RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL

1.0 Introduction
Water is the most common or major substance on earth, covering more than 70% of
the planet’s surface. All living things consist mostly of water. For example, the human body
is about two third water. World wide distribution of water is given in table 1.1. Of the total
volume of water, only 2 percent (over 28,000,000 Km3) is fresh water, which can be used
for consumption and for agriculture as given in table 1.2. The average runoff in the river
system of India has been assessed as 1869 km3. Of this, the utilisable portion by
conventional storage and diversion is estimated as about 690 km3. In addition, there is
substantial replenishable ground water potential in the country estimated at 432 km3. The
per capita availability of water at the national level has reduced from about 5,177 m3 in the
year 1951 to the present level of 1,869 m3. For improving per capita water availability in
the country, replenishment of ground water resources is a necessity which can be done very
effectively through rain water harvesting.

Table 1.1 World-wide Distribution of Water

S. Water type Volume Percentage
No. (1000 km3) of Total
Global
Volume
1 Ocean 1,370,323 94.200
2 Ground water (fresh
& saline) 60,000 4.100
3 Glaciers 24,000 1.650
4 Lakes and 280 0.019
reservoirs
5 Soil moisture 85 0.006
6 Atmospheric water 14 0.001
7 River water 1.2 0.001
Total 1,454,703.2 100.000

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 1

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Table 1.2 World-wide Distribution of Fresh Water

S. Water type Volume
Percentage
of
No. (1000 Total
km3) Fresh
Volume
1 Glaciers 24,000 85.000
2 Ground water 4,000 14.000
3 Lakes and 155 0.600
reservoirs
4 Soil moisture 83 0.300
5 Atmospheric 14 0.050
water
6 River water 1.2 0.004
Total 28,253.2 100.00
The harvested rain water can also be used directly for various purposes, which will
improve per capita water availability substantially.

1.1 Hydrologic cycle

The never-ending exchange of water from the atmosphere to the oceans and back is
known as the hydrologic cycle (Fig. 1.1). This cycle is the source of all forms of
precipitation (hail, rain, sleet, and snow), and thus of

Fig. 1.1 Hydrologic cycle

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 2

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

all the water. Precipitation stored in streams, lakes and soil evaporates while water stored in
plants transpires to form clouds which store the water in the atmosphere.

Currently, about 75% to 80% of conventional water supply is from lakes, rivers and
wells. Making the most efficient use of these limited and precious resources is essential.
Otherwise, scarcity of water will be faced by our future generations. This includes using
appliances and plumbing fixtures that conserve water, not wasting water, and taking
advantage of alternative water sources such as greywater reuse and rain water harvesting.

1.2 Advantages of rain water

The rain water’s environmental advantage and purity over other water options makes
it the first choice, even though the precipitation cycle may fluctuate from year to year.

Environmental advantage

Collecting the rain that falls on a building and using the same for various purposes is
a simple concept. Since the rain you harvest is independent of any centralized system, you
are promoting self-sufficiency and helping to foster an appreciation for this essential and
precious resource. The collection of rain water not only leads to conservation of water but
also energy since the energy input required to operate a centralized water system designed
to treat and pump water over a vast service area is bypassed. Rain water harvesting also
lessens local erosion and flooding caused by runoff from impervious cover such as
pavement and roofs, as some rain is instead captured and stored. Thus, the storm water run-
off, the normal consequence of rain fall, which picks up contaminants and degrades our
water ways, becomes captured rainfall which can then fulfill a number of productive use.
Policymakers would have to reconsider present assumptions regarding impervious cover
and consequent run-off management strategies when rain water harvesting systems are
installed.

Qualitative advantage

A compelling advantage of rain water over other water sources is that it is one of the
purest sources of water available. Indeed, the quality of rain water is an overriding incentive
for people to choose rain water as their primary water source, or for specific uses such as

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 3

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

watering houseplants and gardens. Rain water quality almost always exceeds that of ground
or surface water as it does not come into contact with soil and rocks where it dissolves salts
and minerals and it is not exposed to many of the pollutants that often are discharged into
surface waters such as rivers, and which can contaminate groundwater. However, rain
water quality can be influenced by characteristics of area where it falls, since localized
industrial emissions affect its purity. Thus, rain water falling in non-industrialized areas can
be superior to that in cities dominated by heavy industry or in agricultural regions where
crop dusting is prevalent.

Rain water is soft and can significantly reduce the quantity of detergents and soaps
needed for cleaning, as compared to typical municipal water. In addition, soap scum and
hardness deposits disappear and the need for a water softener, often an expensive
requirement for well water systems, is eliminated. Water heaters and pipes will be free of
deposits caused by hard water and will last longer. Rain water’s purity also makes it an
attractive water source for certain industries for which pure water is a requirement. Thus,
industries such as computer microchip manufacturing and photographic processing would
certainly benefit from this source of water.

1.3 Rain water harvesting

For our water requirement we entirely depend upon rivers, lakes and ground water.
However rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these sources. Rain water harvesting
means to make optimum use of rain water at the place where it falls i.e. conserve it and not
allow to drain away and cause floods elsewhere.

The rain water harvesting may be defined as the technique of collection and storage
of rain water at surface or in sub-surface aquifer before it is lost as surface run off. The
augmented resources can be harvested whenever needed.

1.4 Need for rain water harvesting

Water is one of the most essential requirement for existence of living beings.
Surface water and ground water are two major sources of water. Due to over population
and higher usage levels of water in urban areas, water supply agencies are unable to cope up
demand from surface sources like dams, reservoirs, rivers etc. This has led to digging of

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 4

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

individual tube wells by house owners. Even water supply agencies have resorted to ground
water sources by digging tube-wells in order to augment the water supply. Replenishment
of ground water is drastically reduced due to paving of open areas. Indiscriminate
exploitation of ground water results in lowering of water table rendering many bore-wells
dry. To over come this situation bore wells are drilled to greater depths. This further
lowers the water table and in some areas this leads to higher concentration of hazardous
chemicals such as fluorides, nitrates and arsenic. In coastal areas like Chennai, over
exploitation of ground water resulted in seawater intrusion thereby rendering ground water
bodies saline. In rural areas also, government policies on subsidized power supply for
agricultural pumps and piped water supply through bore wells are resulting into decline in
ground water table. The solution to all these problems is to replenish ground water bodies
with rain water by man made means.

