newari itary Petre) spirit’ — was instilled by every means. The concept OF the seifstcrifcial batle ~ gakusa, literally "the ‘enushing ofthe jewels ~ was held up asa model. The exireme expressions of this culture sem to have made an actual virtue of death in bate, a if itwere preferable to survival. Another point worth making is that the cult of self-sacrifice brought certain ambiguity wo the army’s attitude towards their own casualties, confirmed in a number of memoirs, Provision for evacuatingand treating the wounded and sick vox poor; under campaign ‘conditions many were abandoned, or died by their ‘own hands oF those of medical staff to remove a burden from their comrades, Far fewer men recovered to veturn tothe ranks than was the case nong Allied casualies even under the difficult ‘conditions of Asian campaigning. Given how cheaply Japanese soldiers were encouraged to price their own lives, itis hardly surprising that they held those of foreigners even cheaper A number of imerviewees” have confirmed that on arrival with a front fine unit in China it was not unusal for a private to be forced to prove his obedience and spirit by killing a bound Chinese prisoner with the bayonet, and for a junior officer 10 behead one. Encouraged by higher authority, these brutalised soldiers ~ products of a society which had always preached Japanese racial supe Fority~ eated the civilian populaions of conquered territory calloushy and often with meslieval erdely, In China dhe runaing sore of guerrilla attack led toa official policy of ‘the Three All: ‘Barn All, Seize All, Kill AUT eis equally unsurprising that China veterans continued to behave in the same way when transferred south to ‘liberate’ other Asian races ~ particularly when the failure of their logistic system left them largely dependent on local requisition STRENGTH & ORGANISATION, 1931-45 In 1891 de peacetime strength ofthe Japanese Imperial Army as 17 tad been adeuate for role. Japa campaign in Manchuria from 1031 onmards called foram expansion of he arm to cope wih these new demands Byte stat ofthe ‘oli outbreak ofthe SinoJapanese Wa in September 1087 I had grown to 24 dbvsons, and by the following year ngunst a background of hea fighting ener age ont, it had been expanded wo 31 disions. At dhe outbreak of dhe wari the Paci the Japanese Imperial Army had I divisions on strength, of which Sere ted down in China and 18 were guarding the Mongolian border ernst a pouble Soviet tack, The tual forces avalable for the Gens in the Pace numbered spiel 40,000 menJapanereintarty onthe arch ‘Walled tom 1530, rosambong 3 ‘ened erin ofthe Garman Thode = ove Pate A Prete Cohectn! | Some oom Fearne own | High command structur The emperor was the head of state and suprem commander of the armed forces, In. 1936 the drone was inherited by Hirohito, taking the vile Shoal Emperor (‘radiant peace’) Urider the emperor and exercising actual comman came the Imperial General Headquarters, assisted in ay advisory capacity by. thel Supreme Miliary Council and dhe Board of Marshals & Admirals. (The parallel but largely nominal authority of the court bureaucracy, the cabinet and the ‘die’ or parliament were generally irrelevant, since th] ‘military dominated all the agencies of government.) The chain of command ied from the Army Chiefof Staff at Imperial General Headquarters down to a number of named army groups (eg. China Expeditionary Army) commanded by a marshal or seniog| ‘general. The anny group consisted of ro oF more named or numbered area armies, each a general's oF lieutenantgeneral’s command Consisting of eyo or more numbered armies and, eventealy, an air arn (eg the Cenural China Front Army, grouping the Ld, 13th and 234d Armies). The army in Western terms, a corps wis commanded by lieutenant general and grouped two or more divisions (aso a lieutenant generals command) and a numberof independent supporting brigades and units. Within a division the infantry group was & majorgeneral’y command, Infantry divisions The Japanese Imperial Army's infantry dlvsions fell into three basi categories designated Types A, Band C, of which Type A was sirengthenee!, Type B was the ‘standard’ and Type G-was special The ‘Type B division, adopted as the no-m, had three infantry regiments; one each engineer, fed artillery, and transport regiments, and a batalionsized reconnaissance unit; and smaller units of the support branches ~ signals, medical, ordnance chemical (anti than a partmounted, veterinary, water pit There were variations: some had a cavalry rather partmotorised reconmaissance unit, some, a tankette company attached tothe infantry group in addition to or instead ofa recce/eavalry unit; and some, a mountain rather than afield atllery regiment. The make-up ofa division was not rigidly permanent, and could sometimes vary overtime according o local cireumstances, The numbered division also had a regional designation, and its numbered infantry regiments drew conscripts from designated areas, For example, the Luh (Uisuniomiya) Division = which served with th Army as part of the Kwangtang Area Army ~ grouped the 2ad (Mito) 15th (Maebashi), and 59th (Uisunomiya) Infantry Regiments, Supporting units recruited from the whole divisional region and usualy though not always, took the divisional number: eg. the 14th Div had the Lith Reconnaissance, 20th Field Anilery, Lith Engineer and 14th Tramport Regiments, Afew formations differed from these general fules cx the 27¢h “All Japan" Division, whose infantry regiments where designated Ist, 2nd and Std China Regiments The Type A ‘strengthened’ division had a larger infantry roup. an artillery group (taking the divisional numbes) with nent of heavy howitzers, and sometimes some divisional *hatialionsized divisional tank unit ‘ements were weakly motorised. Type A formations erm 1 rave included the Ist, 80h, 10ub-12th, 15th, 19h, 20th, Bsne25th, 28th, Sst ancl 57th Divisions, For example, the Ist (fokyo) Div ~ another th Army’ formation ~ had the Ist (Tokyo), 49th (Kofu) and 57h (Chiba) Inf Regis the reconnalsance unit, worregiment artillery group, divisional tank unit, engineer and wansport units all wok the divisional number “Is The Type € special’ division was a weak formation composed ‘of swo infantry brigades with total of eight independent infantry supporting units, This type of Oth, minus the 6lst and éith — battalions, no artillery, and minimal division ~ apparently numbered 58th teas usec! mainly for anviguerrilla warfare in China. For example, the Goh {Hfivosaki) Div consisted of the S2nd-S6th and 118th-1200 from the Akita, Yamagata and Aomori areas, with Independene Int B (th Engineer and Transport unit The establishments rather than the acta battlefield strengths iy depending upon circumstances: ‘of course, the official asic strengths given below are 1040 Type B Standard Infantry Division Tota: 20,000 men, 7.500 horses, including cach 3815 men 2.480 men 3,400 men, 1,400 horses) 950 men, 1,100 horses 1 fl arti rege ot 2,480 men 9 laktteunit** 100 men) Weapons: 9000s rifles, 3898 light & 12x heavy machine guns, 340% 2x Smo antitank guns, 18x 7mm jnm regimental guns, 36x 75mm field/mun guns 'x armoured cars oF tnkettes (plus 10-17 tanketes). The infantry regiments had 710 draught, pack horses each, the field arilery regiment 2,000, and the divisional transport regiment 1,300, BOmm grenade dischargers battalion guns, “Type A Strengthened Infantry Division Total 29,408 mien, 9.906 horses®, 502 motor vehicles*, including 3 rfantry mg ‘ach 5,687 men 1 field artery rege (or mountain arty mgt 1 medium artillery gt 1 connaissance gh 2.379 men 3.400 men, 1,400 horses) 951 men 730 men Conra iatr Fie Marsal {ina Are) Ary the ate 10305 he served on Emperor ois Supreme War Court standard ofiers post-t038 ‘ope, plying or rank {aan (US Naina Arnie10 salute one anther during @ break rom the fiting aginst, {Ge Chinese Netonaite Alot this rou are wearing the 1990 Iho e pretty acquired atone ‘svord wth ether boing on {he hit a he early model ‘rounded bottles Richerd Fuller Coteeton (oreoatry mgt 1 tank sit 1 engineer gt transport mgt 2.729 men Weapons: 10,000x rifles, 405% LMGs, 12x HMGs, 72x AT rifles, 457% grenade dischargers; 40x 37mm AT guns, 36x 70mm battalion guns, 24 75mm regimental guns, 24x 15mm & 12x 1mm howitzers, 13x armoured cars or tankettes, 90s light tanks, 48% mec tans, "The infanuy regiments had 1,083 horses each bat no motor vehictes; the field aniery regiment 2,463 horses & 49 m/v: the medium artillery regiment 769 horses but na m/s; the recce regiment 188 horses 8 61 m/s; the medic regime 950 men, 100 horses 717 men 1,012 men ‘unit 1,468 horses but no m/¥s; the transport [222 horses & 176 m/s. ‘Type C Special Infantry Division Todak 13,000 men, 2.600 horses, inchuding: 2 infantry brigades each 4,750 men 2 engineer unit 600 men 1 transport nit 1,800 men Weapons: 6.050% rifles, 10x LMGs, $2 HMGs, 112% grenade dischargers, 16x light mortars, 8x TOmm battalion guns *Each infantry brigade had 500 horses, and the transport unit 1,200. Infantry regiments, battalions & companies The standard Type B infantry regiment, commanded by @ colonel comprised headquarters with regimental baggage ain (pack horses and twoisheeled carts); three infantry battalions exch of 1,090 me signals company, regimental infanay gun (4x Timm) and antitank (Gx 37mm) companies, and sometimes a pioneer unt. The standard battalion, a major’s command, had four 181-man rifle companies; a machine gun company (12x HMGs); and a battalion gun platoon (2x 70mm). The rifle company, commanded by a captain oF first Hieutenant, had three 54man phtoons commanded by second lieutenants, each of four sections ~ each with an LMG, a grenade ischarger and a dozen, riflemen, The regiment found in Type Av disisions differed in having three battalions each of 1,626 men, and 2 regimental infantry: gun battalion (Sx 75mm rather than a company. Within each Tuttalion the rifle companies were 262 strong, sometimes incorpo iting a heayy weapons platoon @x HMGs, 2 20mm AT rifle) and an ammunition platoor ‘Ths photograph ges a pend Tine oie mm Ares Tae 32 (005 te win tone Doynet tree the base parorl weapon throeghout the ‘no U5 haonlArhoves Cavalry brigades Apart from the cavalry regiment sometimes Included in the order of bate of the infantry division, the main cavalry unit encountered was ile, Four independent cavalry brigades the bri served exchisively in the Chinese theatre the vast distances involved made them essential The Japanese also recruited local Mongol hhorseinen into auxiliary units w serve on the Mongolian border, in much the same way that the German Army used Cossacks onthe Front from 1942, One small unit ~ 5th Mounted Reece Bn — was employed outside China, fighting in the Malayan campaign of 1949. The cavalry Russian brigade of between 3,000 and 6,000 men comprised wo cavalry regiments of 950-1.200 men, a horse artillery regiment, a tankette tunit, and transport, engineer, medial and Armoured units Japanese armour was intially quite plentiful, and qualitatively comparable with international Standards of the carly 1930s. However, tank armour protection and weight oF armament were sacrificed for Tightness land speed; these weaknesses were starkly demonstrated in battle against the Red Army in the Nomonhan campaign of summer 1939, and tank design would continue 10 fall behind foreign developments during World War Il, However, in 1941/42 the Allied troops who faced Japan Iacked sufficient tanks of their own or adequate AT weapons; Japanese crews showed themselves to be notably well Wained in fighting at night and in bad weather, and were highly aggressive. Armoured cars and/or inkettes were usually employed in the reconnaisance role, each aly included in infantry division having a company. A tank unit was ws the Type A infantry divisions, serving in the infantry support role. The ide to the employment of armouy meant that 1 Armoured Division was formed: four were conservative Japanese att it was 1942 before the f raised during the war, usually grouping four tank regiments with supporting units including a ‘mobile’ infantry and a ‘mobile’ artillery regiment. The tank regiment (sensha renta) ha some 800-850 men, 27% Tight and 48 medium canks in a headquarters, three tank companies and a supply and services clement. CHRONOLOGY, 1931-DECEMBER 1941 1931 18 Splember Maken Incident’ ~ plot by officers of Japanese Kramgtung Army t0 provoke Chinese gartison in) Manchuria is launched by dlynamiting a stretch of the South Manchuria Railway. The Keangeang, Army has a strength of 10400 at start of eampaign. 