Third Edition Electronic Instrumentation H S KALSIElectronic Instrumentation Third Edition H S Kalsi Lecture (Selection Grade) ri Technical Institute INA Sl Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Office New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoTata MeGraw-Hill Published by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Deli 110.008 Electronic Instrumentation, 3¢ Copyright © 2010, 2004, 1995 by Tata MeGraw Hill Fducation Private Limited No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, dlectronie, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval lem without the prior written permission of the publishers. 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Dogra Information contained in this work has been obiained by ata McGraw-Hill, fram sources believed to be relate, However, neither Tata MeGraw-Hill nor ils authors gusrantec the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata MeGraw= Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, emissions, or damages arising out ‘of se of this information This work is published with the understanding that Tate MeGras Hill and its authors are supplying information bat are not attempting to render engineering ‘or other professional services. If such services ate required, the assistance of an appeopriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at Text-o-Graphies, B1/56 Arawali Apartment, Sector 34, Noida 201301 and printed at Gopal Jee Enterprises, 190/5, Main Road, Maujpus, Delhi 110053 Cover Print DR Printers DZXLCRAZROCLY ereContents Preface List of Abbreviations List of important Formulae Qualities of Measurements 1 Introduction 7 2 Performance Characteristics 3 Static Characteristics 2 4 Error in Me: 5 Types of Static Error 6 — Sources of Error & 7 Dynamic Characteristics 8 8 Statistical Analysis // 1.9 Standard 15 1.10 Electrical Standards 16 1.1] Atomic Frequency and Time Standards 1.12 Graphical Representation of Measurements as a Distribution Review Questions 22 Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems 24 Further Reading 2. Indicators and Display Devices 2.1 Introduction 2 2.2 Basic Meter Movement 26 2.3 Taut Band Instrument 31 2.4 Blectradynamometer 32 2.5 Moving Iron Types Instrument 26 2.7 Digital Display System and Indicators 2.8 Classification of Displays 38 29 Display Deviees 39 2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED) 2.11 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 41 ! 23 Concentric Vane Repulsion Type (Moving Iron Type) Instrument xb oii xvi 2 3612 13 14 15 16 247 218 219 2.20 2.21 RIaneoDS 4d 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 4 4.12 Contents Other Displays 43 Printers 54 Classification of Print Printer Character Set 55 54 Character at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Drum Wheel) 55 Line ata Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Line Printers) 57 Drum Printer 58 Dot-Matrix Printers 59 Character at a Time Dot-Matrix Impact Printer 59 Non-Impact Dot-Matrix (NIDM) Printers 67 Review Questions 61 Multiple Choice Questions 63 Further Reading 63 Ammeters 64 DC Ammeter 64 Multirange Ammeters 66 ‘The Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt 67 Requirements of aShunt 77 Extending of Ammeter Ranges 7/ RF Ammeter (Thermocouple) 72 Limitations of Thermocouples 73 Effect of Frequency on Calibration 74 Measurements of Very Large Currents by Thermocouples 75 Review Questions 76 Multiple Choice Questions 77 Practice Problems 77 Further Reading 78 Voltmeters and Multimeters 79 Introduction 79 Basic Meter as a DC Voltmeter 79 DC Volimeter 80) Multirange Voltmeter 8/ Extending Voltmeter Ranges Loading 87 Transistor Voltmeter (TVM) 97 Chopper Type DC Amplifier Yoltmeter (Microveltmeter) 92 Solid State Voltmeter 95 Differential Voltmeter 96 DC Standard/Difference Voltmeter 96 AC Voltmeter Using Rectifiers 99 84image not availableimage not availableimage not availablexii Contents 98 10. 10.1 10.2 10.3 104 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 Practical FFT Spectrum Analysis Using a Waveform Processing Sofiware (Ss-36) 273 Review Questions 276 Multiple Choice Questions 277 Further Reading 277 ‘Measuring Instruments 278 Introduction 278 Output Power Meters 278 Field Sirength Meter 279 Stroboscope 280 Phase Meter 28/ Vector Impedance Meier (Direct Reading) 283 Q Meter 286 LCR Bridge 295 RX Meters 303 Automatic Bridges 304 Transistor Tester 305 Megger 3/0 Analog pH Meter 317 Telemetry 315 Review Questions 319 Multiple Choice Questions 320 Practice Problems 321 Further Reading 321 Bridges 322 Introduction 322 Wheatstone’s Bridge (Measurement of Resistance) 322 Kelvin'’s Bridge 328 Practical Kelvin’s Double Bridge 331 Bridge Controlled Cireuits 332 Digital Readout Bridges 334 Microprocessor Controlled Bridges 335 AC Bridges 336 Capacitanee Comparison Bridge 337 Inductance Comparison Bridge 339 Maxwell's Bridge | 340 Hay’s Bridge 342 Schering’s Bridge 345 Wien’s Bridge 357 Wagner's Earth (Ground) Connection 354 Resonance Bridge 355 Maxwell Wien Bridge 356image not availableimage not availableimage not availablexvi Contents 17 17.8 17.9 17.10 Wat 8. 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 1». 19.1 19.2 19.3 194 19.5 19.6 19.7 20. 20.1 20.2 203 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 Digital to Analog (D/A) and Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters 637 Data Loggers 653 Sensors Based Computer Data Systems 663 Electromechanical A/D Converter 67 Digital Transducer 673 Review Questions 675 Multiple Choice Questions 677 Practice Problems 678 Further Reading 679 Data Transmission 680 Introduction 680 Data Transmission Systems 682 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Transmission Over Analog 682 ‘Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 684 Pulse Modulation 686 Digital Modulation 695 Pulse Code Format 704 Modems 706 Review Questions 710 Multiple Choice Questions 711 Further Reading 712 Frequency Standards 73 Inuoduction 713 Primary Standards 7/3 Secondary Standards of Frequency 7/4 Practical Frequency Standards 7/4 Radio Signals as Frequency Standards 715 Precision Frequency Standards 715 The Atomic Clock 776 Review Questions 717 Multiple Choice Questions 717 Further Reading 717 ‘Measurement of Power ng Introduction 7/8 Requirements of a Dummy Load 7/8 Bolometer 718 Bolometer Method of Power Measurement 7/9 Bolometer Element 7/9 Bolometer Mount 720 Measurement of Power by Means ofa Bolometer Bridge 720image not availableimage not availableimage not availablexx. Preface Digital instruments ranging froma simple digital voltmeter toa microprocessor- based instrument and their measurement technigues are presented ina comprehensible manner for easy understanding in Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter 7 on