1.5Advantages of rain water harvesting

(a) Promotes adequacy of underground water
(b) Mitigates the effect of drought
(c) Reduces soil erosion as surface run-off is reduced
(d) Decreases load on storm water disposal system
(e) Reduces flood hazards
(f) Improves ground water quality / decreases salinity
(by dilution)
(g) Prevents ingress of sea water in subsurface aquifersin coastal areas
(h) Improves ground water table, thus saving energy
(to lift water)
(i) The cost of recharging subsurface aquifer is lowerthan surface reservoirs
(j) The subsurface aquifer also serves as storage anddistribution system
(k) No land is wasted for storage purpose and nopopulation displacement is involved
(l) Storing water underground is environment friendly

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 5

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

1.6 Rain water harvesting potential

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is
called the rain water endowment of that area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively
harvested is called rain water harvesting potential.

Area of catchment x Amount of rainfall = rain water endowment

All the water which is falling over an area cannot be effectively harvested, due to various
losses on account of evaporation, spillage etc. Because of these factors the quantity of rain
water which can effectively be harvested is always less than the rain water endowment.
The collection efficiency is mainly dependent on factors like runoff coefficient and first
flush wastage etc.

Runoff is the term applied to the water that flows away from catchments after falling
on its surface in the form of rain. Runoff from a particular area is dependent on various
factors i.e. rainfall pattern and quantity, catchment area characteristics etc. For determining
rainfall quantity, the rainfall data preferably for a period of at least 10 years is required.
This data can be collected from meteorological department. For determining the pattern of
rainfall, the information may be collected either from meteorological department or locally.
The pattern of rainfall in a particular cathcment area influence the design of rain water
harvesting system. In areas where rainfall is more but limited to very short period in a year,
big storage tanks would be required to store rain water, if we are collecting rain water in
storage tanks for direct use. In such areas, it is preferable to use rain water for recharging of
ground water aquifers, if feasible, to reduce the cost of rain water harvesting system.

Runoff depends upon the area and type of catchment over which it falls as well as
surface features. Runoff can be generated from both paved and unpaved catchment areas.
Paved surfaces have a greater capacity of retaining water on the surface and runoff from
unpaved surface is less in comparison to paved surface. In all calculations for runoff
estimation, runoff coefficient is used to account for losses due to spillage, leakage,

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 6

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

infiltrations catchment surface wetting and evaporation, which will ultimately result into
reduced runoff. Runoff coefficient for any catchment is the ratio of the volume of water that
run off a surface to the total volume of rainfall on the surface. The runoff coefficient for
various surfaces is given in table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Runoff coefficients for various surfaces

S.No. Type of catchment Coefficients
Roof catchments

1 Tiles 0.8-0.9
2 Corrugated metal sheets 0.7-0.9
Ground surface
coverings
3 Concrete 0.6-0.8
4 Brick pavement 0.5-0.6
Untreated ground
catchments
5 Soil on slopes less than 0.0-0.3
10%
6 Rocky natural 0.2-0.5
catchments

Source : Pacey, Amold and Cullis, Adrian 1989, Rain water Harvesting : The
collection of rainfall and runoff in rural areas, Intermediate Technology Publications,
London p55.
Based on the above factors, the water harvesting potential of site could be estimated using
the following equation:Rain Water harvesting potential = Amount of Rainfall x area of
catchment x Runoff coefficient

The calculation for runoff can be illustrated using the following example:

Consider a building with flat terrace area (A) of 100 sqm located in Delhi. The
average annual rainfall (R) in Delhi is approximately 611mm. The runoff coefficient (C)
for a flat terrace may be considered as 0.85.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 7

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Annual water harvesting potential

from 100 m2 roof = A x R x C
= 100 x 0.611 x 0.85
= 51.935 cum
i.e. 51, 935 liters

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 8

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 2

METHODS OF HARVESTING RAIN WATER

2.1 Rain water harvesting methods

There are three methods of harvesting rain water as given below :

(a) Storing rain water for direct use (Fig. 2.1)

(b) Recharging ground water aquifers, from roof top run off (Fig. 2.2)
(c) Recharging ground water aquifers with runoff from ground area (Fig. 2.3)

2.1.1 Storing rain water for direct use

In place where the rains occur throughout the year, rain water can be stored in tanks
(Fig. 2.1). However, at places where rains are for 2 to 3 months, huge volume of storage
tanks would have to be provided. In such places, it will be more appropriate to use rain
water to recharge ground water aquifers rather than to go for storage. If the strata is
impermeable, then storing rain water in storage tanks for direct use is a better method.
Similarly, if the ground water is saline/unfit for human consumption or ground water table
is very deep, this method of rain water harvesting is preferable.

2.1.2. Recharging ground water aquifers from roof top run off

Rain water that is collected on the roof top of the building may be diverted by drain
pipes to a filtration tank (for bore well, through settlement tank) from which it flows into
the recharge well, as shown in Fig.2.2. The recharge well should preferably be shallower
than the water table. This method of rain water harvesting is preferable in the areas where
the rainfall occurs only for a short period in a year and water table is at a shallow depth. The
various methods of recharging ground water aquifers from roof top runoff are discussed
separately in Chapter 3.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 9

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Filteration Recharge
tank well

Fig. 2.2 Recharging ground water aquifers from roof top run off

2.1.3 Recharging ground water aquifers with runoff from ground areas

The rain water that is collected from the open areas may be diverted by drain pipes to a
recharge dug well / bore well through filter tanks as shown in Fig.2.3. The abandoned bore
well/dug well can be used cost effectively for this purpose. The various methods of
recharging ground water aquifers with runoff from ground areas are discussed separately in
Chapter 3.

Fig.2.3 Recharging ground water aquifers with runoff from ground areas

2.2Components of rain water harvesting

The rain water harvesting system consists of following basic components –

(a) Catchment area

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 10

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

(b) Coarse mesh / leaf screen

(c) Gutter
(d) Down spout or conduit
(e) First flushing device
(f) Filter
(g) Storage tank
(h) Recharge structure

2.2.1 Catchment area

The catchment area is the surface on which the rain water falls. This may be a roof
top or open area around the building. The quality of water collected from roof top is
comparatively much better than collection from the ground. Rain water harvested from
catchment surfaces along the ground should be used for lawn watering, flushing etc.,
because of increased risk of contamination. This water can also be used for recharging
ground aquifers after proper filtration.