19 Sspumber Mukilen bombed and occupied,2 30 Sepenber Japan promises League of Nations that i wil withdraw from disputed 4 November ‘Nonmi Bridge Incident’ ~ fighting between Japanese and Chinese troops, 18 November Tsitsihar occupied, December inese southern prosinces of Manchuria by Kwangtung Anny, reinforced to 65,000, quickly leads to Chinese defeat and occupation of the region, 1932 Jonuary-May'First Shanghai Incident’ ~ after air raids, 4 Japanese inf dis and 1 marine bee Land in Shanghai to ‘protect’ their expatriate community, and are resisted by Chinese 19h Route Army February Japanese Navy shells Nanking, Nationalist capital. Extended ‘occupation of Manchuria, including previously Rassianvaominated area 18 March Setting up of puppet sate of Manchukuo (1932-34) Resistance to Japanese oceupation contintes by about 200,000 gucrils, ‘but ‘ant-bandie suppression campaigns’ are largely successful by 1954 1933 24 February Japan rejects international condemnation of her aggression against China and withd aws from League of Nations. 4 March Invasion of Chinese province of Jehol, finer Mongolia, which i soon incorporated inta Manchikuo. 1934 1 March Pui, deposed Manchu Emperor of China, enthroned as Emperor Kang-Te of Manchukuo. (1934-87), Kanguung Army pursues smallscale campaigns in northem Cina, Inner Mongolia and Manchuria wih intention of destabilising Chinese gonernment 1935 10 Jase Chinese Nationalists withdraw troops from Tientsin and Peking at Japanese demand, 1936 19 January Japan declares Washington Treaty void from end of yea: 25 November Japan and Germany’ conclude AntiComnintern Pact 1937 7 July Marco Polo Bridge Incident’ — local clash contrived by Tapanese on outskirts of Peking leads to fullscale invasion of unoccupied China. 30 Jub Fall of Tientsin, 31 July Fall of Pe 1 August ‘Second Shanghai Incident’ ~ 10,000 Japanese troops land: the fight for the city will last 92 days, ‘atone. The Rempat a aaty erly ees wn ep 6 Type 20107 if Marie ‘ne baton vp bane the tron Of pertcuar ners eth ‘sry ptt metal body amour ‘rom y thee solr, fastening eater eres stops Pip Pangbom Seheeton the tte 10000 Ina yee 6? ‘an he ae! ofthe Janae Imperial Nowy on these, an 2 Type #4 Hs chine an clamped tothe balied-on mount. tr ee late 09) andthe all RUF inchor be fo Spparontywazed to te front of {hair hes. a Rte Cetecton 25° Septemier Chinese defeat Japanese force at Pinghsinghwan, Shansi Provinee, 5-12 Novembr Fall of Shanghai to Japanese 15 Novenier Fall of Taiyuan, Shani Province. 15 Dacember Fal of Nanking, Chinese Nationalist capital For weeks the population are then sub- jected to wanton massacre ‘of military prisoners and civilians, mass rape, et “| recorded by numerous foreign observers. No total Figure has been aecepted to this day: the lowest Chinese estimate is about 200,000 dead, while a Japanese historian puts i at around 42,000, Some years late, the treatment of the ‘Rape of Nanking" in today’s Japanese school textbooks is sila major obstacle to Sino-Japanese relations 1938 Fibruary-fune Yellow River offemsive March--\prt japanese force of 18,000 defeated, wth 16,000 casualties, by Chinese under Gen, Li Tuangjen at Taierehuang, Shantung Province » on to capture coastal cities of Amoy and Foochovs but Japanese F May Fall of Swatow to Japanese 10 june Japanese Ceniral China Army launches major offensive towards Hiankovs, Nationalist temporary capital JuAugust ‘Changkufeng Incident’ ~ Sighting on border of Manchukuo ‘& Outer Mongolia between Kwangwang Army and Soviet forces ends ssatenaig 21 & 25 October Fall of Canton and Wun 10 Japanese a0 Mark Capture of Nanchang, May-Sipember “Nonmonban {Khalkyn Gol) Incident’ — Japanese/Soviet campaiga ‘over disputed along the Khalka River May Offensive by 23rd Div of Kwangnmng Army initially suecessul: August counteroffensive by Soviet, Far Eastern Army, spear Ineaded. by Gen. Zhukow's tank units, leads to major Japanese defeat — Approx 8.500 Japanese 12‘Table 1: Japanese Army in China & Manchukuo, 7 December 1941 {ulled and similar number wounded out of force of 56,000 men, 30 Sepember Chinese victory at Changsha leads 10 {Am —etn Japanese withdraval frm Fun Province ecu ani mene Tay Serna Mey Reneweil Japanese offense in Hupch ees Prorince towards Nationalist capital at Chungking, i . Sea G ies ce cenn iat Seechwan Province | aaa Coty Grup Jy Afer 20,000 casualies in Hupeh campaign, sr a need fae {Bh et 4 6 a Fi 12,12 1-24 Fol 12 0) Puente sont smarmy et On 8, §7 a: VR 1FeL 1) Japan calls up a million men. Massive reinforcement of Kwangtung Amy follows. September Following fall of France to Germany in ‘om, 98 1696 100,909) June, Japanese pressure colonia’ government of a DA Siac Senne ete 9 French Indo-China (Vietnam, Cambodia Ls) to 1 a8 97 RP FA mane Nocher China, 1997: aunt of allow their forces to set up bases, providing strategic airfields and closing gin a etc. Cont hte Fo et A =a Sener ints perform a” one of Chis supply ots. oh het Sinko tenon Tim et 24,6 11.61) et TAR 2am et Dv 22 92,9 26 2 at 2 atertoy Sona ane 825 Seem Japanese Suh Div match ito Hanoi, NNietnam, Septemivr Tripartite Pat of military co-operation signed between Japa, ‘er 12.28 «5 6) "Toon Hab brs ny he he its, we caterer, ah 685, a 13.6, 10 avert ne or tote owe’ - Germany and Ta bare ran nto fe 126.1000 ‘tmortrated the ales rout Pdf B79, 72 R288 2071923 8) Senn 216 217 210 9A OFF tant Emperor ro 2 5 ee Som vn, 22,29 Pe 9089979) serotonin ema st, 2 Ay Chines victory at Sangha. oa {Omit 2a 225,28 F206 ON | 13 Apml japan coneludes neutrality pact with USSR, 21 April Foochow, Fukien Province, fll to Japanese Fl eae crt {Army Shana | yh 67 eT 2) hi Ou 17,31 i BR, BT Oo, FAL A) 25ND (4, 0, 70S. 75, 16 WA Z5 AG) ‘orn ne Rettae ype nme, 7 August Japanese occupy Saigon, S:Vietnarn si i a aca Mk dea ot te man at or thas = Soplember Second battle of Changsha, Hunan Province, ends in oxen pool theta “Tt, ad at op - ‘nh (10,28, 69 Re 10 20 FA 10.40) (abpulanbateletedt Te feprid Chinese victory stg attra ‘secon hat se 2 Somm grenade a 28 tO, 30,98 Re 206 20 At 25 A) 16 OnteberL.Gen. Tojo Hideki appointed prime minister, army minister ‘Bit amy = anton ‘Suncare he cory am bt 8, 8 50, 206,29 A 36 28, 23, 230 Fs a. 8M) mete ae sind tara snr ffapanse Eoicromc ae Fae eee Us Pace Peet at Peat wees a ee Sateonanarvorcora et | Tome wowinetwevandard Harbor, Hawai brings the USA into World War Il and opens the Outs Ganmand Toe re eT | Sev romiet Pace Compign Sound — ctor too War his date net $0,000 Japanese had already died on atv xersice ME ya Sere an heey Since the “China Incident’ ~ the Japanese term for this vast campaign ~ ert chor ee epee Seda rev gt {ate 7,290, 290 A) our Segaies and ammorrers ‘officially began in July 1987, About one million Japanese troops would remain tied down in China, and this front would cost total of some 400,000 Japanese dead by V-Day ‘Soath china Front rs) Army = Conon Nother = Contn Kaye tb She Toot PACIFIC CAMPAIGN, 1941-42 secure its vital ilfields and other natural resources. All the other n of securing sale conquests in SE Asia were planned with the main a routes to and from the East Indies, The basic plan was for Gen. Yamashita’s 5th Army to invade Malaya in the north and to advance down the peninsula to neutralise the vital British naval base of Singapore a its southern tip. At the same time, to seize Burma a8 a buffer between the Japanese and British India, Gen. Tida’s 15th Army would invade that country from their new bases in Siar [haitand), Elements of the 25td Army’ would see the British enclave fof Hong Kong on the Chinese coast, defended bya 14000-man Anglo- Canadian garrison. ‘The Philippines were to be invaded by Gen. Hlomma’s 14th Army, eradicating US land forces in the Pacific. An attack fon the Dutch East Indies could then be launched by a force built around Pressure on the Japanese to stop their aggression in China was applied through a series of economic embargoes imposed by the USA in late 19i0-carly 1941, on the export of ion ore, copper. nickel, and other materials including those used for oil dling. These sanctions failed to persuade Japan to make peace with Chiang Kaishek’s Nationalist government, and international pressure was increased >y a ereeping oil ‘embargo. imposed during the summer of 1941. O11 supplies were gradually rediced over a few months hetore the embargo was officially cnidorsed by the US goverment on 5 September. With no domestic sources of oil, i¢ was now only a matter of dime before dhe Japanese Empire would be forced to act. Plans were agreed at an “Imperial Conference on 6 September for an invasion of the Dutch East Ines to16 Div from 16th Army; this would be reinforced by dhe 88th Divs withdrawn from Hong Kong and the Philippines the 2nd anu 48th respectively With Singapore secured, elements of the 2th Army from Malaya (including the 2nd “Tank Regt) would also be switched to complete the conquest of the Dutch E CHRONOLOGY, December 19. General overview ot 7 December ttack on US Pacific Flet at Pear! Harbor Haat is followed, by Japanese declaration of war against the USA and Great Britain and the launching of atacks across the Pacific 8 December japanese begin ait attacks on Guam, Midway and Wake Islands, Hong Kong and the Philippines, and make frst advances into Makya 9 Decemder Tarawa and Makin Islands in 10 December British battleships HMS Prince of Wales andl Repute sunk by Japanese aireratt off Malayan coast 14 Deemer Thailanel declares alliance with Japan. Devembrr Japanese capture Wake Island. 