Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Sequences and Series

Prerequisites: Recurrence relations; solving linear and quadratic
equations; solving simultaneous equations.

Maths Applications: Extending the Binomial Theorem; Maclaurin series.

Real-World Applications: Quantum mechanics.

Sequences and Series

Definition:

A (real) sequence is a function f : ∞ → ϒ . The values of a sequence are

traditionally denoted un (the n th term) , which clearly equals f (n),
whereas the sequence itself is denoted {un } .

A real sequence is just a list of real numbers in order. If ϒ is replaced

with ≤ , then we have a complex sequence. In this course, we will almost
always deal with real sequences.

Example 1

1, 4, 9, 16, 25 . . . is a sequence. A function f which generates this

sequence is, f (n) = n 2 .

When adding the terms of a sequence, we can choose to add up some or

all of the terms.

Series can thus be of 2 types: finite or infinite.

Definition:

A finite series is the sum of some terms of a sequence.

The terms of a sequence added up from 1st to n th has a special name.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Definition:

th
The sum to n terms (aka sum of the first n terms or n partial sum)
of a sequence is,

∑u
def
Sn = r
r =1

This definition is an example of a finite series (aka finite sum).

Corollary:

The n th term of a sequence {un } is given by,

un +1 = Sn +1 − Sn

Example 2

If the sum of the first 13 terms of a sequence is 37 and the sum of the
first 14 terms is 39, find the value of u14 .

u14 = S14 − S13

= 39 − 37

= 2

Definition:

An infinite series is the sum of all the terms of a sequence.

Definition:

The sum to infinity (aka infinite sum) of a sequence is the limit (if it
exists) as n → ∞ of the n th partial sums, i.e.,

def
S∞ = lim Sn
n →∞

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Definition:

An infinite series converges (aka is summable) if S∞ exists; otherwise,

the series diverges (aka is not summable aka limit does not exist).

Traditionally, the first term of a sequence is denoted by a. There are 2

important types of sequences we will study in depth. They are defined by
recurrence relations.

Arithmetic Sequences and Series

Definition:

An arithmetic sequence is one in which the difference (aka common

difference d ) of any 2 successive terms is the same,

def
d = un +1 − un

Example 3

Verify that 37, 26, 15, 4, − 7, . . . is an arithmetic sequence.

We need to check that the difference between any 2 successive terms is

the same. u2 − u1 = − 11 and u3 − u2 = − 11. Hence, as successive
differences are the same, the sequence is an arithmetic sequence.

n th term

Theorem:

The n th term of an arithmetic sequence is given by,

un = a + (n − 1) d (a ∈ ϒ , d ∈ ϒ ∖{0})

If d = 0, then we end up with a constant sequence a, a, a, . . . , which is

not particularly interesting.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Example 4

th
Find a formula for the n term of the arithmetic sequence that starts
12, 19, 26, 33, 40, . . . .

The common difference is easily seen to be d = 7. The first term is 12.

Hence,

un = 12 + (n − 1) 7

un = 12 + 7n − 7

un = 7n + 5

Example 5

An arithmetic sequence has second term 4 and seventh term 19. Find a
formula for the n th term of this sequence.

We have,
u2 = a + (2 − 1) d = 4

u7 = a + (7 − 1) d = 19

which become,

a + d = 4

a + 6d = 19

Solving these simultaneous equations gives d = 3 and a = 1. Thus,

un = 1 + (n − 1) 3

un = 3n − 2

Example 6

An arithmetic sequence has first term 6, common difference 3 and un =

72. Find the value of n.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

72 = 6 + (n − 1) 3

n − 1 = 22

n = 23

Example 7

An arithmetic sequence has first term − 3 and u3 = 14. Find the value of
d.

14 = − 3 + (3 − 1) d

17
d =
2

Example 8

An arithmetic sequence has common difference 9 and u16 = 68. Find the
value of a.