The rain water yield varies with the size and texture of the catchment area. A smooth,
cleaner and more improvised roofing material contributes to better water quality and greater
quantity with higher value of runoff coefficient. (refer table 1.3 for runoff coefficient)

When roof of the house is used as the catchment for collecting the rain water, the
type of roof and the construction material affect the runoff coefficient and quality of
collected water. Roofs made of RCC, GI sheets, corrugated sheets, tiles etc. are preferable
for roof top collection. But thatched roofs are not preferred as these add colour and
dissolved impurities to water. Water to be used for drinking purpose should not be
collected from roof with damaged AC sheets or from roofs covered with asphalt and lead
flashing or lead based paints as the lead contamination may occur in the collected water.

2.2.2 Coarse mesh / leaf screen

To prevent the entry of leaves and other debris in the system, the coarse mesh should
be provided at the mouth of inflow pipe for flat roofs as shown in Fig. 2.4.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 11

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Coarse
mesh

Fig. 2.4 Coarse mesh

For slope in roofs where gutters are provided to collect and divert the rain water to
downspout or conduits, the gutters should have a continuous leaf screen, made of ¼ inch
wire mesh in a metal frame, installed along their entire length, and a screen or wire basket at
the head of the downspout.( Fig. 2.5)

GUTTER
CONTINIOUS
LEAF SCREEN

COARSE
MESH

FILTER

DOWNTAKE PIPE STORAGE

FOR STORAGE TANK TANK

Fig. 2.5 Leaf screen

2.2.3 Gutter

Gutter is required to be used for collecting water from sloping roof and to divert it to
downspout. These are the channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to collect and
transport rain water to the storage tank. Gutters can be of semi-circular, rectangular or
trapezoidal shape. Gutters must be properly sized, sloped and installed in order to
maximize the quantity of harvested rain. Gutter can be made using any of the following
materials:

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 12

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

(a) Galvanized iron sheet

(b) Aluminum sheet

(c) Semi-circular gutters of PVC material which can be readily prepared by

cutting these pipes into two equal semi-circular channels

(d) Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half (for low cost housing projects )

The size of the gutter should be according to the flow during the highest intensity rain. The
capacity of the gutters should be 10 to 15% higher. The gutters should be supported
properly so that they do not sag or fall off when loaded with water. The connection of
gutters and down spouts should be done very carefully to avoid any leakage of water and to
maximize the yield. For jointing of gutters, the lead based materials should not be used, as
it will affect the quality of water.

2.2.4 Down Spout / Conduit

The rain water collected on the roof top is transported down to storage facility through down
spouts / conduits. Conduits can be of any material like PVC, GI or cast iron. The conduits
should be free of lead and any other treatment which could contaminate the water. Table
2.1 gives an idea about the diameter of pipe required for draining out rain water based on
rainfall intensity and roof area.

TABLE 2.1 Size of downspout pipe

Diameter Average rate of rain fall (in

of pipe mm/hr)
(in mm)
50 75 100 125 150 200
50 13.4 8.9 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.3
65 24.1 16.0 12.0 9.6 8.0 6.0
75 40.8 27.0 20.4 16.3 13.6 10.2
100 85.4 57.0 42.7 34.2 28.5 21.3
125 - - 80.5 64.3 53.5 40.0

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 13

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

2.2.5 First flushing device

Roof washing or the collection and disposal of the first flush of water from a roof, is very
important if the collected rain water is to be used directly for human consumption. All the
debris, dirt and other contaminants especially bird dropping etc. accumulated on the roof
during dry season are washed by the first rain and if this water will enter into storage tank
or recharge system it will contaminate the water.

Therefore, to avoid this contamination a first flush system is incorporated in the roof
top rain water harvesting system. The first flushing device, dispose off the first spell of rain
water so that it does not enter the system.

If the roof is of sloping type, then the simplest system consists of a pipe and a gutter
down spout located ahead of the down spout from the gutter to the storage tank. (Fig. 2.6)

Fig. 2.6 First flushing device

The pipe is usually 6 or 8 inch PVC pipe which has a valve and cleanout at the
bottom, most of these devices extend from the gutter to the ground where they are
supported. The gutter down spout and top of the pipe are fitted and sealed so that water will
not flow out of the top. Once the pipe has filled, the rest of the water flows to the
downspout connected to storage tank.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 14

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

The alternate scheme for sloping roof is shown in Fig. 2.7. This involves a very
simple device which is required to be operated manually. In down take pipe at the bottom
one plug/ valve is provided. When the rainy season start, this plug should be removed, and
initial collection of roof top water should be allowed to drain. After 15 – 20 minutes, plug /
valve should be closed so that collected rain water can be diverted to storage tank.

2.2.6 Filter

If the collected water from roof top is to be used for human consumption directly, a filter
unit is required to be installed in RWH system before storage tank. The filter is used to
remove suspended pollutants from rain water collected over roof. The filter unit is basically
a chamber filled with filtering media such as fiber, coarse sand and gravel layers to remove
debris and dirt from water before it enters the storage tank. The filter unit should be placed
after first flush device but before storage tank. There are various type of filters which have
been developed all over the country. The type and selection of filters is governed by the
final use of harvested rain water and economy. Depending upon the filtering media used
and its arrangements, various types of filters available are described below.

2.2.6.1 Sand filter

In the sand filters, the main filtering media is commonly available sand sandwitched
between two layers of gravels. The filter can be constructed in a galvanized iron or ferro
cement tank. This is a simple type of filter which is easy to construct and maintain. The
sand fillers are very effective in removing turbidity, colour and microorganism. In a simple
sand filter that can be constructed domestically, filter media are placed as shown in Fig. 2.8.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 15

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

GRAVEL LAYER 20 cm

SAND LAYER 30 cm

GRAVEL LAYER 20 cm
POROUS BED

SUITABLE STAND FOR FILTER

Fig. 2.8 Sand filter

2.2.6.2 Charcoal water filter

This is almost similar to sand filter except that a 10-15 cm thick charcoal layer placed above
the sand layer. Charcoal layer inside the filter result into better filtration and purification of
water. The commonly used charcoal water filter

GRAVEL LAYER 10
CHARCOAL LAYER 10 cm

SAND LAYER 25 cm

GRAVEL LAYER 25 cm

Fig. 2.9 Charcoal water filter

2.2.6.3 Dewas filter

This filter was developed by officials of Rural Engineering Services of Dewas. In Dewas,
the main source of water supply is wells which are used to extract ground water for supply
of water. Because of regular extraction of ground water, the water table is going down
rapidly. To recharge the ground water, all the water collected from the roof top is collected

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 16

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

and passed through a filter system called the Dewasfilter( Fig. 2.10). The filtered water is
finally put into service tube well for recharging the well.