oscilloscopes has been dealt with in depth to familiarize the students with the working of all types of Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs) and their measurement techniques. Chapter 8 pertains to signal generation, Chapter 9 analyses the frequency component ofa generated wave, and its distortion In industry, it is required to transmit signals or the changes in parameters from the measurement site location to the control room. Hence in Chapter 10, telemetry systems have been covered to get a brief insight of the various transmission methods used in industry Most instruments used in process control plants measure various parameters such as resistance, inductance, capacitance, dissipation factor, temperature, ete To obtain accurate measurement of the changes in parameters, bridges are used Hence, Chapter 11 covers most of the types of bridges used for measurement of different parameters, for example, Wheatstone’s bridge, Maxwell's Bridge, Hay’s Bridge, Schering Bridge. etc. Instruments and the instrumentation systems also use bridges as the input sta; Chapters 12, 13 and 14 cover the essential components of indusirial instruments used for measurements and their usage Different types of analog and digital filters are given in Chapter 15, A mathematical approach to explaining digital filters has been adopted to provide the students a clear insight into their working. Chapter 16 is on the measurement of microwave frequencies. A detailed discussion on the data acquisition system along with the latest data logger is covered in Chapter 17, Instruments from remote places transmit signals over Jong distances to a master control room where they are displayed. This transinission of signals has been explained in detail in Chapter 18. Frequency standards and measurement of power at RF and microwave frequencies are dealt with in Chapters 19 and 20 respectively. Chapter 21 discusses control systems, electronic contol systems in particular. This chapter covers the basic control systems, clectronic control systems, electronic controllers, PLC and advanced conirol systems such as DCS used in process control plants Web Supplements The Web supplements can be accessed at htsp://www.nhhe.com/kal contains the following’ For Instructors Solution Manual, PowerPoint Lecture Slides For Students Additional Review Qui vei3, which tions and Web links for useful reference materials. ‘Acknowledgements First of all, I express my deepest thanks and gratitude to my younger brother who gave me all his support, without which it would have been difficult to completeimage not availableimage not availableimage not availablexxiv List of Sbbreviatons DPST DSO DIE DVM DWR EDM EHT EL EM EPID EPROM EXT BE FDM. FET FFT FIR PM FSK GaAsP GaP GHz HDP HE Hv Its MIR INT Ku LcD Leb Ipm ISB WwW WD LWDT mA‘nV MCR MHz MOS MSB NIDM NLC NOWNC Double Pole Single Throw Digital Storage Oscilloscope Data ‘Terminal Equipment Digital Voltmeter Digital Waveform Recorder Electrodynometer Extra High Tension Electro- Luminescent Electro Magnetic ElectroPhoretic Image Display Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory External Flip-Flop Frequeney Division Multiplexing Field Effect Transistor Fast Fourier Transform Finite Impulse Response Frequeney Modulation Frequency Shift Keying, Gallium Arsenide Phosphide Gallium Phosphide Giga Hertz Horizontal Deflection Plates High Frequency High Voltage Full scale deflection Current Infinite Impulse Response Internal Kilo unit Liquid Crystal Display Light Emitting Diode line per minute Least Significant Bit Low voltage Liquid Vapour Display Linear Variable Differential Transformer milli-Amperes/milli-Volts Master Control Reset Mega Hertz Metallic Oxide Semiconductor Most Significant Bit Non-Impact Dot Matrix Nematic Liquid Crystal Normal Open/Norma Closeimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableLice of Important Feronuiae Closed-loop Voltage gain ({_ RF) for Inverting Amplifier * R ‘Output Voltage of an f 2 insivimeniation Ampiitiss P= (14 Je =e)image not availableimage not availableimage not available4 Electronic Instrumentation Given ¥,=20mA. and —_-X,=18mA Therefore’ e=T,—X,~20mA—I8mA=2mA Step 2:% ereoe 5 geerror = Tae. 199 - 20MA=ISMA oq 2MA 109109 , 20mA 20mA Step 3: Relative accuracy 1 20mA=18mAl 2 1 g.99 20mA 20 Step 4: % accuracy a= 100% ~ %etror = 100% — 10% = 90% and a= AX 100% =0.90 x 100% = 90% Ifa measurement is accurate, it must also be precise, i.e. Accuracy means precision, However, aprecision measurement may not be accurate, (The precision ofa measurement is 2 quantitative or numerical indieation of the closeness with which a repeated sct of measurement of the same variable agree with the average set of meastiements.) Precision can also be expressed mathematically as Eom ‘alue of the nth measurement 7, = average set of measurement Example 1.2 Zubte 1.1 givestheset of measurement that were recorded inthe laboratory, Calculate the precision of the 6th measurement Measured 1image not availableimage not availableimage not available8 Electronic Instrumentation 15.3 Random Errors Thess are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been substantially reduced or at least accounted for. Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and may be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed statistically These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary process of making measurements. Suet errors are normally small and follow the laws of probability. Random errors ean thus be treated mathematically. For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is read at 15 minutes intervals. Although the instrument operates under ideal environmental conditions and is accurately calibrated before measurement, it still gives readings that vary slightly over the period of observation. This variation cannot be comected by any method of calibration of any other known method of control SOURCES OF ERROR Lo ‘The sources of error, other than the inability ofa piece of hardware to provide true measurement, are as follows: Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions Poor design Change in process parameters, Poor maintenance Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment Certain design limitations egularities, upsets, ete. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS Lz Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured variables. Instead, they exhibit slowness orsluggishness due to such thingss mass, themal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electric capacitance. In addition to this, pure delay in time is often encountered where the instrument waits for some reaction to take place. Such industrial instruments are nearly always used for measuring quantities that fluctuate with time, Therefore, the dynamic and transient behaviour of the instrument is as important as the static behaviour. The dynamic behaviour ofan instrument is determined by subjecting its primary clement (sensing element) to some unknown and predetermined variations in the ineasured quantity. The three most common variations in the measured quantity are as follows L._ Step change, inwhich the primary element is subjected toan instantaneous and finite change in measured variable. 