11/7/2016
Postharvest Biology & Handling
of Vegetables
I. Leafy & Succulent Crops
Dr. Jeffrey K. Brecht
Horticultural Sciences Department, Gainesville
Dr. Mark A. Ritenour
Indian River Research and Education Center, Fort Pierce
I. Introduction
• Year‐round availability reduces need for storage
• Transport represents a major portion of postharvest
life
• U.S. per‐capita vegetable consumption increase has
mainly been in this group of vegetables
I. Introduction
• Bulky; low value per unit weight
• Mostly temperate‐zone (cool season) crops – no
chilling injury
• Very high perishability‐water content‐
surface:volume ratio
– Rapid senescence
– Water loss susceptibility
– Physical damage susceptibility
– Freezing susceptibility
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I. Introduction
• More perishable than root or fruit vegetables
• Major causes of deterioration
– Water loss
– Yellowing (chlorophyll loss)
– Mechanical injury (& decay)
– Physiological disorders
– Growth & toughening (asparagus, celery)
II. Morphological Characteristics
• Derivation of Some Vegetables
From Plant Tissue
This Group Includes:
• Leaves and associated parts :
– Blades
• Leaf lettuce
• Spinach & greens
• Chard
• Endive
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This Group Includes:
• Leaves and associated parts :
– Petioles
• Celery
• Rhubarb
This Group Includes:
• Leaves and associated parts :
– Buds
• Head lettuce
• Cabbage
• Brussels sprouts
This Group Includes:
• Leaves and associated parts :
– Shoots
• Green onions
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/
– Swollen blades
• Leeks
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This Group Includes:
• Other vegetative tissues :
– Stems – asparagus
– Immature flower parts
• Artichokes
• Broccoli http://www.oceanmist.com/
• Cauliflower
http://www.kyagr.com
II. Morphological Characteristics
• In relation to water loss
– Leafy vegetables
• Very high surface:volume ratio (20 to 40:1)
• Stomata – escape routes for water loss
• Thin cuticle makes them very susceptible to water loss
• Buds are much less susceptible to wilting than leaves
II. Morphological Characteristics
• In relation to water loss
– Stem vegetables
• High surface:volume ratio (3 to 6:1)
• Cut ends contribute to water loss
• Susceptible to water loss
– Floral vegetables
• Unopened flower buds borne on stems (50‐60% by weight)
• Relative susceptibility to water loss is similar to stem vegetables
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Examples of the Surface/Volume Ratios of Fruits and
Vegetables
Surface/volume
ratio (cm2 cm‐3) Plant material
50‐100 Individual edible leaves
5‐10 Smaller soft fruits
2‐5 Leguminous fruits; nuts; larger soft fruits; stem and floral vegetables;
rhubarb; shallot
0.5‐1.5 Tubers; tuberous roots; tap‐roots; pome, stone and citrus fruits; cucurbitous
fruits; banana; onion
0.2‐0.5 Densely packed cabbage; large Swede turnips; yams; coconut
Adapted from Burton, 1982
Percentage Loss of Original Weight From Various
Commodities During Storage
Initial rate of water Percentage loss during
loss (% day‐1 mbar‐1 successive 2‐week periods
Commodity wvpd) 1 2 3 4
Cabbage 0.5 7.06 4.80 4.55 3.85
Sweetpotato 0.6 8.57 5.67 5.10 5.05
Beet (w/ leaves) 0.9 12.86 10.19 10.51 9.25
Cauliflower 1.2 17.02 9.07 8.14 8.51
Storage temperatures 0‐2C; RH 85‐87.5% (Singh et al. 1952)
Water Loss, as a Percentage of Original Weight, at Which Commodities Become
Unsaleable. Approximate values from Robinson et al (1975).