The filter consists of a PVC pipe 140mm in diameter and 1.2m long. There are three
chambers. The first purification chamber has pebbles of size varying between 2-6 mm, the
second chamber has slightly larger pebbles between 6 to 12 mm and the third chamber has
largest 12 – 20mm pebbles. There is a mesh on the out flow side, through which clean water

Fig. 2.10 Dewas filter

flows out after passing through the three chambers. This is one of the most popular filter
type being used in RWH systems.

2.2.6.4 Varun

This filter has been developed by Shri S.Viswanath, a Bangalore based water harvesting
expert. “Varun” is made from 90 lit. High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) drum. The lid is
turned over and holes are punched in it.( Fig. 2.11)

The punched lid acts as a sieve which keeps out large leaves, twigs etc. Rain water
coming out of the lid sieve then passes through three layers of sponge and 150mm thick
layer of coarse sand. Because of sponge layers, the cleaning of filter becomes very easy.
The first layer of sponge can be removed and cleaned very easily in a bucket of water.
Because of the layers of sponge, the sand layer does not get contaminated and does not
require any back washing / cleaning. This filter can handle about 50mm per hour intensity
rain fall from a 50 sqm roof area.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 17

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Fig. 2.11 Varun

2.2.6.5 Horizontal roughening filter and slow sand filter

This is one of the most effective filter for purification of water being used in coastal areas of
Orissa. The horizontal roughening filter (HRF) acts as a physical filter and is applied to
retain solid matter, while slow sand filter (SSF) is primarily a biological filter, used to kill
microbes in the water. The water is first passed through the HRF and then through SSF.

The HRF usually consists of filter material like gravel and coarse sand that
successively decrease in size from 25mm to 4mm. The bulk of solids in the incoming water
is separated by this coarse filter media or HRF. The filter channel consists of three uniform
compartments, the first packed with broken bricks, the second with coarse sand followed by
fine sand in the third compartment. At every outlet and inlet point of the channel, fine
graded mesh is implanted to prevent entry of finer material into the sump. The length of
each channel varies accordingly to the nature of the site selected for the sump.( Fig. 2.12)

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 18

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Fig. 2.12 Horizontal roughening filter and slow sand filter

The slow sand filter (SSF) consists of fine sand in a channel of size one sqm in cross
section and eight metre in length, laid across the tank embankment. The water after passing
through SSF is stored in a sump. From this sump water can be supplied through pipe line or
can be extracted through hand pump.

Wherever the roof top area is very large, the filters of high capacity are designed to
take care of excess flow. For large roof tops, a system is designed with three concentric
circular chambers in which outer chamber is filled with sand, the middle one with coarse
aggregate and the inner most layer with pebbles (Fig. 2.13). Since the sand is provided in
outer chamber, the area of filtration is increased for sand, in comparison to coarse aggregate
and pebbles. Rain water reaches the center core and is collected in the sump where it is
treated with few tablets of chlorine and is made ready for consumption.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 19

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Fig. 2.13 Filter for large roof top

2.2.6.6 Rain water purification center

This filter has been developed by three Netherlands based companies for conversion of rain
water to drinking water and is popularly known as Rain PC. Rain PC is made of ultra violet
resistant poly-ethylene housing and cover, stainless steel rods and bolts, a nickel-brass valve
and an adapter for maintaining constant volume. ( Fig. 2.14) .

This filter can effectively remove E-coli and other bacteria from water using
Xenotex-A and active carbon cartridges along with ultra membrane filtration modules. This
filter is easy to operate and maintain and needs no power. This operates at low gravity
pressure and maintains nearly constant volume irrespective of water pressure. The system
is capable of providing a constant flow of about 40 lit. of rain water per hour. The
XenotexA and activated carbon cartridges processes up to 20,000 liters of water and can be
regenerated up to 10 times.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 20

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

MECHANICAL-FILTER

RAIN PC

INFILTRATION

Fig. 2.14 Rain water purification center

2.2.7 Settlement tank

If the collected rain water from roof top / ground is used to recharge ground water reserve, it
should be passed through a desilting pit/ settlement tank before entering the aquifer. The
settlement tank facilitates the settling down of suspended material i.e. silt and other floating
impurities before the water recharge the aquifer. The settlement tank should have inlet,
outlet and overflow device. Any container with adequate capacity of storage can be used as
settlement tank. It can be either underground or over ground.

The settlement tank acts like a buffer in the system. In case of excess rainfall, the
rate of recharge, especially of borewells, may not match the rate of rainfall. In such
situations, the desilting chamber holds the excess amount of rain water, till it is soaked by
recharge structures. The settlement tank can be prefabricated PVC or Ferro-cement tanks,
masonry and concrete tanks (Fig. 2.15). In case of underground settlement tank, the bottom
can be unpaved surface so that water can percolate through soil.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 21

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Overflow pipe 150 mm dia.

Abandoned From rooftop

borewell 150 mm dia.

Grating

Fig. 2.15 Settlement tank

For designing the optimum capacity of the settlement tank, the following parameters need
to be considered –

(a) Size of the catchment

(b) Intensity of rain fall(c) Rate of recharge

The capacity of the tank should be enough to retain the runoff occurring from conditions of
peak rainfall intensity. The rate of recharge in comparison to runoff is a critical factor. The
capacity of recharge tank is designed to retain runoff from at least 15 minutes of rainfall of
peak intensity.

For example, for kathmandu peak hourly rainfall is 90mm (based on 25 year frequency) and
15 minutes peak rainfall is 22.5 mm say 25mm.

Area of roof top catchment (A) = 100 sqm.

Peak rain fall in 15 min (r) = 25mm (0.025m)
Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85
Then, capacity of settlement tank = A x r x C
= 100 x 0.025 x 0.85 = 2.125 cum or 2,125 liters

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 22

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

2.2.8 Storage tank

Whenever the rain water collected from roof top is used directly for various purposes,
storage tank is required. The storage tank can be cylindrical, rectangular or square in shape.
The material of construction can be RCC, ferrocement, masonry, PVC or metal sheets.
Depending upon the availability of space, the storage tank can be above ground, partially
underground or fully underground.

