INTRODUCTION

CCTV or Closed-Circuit Television is a type of

monitoring system primarily used for surveillance and

security purposes. Its first documented use was in

Germany where it was utilized to safely monitor the

launch of a rocket. In the 1960s, CCTV was mainly

government-owned and used for police surveillance.

When technology improved, during the 1970s, CCTV was

introduced to shops and streets. In 1992, the earliest

popular home surveillance was invented and was called

“nanny cam,” which was used for keeping an eye on

families from afar. By the mid-1990s, CCTV was being

used in ATMs or automated teller machines worldwide.

It was progressively highly regarded for commercial

use, with businesses installing CCTV cameras to

protect their interests. In 2000s, and early 2010s,

CCTV entered the conventional market of home security.

Private properties, as well as the typical or average

home, started adopting the CCTV technology. Dashcams

are also introduced in the market. A dashcam or

dashboard camera is a video camera mounted on the

dashboard or windscreen of a vehicle used to

continuously record the view of the road, etc. through

the vehicle’s windshield.

 The use of CCTV has increased exponentially, with

shops, police and even private individuals and

homeowners as its consumers. Its quality has also

dramatically improved and developed. It has come so

far that it has now the capability to produce high-

resolution color picture quality. CCTV has also the

ability to link or connect to smart devices. The

footage captured in cameras can now be accessed on

smart phones, tablets and other portable devices. CCTV

system nowadays also has night vision cameras, which

allows the system to be effective even in the lowest

light conditions while still providing reliable

surveillance and showing high-resolution and clear

color images.

Along with the widespread use of CCTVs, there has

been an increasing emphasis on CCTV installations as a

way of preventing crime. CCTV systems have been

deployed in shopping malls, restaurants, banks,

parking facilities, buildings, schools and other

areas. The installation of CCTVs in different places

has been driven for crime prevention. CCTV has the aim

of deterring the commission of the crime, bringing

offenders to justice and providing assurance to the

people about their safety. Moreover, it is said that

CCTV was more useful for preventing property crime,

including theft, robbery and car napping. It is also

useful in identifying perpetrators. With the use of

CCTV surveillance, potential offenders are less likely

to commit crime if they believe that they are being

watched or have great risk of being caught and

apprehended. CCTV cameras can also be used to alert

the police of the crime as they happen, which enable

them to respond quickly and efficiently. These

circumstances lend support for the use of CCTV as a

crime prevention tool.

Closed-Circuit Television serves many functions

and is used in both public and private settings. The

prevention of crime (i.e. personal and property) is

among its primary objectives in public space. The

mechanisms by which CCTV may prevent crime are

numerous. CCTV may reduce or prevent crime by

deterring criminals by increasing their perception of

the risk of getting caught, increasing the actual risk

of getting caught, encouraging the public use of an

area thus affecting the criminals’ perceptions of risk

by increasing informal surveillance by the public,

encouraging potential victims to take additional

precautions, signaling improvements in the area to the

public which encourages community pride, and

supporting the effective deployment of security staff

to incidents more effectively (Welsh and Farrington,

2009). Originally surveillance cameras systems were

installed to deter burglary, assault and car theft but

their use has been extended to include combating anti

social behavior such as littering, urinating in

public, traffic violations, obstruction, and

drunkenness (Davies 1998). As a form of crime

prevention, CCTV monitoring systems are being used

increasingly to prevent both personal and property

crime and can be used in place of, or in addition to,

police.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to analyze and assess the

effectiveness of CCTV as crime prevention tool.

Specifically, it sought to answer the following

questions:

1. What are the crimes, security threats or concerns

attempting to address by using CCTV?

2. How effective is CCTV as a tool for crime

prevention?
3. What policy guidelines and rules are required on

preventing crime through the use of CCTV

interventions?

Situational Crime Prevention

Before the discussion of the study, it is

important to define what crime prevention and

situational crime prevention are. Crime Prevention is

a complex concept. It is a living concept whose

boundaries vary. There is “no universally accepted

definition of crime and violence prevention” (Crime

Prevention Victoria, 2002). However, the United

Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Crime (2002)

defines crime prevention as “comprises strategies and

measures that seek to reduce the risk of crimes

occurring, and their potential harmful effects on

individuals and society, including fear of crime, by

intervening to influence their multiple causes.”