2. Linear change, in which the primary clement is following a measured sariable, changing linearly with time.image not availableimage not availableimage not available12. Electonic instrumentation Example 1.4 For she following eiven data, calculate (i) Arithmetic mean; (i) Deviation of each value; (ii) Algebraie sum of the deviations Given y= 49.35 p= SO.1¢x5 = 502: x, 9.6;55 = 49.7 Solution (i) ‘The arithmetic mean is calculated as follows a tay tay hay t i 4 5 49.7 +501 +502 +49.6+ 497 49.86 (ii)_‘The deviations from each value are given by dy =x -¥ = 40.7 —49.86 =— 0.16 d= Xy—F > 50,1 — 49,86 = + 0.24 doy 2 49.86- 4034 dy = x4-¥= 49.6 49.86 =~ 0.26 d= x5—¥> 49.7 ~49.86 = 0.16 (iii) The algebraic sum of the deviation is yiat =~ 0.16 + 0.24 + 0,34 0.26 0.16 osteo 1.83 Average Deviations The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instrument used in measurement, Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of the deviation divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of the deviation is the value without respeet to the sign Average deviation may be expressed as leh yl kal +14, or Dy = where D,, ~average deviation ils [dso a = Absolute value of deviations: and n= total number of readings Highly precise instruments yield a low average deviation benween readings,image not availableimage not availableimage not available16 Electionic Instrumentation 1.93. Secondary Standards Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration laboratories in industries. ‘These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to which they belong, Each industry has its own secondary standard, Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the National standards laboratory for calibration and comparison agains! the primary standard, After comparison and calibration, the National Standards, Laboratory returns the Secondary standards to the particular industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring aceuraey in terms of o primary standard. 1.9.4 Working Standards Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. These standards are used to check and calibrate laboratory instrument for accuracy and performance. For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors, resistors, etc, use 4 standard called @ working standard for checking the component values being manufactured, e.g. a standard resistor for checking of resistance value manufictured, ELECTRICAL STANDARDS 110. All electrical measurements are based on the fundamental quantities J, R and A systematic measurement depends upon the definitions of these quantities ‘These quantities are related to each other by the Ohm’s law, V = LR. It is therefore sufficient to define only two parameters to obtain the definitions of the third, Hence, in electrical measurements. it is possible to assign values of the remaining standard, by defining units of other two standards. Standards of emf and resistance are, therefore, usually maintained at the National Laboratory. ‘The base values of other standards are defined fiom these two standards. ‘The electrical standards are (a) Absolute Ampere (b) Voltage Standard (c) Resistance Standard 140.1 Absolute Ampere ‘The International System of Units (SI) defines the Ampere, that is, the fundamental unit of electric curren, as the constant current which if maintained in two streight parallel conductors of infinite length placed one metre apart in vacuum, will produce between these conductors a force equal to 2x 10’ newton per metre length. ‘These measurements were not proper and were very crude. Hence, it was required to produce a more practical, accurate and reproducible standard for the National Laboratory Hence, by international agreement, the value of intemational ampere as discussed in the previous topic, was then based on the electrolytic deposition of silver front a silver nitrate solution. In this method, difficulties were encountered in determining the exact measurement of the deposited silver and slight differences existed between the measurements made independently by various National St A laboratories,image not availableimage not availableimage not available20 Electonic instrumentation standard must be able fo answer both the question “what time is if” and the two related questions “how long does it last” or “what is its frequency”. Any phenomena that repeats itself can be used as a measure of time, the surement consisting of counting the repetitions, OF the many repetitive phenomena occurring in nature, the rotation of the earth on its axis which determines the length of the day, has been long used as a time standard. Time defined in terms of rotation of the earth is called Universal rime (UT), Time defined in terms of the earth's orbital motion is called Ephemersis time (ET) Both UT and FT are determined by astronomical abservation, Sinee these astronomical observations extend over several weeks for UT and several years for ET, a good secondary terrestrial clock calibrated by astronomical observation is needed. A quartz erystal clock based on cleeirically sustained natural periodic \ibrations of a quartz waier serves as a secondary time standard, These clacks have a maximum error of 0.02 see per year. One of the most common of time standards is tne determination of frequency In the RF range, frequency comparisons tos quart clock can be made clectronieally to 4 precision of atleast 1 part in 10", To meet a better time standard, atomic clacks have been developed using periodic atomic vibrations as a standard. The tansition between two enore ls, E, and £, of an atom is accompanied by the emission (or absorption) of radiation given by the following equation where y= frequency of emission and depends on the internal structure of an atom ‘f= Planek’s constant = 6.636 x 10 ™ Jesee. Provided that the energy levels are not affceted by the external conditions such as magnotie field ete. Since frequency is the inverse of the time interval, time ean be calibrated in terms of frequency The atomic clock is constructed on the above principle. The first atomic clock ‘was based on the Cesium atom, The International Commitiee of Weights and Measures defines the second in terms of the trequeney of Cesium transitions, assigning a value of 9,192, 631,770 Hz to the hyperfine transitions of the Cesium atom unperturbed by extemal fields, If two Cesium