25 December Hong Kong falls Toe 19 January British Borneo surrenders 23 January Japanese invade New Beiwin, New Ireland and Islands, 19 February Portuguese Tinmor invaded, March Andaman and Nicobar Islands fall Japanese al victory at Battle of Midway epples Japanese carrier force tg te form of rnspor 2 barteatanyarecited wis tat June US Simos: The lepnese m/# iy Central Pacific seit aset tary stenton 115 2) June japanese occupy islands of At & Risk Aleutians group they tend and ne meen off coast of Alaska tr wanapor, cg ened wasion of Malay 1941 ‘8 December Japanese forces land at Kota Bhar, NE Malaya, as diversion 10 ‘mask landing of main force further northaves at Singora and Patani Thailand, (Supposed to coincide with raid on Pearl Harbor, the atack mistakenly launched two hours earlies) The mainly Australian and Indian troops in. Malaya total 120,000 men, nearly twice the strength of the 70.000man invasion foree = but half the tanks and artillery, few AT weapons and very weak air cover. British Commonwealth oops wil be repeatedly outflanked Japanese advances through the forest terrain, 16 Decrmer Fall of Penang, by audacious onmandng 2th Amy, holds an imeramgt eat mecting daring 1042 Malayan campoion. “mania orate, certs) wears Slepayed onthe uoper eal, 2 Sooner shi and gh Sask Sorin an teresting ma ‘oor t Malaya, an he wet on 1 command ft Army Manchuria He wos splat Prsppines in #00, where Ne ‘orn defance tt 35 Agu Shes commited by ie ‘oop Man, Yomaahia was ‘ld tor war eres and hanged 1 Fotruary 1048 Japan War story OF) 1932 5 January Further Japanese landings on west coast ‘outlank Slim River defenders. 748 january Japanese tanks break through defences north of main supply base of Kula Lumpur, 1 January Kuala Lumpur abandoned, 22 Januar British &: Commonwealth reinforcements land at Singapore, bu have no tne to deploy: 30 January Having sufered about 25,000 castalties including some 9,000 killed, Commonwealth forces withdrave across Johore causeway from Malaya onto Singapore island, From defences Which face the sea rather than the mainland, 85,000 illarmed Commonwealth troops under Gen. Percival face ~ ignorant of their numbers — Gen. Yamashita’s Japanese force of only 30,000 15 February (‘Black Sunday')t0 the greatest military defeat sufered by the Bridsh Empire, Singapore surrenders and the gartison pass into captivir. Invasion of Burma 1982 15 Jonuary Japanese cross from Thailand into far south and begin advance up Kra Isthmus Brish & Indian garrison numbers les than two weakly supported divisions with fewer than 40 obsolete aircraft; initial Japanese strength is about 35,400 men. 20 Jenuary Japanese 55th Div advances from Raheny Moulmein 30 january Moule fl 11 February Japanese cross Salween River, forcing defenders to withdraw towards Sitiang River 17-19 Fobruary After srong initial resistance on Siang River, many Commonwealth troops are trapped by premature destruction of bridge {8 March Japanese capture the capital, Rangoon. Commonwealth troops hold Irrawaddy and upper Sitang valleys, Chinese troops under Gen, Stilwell, Mandalay and Toungoo. 30 March Chinese abandon Toungoo, Two-pronged Japanese advance continues northwards up both river valleys, 3 April Last surviving British aireraft withdrawn to India 12 Apnl Japanese take Miguangye, threatening oilfield 20Aprit japanese seize Lashio, cutting Burma Road supply route to China, 1 May Nandalay abandoned. | May Fall of Myityia, 10 May Rearguard baute at Kalewa covers Commonwealth retreat across Chindvwin River, 12. May Monsoon rains slow Japanese pursuit 20 May After a 900-mile retreat north-westwards into India, and 13,000 ‘casualties, the lst ofthe Commonwealth forces leave Burma, Thailand, towards Invasion of the Philippines 1941 7 Deconber US Far East Air Force on Luzon island largely destroyed by Japanese air attacks "7{are weerng tropical uniforms, tmany other nsitieves, ld the second pater cork sun ep up the memento of ‘nonce (George Fon otector) 8 10 & 12 Devember Fist of 57,000 Japanese troops land in far north and south ‘of Luzon, Gen, MacArthur has garison of one US and nine Filipino divisions, but ‘nly US troops are properly trained and armed, 22 Deember Main Japanese force lands in Lingayen I, NW Luzon, and drives south, 24 December Japanese land: ngs in Lamon Bayon east, coast threaten the capital, Manila. Rapid advances force Gen, MacArthur (0 withdraw US/Fiipino for- ces towards a final defensive redoubt on the Bataan peninsala, 1942 2 January Japanese oceupy Manila 22 January Final Allied withdrawal into Bataan defences, February lies resist enemy attacks in bitter defensive fighting, Weakness of Japanese logistics exposed, 2 March Japanese land on island of Mindanao, 11 Monh Gen, MacArthur leaves by sea, on orders from Washington; Gen, Wainwright continues defence of Bataan, and Corregidor fortress in Manila Bay 3 Apmit Reinforced Japanese forces begin major offensive into Bataan peninsula, 49 April Surrender of Bataan with 35,000 US & 41,000 Filipino troops. 10,\pril Japanese land on Cebss island, 66 May Fall of Corregidor. 9 May Japanese landings on west coast of Mindanao end last Allied resistance in he Philippines, Invasion of Dutch East Indies 1942 1 January Japan declares war on Netherlands and immediately invades northern Celebes, Dutch East Indies. Dutch garrisons total 120,008 men, ‘but widely dispersed and lacking air cover. 23-24 January Further Japanese lanclings in NW and SE Celebs. 14 February Airborne attack by Japanese Army paratroopers on ilembang oil refinery, Sumatra. Seaborne landings in Sumatra 27 February Inter Allied naval squadron destroyed in Battle of the Java Sea, sealing fate of DEI garrison, 28 February Japanese landings on Java '8 March Dutch Gen. Ter Poorten surrenders 93,000 men, followed a few days later by 5,000 Allied troops 1 Apri Japanese forces land on Dutch New Guinea, The Japanese Army in summer 1942 By the end of the lightning offensive in the Pacific the Japanese soldier hua gained a reputation as a magnificent (some thought an invincible) jungle fighter who adapted superbly to every obstacle and difficulty: The onfidence of the Japanese themselves was perhaps best summed up by Col. Tsuji in Malaya: “On average our troops had fought wo bates, ‘paired four or five bridges, and advanced 20 kilometres every day Although itwas certainly true thatthe seasoned divisions had performed impressively, often against numerically superior opponents, their ietories had heen won over enemies who suffered from specific aknesses which would not necessarily persis. In this fst campaign the Japanese tactical doctrine had proved highly suecesful. It seas based on simple planning, but masimum flexibility, maintained by commanders who led from well forward: on ceaseless offensive pressure, irrespective of losses; on fast movement ‘ough even the most marginal terrain, and on opportunistic nfilration. ‘The enveloping attack was the classic engagement, with pixedsarms columns advancing on parallel axes. One force sought to in the enemy dav bya determined frontal attack, often launched with radequate reconnaissance and against superior numbers; meanvhile rihers = ofien in greater strength ~ outflanked and enveloped the Uofenders. Reconnaissance tinits would identify suitable targets for the lowing tanks; tanks, artillery and aircraft would seek to blast paths for he infantry who followed close behind in strength; infantry taining sivessed the importance of geting to close quarters quickly, keeping the nachine guns well forward, and assaulting with the bayonet. Thorough sining in night fighting multiplied the impact of such attacks; and local tories were exploited with great determination, without waiting for crear echelons’ to catch up. These tactics were applied by hardened veterans against ~ usually experienced troops who might be confused and exhausted by unk niliar terrain and climate; who were disheartened by earlier setbacks und constant retreats, short of supporting armour, artillery and anti-tank weapons, and ~ crucially - who almost completely acked ait support. In these circumstances Japanese tactics proved devastating; but when the Japanese did not enjoy such advantages, they be suicidal. The limitations of this doctrine af the offensive at all costs would be cruelly lemonstated in the coming years, when the material balance had shifted and the changing runes of war threw most Japanese soldiers onto we defensive. Although on paper the Japanese Impet Army was an impresive force, its best troops were oncentrated in a few ‘crack’ divisions. A handful of these divisions were committed to the Pacific tensive on successive fronts; a8 soon 38 victory as assured on one they were transferred to the ext, and operations daring this “Tightning’ WFensive had in fact stalled on a number of sceasions while reinforcements were brought ‘ho Gone Post Oe In nety sccupina Singapore Most wear {he opi rt the man te ‘iough auch informality mint fmphasting the oer with punch orkck (bert Mont Ubon! 19ay They waar he ees gree {he cored anenors rank patch ‘it soo. The perl Navy sober fini Raber Hunt Coren! from other battle zones. For example, the 5th Inf Diy hal served in China for three years from July 1937 to August 1940. It then spent seven months in French Indo-China before taking part in the CChekiang landings in China in Apail 1941. The Bth was one of the main formations deployed for the invasion of Malaya in December 1941; after the fll of Singapore it was moved to Dutch New Guinea, where it continued to serve until 194, Naval and air superiarity had made such risky tactics possible in 1941 /42; but those advantages ‘would soon disappear forever ‘The end of the Japanese offensive in SE Asia fe the empire with a huge area of newly conquered territories, However, apart from the precious raw materials she had captured, Japan's interest in her new southern empire was stil secondary to her main priority, which remained the war in China, where the vast di ces and dupersed enemy armies were still swallowing up most of her resources of equipment and manpower, For this reason projects. to invade Ceylon and possibly ‘Australia were abandoned, and a policy of defensive consolidation was adopted. The army's conquests had left it hugely over extended at the end of long, vulnerable supply lines (the naval base at Truk in the Caroline Islands was 2340 miles from Tokyo, and Singapore 3,490 miles). The Japanese logistical dequate ~ even primitive ~ at every tevel, but the high command's plans to defend this vast perimeter seem to have taken 10 ‘account of the fact. This logistical weakness had already begun to show during the Philippines invasion; the vast distances involved, and the loss fof command of the air and sea, would soon aggravate that weakness ‘musically. Japan quickly proved tnable to supply and reinforce her distant gariisons; and the effects of strategic shortages of all kinds were being fel by the home population as early as 1942. Tapanese landings were made on the coast of New Guinea and smaller islands to try to cut Australia off from Great Britain and the Midlle East. It was in this region dhat the Allied counteroffensive destroy the Japanese Empire was to begin, with the landings on Guadalcanal in the Solomons in August 1942. Within a few months of Japan's triumphs the US Navy had blocked her onslaught in the Battle of the Coral Sea on 7-8 May 1942, and robbed her of the strategic initiative by destroying most of her catrier feet at Midway on 4 June, Japan simply lacked the industrial base to keep her expanded armed forces equipped and to replace combat loses (for example, even in 1941 America’s aircraft production figures were four times greater than Japan's, and the gap would widen steadily), The