The design of storage tank is dependent on many factors which are listed below:

(a) Number of persons in the household – The greater the number of persons, more will
be requirement of water.
(b) Per capita requirement – varies from household to household, based on standard of
living. The requirement also varies with season. In summer the requirement is more
in comparison to winter. Similarly, the per capita requirement is more in urban
areas in comparison to rural areas.
(c) Average annual rainfall

(d) Rainfall pattern – It has a significant impact on capacity of storage tank. If the
rainfall is uniformly spread throughout the year, the requirement of storage capacity
will be less. But if the rainfall is concentrated to a limited period in a year, the
storage tanks of higher capacity will be required.
(e) Type and size of catchment – Depending upon the type of roofing material, the
runoff coefficient varies which affect the effective yield from a catchment area. The
size of the catchment also has a bearing on tank size. The more the catchment area,
larger the size of storage tank.

The design of the storage tank, can be done using following three approaches:

(a) Matching the capacity of the tank to the area of the roof.

(b) Matching the capacity of the tank to the quantity of water required by its users

(c) Choosing a tank size that is appropriate in terms of costs, resources and construction
methods.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 23

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

2.2.8.1 Matching the capacity of the tank with the area of the roof

In this approach, storage capacity of the tank is determined, based on the actual catchment
area and total rain water harvesting potential. All the water collected from roof top is stored
in storage tank and storage capacity is calculated based on the consumption pattern and
rainfall pattern.

Illustration – Suppose the storage tank has to be designed for 200 sqm roof area in
bardiyaarea where average annual rainfall is 1290mm. The runoff coefficient for roof top is
0.85, so for every 1mm rainfall, the quantity of water which can be harvested is 200 x 0.001
x 0.85 = 0.170m3 or 170 liters

The monthly consumption of water is 20,000 liters. Table 2.2 given below
illustrates the method of calculation of required storage capacity of the tank.

Table 2.2 Calculation of capacity of storage tank

Month Monthly Rainfall Cumulative Monthly Cumulative Difference
rain fall Harvested rain fall Demand demand between
in mm in liters harvested in liters (4) &(6)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

July 98 16660 16660 20000 20000 -3340
Aug 136 23120 39780 20000 40000 -220
Sept. 122 20740 60520 20000 60000 520
Oct. 282 47940 108460 20000 80000 28460
Nov. 354 60180 168640 20000 100000 68640
Dec. 141 23970 192610 20000 120000 72610
Jan. 30 5100 197710 20000 140000 47710
Feb. 8 1360 199070 20000 160000 39070
Mar. 5 850 199920 20000 180000 39920
Apr. 15 2550 202470 20000 200000 2470
May 38 6460 208930 20000 220000 -11070
June 61 10370 219300 20000 240000 20700
Total annual rain fall : 1290mm

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 24

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

From the above table, it can be seen that difference between cumulative rainfall harvested
and cumulative demand is maximum in the month of December at 72610 liters. So the
capacity of storage tank should be 72610 liters, say 73000 liters.

2.2.8.2 Matching the capacity of the tank with the quantity of water
required by its users

Suppose the system has to be designed for meeting drinking water requirement of a 4
member family living in the building with a roof top area of 200 sqm. The average annual
rainfall in the kathmandu region is 1290 mm. Daily drinking water requirement is 10 liters
per person.
If area of catchment (A) = 200 sq.m.
average annual rainfall (= 1290 mm (1.290 m) and
R)
runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85
Then, annual rain water
harvesting potential = 200 x 1.290 x 0.85
= 219.30 cum or 2,19,300
liters
The tank capacity is determined based on the dry period i.e. the period between the two
consecutive rainy seasons. For example, with a monsoon extending over 5 months, the dry
season is of 215 days.

Drinking water requirement for the family during dry season = 215 x 4 x 10 = 8600 liters.

After keeping some factor of safety, the tank should have 20 percent more capacity than
required above, i.e. 10,320 liters.

2.2.8.3 Choosing a tank size, appropriate in terms of costs, resources and

construction methods

In practice, the costs, resources and construction methods tend to limit the storage tank to
smaller capacity in comparison to requirement as per approach 1 & 2. Depending upon the
budget and space available, the construction of storage tank is done so that at least for some
period dependence on municipal sources / water tankers can be minimized.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 25

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 3

RECHARGING SUBSURFACE AQUIFERS

3.1Methods of recharging subsurface aquifers

The various methods of recharging subsurface aquifers are:

1. Through recharge pit.

2. Recharge through abandoned hand pump.
3. Recharge through abandoned dug well/open well.
4. Through recharge trench.
5. Recharge through shaft.
6. Recharge trench with bore.

3.1.1Through recharge pit

This method is suitable where permeable strata is available at shallow depth. It is adopted
for buildings having roof area up to 100 sqm. Recharge pit of any shape is constructed
generally 1-2 m wide and 2-3 m deep. The pit is filled with boulders, gravel and sand for
filtration of rain water. Water entering in to RWH structure should be silt free. Top layer of
sand of filter should be cleaned periodically for better ingression of rain water in to the sub
soil. Details are shown in Fig. 3.1.

3.1.2 Recharge through abandoned hand pump

In this method, an abandoned hand pump is used as recharging structure. It is suitable for
building having roof top area up to 150 sqm . Roof top rain water is fed to the hand pump
through 100 mm dia. pipe as shown in Fig. 3.2. Water fed in the Rain water harvesting
structure should be silt free. Water from first rain should be diverted to drain through
suitable arrangement. If water is not clear then filter should be provided.

3.1.3Recharge through abandoned dug well / open well

In this method, a dry / unused dug well can be used as a recharge structure. It is suitable for
buildings having a roof top area more then 100 sqm . Recharge water is guided through a
pipe of 100 mm to the bottom of the well as shown in Fig. 3.3. Well cleaning and desilting
is imperative before using it. Recharge water guided should be silt free, otherwise filter

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 26

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

should be provided as shown in Fig. 3.3. Well should be cleaned periodically and
chlorinated to control bacteriological contamination.

3.1.4 Through recharge trench

This method is used where permeable strata is available at shallow depth. It is

suitable for buildings having roof top area between 200 & 300 sqm. In this
method, trench of 0.5-1.0 m wide, 1-1.5 m deep and of adequate length
depending upon roof top area and soil/subsoil characteristics should be
constructed and filled with boulders, gravel and sand as shown in Fig. 3.4.
Cleaning of filter media should be done periodically.

3.1.5 Recharge through shafts

This method is suitable where shallow aquifer is located below clayey

surface. It is used for buildings having roof top area between 2000 &5000
sqm. Recharge shaft of diameter 0.5-3 m and 10-15 m deep is excavated
mechanically. The shaft should end in impermeable strata. The shaft should be
filled with boulders, gravel and sand for filtration of recharge water. Top sand
layer should be cleaned periodically. Recharge shaft should be constructed 10-
15 m away from the buildings for the safety of the buildings. The details are
given in Fig. 3.5.