68 = a + (15)9

68 = a + 135

a = − 67

Sum to n Terms

Definition:

The sum to n terms of an arithmetic sequence is given by,

n
Sn = (2a + (n − 1)d )
2

It is clear that this sum is a quadratic in n.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Corollary:

The sum to n terms of an arithmetic sequence can always be written as,

Sn = P n 2 + Q n (P ∈ ϒ ∖{0}, Q ∈ ϒ )

The definition gives the main formula to use, but the corollary can be
useful too.

Example 9

Find S12 for the arithmetic sequence that starts 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, . . . .

For this sequence, d = 3 and a = 5. With n = 12, we have,

12
S12 = (2(5) + (12 − 1)3)
2

= 6 (10 + 33)

= 258

Example 10

An arithmetic sequence has first term 2 and common difference 3. Find

the smallest value of n for which Sn > 43.

n
(2(2) + (n − 1)3) > 43
2

n (3n + 1) > 86

3n 2 + n − 86 > 0

Solving the associated quadratic equation 3 n 2 + n − 86 = 0 gives n

= − 5 · 52… and n = 5 · 19… . As n ∈ ∞ , this means that n ≥ 6.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Example 11

An arithmetic sequence has first term 12 and S14 = 238. Find the
common difference.

14
(2(12) + (14 − 1)d ) = 238
2

24 + 13d = 34

13d = 10

10
d =
13

Example 12

An arithmetic sequence has common difference − 8 and S8 = 16. Find the

first term.

8
(2a + 6( − 8)) = 16
2

2a − 48 = 4

a = 26

Clearly, adding the terms of an arithmetic sequence will make successive

partial sums larger and larger in magnitude. This leads to the following.

Theorem:

The sum to infinity of an arithmetic sequence does not exist.

Some people say that the sum is infinite. Those people are not writing
these notes.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Geometric Sequences and Series

Definition:

A geometric sequence is one in which the ratio (aka common ratio r ) of

any 2 successive terms is the same,

def un +1
r =
un

Example 13

Verify that 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, . . . is a geometric sequence.

We need to check that the ratio of any 2 successive terms is the same.
u2 u3
= 2 and = 2. Hence, as successive ratios are the same, the
u1 u2
sequence is.

n th term

Theorem:

The n th term of a geometric sequence is given by,

n −1
un = a r (a ∈ ϒ ∖{0}, r ∈ ϒ ∖{0, 1})

If a = 0 or r = 0, then we end up with the trivial sequence 0, 0, 0, . . . ,

whereas if r = 1, we end up with a constant sequence a, a, a, . . . , neither
of which are interesting.

Example 14

Find a formula for the n th term of the geometric sequence that starts
400, 200, 100, 50, 25, . . . .

1
The common ratio is easily seen to be r = . The first term is 400.
2
Hence,

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

n −1
1
un = 400  
2

Example 15

A geometric sequence has third term 8 and fifth term 32. If the common
ratio is negative, find a formula for the n th term of this sequence.

We have,
2
u3 = a r = 8

4
u3 = a r = 32

Dividing the first equation by the second gives (and cancelling a, as it’s
non-zero)

2
r = 4

As r < 0, r = − 2. Substituting this back into either of the above 2

equations gives a = 4. The n th term formula is thus,

n −1
un = 4 . ( −2)

Example 16

A geometric sequence has first term 2, common ratio 4 and un = 128.

Find the value of n.

128 = 2 . 4 n −1

4 n −1 = 64

4 n −1 = 4 3

n = 4

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Example 17

A geometric sequence has first term 10 and u3 = 5. If r > 0, find the

value of r.

2
10 r = 5

2 1
r =
2

1
r =
2

Example 18

A geometric sequence has common ratio 2 and u6 = 1 024. Find the value
of a.

a . 25 = 1 024

32 a = 1 024

a = 32

Sum to n Terms

Theorem:

The sum to n terms of a geometric sequence is given by,

a (1 − r n )
Sn =
1 − r

Notice that the denominator won’t be 0, as r cannot equal 1.