astonishing industrial [potential of the United States soon outclassed Japan both quantitatively ane! qualitatively. By the end of 1942 the scale and quality of American Bros armaments production, and the numbers of men, aiteraft and ships ‘which the US forces could project far from their own shores, were beginning to break the myth of Japanese invincibility which hiad briefly paralysed Allied forces at the beginning ofthat year Nevertheless, due largely to the extraordinary determination of the Japanese soldier, it would take three more years of savage and cosily Fighting to bring down the Empire of Japan in final defeat UNIFORMS, 1931-42 Enlisted ranks! uniform: The uniform of the Japanese Imperial Army had developed over a period of about 90 years and incorporated lessons learned during the Russojapanese War of 1904-05, khaki - in the European usage, ‘meaning a medium shade of drab brown - had been standardised by the time of the brief Japanese participation in World War I, and in fact the Japanese Army which first went into action in Manchuria in 1981 wore a tuniform which had changed lie since 1918. From the start the Japanese had a practical approach to the design of the uniform worn by their soldiers; smartness was less ofa priority than a functional uniform ‘which protected the soldier in all conditions. For instance, in 1914 Japan twas the First country to provide its soldiers with both a thick woollen sgreatcoat and 2 raincoat. which kept the soldier both warm andl dry. The fact that che Japanese Army had seen service for a number of years on the Chinese mainland meant that it was full prepared for the conditions faced in Manchuria in 1931 ro Shot Fry ss Ms =r Pak 250 Army Malye trowel ard, 2 7? G1 01 GFR | sh vit 2,4 SE, SPA) Tim nto Gs 5814 226 1) | aha i Pg 2 Tk og ie trefond to Due Et es, ‘sey army = Bor my -Philppinee hen 20,38 102209) m8 7 Tk Pl. 18 Ay - Dutch Ea nos ws. Tn eat Pasar =o vt Pao nt Rt 2a Aner Grup ie oh 2158 78, s0Ma De (12, 18, 1 CS AY a ery St 8 Oss Ts 1 The 1930 (Type 90) issue uniform The uniform wom during the Fist seven years of | the Chinese campaign was inueduced shorty before its commencement. The 1930 pattern uniform was issued in winter and summer versions and consisted of a tunic, trousers and woollen pttees all in a mustard-Xhaki colour, worn with the peaked (sisored) cap. The winter version of the 1980 pattern was made from a heavy woollen cloth, the summer version from a light cotton, The Type 90 tunie in both winter and surnmer versions was ofthe sime basic design, with a siff stand collar, five bras front buttons, two breastand two waist pockets, Packets were of the internal fype ‘wih only the laps showing: these were shaped to 8 point in the middle and fastened bya brass button. Some examples of the tunic had breast pockets only, but the reason for this is not known, The trousers worn with both the Lype and later Type 98 (1938 pattern) uniforms were hal a9 breeches or pantaloons which fastened at the Ankles with either buttons, laces or press studs. The trousers were worn in various styles, from a a1“hi tose peat rat la “uring the change-over tom the “ype 90 to Type 9 unitorm: he ‘ed rank bars wth to yom ‘tar reduced in 0 sna moved Choractertie hoped front ‘ectvaly 2 acre wcecop. He he ha oficial permission tobe ‘re sips though the centre ‘th hose’ [eraré Corset Coteeten! loose ‘jodhpur” shape w a tighter ‘plusfour’ syle, their tightness depending on how they were tucked into the Khaki woollen puttees These latter were wrapped around the leg and then fastened with tapes just below the knee. To help secure the putices canvas straps were ‘wnipped ver them, usially in a crisscross pattern which gave the characteristic °X° shape atthe front, The 1938 (Type 96) Issue uniform The inwoduction of the new Type 98 dress regulations meant the wholesale replacement of the 1930 uniform with the new model. While this was taking place the Type 90 tunic was usually adapted to conform, With the new regulations. The main characteristic of this wansitional tunie was the shifting ofthe rank bars from the shoulders tothe old high collar = the Fixing loops on the shoulders were usually left in place Photographs of the time show some fairly makeshift atempts at this adaptation, which seems to have been undertaken by the individual soldier ora locally employed seamstress The Type 98 tunie was made from the same winter and summer materials a8 the Type 00, with the same five front buttons and four concealed pockets with butioned external aps, but had a stndhandlfall, collar. The summer version of the 1988 tunic was incorporated with ‘other uniform items into a tropical uniform (which is covered in the fortheaming second MAA book in this sequence). The colour of the ‘loth used for both weights of uniform varied greatly, and itis difficult. describe a standard shade. Uniforms were often manufactured on local basis and such colour variations were bound to result from differences in the exact materials and dyes used, Officers! Type 90 & Type 98 uniforms As in most other contemporary armies, Japanese Army officers were expected to procure their ow uniforms from commercial tailors. Though obviously made toa regulation ase design, details of colour, material and quality thus varied widely depending upon the maker and the individuals means. One difference beneen the 1930 pattem enlisted man’s and officer's tunic was thatthe sift collar was slightly higher on the lamer. As part of the 1988 pattern field uniform Japanese oificers usually wore a superior quality version of the enlisted ranks’ semisbreeches, with either leather leggings or puttees. Some officers chose to wear flared ‘riding breeches instead of the standard trousers, with high leather boots. The breeches were held up by braces which crossed at the back, Adjusted by means of a cloth halFbelt at the back, and fastened ar the ankle by four small buttons The Japanese oificer’s Type 90 (1930) service dress consisted of a five-button, high collared tunic worn with a pair of straightcut trousers, a peaked cup and brown leather shoes. General officers had plain collary those of more junior ‘ching, #940: hee Japanese Stnos pore ontop of te box uoraing the Chen (om Shangha All oe wearing ‘pe Type 8 (1838) norm \Whaped ‘chevron in amo ‘ant bene pooh of the “erson a he second made on he meat commen type. They at for guar ty. bert ont bran rink displayed their branch colour on the “sval- Jowwail” patches. ‘Temporary’ duty appointments were indicated by sashes worn across the chest ~ eg ard sash with ovo white stripes and red tasels idemified the unit adjutant, and a yellow sash with two white stripes the duty olficer of the week The main change from the officer's Type 90 0 ‘Type 98 (1938) service dress was in the tunic collar, which was now a standand/fll type. Ranks ‘were uniquely worn on both the collar and on the shoulder by means of gold wire epuaulettes with a system of ser stats mounted on them. On field dress rink ws worn only on the turnalown collar INSIGNIA ON 1930 & 1938 UNIFORMS The Type 90 (1980) uniform continued to show the rank of the Japanese soldier by a system of yellow metal stars om red cloth bars ~ for all branches of service = which were fastened transversely by loops fo the outer shoulders ofthe tunie and greatcoat (see chart on page 34). The cloth bars were officially 90mm long x 30mm wide ‘On the front of each side ofthe si tunic collar were attached collar patches cut toa square edge atthe front and a“swallowtail’ at the outside fo reat, These patches were in the colour of the wearer's arm or branch of service: there isa ce nount of confusion as to the exact colours n some sources, but a reliable Japanese source states that they were: infantry = red; cavalry = green: artillery = yellow; engineers = brovn: medical = dark green; veterinary = purple: military bandsmen = navy blue; transport ~ dark blue; military police = bkack: Army’ Air Foree light blue; judiciary = white; quartermasters or intendance = slvergrey These patches bore brass mumerals and symbols indicating the it, AKhouigh complicated, the system was basically as follows: plain patches = unattached soldier; matching Arabic mumerals = regular Fegiment; Arabic numerals with Tine undemeath = reserve regiment: Roman numerals on right patch, matching Arabie numerals on left = regiment stationed in Korea or Formnosa: Arabic numeral with “D: divisional unit: armvoFservice badge on right patch, Arabic num left = specialist unit within a larger formation, ‘On the Type 98 (1988) uniform rank insignia were displayed on both sides of the stindanel‘all collar, the designs being unchanged but the size of the bars officially being reduced to 40mm x 18mm. As war shortages begat to bite their dimensions were slightly further reduced to ny to save precious cloth ‘On service dress NCOs andl privates had plain Khaki shoulder straps bearing the same system of gold stars as appeared on de collar bas NCOs had a gold stripe at the shoulder end of the strap. ‘With the removal of the branch-coloured patches from the collar, their function was officially taken oxer by a coloured cloth “chevron” in the shape of an inverted "W" worn above the right breast pocket. This was24 anc, oe shown hy Be ‘realy badge wi 8 contra str fur mpc of he rank bre ~ Istretingy these ae il worm nthe shoulders He lo wearing {he tat ype of cor sun helmet swt old star badge pinned {ote rons and his igh boot ‘ould be brown Inston ot ticors back Mis shin-umto cbbord with a pstctve Ionther cover (Cheyenne Neds) not, however, a universal Feature; and by 1940 it was almost completely discontinued, although some of the support branches ~ e.g. medical = continued to wear them until the end of the wat. This wis presumably because it was more important that doctors and other specialist personnel be easily identifiable. In 1941 new regulations called for some branches of service to be shown bya small strip of appropriately coloured cloth under the collar rank bar, these being confined to engineer, eterinary military band, accountant and medical personnel, Photographie evidence seems to siggest that this new sjstem was rately used, however, and if any display of branch colour was worn then it was usualy the older ‘W-chevron, Arm of service badges A sistem of small yellow metal badges were worn on the collars of both the 1930 and 1938 uniforms to show the branch of the wearer. On the 1930 uniform these were worn on the right collar patch with the unit ‘number in Arabic numerals on the left patch. On the 1938 uniform the ‘badge was worn behind (i. to the rear or outside of) the rank bar which ‘was now displayed on the collar. Symbols used in these badges included the more obvious types, eg. cromed cannons = artillery, lorry = motor transport, tank = armour, harp = military band, and balloon ~ balloon observers. A gold star identified an officer candidate of the regular arms, and the sume symbol on a gold disc indicated an officer candidate of the non-regular army, i the reserve. Other symbols inchided a ten-point star indicating a waining school, and the selura or cherry blossom whieh identified units raised in Forme. “The sjstem was made more complicated by the fact that Independent ‘units substituted Roman numerals for the Arabic ones