clocks are operated at ane precision and if there are no other sources of error, the clocks will differ by only 1s in 5000 years GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF MEASUREMENTS AS A. DISTRIBUTION 12 Suppose that a certain voltage is measured 51 times. The result whieh might be obtained are shown in Table 1.2.image not availableimage not availableimage not available24 Electronic Instrumentation 14. Dynamic errors ate caused by Is. 2) instrument not responding fist () human error (€) environmental error (a) observational error Practice Problems Limiting errors are (a) manufacturer's specifications of seeur (b) manuraetrer’s specications of instrumental error (€) environmental errors (d) random errors 1. The current through a resistor is 3.0 but measurement gives a value of 2.9 A, Caleulate the absolute error 6. and % enor of the measurement, 2. The current through a resistor is 2 A, but measusement yields a value oF 2.45 A. Calculate the absolute error and % ervor ef the measurement 3. The value of resistors 4.? k-chims, while measurement yields a value of 7. 4.63 K-oams, Caleulate (a) the relative aecuracy. and (h) % accuracy. 4, Thevalue ofa resistor s 5.6 K-chms, while measurement reads ¢ value of 5.54K-ohms, Caleulate(a) the relative accuracy, and (b) % accuracy, 8 5, The output voltage oF an amplifier wasmeasured al eght different inter: vals using the same digital voltmeter with the following results: 29.00, 19.80, 19.85, 2003, 20.10, 19.90, 20.25, 19.95 Further Rea Which is the mos: precise measure: ment? A270 © + 10% resistance is con. nected t© a power supply’ source op. erating ai 300V de. What range of current would flow if the resistor varied over the range of £ 10% of its expected value? What is the range of error in the eumrent? A voltmeter is accurate 10 98% of its full scale reading, Gi) Ia voltmeter reads 200 Von 500 V range, what is the abso lute error? Whot is the percentage error reading of Part (i)? The expected value of voltage across 8 resistor i 100 V. However, the voltmeter reads a value of 99. V. «io Caleulate (a) absolute error, (b) &% error, (c) relstive exvor, and (d) % securary. 1. Bany Jones, faswrumenration Mea 3 surements and Feedback, Larry D, Jones and A. Foster Chin, 4. Electronic Instruments and Mesure: ‘ment, John Wiley and Sons, 1987. Yardley Beers, Then’ of Kou 1967 Resnick and Halliday, Physics, Wiley Eastern, 1987,image not availableimage not availableimage not available28 Electronic Instrumentation the principle of a moving electromagnetic eoil pivoted in a uniform air gap between the poles of a large fixed permanent magnet. This principle is illustrated in Fig. 2.1 With the polarities as shown, there is a repelling force between like poles, which exerts a torque on the pivoted coil. The torque is proportional to the magnitude of current being measured, This D'Arsonval movement provides an instrument with very low power consumption and low current required for full scale deflection (id). Figure 2.2 shows a pemtanent horse-shoe magnet with soft iron pole pizces attached to it, Between the pole pieces is x cylinder of soft iron whieh serves to provide @ uniform magnetic field in the air gap berween the pole pieces ane the cylindrical core. The coil is wound on a light metal frame and is mounted so that it ean rotate freely in the air gap. The pointer attached to the coil moves over a graduated scale and indicates the angular deflection of the coil, which is proportional to the current flowing through it |__ Pointe: Pecmanent Magnet core ~ Aap Non-Rlagnatio Susport Fig.22, Modern D'Arsonval movement The Y-shaped member shown in Fig. 2.3 is the zero adjust control, and is connzeted to the fixed end of the front control spring. An eccentric pin through the instrument case engages the Y-shaped member so that the zero position of the pointer can be adjusted from outside. The calibrated force opposing the moving torque is provided by two phosphor-bronze conductive springs, normally equal in strength, (This also provides the nevessery torque to bring the pointer back to its original position after the measurement is over.)image not availableimage not availableimage not available32. Electonic instrumentation flows, There are no bearings, and thereis a constant le the range of movement. Taut band instruments have a higher sensitivity than those using pivots and jewels. In addition taut band instruments are relatively insensitive to shock and temperature and are capable of withstanding greater overloads than PMMC or other types, cl of sensitivity throughout ELECTRODYNAMOMETER 2 The D’Arsonval movement responds to the average or de value of the current owing through the coil [fae current is sought t0 be m current would flow through the coil with positive and negative half eycles, and hence the driving torque would be positive in one direction and negative in the other. If the frequency of the ae is very low, the pointer would swing back and forth around the zero point on the ineter scale. ‘At higher frequencies, the inertia of the eoil is so great that the pointer does not follow the rapid variations of the driving torque and vibrates around the zero snatk. Therefore, to measure ac on a D’Arsonval movement, a reetifier has to be used to produce a unidirectional torque. This rectifier converts ac into de and the rectified current deflects the coil. Another method is to use the heating effect of ac current to produce an indication of its magnitude, ‘This is done using an electrodynamometer (EDM). An electrodynamometer is offen used in accurate voltmeter and ammeters not only at power line frequency but also at low AF range. The eleetrodynamometer can be used by slightly modifying the PMMC movement. It may also serve as a tvansfer instrument, because it ean be calibrated on de and then used diseetly on ac thereby equating ac and de measurements of voltage and current directly Amovable coil is used to provide the magnetic field in an electrodynamometer instead of a permanent magnet, as in the D'Arsonval movement. This movable coil rotates within the magnetic field. The EDM uses the current under ineasurement to produce the required field flux. A fixed coil, split into two equal halves provides the magnetic field in which the movable eoil rotates, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (a). The coil halves are connected in series with the moving coil and are fed by the current being measured. The fixed coils are spaced far apart to allow passage for the shaft of the movable coil. The movable coil carries a pointer, Which is balanced by coumterweights, Its rotation iscontrolled by springs, similar to those in a D’ Arsonval movement. The complete assembly is surrounded by a laminated shield to protect the instrument from stray magnetic field which