Max. permissible Max. permissible
Commodity water loss (%) Commodity water loss (%)
Asparagus 8 Onion 10
Beans, broad 6 Parsnip 7
Beans, runner 5 Potato, maincrop 7
Beetroot, with leaves 7 Potato, new 7
Blackberries 6 Peas in pod, early 5
Brussels sprouts 8 Peas in pod, maincrop 5
Cabbage 7 Peppers, green 7
Carrots, storing 8 Raspberries 6
Carrots, bunching 4 Rhubarb, forced 5
Cauliflower 7 Spinach 3
Celery 10 Sprouting broccoli 4
Cucumber 5 Strawberries 6
Leeks 7 Sweetcorn 7
Lettuce, ‘Unrivalled’ 5 Tomato 7
Lettuce, ‘Kordaat’ 3 Turnips, with leaves 5
Lettuce, ‘Kloek’ 3 Watercress 7
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II. Morphological Characteristics
• In relation to texture
– Collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues make celery fibrous or
stringy
– Toughness of asparagus is related to lignification
– Turgidity of these vegetables is important to their tenderness
– Solidity (firmness) of buds increases with maturation
III. Compositional Characteristics
• Contain chlorophyll
• High in water content, succulent, tender, non‐acid
• Many vegetables of this group are high in ascorbic
acid (Vitamin C) content
• Carotenoids ‐ antioxidants
• Also high in Vitamin A
• Very good sources of minerals (P, K, Fe, Na, Ca)
Leafy & Floral Vegetables High in Vitamins C and A
Vitamin C (mg/100 g fr. wt.) Vitamin A (IU)
Parsley (172) Kale (8,900)
Turnip greens (139) Parsley (8,500)
Broccoli (113) Spinach (8,100)
Brussels sprouts (102) Turnip greens (7,600)
Collards (92) Chard (6,500)
Cauliflower (78) Broccoli (2,500)
Cabbage (47)
Asparagus (48)
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IV. Maturity & Quality Indices
• Harvest indices of some leafy, floral and stem
vegetables
– Asparagus: spear length (12.5‐20 cm)
– Broccoli: compact flower heads, no open flowers
– Cabbage & lettuce: solidity of head
– Cauliflower: head size and appearance
– Celery: size (overmaturity results in pithiness)
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu
Maturity (Solidity) of Lettuce at Harvest vs. Postharvest Quality
and Shelf‐life
Solidity class Postharvest considerations
1)Soft‐to‐ More susceptible to physical damage, higher
2) Fairly firm respiration rate
3) Firm Maximum storage‐life
4) Hard‐to‐ More susceptible to russet spotting, pink rib, and
5) Extra‐hard other physiological disorders; decreased storage‐life
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IV. Maturity & Quality Indices
• Quality criteria for some commodities
– Asparagus: straightness, diameter, percent green color, no defects
– Cabbage: solidity, no seedstems, color, no defects
– Cauliflower: cleanness, compactness, white color, size, no
defects.
– Celery: stalk form, compactness, color, no seedstems, no defects
– Lettuce (head): color, maturity (solidity), no seedstems, freedom
from defects and decay
– Freshness and turgidity are quality factors for all
V. Postharvest Physiology
• Respiration rate
– Very/extremely high (more than 40 mg CO2/kg‐h at 5C):
asparagus, Brussels sprouts, spinach & turnip greens
– High (20 to 40 mg CO2/kg‐h at 5C): artichoke, broccoli, celery &
leaf lettuce
– Moderate (10 to 20 mg CO2 /kg‐h at 5C): cabbage, cauliflower,
celery, kohlrabi & head lettuce
(mg CO2/kg‐hr)
Class at 15oC Commodities
Very Low < 10 Dates, dried fruits and vegetables, nuts
Low 10 ‐ 20 Apple, beet, celery, citrus fruits, cranberry, garlic,
grape, honeydew melon, kiwifruit, onion, papaya,
persimmon, pineapple, potato (mature), sweet‐
potato, watermelon
Moderate 20 ‐ 40 Apricot, banana, blueberry, cabbage, cantaloupe,
carrot (topped), celeriac, cherry, cucumber, fig,
gooseberry, lettuce (head), mango, nectarine, olive,
peach, pear, plum, potato (immature), radish
(topped), summer squash, tomato
High 40 ‐ 80 Avocado, blackberry, carrot (with tops), cauliflower,
leeks, lettuce (leaf), lima bean, radish (with tops),
raspberry
Very High 80 ‐ 160 Artichoke, bean sprouts, cherimoya, cut flowers, endive,
green onions, kale, okra, passion fruit, snap bean, watercress
Extremely > 160 Asparagus, broccoli, Brussels sprouts mushroom, parsley,
High peas, spinach, sweetcorn
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Rates of CO2 Production (mg kg‐1 h‐1) at Different Temperatures
(from Robinson et.al., 1975)
Temperature (C)
Commodity 0 5 10 15 20
Cabbage 3 7 8 13 20
Celery 7 9 12 23 33
Beetroot (bunching, with leaves) 11 14 22 25 40
Rhubarb 14 21 35 44 54
Turnip (bunching with leaves) 15 17 30 43 52
Lettuce 16 24 31 50 80
Brussels sprouts 17 30 50 75 90
Watercress 18 36 80 136 207
Cauliflower 20 34 45 67 126
Asparagus 28 44 63 105 127
Carrots (bunching, with leaves) 35 51 74 106 121
Spinach 50 70 80 120 150
Sprouting broccoli 77 120 170 275 425
V. Postharvest Physiology
• Ethylene production
– Very low (< 0.1 l/kg‐h), and very sensitive to ethylene effects
(detrimental)
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu
V. Postharvest Physiology
• Responses to controlled atmospheres
– 2‐3% O2 retards senescence (except asparagus, which is intolerant
of low O2)
– Susceptibility to elevated CO2 varies greatly
• Lettuce, celery & endive: injury if CO2 >1‐2%
• More than 5% CO2 induces off‐odors and off‐flavors in cooked
cauliflower
• Elevated CO2 (5‐10%) retards soft rot development, toughening and
yellowing of asparagus; also retards yellowing of broccoli
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V. Postharvest Physiology
• Responses to controlled atmospheres
– Cabbage can be held for up to 6 months in CA at 0C (2‐3% O2 +
5‐8% CO2); this is used commercially in the northeastern U.S.
