/Y, //

A HISTORICAL AND STYLISTIC ANALYSIS

OF THE

SONATA, OP. 31, NO. 2, IN D MINOR OF

BEETHOVEN

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the North

Texas State Teachers College in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

By

H. Allen Craw, B. A.

Keene, Texas

August, 1948
154I

T ABLE 01 CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. iv

LISTuOF ILLUSTR.TIONS .*a.0 . * * . . . . ... 0* V

Chapter
I. THE PERIOD OF BEETHOVEN IN MUSIC HISTORY

General Historical Background

A Consideration of Some Contemporaries

II. ThE PERIOD OF THIS SONATA IN BEETHOVEN'S

CREATIVE ACTIVITY 10

III. THE PIANO OF BEETHOVEN'S DAY AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON ThI SONATA . . . . . . . 17

.
Introduction
Range
Action
Tension
Pedals
How the Piano of Beethoven's Time
Affected This Sonata

IV. GENERAL ASPECTS OF STYLE . . . . . . . . 30

.

Mood or Character
Tempo
Dynamics
Ornamentation
Variants in the Text
Piano Idiom

V. ANALYSIS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . 48
.

Introduction
The First Movement - Largo -Alle0
The Second Movement - Adagio
The Third Movement - Allegretto

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
.

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Structural uiagram of the First Novement . . . 58

2. Structural Diagram of the second Movement . . 62

3. Structural Diagram of the Third Movement . . . 69

iv
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page
1. Measures 1-7, lst movement, sonata,
Op. 40, No. 2, Clementi. . . . . . . 7

.
2. System of Pitch Notation Used in
This Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

.
3. bars 92-93, 1st Movement of Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2 of Beethoven . * . . . . 24

.
4. bars 59-63, lst Movement, Sonata,
Op. 31, Ao. 2, Beethoven . . .. 25
5. bars 189-192, 1st Movement, sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven ..0.00 . . . . 25

.
6. Bars 307-313, 3rd xviovement, Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven . . .
.
7. Bars 79-85, 3rd Movement, Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven . . . .0 . . . 27
.

.
8. Bar 6, 1st Movement, Sonata, Op. 31,
No. 2, Beethoven . . . . ... 0. . . . .
.

9. Turns from 2nd Movement of Sonata,

Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven, as Realized
by Casella (a), and BUlow-Lebert (b) 40
10. Turn from Bar 20, 2nd Movement, Sonata,
Op. Pi, No. 2, Beethoven, Realized
by Bulow-Lebert . . . . . . . . .*.0. 40
11. Bars 23-24, 2nd Movement, Sonata, Op. 31
No. 2, Beethoven, as Arranged by
Klindworth . . . . . . . . . *.
. . . 43
.

12. Bar 51, 2nd Movement, Sonata, Op. 31,

No. 2, Beethoven, as Arranged by
Henselt . . . . . . . . . . . . .0*0. . . 44
.

V
Figure
Page
13. Bars 13-16, 1st Movement, Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven, as
Divided between the Two Hands . . . . . . . 45
14. Bars 97-99, 1st Movement, Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven - - . . . . 45
15. Bars 161-162, 1st Movement, Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven . . . . . . . . . 46
16. Bars 1-3, 2nd Movement, Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven . . . . . . . . . 59
17. Bars 126-128, 1st Movement, Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, at a, and Bars 23-25,
2nd Movement, same~Sonata, at b,
Beethoven . - - - - - - - . - . . . . . . . 60
18. Bars 43-51, 3rd Movement, Sonata,
Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven 0 . -. . . . . . 64

vi
 CHAPTER I

THE PERIOD OF BEETHOVEN IN MUSIC HISTORY

General Historical Background

The period in musical history which includes the last

few years of the eighteenth century and the first years of

the nineteenth century was a decided turning point in the

evolution of the art of music. It is just at this time that

Beethoven comes onto the musical horizon to lead or point

the way to the new possibilities inherent in music when it

is freed from the rigid rules that had bound it.

This period in general history is the period of the

French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, and the American

Revolution. It is the period that shows the slow rise of

the lower and middle classes in a democratic spirit which

pointed to greater freedom and liberty in all spheres of

human activity.