may atfect its operstion. Damping is provided by aluminium air vanes moving in a sector shaped chamber. (The entire movement is very solid and rigidly constructed in order to keep its mechanical dimensions stable, ane calibration intact.) sured, theimage not availableimage not availableimage not available36 Electonic instrumentation contol. > Pointer Spring Fiolt Magnetic cai Poige Induced by Fiesd Flux vane Fig. 28 Repulsion type AC meter (Radial vane type) The moving coil or repulsion type of instrument is usually calibrated to read the effective value of amperes and volts, and is used primarily for rugged and inexpensive meters, The iran vane or tedial type is forced to turn within the fixed current carrying coil by the repulsion between like poles. The aluminium vanes, attached to the lower end of the pointer, acts as a damping vane, in its close fitting chamber, to boring the pointer quickly to rest. CONCENTRIC VANE REPULSION TYPE (MOVING IRON TYPE) INSTRUMENT 26 ‘A variation of the radial vane instrament is the concentric vane repulsion movement. The instrument has two concentric vanes, One vane is rigidly aitached to the coil frame while the other can rotate coaxially inside the stationary vane, as shown in Fig. 2.9. Both vanes are magnetised by the ewrent in the coil to the same polarity, causing the vanes to slip laterally under repulsion. Because the moving vane is attached to a pivoted shaft, this repulsion results in a rotational force that is a funetion of the current in the coil. As in other mechanisms the final pointer position isa measure of the coil current. Since this movement, like all iron vane instruments, does net distinguish polarity, the concentric vane may be used on de and ac, but it ismost commonly used for the latter,image not availableimage not availableimage not available40 Electronic Instrumentation 5. The Jow supply voltage and current requirements of LEDs make them compatible with DTL and TTL, ICs. f Misile by i ‘ve. 0) Fig.21D (a) Structure of a visible emitter using GaAs PN junction (b) Symbol of LED. In germanium and silicon semiconductors, most of the energy is released in the form of heat. In Gallium Phosphice (GaP) and Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) most of the emitted photons have their wavelengths in the visible regions, and therefore these semiconductors are used for the construction of LEDs, The colour of light emitted depends upon the semiconductor material and doping level. Different materials used for doping give out different colours 1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) — red 2. Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) — ted or yellow 3. Gallium Phosphide (GaP) — red or green Alphanumeric displays using LEDs employ a number of square and oblong emitting areas, arranged either as dotmatris or segmented bar mattis. Alphanumeric LEDs are normally laid out on a single slice of semiconductor material, all the chips being enclosed in a package, similar to an IC, except that the packsging compound is transparent rather than opaque. Figure 2.10 (c) and (d) gives typical LED packages for single element LEDs. Dome Ught ight _Semicondctor eo. i caer 1 Walor Ay Fig. 210 (¢) Mecal canT@-5 type (d) Epoxy speimage not availableimage not availableimage not available44 Electronic Instrumentation Many Nixie tubes also possess dot-cathodes either on the left or right of the character to serve as decimal points. ‘The standard Nixie is not the only format used oth bar and dot matrix versions are available. ‘The bar types hav which forms the segment and operates in a fashion similar to the standard neon tube. Identical supply voltage and drivers are required. In the dot type display each dat is in matrix fashion and aperates as an individual glow discharge light source, The required dots are selected by an X-¥ addressing array of thin film ‘metal lines, as shown in Fig, 2.15 (a). Nixie tubes have the following important characteristics 1. The numerals are usually large, typically 1530 mm high, and appear in the same base line for in-line read-out 2. Nixie tubes are single digit devices with or without a decimal point 3. They are either side viewing or top viewing (as shown in Figs 2.15 (b) ith cold cathode techrology— a cathode and (©). x" " GS) x» Xs So a a ( DX Gasritea = _£ Es Envelopes —— Numeral Shapes Eleowredes 7 Front Tl , Side view / ao Fig. 215 (a) Matrix operation of display panel using gus filed devices (b) and (e) nixia tbe 4. Most Nixie tubes require de supply of 150-220 V, and the selected cathode carries current in the range of 1-5 mA.image not availableimage not availableimage not available4B Electronic Instrumentation ectively, with a proper code converter. Both static and dynamie displays can be realised using LCDs, either in a common format (7 segment) or in single or snulti character. ‘A chopped de supply may be used, for simplicity, but conventionally an ac voltage is applied cither to the common clectrode oF to the segment. Various segmental LCD driver circuits are displayed in Fig. 2.19. Referring to Figs 2.19 (a) and (b), itis seen that an ac voltage (V,) is applied to either the common electrode or to the segment, High value resistances (R > 14) are included in the circuit, as shown, The eode converter controls the switches (8). Fue is present actoss the selected segment and the common electrode when, Sis ON, and the voltage between any other segment (S-OFP) and the common, electrode is vero. Henee the desired segments are energised, provided Vy. has 1 magnitude greater than or equal to the operating voltage of the LCD. gon Self EY Common Fig. 219 (a) Segments driving circuits for LCD, switching methed common electrode {(b) Segments Driving circuits for LCD, switching method The basie operation of the phase shift method for driving the segment is shown in Fig. 2.19 (c). JIU In this eireuit, ae voltages of the ; same amplitide and fisqueney > 6 (not necessarily same phase) are supplied 10 the common electrode Feterenee Phase as well as the segments, IL, There will be a finite voltage drop between a segment and the common electrode only when the ac veltages applied are out of phase, and thus the selected segment is energised. On the other hand, when in-phase voltages are present, the voltage drop between, a segment and the common electrode is zero, leading to the off state Fig-218(<) Segments driving circuits for LCD, Using phase shift method 242.4 Dot Matrix Displays Excellent alphanumeric characters ean be displayed by using dot mauix LEDs with an LED at each dot location, Commonly used dot matrices for the display of prominent characters are 5 x 7, $x 8, and 7 x 9, of whieh S x 7 shown inimage not availableimage not availableimage not available52. Electonic instrumentation EPID panels generally