3.1.6 Recharge trench with bore

This method is used where sub-soil is impervious and large quantity of

roof water/ surface run off is available. In this, trench is made 1.5-3 m wide
and 10-30 m length depending upon water availability. Wells of 150-300 mm
dia. and 3-5 m deep (below pervious layer) are constructed in the trench.
Numbers of wells to be dug are decided in accordance to water availability and
rate of ingression. Trench is filled with filtration media as shown in Fig. 3.6. A

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 27

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

suitable silt chamber is also inserted with grating for water diverting
arrangements as shown in the figure.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 28

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 29

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 30

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 31

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 32

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 33

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 4

CASE STUDY

4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Background of study

RWHS is extraction of rainwater from the roof catchment area. Water scarcity is one of the
growing problems in urban cities. The main problem of water scarcity in Kathmandu valley is
due to leakage of pipe. Due to lack of proper management of rainwater, less amount of water
is stored. Water scarcity ultimately creates severe drought in arid areas, mostly in the African
countries like Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Malawi. In late 1987 there was severe drought in
Ethiopia (Falkenmark 1989). Due to the lack of proper advanced technology and proper co-
ordination among the government and the public, the problem of drinking facility is
increasing more these days. Due to the climate change, there is scarcity of drinking water in
urban places.

The rapid urbanization in Kathmandu Valley started from the early 1950s after the drastic
change in the political situation. The valley also started developing as a center of the country
since 1940s. The development of infrastructures and rapid development in institutional as
well as trade relations among European countries started, and at the time of rapid
development it lacked proper design in basic facilities like water supply and roads for the
future. Due to lack of proper vision and structure design, the valley is facing severe problems
regarding drinking water facility, and the water supply compared to the present water demand
is very less. In recent years the winters are being drier even though there are huge amounts of
precipitation in rainy periods. In 2009 the country experienced more winter drought, as there
was less rainfall during the monsoon period. In a way the country is facing more water
problems due to lack of proper storage facility.

Although there is a high amount of precipitation in Kathmandu Valley, rapid urbanization

and lack of proper planning on water facilities creates two major changes in population
increase and land use pattern. The government of Nepal was unable to manage the current
situation that ultimately creates more and more problems to meet the demand of the

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 34

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

increasing population. The rapid urbanization affects the rainwater recharge to the
underground aquifer, as the result water table decreases, creating severe problem in supply of
drinking water to meet the present demand. The major issues creating lack of proper drinking
water supply in Kathmandu Valley are use of old damaged pipelines and irregular monitoring
of the supply system and its components. The GON together with ADB, JBIC (Japan) and
NORAD (Norway) initiates MWSP project in 2003 that was approved in 2001. The project
was designed to meet 170 MLD water to the valley, and its implementation is not proper yet.

The direct benefit of RWHS in urban area is to mitigate flood. The various types of recharge
structures are designed in public places i.e. recharge pits that help to prevent the excessive
flooding. In the same way, RWHS improves the quality & quantity of groundwater, which is
indirectly benefitted. A survey conducted in Chennai, India by Rain center shows that the
water table had risen by 6 meters when introducing RWHS after monsoon in 2006
(SEETHA GOPALAKRISHNAN 2002).

4.1.2 Need of rainwater harvesting in cities

It is challenging to fulfill the water demand in the cities, as it is increasing with rapid growth
in population. Rainwater harvesting is the best option in those areas where there is inadequate
supply of ground water or surface water. It helps reducing overloads to the water treatment
plants as well as it prevents runoff from going to the drainage system, thereby effectively
utilizing the rainwater. Similarly, it helps in recharging water into aquifers and improves the
quality of ground water through dilution. In different urban places rainwater is used for
primarily drinking water as well as various secondary uses like irrigation, groundwater
recharge and flushing toilets. Most of the arsenic affected places in Bangladesh; rainwater is
a primary source of drinking water.
Changi Airport in Singapore that is considered as world best airport that uses 63,500 tons of
rainwater for flushing toilets and more often for cooling the terminal buildings. Similarly,
Gansu Province in china supplies supplementary irrigation for 236,400 hectares of land with
300mm of rainfall. Moreover in India, annual recharge of rainwater that goes directly into the
ground (Shrestha 2009) resulted in increase in groundwater level up to 5-10 meters in a
period of just two years.
School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 35
RAIN WATER HARVESTING

4.1.3 Need of rainwater harvesting in Kathmandu

Water scarcity is a major problem in Kathmandu along with its rapid growing population.
With the rate of increasing population, government and institutional bodies fail to fulfill the
required water demand to Kathmandu Valley. In this scenario, rainwater-harvesting
technology is a promising approach to satisfy water demand in some extent. The average
rainfall pattern in Kathmandu is around 1900mm. In total 640 sq. km Kathmandu valley
annual rainfall is 1.2 billion cu.m/year or 3353 MLD, that is 12 times the current water
demand in Kathmandu Valley (Shrestha 2009).

4.1.4 Potential of rainwater harvesting in Kathmandu

When the annual rainfall is high, Kathmandu Valley can meet the demand of the public in
some extent. The annual average rainfall in Kathmandu Valley is higher than the estimated
total valley average i.e., 2500mm in the last four years. The current water demand of a family
member with averagely 5 family members is about 170 cu.m per year. But a building of 100
sq.m can collect 200 cu.m per year if almost 80% of the total rainfall on a particular building
is collected easily (Shrestha 2009).
Practically it is impossible to store the exact potential, so the rest of the rainwater can be
artificially recharged to groundwater aquifer. Out of total 640 sq. km of Kathmandu Valley, if
only 10% of total area can be used for rainwater harvesting, then 128-million cu.m rainwater
per year could be recharged (Shrestha 2009). Practical action, suitable recharge techniques
and proper location investigations are much required to implement plans in an efficient way.