The leaven which had caused the French Revolution and

other upheavals of the people to secure greater freedom of

thought and action appears to have been working in the field

of music also. The last half of the eighteenth century and

the early years of the nineteenth century is that period

1
 2

known in musical history as the Classical Period. It is not

important that we set definite dates to mark its beginning

and ending. It is, however, important to know the trend of

musical thought during that period. The music of this

period is characterized as objective, showing emotional

restraint, polished, refined, having mastery of form, and

possessing clarity of phrasing. Its harmony shows remark-

able simplicity. Many passages of instrumental works con-

sisted almost solely of the primary triads. Seventh chords

were used sparingly and ninth chords scarcely at all. On

the whole the harmonic content of the works of the Classical

Period is much less complex than the harmonic material used

in the works of J. S. Bach. The melody of this music is

also markedly simple and often folk-like in its clarity. In

regard to form, the majority of instrumental works were cast

in the sonata form.

In the main the entire range of instrumental music of

this period is bound by the rules and conventions which had

grown up around the forms in use so that one could expect

that the first subject in a sonata-allegro movement would be

in the tonic key, and the second subject would be in the

dominant key or in the relative minor. Everything was

restrained and conventionalized so that no freedom was given

to the imagination of the composer. His thoughts were

expected to conform to the patterns then in use.

 3

It is at the end of the eighteenth century that we see

this leaven of unrest and desire for freedom of ideas made

manifest for the first time in music. It is then that the

first seeds of the Romantic Movement begin to spring into

life. As in the other arts of literature and painting, the

Romantic Movement in music possessed a spirit of discontent

for the artistic formulae and conventions of the immediate

past. Composers felt a need for and demanded more freedom

of thought and ideas. They called for new forms in which

to express the ideas that clamored for expression in their

souls. Music for them must express personal feelings; it

must be subjective; it must not be shackled by useless rules

concerning its form, content, and phraseology. In order to

express more fully their own individuality they must be given

free reign to compose how and what they liked. They must

search out new harmonic and tonal possibilities.

It is just at this turning point in the stream of

musical history that Beethoven comes on the stage of action.

He comes at the time when the transition from the Classical

to the Romantic Period takes place. It is neither possible

to catalog his works as belonging to the Classical Period,

nor to the Romantic Period. With respect to the forms used.,

Beethoven could be considered a classicist because he made

great use of the sonata form as a vehicle of expression for

his thoughts. It is the way in which Beethoven uses the

 4

sonata form that makes him, to some degree at least, a

romanticist. In any case, it was Beethoven who paved the

way for the flowering of Romanticism by the composers

immediately following him. It was he who first put imagina-

tive content and soul into music. In fact his early works

in the field of programme music are quite notable.

A Consideration of Some Contemporaries

In order to understand to the fullest degree the com-

positions of any composer, it is always well to consider

the works of contemporary composers. By so doing, one may

see things in their proper perspective and not be tempted

to over or underestimate the worth of the composition or

compositions under consideration.

Franz J y (1732-1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus

Mozart (1756-1791).--The two composers of this period who

have won undying fame for writing great music are Haydn and

Mozart. It is not because of the sonatas for piano of

either man, however, that their reputation was established.

The sonatas of both Haydn and Mozart are works that are not

too definitely written in the piano idiom. They could have

just as well been written for the harpsichord.

While it is true that the early sonatas of Beethoven

are reminiscent of the sonatas of Haydn, it is also true

that the sonatas of Haydn are not compositions that can be

very favorably compared to those of Beethoven. The Sonata

 5

in D major of Haydn has many dynamic changes and heavy

accents which make it to some extent comparable to the

Beethoven sonatas. It is in other fields, such as the

symphony and chamber music, that Haydn is at his best.

Mozart is not at his greatest in his sonatas for the

piano. He wrote some nineteen of them, of which the Sonatas

in C minor, K.V. 457; in A major, K.V. 331; in D major,

K.V. 576; and in D major, K.V. 284 are among the greatest.

Mozart is known, however, more for his symphonic works, his

chamber music, and his piano concertos than for his piano

sonatas.

It was then neither Haydn nor Mozart who really

developed the first truly piano style. It is to the two

composers to be discussed next that credit is due to at

least a certain degree for the first establishment of a true

piano idiom. These two composers, Clementi and Dussek, it

will be seen, were known to write excellently for the key-

board. Their works are always pianistic, but they lack the

spark of genius, the soul that Beethoven put into his

sonatas.