follow a segmented character format - typically 7 segment for numeric charseters Itis usual to have the transparent electrode as a common electrode. The back electrodes are generally segmented. Two such segments are shown in Fig, 2.24. During the normal operation of the display, the transparent clectrode is inaintained at ground potential and the segmented electrodes at the back are given different potentials, If the pigment particles are white and positively charged in the black suspending liquid, the application of a positive voltage to the chosen segment moves the pigment particles away from it and towards the transparent electrode. This is shown on the left side of Fig. 2.24. Pigment particles appear white in reflective colour as viewed through the transparent electrodes, On the other hand, when a seament has a negative voltage with reference to the transparent electrode, the white pigment particles go towaris it and get immersed in the black suspension, In this case, the viewer sees the reflection from the black liquid itself Colour combinations of both the pigment particles and the suspending liquid can be used to achieve a desired colour display. Moreover, the colours between the displayed potter and its background can be reversed, by changing the polarities of segment voltages. In addition, the EPID panel has @ memory, because the pigment particles deposited on an electrode surface remain there even after the applied voltage is removed. 242.9. Liquid Vepour Display (LYD) IVDs are the laiest in economical display technology. They employ Gass a new reflective passive display \ principicand depend on the presenec Viewing —— ‘of ambicat lights for theiroperation. Peston Figure 225 gives the structure of a - typical LVD cell th Ticonsists ofa transparent volatile — liquid encased between two glass “Thin Teanaparont ougnened - aver Hectroce Fig.225 Structure of an LVD Cell plates and side spacers, The rear glass plate has a black background and the front glass surface in contact with the liquid is roughened, so that the liquid wets it, Le. in its simplest Form, an LVD consists of a roughened glass surface wetted with a transparent volatile liquid of the same refractive index as that of the glass. The rear surface is blackened, Phe transparent electrode is heated by usinga vollage drive, whieh is the basis for the display function.image not availableimage not availableimage not available56 Electonic instrumentation The ASCII ehsracter code sent to the printer, is translated into motion that rotates the cylinder, so that the column containing the desired character faces the paper. The cylinder is then raised or lowered (depending on the ASCII code) to present the column containing the desired character to be printed directly to the paper. A hammer mechanism propels (hits) the cylinder towards the paper, where only the positioned character strikes the riobon, ereating the printed impression of the character on the paper. These printers are interfaced with small computers by @ 20 ~ 60 mA current used to transmit ASCII coded bits serially Another type of fully formed character printer, designed for computer use, has characters mounted on the periphery of a spinning print head, known as a daisy wheel printer, and is shown in Fig. 2.26 (b). Paper > flobon Characters Enbosses or . ‘Tp ofa TT rier Mechanism Koverent Total of 96 Characlers Fig. 226 (b) Daisy wheal princer A daisy wheel print head is mounted on a rotating disk with Nexible flower like petals similar to a daisy flower. Each petal contains the embossed character in reverse. As the daisy wheel spins, a hammer strikes the desired flexible petal containing the character, in tum impacting the paper with the embossed character through an inked ribbon. To print a letter, the whe. the paper. A solenoid driven hammer then hits the petal against the ribbon to print the letter. Daisy wheel printers are slow, with a speed of about 50 characters per second (eps). The advantage of the daisy wheel mechanism is high print quality, and interchangeable fonts Character at a time printing follows the following sequence of steps; left to right printing to the end of the line, stop, return carriage and start a second line. and again print left to right. tis unidirectional. Spinning wheel printers are cxpable of bidirectional printing. ‘The second line is stored in a buffer memory within the printer control circuitry and can be printed in either direction, depending on which takes the least printer time. is rotated until the desired letter is in position overimage not availableimage not availableimage not available460 Electronic Instrumentation Phe print head often contains a single column seven wires high, though itmay bbe two or more columns wide (Fig. 2.31 (2). geeececoe Pree eT eres wo Fig. 281 (a) 5 x 7 single element (b) 5 x7 double element For purpose of illustration, assume that the print head contains a single column seven wites high, Theseven wires are thrust from the print head (uswally clecttomagnetically) in whatever combination the print conteoller requires to create a character. The wire strikes the ribhon and in tum impacts the paper printing one vertical column ofa single character, The dot-matrix print head contains wires (or pins) arranged in tabular form. Chanteters are printed as « matrix of éots. The thin wire, deiven by solenoids at the rear of the print head, strikes the ribbon against the paper to produce dots The print wires are arranged in a vertical column, so that characters are printed ‘out one dot column at a time as the print head moves on a fine. For a 5 x7 full step dot-matrix character, the print head spaces ane step, prints the second column of dots and repeats the pricess until all five columns are printed. Ifthe printer is designed to print dots in half steps, the same process is used. except that five horizontal print steps are used to form the characters (the five normal steps, plus four intervening half steps), thereby forming a 9x 7 half step dot matrix character The dot-matrix character printer, sirictly speaking, does not actually print a character ata time, but one column of a dot-matrix character at a time. However, the print speeds of a dot-matrix printer ate very high, up to 180 characters per second, Early dot-matrix print heads had only seven print wires, and consequently poor print quality. Currently available dot-matrix printers use 9, 14, 18 or even 24 print wires in the print heed. Using a large number of print wires and/or printing a line twice with the dots for the second printing offset slightly from those of the first, ensures a better quality of print (Fig. 2.31 b).image not availableimage not availableimage not availableChogster Ammeters DC AMMETER Ba The PMMC galvanometer constitutes the basie movement of a de