used by standard units A few representative examples ofthe sem on the 1998 uniform are 3rd Tank Regt Left collar, tank; right collar, Arabic ‘3 17th Min Arty Page Let, crossed cannons; fight ~ Arabic ‘I 1st Independent Garrison Unit Left, crossed rifles over stjlised “T right, Roman ‘T Specialist & proficiency b: The Japanese Army wore lite in the way of specialist insignia on the 1938 uniform, but some trades were identilied by series of red cloth badges worn on the left upper sleeve. These included shoemaer= pair of shoes; saddler= saddle; bugler= bugle; maser tailor= scissors; master farrier ‘master carpenter = save blade; ancl pharmacist = chemical = horseshoe A small red cloth chevron was awarded for diligence and was worn fon the right sleeve of the tunic. Metal pin badges were also worn on. the breast of the service uniform as proficiency awards, with various symbols on a cherry blossom background; these included awards for ‘marksmanship, gunnery, riding and observation, Miscellaneous oval metal badges also existed to mark service in Manchuria, and good conduct for NCOs, both in bronze. Oral metal badges were worn by some officers on service uniform; there does not seem to have been a precise system, but known examples include silver badges for battalion and regimental commanders. The most colourful and rare of this ype of badge was worn exclusively by field marshals; MANCHURI, 1691-22 Private 19 Gas, 2 Dy 1081 2 Pte 2h Css, ot vay Reg. 1081 5 Corpora 10 Ret BO ht D182(CHINA & MANCHUKUO, 1952-95, (CHINA, 1997-99 {colonel tars, 195 "Capt, 10 Pt Artin Regt Canton 1998 2 Mor Genera i i Ov, Rwangtung Army: eho Prove, 185, 2 Leatrant, 17 et Reg, O80 ED, srmar 08 Pe et Gare any Protection Corps Manchu 1802 5 Major ann Regt, 2a ba Ds 199NOMONHAN & CHINA, 1959 {Seratont 20 It Rat 7 nt i Nomorhan June 109 2 2nd Uedanant tank regiment China wir 13898 ‘Caplan, Einar a winter 1980 § Seaman 1st Css, Nava Landing Dison Shang, 100PACIFIC OFFENSIVE, 1942 atten, DE damury 142 PHILIPPINES & MALAYA, 1082 "Seaman st las stands baere Marine Dison Prine, 141-2 2 Super Prato, es tint Pipes, atte | orpera, 11 nt Rog, in i Saabs Malye, earn 1942brightly enamelled in several colours, its design featured iwo crossed rising sun fags wil a ir Imperial symbol superimposed andl topped with a yellow jumhu-hikw chrysanthemum, Indlvidual regiments were often ised with special badges which were pinned on their uniforms of caps. The best-known example is the “White Tiger’ badge worn by the 214th taf Regi, 331d Division, in Burma (see Plite HI), Unfortunately eeords of most of these designs do not scem to have survived. BURMA, 1082 1: Pandan, 14 Rog, nt OW 2 Compara Sth tant Dao 5: Uetenant, th iat Dison Armbands Armbands were worn on the left sleeve to signify various temporary duties and funetions, A white armband with a red central triangle was worn by men attached to the commissariat department Press corps personnel wore either blue armbands With white characters or white bands with black characters and a gold star: Red armbands with two White stripes around the centre were worn in barracks by the week's duty men, HEADGEAR & FOOTWEAR | ——— basta Pe service cap A-colonet of te impart Army ‘The headgear worn most commonly with the Type 90 uniform in the poses fora atu portrat carly 19305 was the rather archaicooking peakedl or visored cap which ‘emenitere in Oring, wearin ie nad been in service virtually nchanged since 1005, It had a Khaki top. ISLOITRINITST, ack leather peak and chinsuap, and a oneandarhalfinch decp ted telding# shieguee awora et” band, A brass five-point star badge was wor on the front of the band by ‘radionl samara shape: Weil ranks soldiers af the Imperial Guards Division had a different badge rank of tag shows parteiarty ih a wreathed star, Some younger officers took o altering the shape of the cap by folding the front upwards in imitation of the "German’ stl but this unofficial resisting was presumably frowned upon by the more Lraditionalist officers. After the introduction of the field ap the peaked ‘cap was phased out of service, and was seldom worn after the mid- 130, Field caps The headgear most commonly associated with the Japanese Army throughout the period covered is the field cap. This came in a variety of slighily different designs but was basically unchanged until 1945. 1s sometimes deseribed as a “peaked sidecap’ which fitted tightly to the hhead, with a cloth peak and a brown leather chinstrap. First introduced in about 1952, it was in widespread use by the time of the invasion of Jehol Proxince in 1983. For the frst few years of is use the cap was stitched right down the back, but in later years an adjusting lace 10 tighten the cap was introduced. Winter and summer versions of the eap were made from the same wool and cotton fabrics as the rest of the uniform. On the front of the cap was sewn a stitched yellow cloth — five-point star which was usually mounted on a cloth backing. Officerschouters ofthe Tape 0 (190) “Tey wore superceded by eotar ‘aking onthe Tipe 8 (1938) ‘tom under Impei Iho, rough squalene Since corpora ana dated by ‘ reaium-mith yom centre ‘Sho-kan- gona acre (1-42 ro bar wages 0, wide gle Ctr sie, toe to one svar ota tars 1) eotoure enamel "a breast be. Sean ald otcar (6-7 rod ar edged gtd two medium wn oid pen the te oe ‘Man ~sater ofcors (10, {junta = warrant fears ‘ine # (14 fod bar ego ol, ‘one medium width gold stipes ‘cers (12-155 re ba one ‘medium with yellow tbe, three tone gold mca tars ({d} red & yl cheron, ft =a 86-19 re ay te ona yo lth stores (77 versions of the cap were usually made fom superior clot and were generally ‘siffer, with a badge made from gold thread, ‘When worn in the summer or tropics a sun eurtain the back ofthe eap; made as four separate trips of cloth, this re the collar, as attached to hed to Stoo! helmets The bistory ofthe tee! helmets used by the Japanese Army from 1931 0 1945 is somewhat complicated, wth several models in service atthe sane time indeed, during the 1030s different models were often seen in use in the same unit. “The first model Japanese helmet was introduced in 1920 and was similar in shape 10 3 British World War Liype, but with the front slightly lower than the rear Although this helmet hael offically been superseded by 1930 it was sill seen in limited use during the early fighting in Manchuria. Three new pattern helmets were introduced in 1930 on a trial basis, varying, greatly in design. The frst 1930 pattern was inspired by the French Adrian of 1915, but had a cherry blossomshaped external plate at the apex; and, like the 1920 pattern, it was slightly lower than its foreign model and had a more protruding front brim (see Plate Al). second 1980 pattern yas onfy sued in limited riumbers, bat was seen | service in Manchuria. This type (sce Plate A3) wis ike wider an later version of the German 1935 model, protding quite markedly away from the side of the head. The shape allowed the fur hat to be wom under it easily, and this may indeed have been the reason forthe testing Chin, 1940 am intresting group {aro wear be singe breastog {pater greoteont he rest ora 198 Jf 8 rit and ‘adie 199 contr) tance of Your om thas Icuherepging. Viste insignia Inoue sweety duty armbane| Ind and white fourth rom Ioan the wcting corporat ‘low ond rea oem for Ihe oer fore) Inaeata he auty efor of he ‘week Pile Pano Coteeton of this design. The third 1930 pattern was the potshaped helmet which was eventually adopted, though slightly altered to produce the 1932 model which became the standard issue unl 1945 The 1982 steel helmet fastened by means of a series of tapes which passed under the chin and around the ears before being ted in a bow at the back of the head. These tapes were generally arranged in a set way and in fact the Army and Navy bad their own distinet systems for fastening them. Later in the war a simplified system of tapes vas introduced, Inside the helmet were a number of small pads which could be adjusted to fic ugly to the head, The 1982 helmet had a rather bad reputation because of its reported low standard of protection; it 2s made of a poor grade of chrome molybdenuim steel and sas easly pierced or shattered by bullets. Helmets were often fitted with quilted linen covers stitched together from four segments. These covers were held in place by tapes and had yellow star badge sewn om the front Another early model helmet was based closely on the British World War L type but with 2 more flared rim, This was worn only by Naval Landing Forces, and had that branch's badge embossed on the front Soon replaced by the standard 1982 model, it saw its main service luring the fighting in Shanghai in 1982, which mostly involved naval ground units, Sun helmets The Japanese Imperial Army, like all ther colonial powers in the 1980, issued their men with cork sun helmets. There were two main patterns the first was basically the classic “solar top shape as worn by the Bridsh, French and other colonial forces. Ithael a metal ventilator atthe apex, a couple of ventilation eyelets on either side, and a brown leather chinstrap, This model appears to have been worn mainly by offices, although photographs show that some enlisted ranks did receive it. The second pattern was of a rounder, boseLike shape similar to the steel helmet but made of cork, Six segments of khaki cotton cloth were fastened over the top of the corkand strip of cloth fastened around the base of the helmet. This model was much more widely sued to the rank, and file as well a8 officers, although the latter would commonly have bought better quality versions privately, A white cotton covered version of this helmet, with a khaki cloth strip around the base, aso existed for officers. All these types of sun helmet had a yellow star badge on the front mounted on a pentagonal piece of Khaki loth, Footwear The most commonly worn footwear during” the 1990-45. period was a brown pigskin -hobnailed ankle boot. Although these fame in sarious slightlyMancha sat 19208: 8 uni ot apanene tat stage mock ‘model tel Ramet teste rom 1590, lossy bases onthe ‘ren Adrian type. At ar ght, ‘Type 3 medium machine aun ‘onuaty boredom the Brion ‘esign ote that some a he motorised unt Garo orate Calectin) siffering designs they were all basically the same item, Officers also wore this ype of boot at times, though normally of superior quality A form of shoe peculiar to the Japanese soldier was called the Jah This was a rubbersoled, ankle-high, black canvas shoe of ‘cameltoed! dlesign, ic. with a separated big tor section, Other lightweight canvas and. rubber shoes had a more conventional design, although the divided-oe type seems to have been the most widely worn. One form of improsised foowear was the sara! sindal, homemade by the soldiers From stra These were traditional peasants and soldiers’ wear in Japan, and were ideal for walking through mud, Mounted soldiers of the cavalry, horse anillery and transport corps wore high brown leather boots with spurs attached. Officers’ footwear usually came in blick leather, The two most mamon types were the marching boot, which was basically an ankle ‘boot, and a high riding boot. Mounted officers wore either black leather Fiding boots or ankle boots with leather leggings PROTECTIVE & SPECIALIST