Example 19

2 2
Find S8 for the sequence 6, 2, , ,... .
3 9

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

1
The sequence is clearly a geometric one, with a = 6 and r = . Hence,
3

 1 
n

6 1 −   
  3  
S8 = 
2/ 3

 1 
n

S8 = 9 1 −   

  3  


Example 20

A geometric sequence has first term 1 and common ratio 4. Find the
smallest value of n for which Sn > 2 649.

1 − 4n
> 2 649
1 − 4

1
− ( 1 − 4n ) > 2 649
3

1 − 4n < − 7 947

4n > 7 948

n . ln 4 > ln 7 948

ln 7 948
n >
ln 4

n > 6 · 471 89

As n ∈ ∞ , n = 7.

Example 21

A geometric sequence has first term 7 and S2 = 6 . Find the common

ratio.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

7 (1 − r 2 )
= 6
1 − r

7 (1 − r )(1 + r )
= 6
1 − r

As r ≠ 1, we can cancel (1 − r) to get,

7 (1 + r) = 6

6
1 + r =
7

1
r = −
7

Example 22

1 1
A geometric sequence has common ratio and S3 = . Find the first
5 25
term.

  1 
a 1 −  3 
  5  1
=
4/ 5 25

 1 
5a  1 − 
 125  1
=
4 25

 124 
5a  
 125  = 1
4 25

31 a 1
=
25 25

1
a =
31

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Sum to Infinity

Theorem:

The sum to infinity of a geometric sequence exists when r < 1 and is

given by,

a
S∞ =
1 − r

Example 23

3 9 27
Determine whether the geometric sequence 1, − , , − , . . . has a
2 4 8
sum to infinity. Justify your answer.

3
The common ratio is − . Hence, as r does not satisfy − 1 < r < 1, ∃
2
S∞ .

Example 24

4 8
Find the sum to infinity of the geometric sequence 3, 2, , ,... .
3 9

2 2
The first term is 3 and the common ratio is . As − 1 < < 1, the sum
3 3
to infinity exists. Hence,

3
S∞ =
1 − 2/ 3

9
S∞ =
3 − 2

S∞ = 9
Example 25

Given that a geometric sequence has S∞ = 56 and a = 19, find the

common ratio.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

19
= 56
1 − r

19
1 − r =
56

19
r = 1 −
56

37
r =
56

Example 26

3 1
Given that a geometric sequence has S∞ = and r = , find the first
7 7
term.

a 3
=
1 − 1/ 7 7

7a 3
=
6 7

18
a =
49

Expansion of 1/(1 – f(x))

There is an interesting link between infinite series and what may be

viewed as an extension of the Binomial Theorem to the case n = − 1.

Definition:

A power series is an expression of the form,

∑ ax
i = 0
i
i
= a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + . . . ( ai ∈ ϒ )

The aforementioned link is the content of the next theorem.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Theorem:

If x < 1, then,

∞
1
∑x
def
i
(1 − x) −1
= = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . =
1 − x i = 0

Example 27

Expand (1 − 2x) −1 , stating the range of values of x for which the

expansion is valid.

1
(1 − 2x) −1 = = 1 + 2x + (2x )2 + (2x )3 + …
1 − (2x )

= 1 + 2x + 4 x 2 + 8 x 3 + …

1
The expansion is valid for 2x < 1, i.e. for x < .
2

Example 28

Write
1
1 + 3x
in the form ∑ ( − 1) k x
i = 0
i i i
, stating the value of k.

∞
1
1 + 3x
=
1
1 − ( − 3x )
= ∑ ( − 3x )
i = 0
i

= ∑ ( − 3) x
i = 0
i i

= ∑ ( − 1) 3 x
i = 0
i i i

The value of k is 3.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Example 29

Write
1
2 + 5x
in the form p
i
∑ ( − 1) k x
= 0
i i i
, stating the range of validity

of the expansion as well as the values of p and k.