Moreover, crime prevention can also be defined as “any

public or privately based initiative or policy aimed

at reducing or eliminating criminal behavior, violence

and fear of crime or violence in the community” (Crime

Prevention Victoria, 2002, p. 8). According to Linden

(2007), one of the practical implementations of crime

prevention is the method of crime prevention through

situational crime prevention which is considered

important to the effectiveness of CCTV. Situational

crime prevention, sometimes referred to as primary

prevention or opportunity reduction, is defined as

practical crime prevention strategies aimed at

addressing the problem of crime and anti-social

behavior (Clark, 1997). It is also defined as “the use

of measures directed at highly specific forms of

crime, which involve the management, design or

manipulation of the immediate environment in as

systematic and permanent way as possible” (Hough et al

1980).

Crimes, Threats and Other Concerns to be Addressed by

Using CCTV

CCTV is used in certain areas to monitor and

protect the community including the roads, public

spaces, houses, shopping malls, banks, restaurants,

car parks and other establishments. CCTV cameras are

placed in these areas where they are thought to be

most effective because location is an important factor

in the effectiveness of CCTV. Another important

consideration in the effectiveness of CCTV is the type

of crime to be tackled or addressed. Originally, CCTVs

were used to deter burglary, assault and car theft,

but their use has been extended to include combating

anti-social behavior such as littering, urinating in

public, drunkenness, traffic violations and

obstruction (Davies, 1998). During the 1960s, CCTV was

experimented with for variety of purposes – traffic

control and to address public disorder (Kroener,

2013). CCTV is utilized as a tool to be seen to be

doing something about crime. The beginning of the

1990s is marked as the start of the CCTV trend.

As a form of situational crime prevention,

CCTV surveillance prevents personal, property and

public crime. For instance, in most cities in the

Philippines, crime rates are relatively high in the

city center or the central business district. The

types of crime are related to theft, shoplifting and

assault. Because the city center has many shops, clubs

or pubs, restaurants and visitors, it offers the

perfect conditions for criminals and offenders to

steal and rob.

Additionally, every individual has the right

to protect his property. This can be done by using

CCTV as security measure. It is now common that a CCTV

system is used to protect one's dwelling from acts of

crime. CCTV surveillance protects against property

theft. It will be very difficult for offenders to

steal if they knew that there are CCTV cameras

watching them. The offenders will often get caught.

With the help of CCTV cameras, thieves will be caught

– before or during the process of committing the

crime.

CCTV system is not only used as a tool to

address or tackle crimes and disorders. It is also

seen as a broader tool – as a community resource which

helps to address wider social, economic, environmental

and cultural concerns (Berg et al, 2006). CCTV can be

used to watch the behavior of young children hanging

around. One can contact a police officer to check the

situation if there is evidence that shows that these

children are causing nuisance. With the use of CCTV,

it is also possible to see who is littering and who is

responsible for illicit drawings or writings sprayed

on a wall or other surface in a public place, and to

send someone to clean it up again.

Use of CCTV for Crime Prevention

A NACRO report has summarized some of the

assumptions behind the use of CCTV for crime

prevention purposes (Woodhouse, 2010):

1. Deterrence: The potential offender becomes aware of

the presence of CCTV, assesses the risks of offending

in this location to outweigh the benefits and chooses

either not to offend or to offend elsewhere.

2. Efficient deployment: CCTV cameras allow those

monitoring the scene to determine whether police

assistance is required. This ensures that police

resources are called upon only when necessary

3. Self discipline by potential victims: They are

reminded of the ‘risk’ of crime, therefore altering

their behavior accordingly by potential offenders. The

threat of potential surveillance (whether the cameras

are actually being monitored may be irrelevant) acts

to produce a self discipline in which individuals

police their own behavior. The CCTV camera may produce

self-discipline through fear of surveillance, whether

real or imagined.

4. Presence of a capable guardian: The ‘Routine

Activity Theory’ suggests that for a crime to be

committed there must be a motivated offender, a

suitable target and the absence of a capable guardian.

Any act that prevents the convergence of these

elements will reduce the likelihood of a crime taking

place. CCTV, as a capable guardian, may help to reduce

crime.

5. Detection: CCTV cameras capture images of offenses

taking place. In some cases this may lead to

punishment and the removal of the offenders’ ability

to offend, either due to incarceration, or increased

monitoring and supervision.