4.1.5 Objective of study:

The overall objective of the study is to analyze the rainwater harvesting potential in urban
Kathmandu to supplement the water supply. The specific objectives are:
To estimate the RW roof catchment area in different land sizes.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 36

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

4.2 Study Area:

Fig; Map of Nepal

Fig; Map of Kathmandu valley

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 37

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

4.3 Data collection

The study of research is based on the statistical analysis of secondary data and
interpretation of results, so as to analyze the potential of rainwater on different roof
catchment surfaces in different household areas. The individual households that are made
in different sizes of land are 2,4,6,8,10 Anna and these data are taken from the municipality
office of ward number 9. The annual rainfall data is important to calculate to know the
intra annual variability in rainfall pattern, and is taken from department of weather and
metrology. Obtained data is used to calculate the coefficient of variations of different
months. Inter annual variability of annual cumulative rainfall can be determined by finding
the coefficient of variation of annual cumulative rainfall. VR = (R*HRA *RC)/ 1000

VR=Monthly rainwater volume (m3)

R= Monthly rainfall depth (m)

HRA = Roof area of household (m2)

RC = Runoff coefficient

The available rainwater can be estimated by the equation:

Q = C I A … Where Q is available rainwater quantity in m3/ year, C is the coefficient of the

available runoff, I is intensity of the rainfall in m/year and A is the catchment area in m 2.
Thus, the annual rainfall data is statistically determined.

4.4 Result and analysis

4.4.1Water supply demand

The water demand to ascertain the demand per person per day, HH survey was carried out
and the result of the demand survey is presented in the figure below:

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 38

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Household survey

Above 100l(15%)

Between 70-100 l
(30%)
Between 30-
70l(50% )
Below 30l(5%)

Fig 6: HH survey on water supply demand ratio.

The HH survey revealed at the present condition of water supply and expected demand per
person is so far lower than what normally is adapted for urban water supply. The average
water demand per individual is 50l L per capita per day and includes drinking, washing, and
flushing. The demand is low because of the miserable water supply situation in Kathmandu,
where the low value of 50l L per day is the main concern to get water. But all in all since they
are all habituated to the condition, they are happy to get the low amount of water ensured.

4.4.2 Water supply sources

The questionnaire survey is carried out in order to determine the type of water resources that
is being used or if it is able to meet the water demand. Several water supply sources were put
in the questionnaire survey namely water from private tankers, shallow wells, deep wells,
municipal water supply as well as RWHS. Based on the survey results presented in the figure
below:

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 39

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Household survey

Private tankers(
50%)
Shallow wells(10%)

Municipal water
supply(40%)

Fig 7: HH survey on different water supply sources

The results show that the main sources of water supply are partly from municipal and partly
from the private water tanks. Only 10% of HH have shallow tube wells and no one of them
has deep tube wells. Similarly, no one has proper RWHSs, but occasionally water is collected
using only buckets and large containers as informal or unsystematic RWHSs. The result of
the survey also revealed that dependency of municipal water supply system was low and
other type of sources met the demand.

4.4.3 Rainwater harvesting system & practices to households

One of the questions that were posed during the questionnaire survey was the knowledge and
awareness of RWHS. The result of HH survey on people awareness is presented in figure
below:

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 40

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Household survey

RWHS knowledge &

practices(30%)
Less and no RWHS
concept(70%)

Fig 8: HH survey on RWHS practices.

It was found that only 30% of HH knew about RWHS and its benefit, and 70% of people
were unaware of the potential of RWHS as a source of water supply.

This result shows that there is a need of an awareness raising program to educate people on
potential benefit of RWHS. Organizing the demonstration of how RWHS can be built and
can be done by local wards or municipality. They could carry out such awareness-raising
programs.

4.4.4 Land holding size

In order to determine the sizes of roof catchment areas, the HH building maps were obtained
from each HH during the survey, and the sizes of land and roof area were noted down. The
minimum land area required to construct a building is 2 Anna. This survey of HH revealed
that the size of land holding range from minimum 2 Anna to maximum 12 Anna (1 Anna=
342.25 sq. ft.). In order to simplify the land holding size data, the land size was divided into
2-4, 4-6, 6-8, 810, 10-12 Anna’s. The survey revealed that the highest percentage of HHs
were 2-4 (Aana). Similarly, the size of roof area for each of HH survey was calculated and
the size are presented in the table with standard deviation

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 41

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Mean and standard deviation of different roof area size.

Anna Mean (m2) Standard deviation

2-4 73 24

4-6 112 26

6-8 139 61

8-10 140 51

10-12 167 108

4.4.5 Roof catchment design

The amount of rainwater collected from the catchment depends on the type and quality of the
roof catchment. The roof catchment with cemented roof catchment area has 0.85 coefficient
of runoff and tile roof has 0.75 coefficient of runoff. The material with highest amount of
rainfall can collect more because of high coefficient of runoff. The survey of 52 HH reveals
that 85% of HH has concrete roof, 12% has roof with tiles and 3% has corrugated sheets.
Similarly, 85% of HH had one type of roof and 15% has mixed roof type. The result is shown
in the graph below:

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 42

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Household survey

Concrete roof (85%)

Tile roof(12%)

Corrugated
sheet(3%)

Fig 11: HH survey on Roof catchment design.

4.4.6Annual rainfall pattern analysis

The annual rainfall data is collected from the department of hydrology and meteorological.
The calculation of monthly rainfall data from 2003 to 2013 together with its interpretation,
analyzes rainwater harvesting system efficiency and potential that gives the model of design
calculation of important components in the system. There is no significant changes in rainfall
pattern the last 10 years. To calculate the coefficient of variations of different months and
monthly rainwater volume, monthly rainfall data is analyzed to know the best time for
rainwater harvesting so as to extract more water in the peak harvesting time to store for the
dry period. Standard deviation and total mean of monthly rainfall are calculated to determine
the coefficient of variation. Mostly in the monsoon season JuneAugust, the average
precipitation is more. As much as 374,91 mm in July, and December is the month with less
precipitation with 3,61 mm. The difference in average monthly rainfall pattern gives
information about the wet and dry periods that can be used during model design of RWHS.
Similarly, data of HH roof areastogether with monthly rainfall data gives the total volume of
monthly rainwater. In a same way to calculate available rainwater in a year, the rainfall data
is calculated annually. Year 2013 and 2009 are with the highest and lowest amount of
precipitation. The annual average rainfall together with roof catchment area gives total

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 43

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

rainwater available in a year. The average monthly precipitation from 2003-2013 is

presented in the figure below:

Fig 14: Average monthly precipitation of 2003-2013.

The total rainwater available in different sizes of roof catchment area gives the information
regarding designing of the storage tank. The different roof areas 2-4 Anna, 4-6 Anna, 6-8
Anna, 8-10 Anna and 10-12 Anna depending on their water collection capacity with variation
in sizes, gives the data of optimum limit that the particular type of catchment area can store. It
is obvious that a roof catchment area with 8-10 Anna requires a larger storage tank compared
to a 2-4 Anna roof catchment area due to their difference in roof size. The mean roof area of
10-12 Anna is 167 m2 due to large catchment area and the mean roof area of 2-4 Anna is
72,66 m2 due to small catchment area. The data of mean roof area size of different land size
gives the basis of calculating annual rainfall available in different years.