1 1  1 
=  
2 + 5x 2  1 + (5/2)x 

1  1 
=  
2  1 − ( − 5x /2) 

∑
∞
i
1  5x 
= − 
2  2 
i = 0

5x 2
The expansion is valid for − < 1, i.e. for x < . Continuing,
2 5

∑
∞
i
1 1 5
= ( − 1)   x i
i

2 + 5x 2 2
i = 0

1 5
Thus, p = and k = .
2 2

Example 30

2
Expand , stating the range of validity of the expansion,
2 + 14 sin 3x
∞

and write it in the form ∑ ( − 1) k (sin 3x ) , stating the value of k.

i = 0
i i i

2 1
=
2 + 14 sin 3x 1 + 7 sin 3x

1
=
1 − ( − 7 sin 3x )

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

= 1 + ( − 7 sin 3x ) + ( − 7 sin 3x )2 + ( − 7 sin 3x )3 + …

= 1 − 7 sin 3x + 49 sin2 3x − 343 sin3 3x + …

1
which is valid for −7 sin 3x < 1, i.e. for sin 3x < . In terms of the
7
infinite sum,

∞
2
2 + 14 sin 3x
= ∑ ( − 1) 7 (sin 3x )
i = 0
i i i

with k = 7.

Definition:

The number e is,

n ∞
 1 1 1
∑ 1
def
e = lim  1 +  = 2 + + + ... =
n →∞
 n 2! 3! b = 0
b !

Theorem:

The exponential function is,

n
x
def  x
e = lim  1 + 
n →∞
 n

Example 31

n
 7
State the exact value of lim  1 +  and write it to 8 significant
n →∞
 n
figures.

The exact value is e 7 . To 8 s.f., a calculator gives 1 096 · 633 2.

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Finite Sums

Some special types of finite sums must be known.

Theorem:

The sum to n terms of the number 1 is,

∑
r =1
1 = n

This result is supposed to be very obvious; adding up the number 1 n

times gives the answer n.

Example 32

Find an expression for

∑
r = 1
3 .

n n

∑
r = 1
3 = 3
∑
r =1
1

= 3n

The next result tells us what happens when we add up the sum of the
first n natural numbers.

Theorem:

The sum of the first n natural numbers is,

∑r =
r = 1
1
2
n (n + 1)

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Example 33

Find an expression for

∑
r =1
8r .

n n

∑
r =1
8r = 8.
∑r
r = 1

1
= 8. n (n + 1)
2

= 4 n (n + 1)

The above 2 finite sums are often used in the following type of example.

Example 34

Express
∑
r =1
(7r − 5) in the form P n 2 + Q n, stating the values of P

and Q.

n n n

∑
r =1
(7r − 5) =
∑
r =1
7r −
∑
r = 1
5

n n

= 7
∑r r = 1
− 5
∑
r = 1
1

7
= n (n + 1) − 5n
2

7 2 7
= n + n − 5n
2 2

7 2 3
= n − n
2 2

7 3
Hence, P = and Q = − .
2 2

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Sequences and Series

Other Finite Sums

Example 35

Express − 3 + 10 − 17 + 24 − . . . − 59 in the form

n

∑r = 1
( − 1)r (ar + b ) , stating the values of a, b and n.

The ( − 1)r serves to provide the alternating plus and minus signs. The
ar + b is indicative of an arithmetic sequence. Ignoring negatives, the
differences are 7 and the first term is 3. Hence, the n th term is given by
3 + (n − 1)7 = 7n − 4. Counting up from 3 to 59 in 7’s shows that n
= 9. Thus, the required expression for the finite sum is,

∑r = 1
( − 1)r (7r − 4)

Therefore, a = 7, b = − 4 and n = 9.

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