CCTV Surveillance in Other Countries

In Russia, CCTV surveillance is used to

protect private and state property such as ATMs, banks

and state ministry buildings. In Spain, the threat of

terrorist attacks has caused extraordinary security

measures to be taken by federal authorities,

especially in tourist areas. The Spanish Interior

Minister has also begun installing CCTV cameras in

public areas in the Basque region to tackle street

violence and politically motivated vandalism

(Varadarajan, 1995). Canada began using CCTV

surveillance in 1992 on public streets and areas. CCTV

is utilized in Canadian banks, restaurants,

convenience stores, offices, apartment buildings and

public transit stations. Seventy percent (70%) of all

bank robberies in Canada were recorded on CCTV

surveillance systems in 1995. CCTV cameras captured

75% of all crimes in Canada which were investigated by

law enforcement or private security (Drolet, 1995).

Because of terrorist activities, the French government

now permits CCTV surveillance in public places,

including monitoring major roads and city and urban

public areas (Webster, 1994). The French

transportation system uses CCTV surveillance on

streets to regulate traffic flows, detect traffic

jams, and to observe roadside disturbances. In Paris,

2,500 CCTV surveillance systems were installed by the

Metro on municipal buses to identify criminal acts as

they occur. Department stores in France also use CCTV

surveillance to observe all entering shoppers. CCTV

surveillance is also used for the security of airline

terminals in France. In Ireland, private companies

have also used CCTV surveillance since the mid 1980s

to monitor post offices, banks, shops, buildings and

shopping malls. One private-owned security firm, the

Group 4 Securities, relies on CCTV surveillance to

protect the country's public and commercial rail

system and its storage facilities, which have been

subject to armed raids by local bandits (Haughey,

1995). CCTV surveillance is also very common in the

American workplace. An employer, manager, board

member, or supervisor can legally videotape employees

with hidden cameras if they suspect wrongdoing.

Businesses also use CCTV to detect sexual harassment

in the workplace and to observe employees outside the

workplace who may be involved in medical malpractice

or worker compensation lawsuits (Chicago Daily Law

Bulletin, 1995). According to some research, American

workers feel safer when there is a presence of

security camera equipment (Zalud, 1995).

CCTV Surveillance as a Traffic Safety Tool

CCTV cameras can be used to assist

authorities to regulate traffic flow through busy

streets, detecting traffic jams and roadside

disturbances. They can be operated on busy roads for

traffic safety purposes. They can be used to identify

or fine undetected traffic violators or violators who

would otherwise go unpunished. Apart from monitoring

traffic, CCTV can help the authorities to prevent and

investigate crime. In Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu,

Philippines, CCTV cameras are used to aid traffic and

lessen crimes. Andy Berame, a deputy officer of the

Lapu-Lapu City Disaster Risk Reduction Management

Office, said that the use of CCTV cameras is another

way of reducing, preventing or deterring crimes

(Tudtud, 2016).

CCTV surveillance, as a traffic safety tool,

encourages safe driving. CCTV surveillance cameras

that are posted on the roads encourage safe driving

habits and a safer driving environment, and discourage

moving violations which help to prevent or reduce road

casualties. The presence of CCTV cameras at

intersections and along highways has steadily

increased to stop drivers from speeding and acting

aggressively (Videosurveillance.com). They encourage

changed driver behavior and are also proven to make a

significant contribution to improving road safety for

all road users (Largevents, 2012). CCTV is used to

ensure the safe and efficient operation of the road

network by deterring motorists from breaking road

traffic restrictions and detecting those that do. A

four-year evaluation of 3,800 CCTV safety camera sites

was conducted in 34 local authority areas in United

Kingdom. It found that the surveys showed that vehicle

speeds at CCTV speed camera sites had dropped by

around 6% following the introduction of cameras.

Overall, there was a 22% reduction in personal injury

collisions at sites where cameras had been introduced,

42% fewer people were killed or seriously injured

(Largevents, 2012). In Singapore, CCTVs are used to

detect congestions and notify motorists of adverse

traffic conditions as soon as possible, resulting in a

safer journey. They are used as deterrence for

motorists to keep their speed limit in check and not

cause danger to other road users (Min, 2016).

In the Philippines, the Metropolitan Manila

Development Authority or MMDA launched the “MMDA

Traffic Mirror”. It is used to monitor traffic

situation in real time and allows motorists to view

traffic camera footage from their tablets and smart

phones. It allows users to view the very same video

feeds from a CCTV cameras installed that are displayed

at the MMDA MetroBase in Orense Street, Makati.