ammeter. Since the coil winding ofa basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very small currents, When large currents are (0 be measured, it is necessary to bypass a major part of the current through @ resistance called a shunt, as shown, in Fig. 3.1. The resistance of shunt can he calculated using conventional ciseuit analysis. Referting to Fig. 3.1 R,, = intemal resistance of the movement J, ~ shunt current J, = full scale deflection current of the movement 7 full sale current of the ammeter + shunt (ic. total current) |. ah ay C Mavement Fig 31 Basic de Ammeter Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage <érop across the shunt and movement must be the same. ‘Therefore 1, Ry 1, But henee Ry Por each required value of full (oF shant resistance. Je meter current, we ean determine the valueimage not availableimage not availableimage not available$8 Electronic Instrumentation Example 3.4 (8) sien an Arston shunt (Fig. 3.4) to provide an ammeter with a current range of =I md, 10 md, 50 mA and 100 ma. A D'Arsonval ‘movement with an internal resistance of 100 2 and full seale current of 50 WA is used. Diksomal Gascon Fig.3.4(a) For Example 3.4(2) Solution Given R,,= 100.21, = 50 uA For (| mArange Ly Ry Ip Bo 950 WA (Ry + Ry + Ry+ Ry) =30 BA x 100. Ry Ry+ Ry R= SUA X10 _ 5000 S060 B.D 950A 950 For @~10 ma 9980 A(R, + Ry + Rs) SOMA: (100 + Re) 62) For 0'mA 49950 WA (R, + 83) = SOMA (100+, +R) 63) For @~ 100 mA 99950 WA (2) = 50 MA (100+ R, + Bs + Ra) Ga) But Ry + Ry + Ry = 5.26~ Ry, Substituting in Eq, 3.2, we have 9950 WA (5.26 ~ Ry) = 50 WA (100 + R3 9950 WAx 5.26 — 9950 A x R, = 5000 WA + 50 HA R, (9950 WA x 5.26 ~ $000 A) = 9950 WA Ry + 50 fA Re shorefore a, 250A XS.26- S0O0KA _ 47377 HA 10mA 10ma 47379image not availableimage not availableimage not available72 Electronic Instrumentation RF AMMETER (THERMOCOUPLE) 3.6 3.6.1 Thermocouple Instruments Thermocouples consists of a junction of two dissimilar wires, so chosen that a Voltage is generated by heating the junction, The output of a thermocouple is delivered to 2 sensitive de micros (Calibcation is made with ée or with a low frequency, such as 50 cycles, and applies for all frequencies for which the skin effect in the heater is notappreciable ‘Thermocouple instruments are the starearé means for measuring eurrent at radio frequencies.) The generation of de voltage by heating the junction is called thermoelectric action and the device is called a thermocouple, 3.6.2 Different Types of Thermocouples In a thermocouple instrument, the current to be measured is used to heat the junetion of evo metals. These two metals form a thermocouple end they have the property that when the junction is heated it produces a voltage proportional to the eating effect. This output voltage drives & sensitive de microammeter, giving a reading, proportional to the magnitude of the ae input The alternating current heots the junction: the heating effect is the same for both halfeycles of the ac, because the direction of potential drop (or polarity) is, always be ihe same, The various types of thermocouples are as follows. ‘Mutual Type (Fig. 3.6 (2) In this type, the altemating current passes through the thermocouple itself and not through # heater wire, It has the disadvantages that the meter shunts the thermocouple. Contact Type (Fig. 3.6 (b)) This is 1 contact type there are separate thermac from the heater wire. sensitive than the mutual type. In the ‘ouple leads which conduct away the heat Separate Heater Type (Fig. 3.6 (c)) In this arrangement, the thermocouple is hele near the heater, but insulated from it by a glass bead, This makes the instrument sluggish and also less sensitive because of temperature drop in the glass bead, The separate type is useful for certain applications, like RF current measurements. To avoid loss of heat by radiation, the thermocouple arrangement is placed in a vacuum in order to increase its sensitivity Bridge Type (Fig. 36(d))_‘This has the high sensitivity of the mutual type and yet avoids the shunting effect of the microammeter The sensitivity of a thermocouple is increased by placing it in a vacuum since loss of heat by conduction is avoided, and the absence of oxygen permits eperetion at a much higher temperature. A vacuum thermocouple can be designed to give a full scale deflection of approximately I mA. A similar bridge arrangement in ait would require about 100 ma for fall scale deffcetion.image not availableimage not availableAmmeters 7S The current distibution along the heater is not uniform and the meter indication is uncertain, Hence to avoid this the heater length and its associated leads should be less than 1/10th of'a wavelength, 3. Spurious Capacitive Currents These occur when the thenmocouple instrument is connected in such a mannes that both terminals are ata potential above ground. As the frequency is increased, @ large current flows through the capacitance formed by the thermocouple leads, with the meter acting as one electrode and the ground as the other. To avoid this, proper shielding of the instrument should be provided. The & bration of 1 thermocouple is reasonably permanent. When ealibrating Contact and Mutual with de, it is always necessary to reverse the polarity to take the average reading, This is because of the resistance drop in the heater at the contact may cause a small amount of de-curreat to flow; reversing the calibrating current averages out this effect MEASUREMENTS OF VERY LARGE CURRENTS BY THERMOCOUPLES 3.9 Thermocouples instruments with heaters large enough to earry very large currents, may have an excessive skin effect. Ordinary shunts cannot be used because the shunting ratio will be affected by the relative inductance and resistance, resulting in a frequency effect. One solution to this problem consists of minimising the skin effect by employing a heater, which is tube of large diameter, but with very thin walls Another consists of employing an amtay of shunts of identical resiscance arranged symmetrically as shown in Fig. 3.7 (a) In Fig, 3.7 (a) each filament of wire has the same inductance, so that the inductance causes the current to divide at high frequencies, in the same way as does the resistance at low frequencies. In Fig. 3.7 (b} the eondensor shunt is used such thal the current divides between the two parallel eapacitors proportional to their capacitance, and maintains this ratio independent of frequency, as long as the capacitor that is in series with the thermocouple hes a higher impedance than the thermocouple heater and the lead inductance is inversely proportional to the capacitances. In Fig. 3.7 (c) the eurrent transformer is used to measure very large RF eurrents at low and moderate frequencies using a thermocouple instrument of ordinary range. Such transformers