The amount of rainfall available on roof catchment areas of different land sizes depends on
the intensity of available rainfall as well as the size of roof catchment area. The calculation of
available runoff gives a proper framework in designing the storage tank capacity and amount
of rainwater that can be harvested depending on the family size, roof area and available
rainfall. The total rainfall available in different years shows the amount of rainwater that can
be harvested during monsoon season and also involves in designing suitable storage tank
concerning the family size of different HH. The analysis of rainfall data and roof catchment

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 44

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

area shows the amount of water that can be stored during the monsoon season and can be
utilize during dry season so as to fulfill household water demand in some extent.

R 2-4 anna catchment R 6-8 anna catchment

25
u 14
n0
area u0 area
12 n 20
of010 of
f 08
f 15
a 0 6 a0
v 0 4 v 10
ai 02 ai 0
la 00 5
la
bl 0
bl
e 0
e
200200200200200200200201201201201
year
3 4 5 6 7 year 8 9 0 1 2 3
s
s
The total amount of available monthly rainwater is calculated in different roof catchment
sizes of different households. The calculation of monthly volume of rainwater shows the
available rainwater period and it gives the major framework in designing the DRWHS. In a
same way it shows how much rainwater can be extracted mainly in the month of June, July
and August. It shows the total volume of rainwater that fall on the different catchment areas
and shows the potential of rainwater harvesting in rainy season and utilization of stored water
in dry season so as to meet the water demand depending on amount of water needed in
different households.

4.4.7 Rainfall data

The average annual precipitation data from the year 2003-2013 gives the annual rainfall
pattern of the Urban Kathmandu. The calculation of precipitation data gives information
about yearly average as well as monthly precipitation. This calculated data gives information
gives about the peak rainfall period (wet period) as well as dry period. The calculation of
average monthly precipitation gives the range of precipitation of different months. Also, the
standard deviation and coefficient of variation are also calculated using the average monthly
precipitation data.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 45

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Month PPT (mm) Standard deviation CV

January 13 17 1,27

February 29 28 0,96

March 36 19 0,53

April 67 44 0,65

May 123 71 0,58

June 215 61 0,28

July 375 110 0,29

August 315 92 0,29

September 244 81 0,33

October 49 46 0,94

November 5 11 2,17

December 4 7 2

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 46

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

4.4.8 Calculation of storage tank capacity of different household roof areas

The size of the storage tank required for each land holding size is presented table below. The
storage tank capacity of average household size 5 is calculated using mathematical
calculation for suitable tank size for storing rainwater. For a daily demand of 50 l per capita
per day, which was, obtain in HH survey in for

Type of catchment area Storage tank capacity (L)

(Anna)
2-4 9700
4-6 7096
6-8 6600
8-10 6582
10-12 6078

domestic water demand but 20 Lpcd is used as rainwater can fulfill demand in
some extent only. The study in Nepal by NEWAH has revealed that maximum
storage and size demand for cooking and drinking depends on the water supply
capacity. Therefore, increasing storage capacity beyond this size didn’t result in
any change in demand satisfaction. So, minimum storage capacity appropriate
for Kathmandu urban area to satisfy the demand is calculated presented in table
below:

The graph shows that the larger roof catchment area can supply less amount of
water as larger roof area signifies the HH built on large area and total number of
people living on large HH is more compare to the lesser ones. Similarly, water
consumption is also more in the HH with large number of people.

The total number of HH in different types of land sizes varies in the study area
as it depends on the on land availability and land area. So, the HH varies from 2
School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 47
RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Anna- 12 Anna depending on size of land where houses are built. The total
numbers of HH chosen were 52 and those 52 HH falls on the different category
of land size.

Land Size Catchment Number of HH

area
(Anna)
2-4 29
4-6 8
6-8 5
8-10 6
10-12 3

Fig 18: Total number of HH in different land size catchment areas

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 48

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

5 CONCLUSIONS

The water supply in urban Kathmandu, ward-6 is less compared to the demand. To mitigate
the problem, external sources like tube wells and water tanks are used to fulfill the water
demand in some extent. The RWHS can meet 50% of the water demand in HH during
monsoon season, thereby reducing extra cost of investment to buy water. Also, RWHS helps
to mitigate urban flooding by holding the water. The reliability and efficiency system is
considered to be feasible enough if the payback period is less than 5 years. The uses of annual
rainfall data and roof catchment area of different land sizes (2-4,4-6,6-8,8-10,10-12 Anna) are
used to calculate the annual rainfall available and monthly volume of rainwater. This
calculation and statistical analysis shows how much annually and monthly rainwater can be
extracted from the roof catchment area. June-August is supposed to have more precipitation
and there is a high potential to extract rainwater in those three months that can be used in the
dry period to fulfill water demand to some extent in the individual household.

The potential of rainfall available is analyzed. Depending on the different types of

roof catchment area, 10-12 Anna roof areas is supposed to have 167,38m2 and 2-4 Anna roof
area is supposed to have 72.66 m2 that means the potential of collection increases as surface
roof area increases. The monthly precipitation of Kathmandu valley is more in June –
September with monthly precipitation of 215.10mm, 374.909mm, 314.927mm and
244.390mm. Similarly, the calculated monthly rainfall data shows that the peak amount of
rainfall can be collected during monsoon season so as to fulfill current household water
demand to some extent. With the design calculation, concerning rainfall data and roof
catchment area, the storage tanks of different roof areas are designed to meet the storage
capacity of harvested rainwater for future use.

The rainwater harvesting system in urban Kathmandu is a much needed basic facility that can
minimize the cost and effort in government level concerning drinking water supply to
individual households. The implementation of this project in Kathmandu Valley where a
population of almost 5 million people will be a step towards the new technology, as initial
cost is estimated to be Rs.23563.35 and payback period is estimated to be 3.92 year.

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 49

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

6. REFERENCE

• Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting

• Internet Sources
Rainwater Conservation and Benefits:

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web
&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiW6qyi1NvJAhXGEXIKHdw
OCRUQFgg kMAE&url=https%3A%2F%2F2.zoppoz.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.thepeaceseekers.o

School Of Research And Technology , People's University ,Bhanpur, Bhopal Page 50