According to the then MMDA Chairman Francis Tolentino,

Traffic Mirror is MMDA's offering to motorists and

commuters who wants to avoid the inconvenience brought

about by heavy traffic. The MMDA Traffic Mirror uses

technology and communications to improve the motoring

public's driving experience in Metro Manila. With the

help of this Traffic Mirrors, road accidents can be

minimized. MMDA also launched a website allowing

motorists to check if they have committed a traffic

violation. This project is called “Na-Hulicam Ka Ba?”

which allows motorists to check if the MMDA's CCTVs

have caught them breaking traffic rules. The aim of

the project is to instill better discipline on the

roads among drivers and enhance their safety, to

encourage changed driver behavior and to discourage

moving violations. It also aims to lessen

opportunities for bribery between erring motorists and

corrupt traffic cops.

Crime Prevention: DILG Requires CCTVs in National

Chains

In 2014, the Department of Interior and Local

Government or DILG issued a memorandum to Local

Government Units or LGUs requiring national chains,

spanning from banks to gas stations, to convenience

stores to hospitals, to install CCTV cameras in an

attempt to cure crime and capture criminals. According

to the then Interior Secretary Manuel Roxas II, this

memorandum includes the commitment to install CCTVs in

stores as a requirement before national chains are

issued business permit. He asks for these CCTV cameras

to be used by police in investigation and crime

prevention. The requirements of the DILG for the CCTVs

include a digital memory space for 72 hours and a

camera facing the outside of the establishment that

will capture the road, so that it can help monitor

activities of the chain’s neighboring businesses.

The study and evaluation by the Philippine

National Police (PNP) of reports from January to June

2014 saw a success rate of 58.18% when it comes to

crime prevention in places with a CCTV versus 41.8% in

places without them (Gutierrez, 2014).

According to the then Chief Superintendent

Leonardo Espina, director of the National Capital

Region Police Office, the main use of CCTV is to deter

crime and that that PNP is very much in favor of

encouraging businesses and homes to install their own

CCTV cameras (Endozo, 2013). Espina explains that a

security camera is a very helpful tool in crime

prevention. It can discourage or preempt someone with

criminal intent to push through with the act when he

knows he is being watched. Should criminal acts be

caught on camera, the monitoring team can immediately

inform authorities who can then act accordingly,

Espina added.

Moreover, to further boost the anti-crime

initiative of the PNP, then Secretary of DILG Manuel

Roxas II launched as well a project called PNP “Safe

Kam” as government’s deliberate, programmatic and

sustained approach in its fight against criminality.

This project utilizes CCTV cameras to help deter the

occurrence of crime in the different areas in the

metropolis with priority on the identified crime prone

areas. This approach has already decreased crime in

Metro Manila by more than 60% since its

implementation.

CCTV as Crime Prevention Tool in Baguio City

Closed-Circuit Televisions or CCTVs are now

mandatory in establishments in Baguio City. Recently,

Mayor Mauricio Domogan signed City Council Ordinance

No. 11 series of 2017, requiring all business

establishments in the Summer Capital to install CCTV

cameras, video recorders and monitors for security

purposes. According to the City Councilor Edgar Avila,

“the advantages of the CCTV in crime prevention and

solution are of judicial knowledge. The country is

beginning to embrace the positive effects of

technology as part of the process of modernization.

Aside from communication and transportation, the

government is gearing towards a modernized criminal

justice system.” In the city, CCTVs are helpful in

resolving crimes of theft and robbery. According to

the Regional Law Enforcement Coordinating Council,

there is a notable decrease in the said crimes from

the period of January to December 2010. The Baguio

City Police Office has recorded 2, 826 cases of theft

and robbery incidents while from January to December

2011, it has recorded 2, 495 cases (Refuerzo, 2017).

As noted by the aforementioned Ordinance, the decrease

can be attributed among others, to the installation of

closed circuit televisions initiated by some business

owners to protect their businesses.