CLOTHING Type 80 & Type 98 greatcoats The Type 0 (1930) greatcoat for enlisted ranks and officers was of heavy rmustart-khaki woo!, double-breasted with two rows of brass buttons. A large removable hood was Easened to the collar by a two-buton strap on cither sce. Rank was displayed rink bars attached just above the seam. The Type 98 (1938) greatcoat wis single-breasted in a more olive khaki shade, with five metal front buttons, land the rank bars attiched to the timmdown collar A simple sytem of a the shoulders ofthe greatcoat, with the rank indicators wis aso worn on the culls: red patch with three yellow stnipes for officers, two yellow sinpes tor warrant officers, and a single yellow stripe for NCOs ‘Type 98 officer's raincoat The 1938 pattem doublebreasted hooded raincoat was worn mainly by fiers; this had two rows of metal front buttons The top of the coat wis usally folded back to form a large lapel which fastened to the second button from the top. Rank bars were dispkayed on the collar when worn open, but a different system wwis used when ir was worn closed. lou tab was tsomm across the throat beating one, two or three green stripes for company: officers, field officers nal general officers respectively Officers could wear a kneclength cape or ‘mantle’ over the uniform, These fastened with cone button at the neck, Both the pre-and post 10388 mode capes had tur-down collars, the later displaying the rank bats. The earlier type had a system of one, wo and three rank stars for ‘company field nd general officers respectively X short waistlength cape was worn by ranted officers and NCOs and by Kempebtei personnel; this came in Types 99 and 88 models Both wete fastened by butions down the chest, with the later moxlel displaying the rank bars on the rurn-down collar Cold weather clothing, 1931-42 Given thatthe Japanese Army was to spend a great deal of time fighting in the extremely severe conditions of the Manchurian andl Chinese winters, a great variety of winter garments were issued during this period. Undemeath the winter version of the 1930 ind 1938 uniforms the Japanese soldier would wear extra. lyers, including green woollen winter shirts and a woollen toque or balaclav. ‘Over the uniform trousers he might wear special padded overtrousers which fastened with a cloth belt, and furkined ankles tied with cloth tapes, Over the wool tunic he eouil wear any of the following Winter suroal The most conumon cold weather garment in service in Manchuria and China was the sheepskindined, sleeveless surcoat of jevkin, This fistened atthe front by aces or buttons, and reached down to just shove the knee; it normally had one breast and one waist pocket. Locally manufactured, it probably varied in details, Winter oat & special winter coat, issued to both enlisted men and officers, was made of a heavy, light Khaki-coloured sailcloth material. Double breasted with two rows of brown plastic front butions, it was lined with Heece or pile. I had a farfaced collar and euis with removable sleeves ‘which hattoned on just above the elbow. The officers’ version would have teen of superior manufacture if not of superior material. Fur hats ital item of winter clothing was the furlined hat, 2 round eap with fur inside and furlined flaps which could be worn either down t0 Cover the ears or fastened over the erown by buttons or a press stud Earlier types worn in Manchuria in 1051 had thicker, shaggierlooking linings; later models had a more uniform lining and a much neater appearance Augnt 1040: superior orate (at end sergeant suroner ‘anki, ond high brown ether pater NCO®’ shin gun sword ‘th pin thor Ht stop. te ocala (lear Faller Cotten) a7Snow camouflage To a stall extent itemas made from white cloth for show ‘camouflage were issued for wear over the uniform: a snow cape with atached hood, and white overmiviens, Furlined covers were also issued for pieces of equipment made of metal such as the mess tn a rerboutle. Winer footovar This included overshoes and special winter hal-boots Special fursined winter guiters or anklet fastened under the instep with a leather strap and had four buckles up the outside of the leg ist uniforms Tink cra uniforms Armoured crewmen wore special overalls in both \winter and summer versions. The warm weather version was made from the same cotton a the 1938 summer uniform; a one-piece design, it had a single pocket on the left breast, and rank was worn on the tarrrdown collar. The winter version wasa tworpiece suit; the furcollared jacket had single left breast pocket, and the rank bar was attached to the ches. Under this winter jacket the tankers wore high, bib-fronted trousers made of heavy duty coon material, fastened up each side by five Duttons. The trousers had two thigh pockets and another on the right chest under the jacket, ‘Crash helmetsalso came in seasonal versions: cottomcavered cork for summer and a furlined version for winter, The summer type had a leather chin strap which fitted around the ears on the wiater version this was replaced by furlined ear flaps. A second winter pattem for wear in ‘extreme’ climate hada thicker fur Tining to the chin straps Antichonical protective clothing ‘The Japanese Army used poison gas in China, and three types of chemical warfare protective clothing were available. The fist nwo were both lightweight rubberised sik suits; the frst is described asa ‘cellophane’ rype, made up of a hooded jacket, trousers, boot covers and gloves with a cellophane lining. A second pattern, described 28 ‘casein’ type, had jacket, trousers, overboots and gloves all ‘coated with that substance. The heavyweight version was made of a reddish-brown rubberised fabric and consisted of an overall suit with attached boots and hood. All pes of protective suit were worn with standard Type 95 or 99 gas masks, Working dss 8 wide variety of “faigues’ or working direst were used bythe Imperial Japanese Army The first type summer fatigues were a white cotton jacket_and trousers worn ‘over the smiform shirt; the rank bar was displayed above the left of a pair of Ibreast pockets. The second type, a one-piece overall with’ single left breast pocket, was ight khaki in Colour: again, rank was Manchu winter 1032» party ot solers each caring two Srey rounds, ebay for shcopekinsurcoat over te oP Under their tame hey ae wearing fried ape they so Su heme hs oy Me mga a ap, ‘Shoulder. (Autor Clacton) fen atthe 190 Tk Regiment amet, ate men on displayed on the let breast. These second ype fatigues were worn wih spect ight khaki cston cp, with ear ap which were normal ed Special faigues for winter wear inched a pir of khaki heat cotton bibttonted trousers with ght Drea pocket, to leg pockets and nrg rear pocket. Over the biband:brace trousers fe wor fa Cotlared working jacket wit btn cls INFANTRY EQUIPMENT The field equipmes rather old fashioned in design. The bass of the infantryman’s field gear was the brown Teather belt with a singleprong frame buckle, with oo heavy, boctike ammunition pouches at the front and one larger pouch at the back: the bayonet Scabbard was frogged on the left hip, where the belt was supported by a battoning tb on the wie. The evo front pouches each held six fveround clips of rifle ammunition while the rear pouch held 12 clips and the rife leaning kit, giving a total Load of 120 rounds, Alhough the ‘material of the belt was changed to a rubberised fabric and the pouches to vuleanised fibre in the later war years, the basie design remained the The spare clothing and other necessary items were carried in a stiff cowhide knapsack with the hair left on, Attached to the back of the knapsack by leather straps were a metal mess tin and, more often than not, an entrenching tool Entrenching tools were carried ina ratio of two shovels to one pick, and these were easily disassembled for ease of carrying. Overcoat, when hot worn, were rolled up and wor strapped around the upper half of the knapsack, with a ‘waterproof tent half/poncho fastened over the top. The res of the equipment, slung separately, included a canvas haversack or “bread bag’, a ‘metal waterbottle (which came in several models), and a gus mask bag, A lighter and cheaper canvas knapsack was introduced dusing the 1980s, with canvas ties replacing the leather straps. Personal items were ustally carried in the haversack, but the soldier's most prized possessions were carried in a small canvas drawstring bag, Officers’ field equipment usually consisted of aa sword belt, despatch (map) case, Geld glases in fa brown leather case, and a waterboule, Sword belts to carry the various types of miliary sword in tse were made either of brown leather or green ‘canvas fabric. The sword was usually attached by means of a single Teather hanger, (0 bot dhe Teather and fabric types. An alternative (pe of sword belt was worn under the tunic with dhe hanger passing through slots in both the jacket and overcoatWEAPONS The relatively eay victories achieved during the fighting in China the frst Pacific offensive masked a number of weaknesses in weaponry. The armaments employed fom 1931 to 1041 were generally serviceable but many were of elderly design. They were adequate atthe start ofthe Pacific War, but there was lithe development of new designs from 1941 ‘onwards; the Japanese had to make do with what they had, while the nd Allies were cont antly introducing new and better weaponry, Small arms The standard Japanese ville was the five shot, boltaction 65mm Avisika Type 38 (known 10 soldiers as the sanpachija), a copy of the classic German Mauser system which dated from the RussoJapanese Wat Keys sturdy and simple, but at 50.2ins, ( '5m) too long forthe shore satire of the average Japanese soldier ~ many had difficulty in reaching the bolt when the buct was in the shoulder in firing position. For sniping a telescopic sight was mounted well back for this reason: this was of surprisingly medioere performance, and sniper training concentrated fon concealment for medium range action rather than long range ‘marksmanship. A decision to change the standard round froma the 6.3mm semisimmed to a more powerful 7.7mm rimless cartridge cor life for the quartermaster branch; both long (30in.) and shore (3.9in,) versions of the 7.7mm Type 99 (1938) rille were introduced Two special ‘breakdown’ paratrooper’ rifles were proxiuced, and paruroopers were also issued with the only subemachine gun in the Japanese inventory, the 8mm Type 100 (1940), based on the German MP28; but only some 27,000 were made in two versions, and few were issued, Ne + paratroopers, nor SMGs, figured in the usual orders of bale. Handguns were of three basie pes: the Type 26 (1893) Sm revolver, and two semiautomatic pistols, he Type 1 (1925) and Type 94 (1934) oth in Smm, The Type 14, called by the Allies simply the "Nambu after the major Japanese arms manufacturer, was the favourite of Japanese officers; the squat, ugly Type $4 had a tendency tojam, The Japanese had a variety of hand grenades including uhvee ‘pineapple’ ‘ypes, the Types 91 (1981). 