generally use a magnetic dust core. The current ratio is given by ie fo 2 fiat hy Qg \ Primary Current J Secondary Current K where —L, = secondary inductance L,~ primary inductance K= coefficient of coupling between Lp end Ls resistance of secondary, including meter resistance76 Electronic Instrumentation 0,> OL,r, = Q of the secondary circuit taking into account meter SSS Shiint Condens Thermocouple Mater : co = es ai Series Condenser jg lo Lae ue Curent be megsured cy) Fig.3.7 (a) Array of shunes (b) Condenser shune (c) Current eransformer If Q of the secondary winding is appreciable (i.e. greater than 5), the transformation ratio is independent of frequency A current ratio of 1000 or more can be obtained at low and moderate RF by using a many turn secondary wound on a toroidal ring, Review Questions Explain withadiagramhowaPMMC 9, Explain the construction and work: can be used as an ammotr ing of 4 thermocouple measuring 2. What arethe requirements of a shunt? instrament. Site the limitations of a How ean basie ammeter be convert thermocouple insiruments ed into a mulirange ammeter? 10. Why is a thermocouple measuring 3. What ate the limitations of a mult instrament elessified as an RF insirae range ammeter. How is it overcome? men? 44 State the precautions to he observed 1, State different types of thermocou when using an ammeter. ples used for curzent measurement. 5, Explain with diagram the operation Explain each one in bref. cof an ayrion shunt 12. How isa Tange current messured ws. 6, State the advantages of sm Ayrton ing «thermocouple? shunt ammeter ever a multizange 13, What are the effects of frequency on ammeter. the calibration of a themacouple? 7. How iscurrent inthe RF renge mes 4, Explain with a diagram how a cur- sured? rent transformer can be used to mea 8, Why is a thermocouple used in RF sure Targe RF currents ‘measurement of current?Ameeters 77 Multiple Choice Questions E The insicument required ® measure ccurtent is asm (avoltmeter——(b) ammeter (e)watimeter (a ohininerer AD’Assonval movement is, (a) taut band (b) plimme (c)clectrodynamometer (d) moving iron type To select the range, a multicange am meter uses a (a) double pole double throw switeh (b) make before break type switch (c) single pole double throw switch (a) simple switeh To soloet a range , the Aryton shunt (a) double pole double throw siviteh {(h) make hefare break type switch {(¢) single pole double throw switch a) simple switeh 5. ‘Current in die RF range is measured by {a) simple ammeter (b) ammeter using thermocouples. (©) mullirange ammeter (@) aryton shunt Large current in RF range at low mod- come frequencies i# measured by {a) simple ammeter (b) ammeter using thermocouples. (o) using a current transformer (4) using Aryton shunt To minimize skin effet at high RF (a) inductance is used (b) array of Sunts are used (©) dielectric matorial is used (@) aryton shunt is used At low and moderate RF usin ondary wound on a ‘otridal ring. a ccurrent ratio is obtained, (a) 500 () 1000 (©) 2000 (as 5000 Practice Problems E 1 Caleulate the value of shunt resis lance required for using a $0 4A meler movement having an internal resistance of 10) for measuring current in the range of 0-250 ma What value of shunt resistance is re= quited for using $0 HA meter move ment Having an internal resistanee of 250) 0 for me: of -500 mA? ‘a multirange ammeter with ranges of 0-100 mA, 0-200 ma 0-500 mA, 0-1 A employing in dividual shunts for cach range. A. D’Arsoaval movement with an in ternal resistance of 500 Q and a fall seale current of 100 WA isiavailable Design a multitange ammeter with ranges of 0-1 A, 5A, 25A, 125. ‘employing individual shunts for each range. A D'Arsoaval movement with suring current in the 6 aan intemal resistance of 730 © and a full scale current of $ mA is avail- able Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an immetes with current ranges of 0-1 mA, S mA, 20 mA and SO mA, use ing 2 D'Arsonval movement having internal resistance of 50. anda full scale eurrentof 190 1A, Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with current ranges of 0-1 mA, 10 mA, 50 mA and 10 mA, use ing @ D’Arsonval movement baving intemal resistance of 100 © and a full seale euent of 50 WA Design an Ayrton shunt to provide fan ammeter with curcent ranges of 0-100 mA, 500 mA. LA, using a D*Arsonval movement having inter- nal resistance of 30 Qand a full seal current of Ima.78 Electonic instrumentation Further Reading 5 Terman and Petit, Electronic Mea: surenents, MeGraw-Kill Book Co, New York, 1952 Sol. D. Prensk; mentation, Prentice-Vall of India, 196 Jobn. HL. Fassl, Sinplified Electronic Electronic Instr Measurements, Hayden Book Co. Ine., Mumbai, 1971 4 Larry. D. Jones and A, Foster Chin, Electronic lnstramentsand Measnre= ‘mews, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1987. W.D. Copper and A.D. Helivicl Blectranie Instrumentation and Med- ments Techniques, 318 Edition. Prentice-Hall of India, 1985,Voltmeters and Chepiton Multimeters INTRODUCTION ‘The most commonly used de meter is based on the fundamental principle of the motor, The motor action is produced by the flow of a small amount of current through a moving coil which is positioned in a permanent magnetic field. This basic moving system, often called the D’ Arsonval movement, is also referred to as the basic meter. Different instrument forms may be obtained by starting with the basie meter movement and adding various elements, as follows. 1. The basic meter movement becomes a de instrument, measuring (i) deeurrent, by adding a shunt resistance, forming a microammeter, a milliammeter or an ammeter. (ii) de voltage, by adding a multiplier resistance, forming a milli yoltmeter, voltmeter or kilovoltmeter. (iii) resistance, by adding battery and resistive network, forming an ohmmeter ‘The basic meter movement becomes an ac instrument, measuring (ac voltage or current, by adding a rectifier, forming a rectifier type meter for power and audio frequencies. (ii) RF voltage or current, by adding a thermecouple-type meter for RF (iii) Expanded scale for power line voltage, by adding a thermistor in a resistive bridge network, forming an expanded scale (100 ~ 140 V) ac meter for power line monitoring BASIC METER AS A DC VOLTMETER 4.2 To use the basic meter as a de voltmeter, it is necessary to know the amount of current required to deflect the basic meter to full scale, This current is known as full scale deflection current (/,,,). For example, suppose a $0 lA current is required for full scale defi, This fall scale value will produce a voltmeter with a sensitivity of 20,000 Q per V ‘The sensitivity is based on the fact that the full scale current of 50 [A results whenever 20,000 © of resistance is present in the meter circuit for each voltage applied. ction.