As provided in the measure, all business

establishments including all restaurants, schools,

hospitals, malls, shopping centers, movie houses,

theaters, supermarkets, groceries, entertainment

centers, office buildings, public utility terminals,

banks, shopping malls, department/convenience stores,

gasoline stations, pawnshops, money changers, all

bars, warehouses or general merchandise, and other

similar establishments are mandated to install and

maintain in good working condition CCTV cameras, video

recorders and monitors and operate the same on a 24-

hour, seven-days-a-week basis. The requirement will

also apply to boarding houses with a maximum of five

rooms or three units and above, carwash, emission test

and auto repair shops. Pawnshops, money changing,

lending companies, building for rent/lease, business

engaged in accepting or delivering baggage, lotto

outlet, and the like with or without security

personnel whose employees are even less than five are

obliged to install at least two CCTVs. All banks,

restaurants, schools, hospitals, shopping

malls/centers, movie houses, theaters, supermarkets,

groceries, entertainment centers, office buildings,

public utility terminals, department/convenience

stores, gasoline stations, pawnshops, money changers,

all bars, and other business establishments with a

minimum business capital of P500,000 are also required

to install CCTV with corresponding image recorders in

their facilities. Establishments will be required to

also post a written notice in bold letters measuring a

minimum of three inches directed to the public the

establishment is employing surveillance systems.

 Additionally, Baguio City is rapidly growing in

population, but has only a few personnel to attend to

immediate concerns. For that matter, CCTV cameras have

been installed in the city as part of its crime

prevention and surveillance development plan. The use

of CCTV significantly helps monitor what is going on

around in the localities. Because it is the Education

Center of the North where it has thousands of

students, and also the Summer Capital of the

Philippines where a lot of tourists go to the city,

Baguio City is a good prey of bad elements. The state-

of-the-art CCTV should be utilized by the police in

continuously improving its performance in deterring

the occurrence of crimes in the city. The command

center is located at the Baguio City Police Office or

BCPO which real-time events and information relating

to public safety, security and even disaster

preparedness can be monitored. The command center

operates in a coordinative approach method manned by

capable individuals that will implement a systematic,

pro-active, aggressive and immediate response to any

type of situations and emergencies. This project is

lauded as a big advantage to the police force (PIA,

2016).
Mechanisms by Which CCTV May Prevent Crime

CCTV system is an example of situational crime

prevention. It is highly situational, meaning; it does

have crime prevention capacity in the right

situations. The primary function of CCTV is its

preventive utility – that means to trigger a

perceptual mechanism in a potential offender. It seeks

to change the perception of the potential offender

thus he believes that if he commits a crime, he will

be caught. It aims to increase the perceived risk of

capture, a factor which will de-motivate the potential

offender (Clark and Cornish, 1985). There are two

elements for this crime prevention mechanism to

succeed. The first element is that the offender must

be aware of the presence of the cameras. It means that

potential offenders must know that they are being

watched. The second element is that the offender must

believe the cameras present enough risk of capture to

negate the rewards of the intended crime. This implies

that CCTV should provide the capable guardianship

necessary to prevent a crime; however, this approach

requires that offenders demonstrate rationality in

their behavior.
 Furthermore, there is also a mechanism whereby

CCTV has the potential to prevent and reduce crime.

The cameras may be able to assist in the detection of

offenders. This crime prevention method requires that

police officer can respond in a timely manner to any

significant incidents observed by camera operators,

and that the criminal justice system can pursue the

offender’s conviction. The availability of local

resource is a factor for this method to succeed.

Role of Police Officer in the Operation of CCTV

Systems

The actual operation of CCTV systems must be

divided between police officer operators and civilian

operators, who are either employees of the local

authority or city, or local civilian volunteers

(Bodipo-Memba, 2004). However, because police rarely

have the funds for complete systems, a common

arrangement is for police to enter partnerships with

local authorities and city management. If civilian

organization operates the systems, then it will be

most effective when integrated into a police command

and control system, so that a coordinated response to

identified incidents can be made timely and

effectively. This means that a direct communication

link from the CCTV control location to police should

be arranged. To ensure fast communication, civilian

control facilities must have police radios so that

they can communicate directly with police officers.

Police officers should also play a role in

monitoring the cameras’ video display, which are fed

to monitors at the police station. Time and again, the

police operator is whoever is on duty. These

individuals must be trained in the systems’ operation,

and must not have other duties to perform at the same

time, so as not to limit the actual surveillance.

As a guide, it is important for any system to

have operational guidelines and effective training in

matters such as camera operation, recording practices,

the length of time video tapes are retained and

mechanisms to contact police officer.