91 (1987) andl 99-1990); 00 ferent sick grenades were also used Fouriferent pes of ile grenade launeher — Thpes 1,2, Sand 100 could be ited to the Ariz co project iter fragmentation, smoke or AT grenades, Swords ‘nil dhe mie-1090s the standard Imperial Japanese officer's swore wis The standard wot winter weiht either the IS7S oF 1886 fy gun first malitary sword’. This was of con 98 8 1998) unit, wom tout atinguahing signs ae - ‘between te ferent parte of The traditional “samurai? blades as used in feudal Japan, though — ananleo gtr nak rarely dating from easier than the Edo Period, were sometimes carried Shae than the trusers andthe metal hand ventional Western appearance, slightly curved sabre with squard. The 1875 model was regulated for commissioned « cersand the into battle by modern Japanese officer. There were two types the longer Ilana oF tachi of H-3bins, (the different names indicating whether it as slung edgeup or edgedtown respectively), and the wakizaski of — marcing te wi ether [2-24ins, hoth of which might historically be carried together at the hip. tmapssc; canvas havereack a by the samurai warrior: Ancient examples of such blades were revered latherstapped water bottle Dien Being ne ight ae not simply Family heitfooms; many Japanese believed that uch objects Milan babies a {imm hoa Type 0, with © rire monopod eae under the Torestock. (8 National Archives) ‘embodied a spirit and had mystic significance. The rise amongst the Army's younger officers of nationalistic fervour based upon traditional values led to calls for a “traditional” sword to replace the European pattern, These demands were answered by the introduction in 19354 of the Type 94 shingunteor ‘new military sword’ ~a modern manufactured nied metal oa wooden, sersion of the faci was carried in either a pi scabhard covered with Teather, sometimes in a looser fabric cover Scabbard hung from belts by straps which fastened to either one oF 880 sspension mounts, the bottom one being removable, ‘Swords were also carried by NCOs, the first pattern shingunto introduced for this ank being the “Type 95 pattern Army NCO's sword! The status of the wearer was indicated by the colour of the sword strap and tassel (while the tasel was purely decorative, the strap was worn e the weapon in combat) nd red strap with gold wire, zigzag stitching General officers ~ browns und yellow tassel ed officers brown and ved strap and tassel Company & wareant offices — brown and blue strap and tassel grant & conporal~ brown strap ard tassel Seeani-majen, ‘Support weapons Te useful 50mm Type 89 (1920) grenade launcher/light mortar — quite crroncouly called the "kice mortar by some commentators who clearly ack fist hand experience ~ was produced in large numbers anel was standard isue down to section levee Tada rifled barrel, an adjustable firing pin giving good range contol oat 1 700 yards (650m), and ittook a number OF HE, fragmentation, incendiary ilunination and smoke projectiles, Other morass included the 50mm Type 98 (1988) smooth-bore demolition type firing a squarcheaded 7Ib stick projectile, the TOmm Type 11 (1922) rifled type; the Slmm Types 3 (1928), 97 (1987) and 99 ie French Brandt model 1199) ~the fist a conventional copy of the cla the second and third, lightened and shortened versions; and heavy Shmm Types 94 (1934) and 97 (1987), and 150mm Type 97 model, which were generally emplaced in fixed defensive positions. (Allied reports speak of Japanese skill with mortars, and they were certainly Widely encountered: it is therefore surprising that the major US Army intelligence appreciation does not include dedicated mortar ‘ompanies/ platoons within the Japanese infantry unit organisation plan.) “142 ‘normaly held tom In place. Ho ‘String 6.5mm Type 3 mec ‘machin gu introdueod nt ‘manhanae«150mm Type 4 (3015) heey hota amouoge nting capes over ‘taut sting laces the von and td cape. Phe engbor Cotecton) The Japanese infantry were aggressive and ‘enthusiastic users of machine guns, but once again their logistics suffered from a lack of standardisaon. Light machine guns included the 65mm Type 11 (1922), which took the same round as the Arisaka rifle and had a hopper feed system = in theory the section's riflemen could top it up’ with fixeround clips. Since the extractor required oil lubrication ofthe eartidges, this open feed system was at invitation to dit and stoppages. The much superior 6.5mm Type 9B (1998) ws base om the highly suecessul Czech 226, had a (quick-change barrel and was fed from a 30round bbox magazine; this too required oiled eartidges, ‘but the stem was improved. With the change toa 7.7mm round there appeared a development of the Type 96 LMG termed the Type 9 (1939); this is most easily identifiable in photos by its conical flash-hider atthe muzzle Both the standard medium machine guns were bused on the aircooled French Hotchkiss system, fed from the left side by Sbround meta stipe the 6.5mm Type 3 (1914) and the heavier 7.7mm Type 92 (1932). Another model, in use mainly with the Navy but later also by the Army, took a different, rimmed 7.7mm round but was also confusingly known as the Type 92; this wae a copy of the Lewis gu. The heavy machine gun was the 132mm Type 9 (1983), basically a copy of the Hotchkiss M1952 in that calibre Japanese arillery equipment was of a general quality comparable to carly Alied counterparts, with 7Omm infantay, 75mm field and mountain guns based on elderly German and French patterns; the mountain type broke down into six packhomse loads, The 47mm AT gun which replaced the 87mm in the midhwar years was particularly effective. The medium regiments commonly had 105mm Type 99 (1939) and 150mm Type 4 (1913) howitzers and the major wes snes ofthe artillery arm lay in these heavier guns ~ they were to0 few to be effective against the massed US and British artillery which they increasingly faced as the war progressed, THE PLATES A: MAMCHURIA, 1031-32 At: Private fst Class, 2nd Infantry Division, Ths to-bl wears the mest commen of he aay types of ice heme Used inte alana campaigns, know asthe hes lessor mada forthe tape ofthe plated &t 2 apex Japarese Yoops ha ser sarvice Wer eas 5 Manchura trough the 1920s anc were prepared lor fhe harsh condone they mein 1931; te sold wears the Fina waar sucoat oF Jatin over hi Type 69 (890) fata later knapsack and sary ace water Bote. His Fie the G'mm Aska Tipe 38 of 1005, whsch romaine the standard Japanese rifle until 1645. daepte. the rredueton othe new 7 Tm eartige ad Typo 2 12: Private 2nd Class, tet Cavairy Regiment, ‘sat Ths Japanese made wideepread use of cavaky dubs the fighting in Mancnarin and China tom 1651. This woopers Type 90 wocllon wter tune. The brass Arabic ranbor rnd the ‘sont’ coli path n covary green War ties is regiment. The peaked Seruce cap was sl widely tom athe te but would soon be repiapa wth th eld so; ote a as of srice wore # wth are ben and ron ping, Hs winter mage woolen caval breeches ara ‘eked mo brown lett boots wth spurs. Hs Ighe Seupment inauea «single cary amano pouch eis ed Type 30m carb Fi Type 32 eavary sabe longa than the Sande model, ghieg him a batter Teach when using i fom he sade 423: Corporal, 13th Infantry ‘his gocho wea the second main type. of tee helmet tested In Ited fssue by the slpanese “fem 1930.” The ‘shape, someuhat resembling & ‘dena, fattnad Geman fine ap erat models of helt were worn ‘otal pose in a stato Manchin ne ear 19008, Plate 8. On he tet eeve he torch Kim or ating corer Svges armband when shows that ie ‘s.one ftatweeks ty men. PA Pargbeen Cotection re pstoon, He unform le the Basle 1990 woo! ser pallor tough obscured hate by hi eap fap, the ase Deabie "3" af hs regiment is pred to bat clr patos His light fd equemert ncludes = canvas haversack an ‘ay perm eke mask inte canes bag, and his water ota sl sung agonal, Note that wit the knapsack fimmintion pouches thes would drag consisraly ly \caded win 120 rounds fornie Type 98 Aika 1B: CHINA & MANCHUKUO, 1932-35 “istaaa serrngie ha camaro zoe of rather Cina wear the ofioas version of te. 1990 patiem douse ‘rested gstoet, wh is rank reeated by tare ‘Stowiar bas. The offers fd cap was in widespread uso 2 1005 aleugh the peakec cap Was aco ol seen. Hs 1800 plan ffloer’s winter unorm i han here apart trom na blak eather offs ing boots wh spire. He mad wth aigu-gurto fers etre, though te as fan ‘eplaced win the shinsgunto of wadional Japanese ‘rape. On hie bot he has the holstred Namba Type 14 Semautomate pst ntrodiond 1925, by far the most {oman esa for Japanese fers. 12: Major-General, 8th Infantry Division, Kwangtung Army Jehot Province, 1033 Commencing i ios nlanty group curt the asin ‘ofthe Chinese province of deh in 1983, Hie sho-sho ‘and culls aed detachbl loner sleves. Fark, 26 ‘ays, sdseayed onthe Vaneverse seulsor ars Te ofa’ peaked sarc cap was boing phased out ef fst Ine sarice but oy tne or gery he ‘equipment the general caries sa pal allway Protection Corps; Manchukua, 1622 “hs solder serves with @ unt reeponsbis fore pecocton of the i raliay.‘es, hich fnt-Japanese, Marcruran er tas. Ho is crossed fr guard ty inthe marsh nother winter the eubl-reasod Type 9 aeatoat sin aod Tha ur gape wen by the se whi conormng tothe same ee cess the seperate hirined ar faps oud be wom down, 3 ae, laced up ontop of he cap to ow beter nearng wile the ace wes sil rowed by tw tat a es While on gua ty hese most of is ‘eqiorrert on the tai ote the epecl poushes fer the Te 17 (1922) sgt machine ‘ga cips, He peor waapon ls aly 26 (1889) am reoher hosted on he eg ip. 4ABOVE China, 1856: second Hetonant on ebserestion ‘weight 1820 pater tne. Ae wae common practcn, he ‘is left hand ie is yrgunto European sya ocr sire ‘tye sword kat rm a age werd wre round Un vehiabow Smith Cactn) ABOVE RIGHT China, mié-18908: cf Pate C1. This bearded ‘eptain looking trough a tater) commanders biocr {elecope i presumably an atlerman, so the ‘wren? ‘collar patches on his 1999 pattern tur wou be nthe Yalow ofthat sm of servic, Note the fang tranererse ran ar on his shoulaor and the complste srangrent of the dae ofthe semora tere waa a covoct way te ‘eee, eben Want Uber) HINA, 1937-39 Ct: Captain, 108th Field Artillery Regiment; Canton, 1938 “Te fa of ails, serng ith the noir vision of he same number atates what the average ofr would have wor at the Fert during the China corpaig, Fi 1830 atom winter tone dapays his rank onthe Souter bars fn his a of service by the Yetow colour of hi colar Batches. The 1882 toe hetnet excl the same model as ‘wom by the ented rrks ated on wh tases arranged in the preserbed impr Army way. Note the four lath straps across hs chest too of thea ae the sling for hs bnooulars, despatch cae and water bt, woe eurth Supports his enisted mars pater bat and his hosted “ype 14 pistol Hs Type Bt shin gunta sword card Inthe wood and leather seaboard which was fen used for nt 2: Lieutenant, 117th Infantry Regiment, 108th Infantry Division, summor 1988 ‘8 chr wearing the 1900 stem summer tunic in ts transitional fom, wth tha rank bars Moved. om oe shoucers 1 the colar acca 16 the new 1908 ces ‘equators. The Toe 89 unfem, i bot ts ogre ard ‘mode foms, continuo be wom ora enero yea afer the nrodctn ofthe Type 96. ees wor the frst iyo of cork sn haat soretince sean use byw ranks ung te fing in Chm procumaby. as ith a ‘ther traf unforn tears pats purse veron Would have been of super maa ewer he Tipe St Shr-gnto na parted meal scatawe wih the ron od Bue fit stap and tant of eorpany ofr. ee te due bat arangerent supporing Ns it ammunton Dau a swe 63: Major. 