– CA is also used commercially during marine transportation of
lettuce (1‐2% O2 + ≤1% CO2)
– Carbon monoxide (2‐3% CO) has been used as a discoloration
inhibitor on lettuce in marine transportation
– CA prevents color and chlorophyll degradation in broccoli
– CA reduces stalk elongation and slight pithiness and also prevents
butt end cut browning in celery
Recommended CA for some leafy, floral and stem
vegetables
Vegetable type O2 + CO2
Asparagus 13‐16 5‐7
Broccoli 1‐2 10
Brussels sprouts 1‐2 5
Cabbage 2‐3 5‐8
Cauliflower 2 <5
Celery 2‐4 3‐5
Lettuce 2‐3 0‐1
V. Postharvest Physiology
• Temperature‐related physiological disorders
– Freezing injury: preharvest
and postharvest
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– Chilling injury: only asparagus
is susceptible (3 to 4 weeks at 0‐3C)
– Solar injury: solar browning of www.omafra.gov.on.ca
cauliflower curds
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V. Postharvest Physiology
• Calcium deficiency‐related physiological disorders
– Tipburn: cabbage, Brussels sprouts,
lettuce
– Blackheart: celery, endive, escarole
T.A. Zitter, Cornell University
V. Postharvest Physiology
• Senescence‐related physiological disorders
– Bolting (development of seedstalks):
• lettuce & leek
– Pithiness (spongy internal tissue):
• sign of senescence in celery
– Riciness (granular appearance):
• sign of senescence in cauliflower
www.cals.ncsu.edu
– Yellowing:
• common sign of senescence, enhanced by C2H4
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V. Postharvest Physiology
• Physiological disorders of lettuce
– Brown stain: caused by 2%
or higher CO2 at 0‐5C
– Russet spotting: caused by
C2H4 at 0.1 ppm or higher
– Rusty‐brown discoloration: ‘Climax’
cultivar, increased by lettuce mosaic virus
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– Pink rib: a symptom of senescence
– Low O2 injury (less than 1% O2)
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VI. Pathological Breakdown
• Bacterial soft rot: chard, celery, lettuce, spinach
• Gray mold rot (Botrytis): artichoke, celery, lettuce,
rhubarb
• Watery soft rot: celery, lettuce, cabbage
• Downy mildew: lettuce, spinach
• Big vein: lettuce
• Rhizoctonia: cabbage
VII. Postharvest Handling Procedures
• Harvesting
– Mostly by hand, some harvesting aids are in use
(i.e., “mule trains”)
– Mechanical harvesting systems have been
developed for lettuce, cabbage, Brussels sprouts,
etc., but are not used commercially
– For lettuce the harvesting machine, maturity
(density) is sensed using gamma rays or X‐rays,
and the desired heads cut, lifted, and trimmed
mechanically
VII. Postharvest Handling Procedures
• Handling systems: field packing (lettuce “mule train”)
– Select, cut, trim, pack in carton, transport to vacuum cooler, cool,
load, transport to destination
– Wrapped lettuce: workers in mobile field units trim,
wrap, and pack into cartons, transport to vacuum
cooler, etc., as above
Courtesy Steven Sargent
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VII. Postharvest Handling Procedures
• Handling systems: packinghouse
– Select, cut, transport to packinghouse in bulk, trim, size, pack
into cartons, cool, etc.
– Fresh‐cut (shredded) lettuce – bulk lettuce sent to central
facilities: select, trim, cool
• In cold room: cut, rinse, remove excess water, pack into (MAP) bags,
place into cartons, ship
VII. Postharvest Handling Procedures
• Cooling methods
– Vacuum cooling: lettuce (crisphead)
– Hydro‐vacuum cooling: celery, cauliflower, others
– Hydrocooling: leaf lettuce, celery, spinach, green onions, leek,
artichoke
– Package ice: broccoli, spinach, parsley
– Room cooling: artichoke, cabbage
VII. Postharvest Handling Procedures
• Packinghouse operations
– Cleaning and trimming, use of chlorine in wash water
– Sorting to eliminate defects
– Sizing in some cases
– Wrapping of individual units (e.g., wrapped cauliflower, sleeved
celery)
– Packaging: shipping containers may be RPCs or waxed fiberboard
cartons to withstand hydrocooling and in‐package ice exposure
– Cooling by an appropriate method
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VII. Postharvest Handling Procedures
• Temporary storage
• Transport
• Destination handling
• Retail handling
Images courtesy of Trevor Suslow
VIII. Recommended Conditions
• Temperature management procedures
– Avoid delays between harvesting and cooling, especially during
warm weather
– Cool to 1C ( 1C): avoid freezing; most will tolerate contact
icing
– Transfer immediately after cooling into refrigerated transit
vehicles or holding rooms
– Maintain 1C ( 1C) and 95‐100% RH during transit and
temporary storage
VIII. Recommended Conditions
• Duration of holding: long‐term storage/transport (>1‐2
weeks) is not typical, except with cabbage, Chinese cabbage,
and celery
• Air movement: minimum required for proper temperature
control
• Avoid exposure to ethylene throughout the handling
system
• Atmospheric composition: see section on responses to
controlled atmospheres – air exchange sufficient to maintain
adequate O2 and avoid injurious CO2 levels
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