82nd Infantry Regiment, 24st Infantry Division 1990 This bation commanders woarng the 1838 pattern 7 8 oftears Fld untorm. Rancs worn onthe Sanaa Cela andi ranch shoun by heed V-saped chew! bow he ita poke Th ad cap had vow eae ‘he visred srioe caps sindersheasgea tr both toes and ented rare, neugh th oficrs rate purchase cap oul be of supe uate mans ish he 1884 Shi-gurto sword was of he same design ae te meclval Samar so, hs ba mode marclecu ary cme cficer of nc tho ra tes rey teoom bass ruredin nace hte or sea Wort Wer hough genure examples of euch ane ‘ged bles ae fare tn pst nr dealers wu are the coco beleve Note he stchad tse tld bat and tne brown ar det fea sap an ase on the urd fare by the Shs D: CHINA, 1937-39 Di: Private 2nd Clase, infantry; Pe ‘uly 1997 This sor pte sanz to clebrate th it of Peking Chrigg te rt sumer campag floring the ‘Marco Pola Sige dent hn spared of the fl cae invasion of ‘hina He si wears the 1690 pater summer uo y Shoulda Yank bars, but has the 1982 pol srapac het th ‘erased tant ta badge Fs woolen pes ar securec by Bes af the top, and to have fabri ose saps tec Sagoraly oer the His ight fats equpmentcomgraes et wt pouches and bajar eabbar 1095 pte gas mack ug. carves haversaok ata ol pater water Bot, The pone scared xed ich wes stand pacts: marry \aiirg ephased the use of ca steal n te ase 12: Warrant Officer standard bearer, infanty; Shanghai, August 1937 ‘Thijs an arty batallon standard bearer and caries tnesmaller type of fag which ini that siz fut Flags {estes promierty In Japarses nts and had = ret Saneane tothe solders wn osowed hemo Bat, tivorn the baste 1890 summer model The eit ted soar hiscap was wom as faa gn dug not fang. Bocause ths solders caring the fag he f med with Ns NGO's 1935 model shir-gunto swore as wl aa apo. 103: Seaman 1st Class, Naval Lending Division; Shanghai, 1998 Thue marine ofthe Naval Lancing Forces at Shangha wearing the 1837 patter "sea gfeor-colowed cotton Ur of he NLF "a rathr more modem looking orm ‘tan the ree 1800 patterns worn by th Imperial Army. “he opercola tunic worn ver a sor vert wth the Usual ype of toute, pecs and Bown ether nding Shoes His anon te gt seo. she ny negra wer fn the tune, athough petty offeers wore yellow metal [ace bythe usual tapes, but thse are fees the naval fasion withthe knot ate back of Nad. On the rot of ‘a hemets enbasse he eat pate ofthe NLP anchor age His fl se of eqlpmert cas te naval version of ‘he eas bag and wate tte: On he back he has te ey puter gasrespraior which was a carmen use by hs ype Ct tosps In Sherpa. The Type 36 le was the standard patter for all ranches ofthe Japanses Inpro. Poe: the Nava Lancing Fore wll be covered mars ‘ett i the fthcoring second books Sequence) E: NOMONHAN & CHINA, 1930 Et: Sergeant, 28th Infantry Regiment, 7th Infantry Division; Nomonhan, June 1998 Drag the fahing. in the wastelands’ on the Mongolian ordre the summers of 1938 and 1939 Japanesa soles Sule amy rom the plague of mosques This guns0 ‘Seored Tessue, os wo asthe Berdoricient Med for ‘service Inthe iting aint the Red Army onthe Mangal Manchakve borer. The spuiletes dontied an [ADC or atacha. (Gerard Gaeta Calcio) 'scoout to put on the bucket shaped ant-mosausto neting hood soe, end woar the specal ritlens sued forthe ‘ane reason, The Yet of Ns unflr the standard 1200 ‘Simmer pata of ht nak oton wth the eal raking (Fine 1998 rogutatons Ez: 2nd Lieutenant of a tank regiment; Ching, winter 1998/92 “This sho-commancing a tank platoon wears the wo piece Winter verson of the tank suit a fur-colared jacket over ‘bsard-bracn ovettovsrs, and furlinad wether boot fhe leathercovred,farned winter ype with eer fps ‘ver cutouts inthe chook places, and Pele wearing a pat | goggles, The holster “dentfiee his sgearm as the Unatacive and ineficint Sr Type 9! semi-eutomatc pete. ES: Captain, Engineers; China, winter 1936/39 ‘his company commander wears the standard offers 1030 pater sinter unto ssh the 1) ‘swalowta” colar palches ~ here in the burgundy branch eolur of the enginers, Over tis ic sting the fat, 1898 model of te ‘tiers cape o mart. Hs sword fe cared on 2 sttched ‘ava bet in place of the eather ype. aed he has th ‘covered over te ito protecF: PACIFIC OFFENSIVE, 1942 Fi: Sergeant-Major, infantry; Borneo, “hs so-cho pictured during the Japanese take-over ofthe British and Bitch tetera. onthe e-ren and of Boman, 'scressedntycal topical unto. tached toh ed cap 's the fow-sip sun cua. His ran is worn nti cvs on the colar of Nahi. but sail bar cou also be wom sore the let breast pocket. though fe i armed wih 3 {ype 14 piso he is hldng hs 1208 pate NOD sword, which as a plan brown stan and tse. 2: Superior Private, infantry: Batavia, Java, Dutch East indies, March 1942 histor safe sation marty man and caries he so- called "knoe mots= the SOmm Typo 89 ied gonad charger (Anong Ale troops wae popula nenoured thatthe mortar cou be fred la rexng the base on the fers igh: anyone foolish enough fo ty the riked 8 state eur rom the fore of te rel) He bees tropical unerm of tune, tousers and woolen putes and tas cartas cover on is Type 2 ste! helmet. Hs bt ane 4 neck sap supper the spoil ammunton pouches whch ach contained fut Soran rounds th ange of ammunition Incuded the Tipo 80 HE shal, To fearontation ‘rade, smoke apd incendiary shal rd vorous Byrctectn signal round. The rot ot his eadpment 53 made up of an sary model water bate bra a (ne ofthe few acborne atacs Inchod by the Japanese inthe Paciie War was Undertaken by a aval paratrop unt onthe Dutcr-old altoid of Manado, Celabes, on 11 Vanuary 1982 "the dy tat dapan eciared. war on the Natherands. The ‘Be-song unt suecestily exe contol of the aril fem Dutch grison of 500 men. This paatoaper wears the sanders, = Iult-pecket. two-piece ump st made of 00 gen’ ctor with fa ark mare by the rec crossod anchors patch on hs Fight steve. The naval version ef te Paratoope’' staat basal the 222 ot wih exproved Items tings, and the Navy anchor badge embatsed on the to bangalore: he is armed with ape te saradomate pte and a Type ST tamer {ation grenade fr hein phase. as Ne ‘ontying he arm of servic; then gt wero et aha worn Hs ony cesar {she brown thr bat with the une aly pouch hoking ammanitnfr Se 46 | ype 08 cartin, Pip Pangorn Coton) w makes his way to the parachutes contahars of ies snd ‘u-mactine guns G: PHILIPPINES & MALAYA, 1942 Gi: Seaman tt Class standard bearer, Marine Division; Philippines, 1941-42 Naval Landing Forces ware hes involved nthe lapanese conquest ofthe Piipoines: he hag cara here's ha of he Imperial Nav which ett fom tht the enparilArmy in thatthe sun cic was oft toward he ht sce. The ‘lve gen cotonuriforn was epi othe Naval Lacing Fores, and in ts casa ofthe 1940 pattern, The Navy ‘chor bade in yt istered tothe nak het cover Fans were indicated on this unform by ra les on nay be clo alse en the ght seve he radon of soa wer dette by an ancher crosad anchors ard~ es ate Sakti veto low a pa Bowe Bo te Krak canvas peeular to the Navy His Weapon ie aa Standard Aisha Type 8 G2: Superior Private, 47th Infantry Regiment, 46t0 Infantry Division: Philippines, 4941-42 ‘This is afte secon ight machine gunner rom one ofthe nits which fought rng. tne conquest of th Pilpins. He vows topeal unform = nto the eet, camautaged wa a et and folege, —_— * cared slung. His weapon S the Type 96 ight Z._" actine gin bee tte Bath Bey on = Gee 2826, te won a gent Moraemet ~ on ‘rer the old Tne 1, though that wes i widespread srvioe. A spect ba and Pouches for LMG mapscbes wore menu “actred, but he ae not eceved fe 150 lange canvas bag sung bend fim he, For perso detncareis ud wna altered pistol Chracterstcaly. the — LUG has'a ting to fake the Avoaa — bayonet though k must have aken @ ‘ery svong man to wield tre heavy Us in nandtoshand combat, 63: Corporal, 11th infantry Regiment, 5th Infantry Division; Singapore, Malaya, February, ro42 Blcyies wore extensively used by the Japanee dering he campaigns of conchae Inthe Paci, ano parsslry ding te invasion o Malays, A the depareso advance, ito hat of SE Aaa the ees code wert out the vindon, and many sles coud be seen wearing whatever was most comforiabe. The oe-cho has stripped of hi topieal tune aed ums ony Rs work shit, wth He rank bat tached fo the packet. Tha vest fis unfor s Standard topical gsr and cides the secon ‘ols ranks ake. Mis snoee the unioue ‘ab typ, of Back canvas and ithe wha ‘Separate bg toe. He fe fee Type 88 shored Arak “fer of the Naval Landing Sse. They are weerng the {957 pattern worm of ie Soar te captain nthe eft Sossome, whch epee the ft ape etn he sna old (Bi ag8 tection M: BURMA, 1942 Hi: Private’ 2nd Class, 214th Infantry Regiment, Sar afer Division fea mamber ofthe famous ‘White Tiger! regiment th man clay he spacial badge of at unt above the yetow star Of the paral Army on hie tld cap. Mary unis had Specialy designed badges, but few ejewinesses botheres ‘recor them ofl His pica cotton tune ar Youre ‘Se wena cals sy wooian pustses ana back cava {ab ents A member ofa two-man eifle ened tery, he asa Type 81 lsuneneron the musze of Ns Aiea, Fur “ot onl ease ut a fo ao oa “ypes 9,2 9 anc 100, the Type 2 beng aval as an ant- \ank fora a8 well ab @conwentonal prnace. The eacond man of tam forthe Type 9 cara esa naa in “Special found canvas pouches 2: Corporal, S5tn Infantry Division telnet, shows the rere aqupmant worn by Ht hat tte aerage Japanese farsyan fa to canyon ere ‘Shough a8 mien os possive woul be ovoa ele he trent imosen is rapeack's he tar canvas ype Sung Shi ete eon eprator bp, nd behing ight Ip th eras hvreack anda war ote Fanlena othe tnroved in isc cover Acs trey sth tes To he Inapaack ahs metal mest; Bow tar can bs sean Ne ‘ted ammurton pouch, with ie caring Kt va pect 3: Lieutenant, 18th Infantry Division Ts young often abou toland Ne atoen cr company to the atckn Bur wear he Wop bate cs of {ary oto He han theater sel cork san Part ‘rer cd ep, ch ha the sun ap atch Hiro Saris atacd to ho rg resto he pion si. ae ‘opal boches are confned by later egpnge above (fe shoes Besides Toe 14 soe is armed with ately toned sh gun. sword. Oters sometimes Enned ade nch nad been pases dn totem tush Sprcrtons of he emis, ounied with nw taf ‘rose Easels en the sia fring ee Oe t ress rate re wera bel, and the loves he a fstene to the Handlebars fer comoutlage Cptured ian iyres wee used ‘whenever he ei int he hands of he Japanose who ‘ere amas short ranspert (Raber ant brand larma fmm 1 Estiasutanee == SeeThe uniforms, equipment, history and organisation of the world’s military forces, past and present. Urialed detail Photograohs OsPREY PUBLISHING www.ospreypublishing.com The Japanese Army 1931-45 (1) 1931-42 During Japan’s devastating Pacific offensive of 1941/42, the Allies paid a high price for their failure to take seriously an army which had already been fighting, in Manchuria and China for ten years. That army was a unique blend of the ancient and the ‘modern: its up-to-date equipment and resourceful tactics served an almost medieval code of unquestioning obedience and ruthless aggression, This first of two titles covers the ‘organisation, equipment, uniforms and character of Japanese ground forces in the (Chinese and early Pacific ‘campaigns and is ilustrated with psignia chart, photographs and eight meticulous uniform plates. SQN 1-84176-553-5 ION)