Muzio Clementi (1746-1832).--Clementi wrote some 60

sonatas and many sonatinas which are little known today

except as teaching materials, for which they are very well

adapted. His sonatas were used by Beethoven himself for

that purpose. They possess clear outlines of form, are

 6

well-proportioned, and definitely pianistic. Clementi

had every possibility to have written great music for he

had studied the sonatas of Scarlatti, Haydn, Mozart and

Beethoven. It is of interest to note what Oscar Bie

says of Clementi in his book, "A History of the Piano-

forte and Pianoforte Players." He says the following

concerning the so-called Dido Sonata which is dedicated

to Cherubini:

Even in it the genius is cold. In the other

sonatas we see the body of Beethoven without the
soul. It is Scarlatti once again--trivial and
soul-less; but unlike Scarlatti, who cut short
what had short life, it is pretentious in its
eternal repetitions.1

In Clementi's Sonata, Op. 40, No. 2, in B minor, we

find one of his works which seems a little more highly

developed than the others. It starts with a slow intro-

duction in the manner of the Haydn symphonies. In the

opening theme of the sonata-allegro movement, there is a

motive similar to the motive in the Beethoven Sonata,

Op. 31, No. 2, in D minor, in that it is based upon the

members of the tonic chord. This passage, as shown in

Figure 1, might be favorably compared to measures 21 to

25 of the first movement of the Beethoven Sonata.

1 Oscar
Bie, A History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte
Players, p. 210.-
 Fig. l.--Measures 1-7, 1st movement, Sonata,
Op. 40, No. 2, Clementi.

The development section of this first movement of the

Clementi Sonata is also a little more developed than in

Mozart and Haydn Sonatas. It goes through the keys of

G major, D minor, C major, A minor, B minor, Eb minor,

Eb major, E minor, G minor, major, C major and then back

to B minor for the recapitulation.

The second movement is a largo which leads without

interruption to the last movement, allegro. The unusual

thing is that the theme of the largo occurs again in the

middle of the allegro movement.

Again it is not for his piano sonatas that Clementi is

famous as a composer. It is rather for his series of

studies, "The Gradus ad Parnassum," a valuable collection

of study material for the pianist.

Johann Dussek (1761-1817).--Dussek, who achieved great

fame as a pianist, wrote concertos and sonatas for the

 8

piano. They are brilliant and sparkling in style, even if

somewhat sentimental. He is noteworthy as one of the first

composers to compose almost solely for the piano. His slow

movements are sustained and serious. He was very partial to

the pedal and was also one of the first to use syncopations

effectively.

Johann Cramer (1751-1858).--Cramer wrote 100 piano

sonatas which are almost unknown today. his best sonatas

are more timid and tame than Clementi's best. He is to be

considered as one of the fathers of piano playing but not

because of his piano sonatas. His fame rests rather upon

his set of 84 studies in two books. A copy of these etudes

is found in the Royal Library of Berlin showing Beethoven's

comments on them. It is evident that Beethoven valued

highly these excellent studies, which are at times highly

musical in content.

J. N. Hummel (1778-1837).--Hummel wrote a few sonatas

but is better known for his concertos. In his concertos, at

any rate, are found his most inspired works. His ideas are

old-fashioned, and his music mostly for display. His slow

movements are highly elaborate and decorated with shakes,

arpeggios, and trills. The technique of the pianist prepon-

derates over the invention of the composer.

From this rather brief study of some of the more

important contemporaries of Beethoven who were composers for

 9

the piano, it is felt that Beethoven was far in advance of

his day. With special ref erence to sonatas for the piano,

Beethoven's are far superior to those of his contemporaries

from the standpoints of musical content, mastery of form,

dynamic qualities, and thematic development. His sonatas

have stood one of the severest tests for any work of art-e-

the test of time.

 CHAPTER II

THE PERIOD OF THIS SONATA IN BEETHOVEN'S

CREATIVE ACTIVITY

It is always of interest in the study of any musical

composition to notice what other works the composer was

writing at the same time and also to find just where in

chronological order the particular composition is placed.

The Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, in D minor was written in

1802, which was a very productive year in Beethoven's

musical activity. It first appeaUred without opus number

along with the Sonata, Op. 31, No. l, in G major in the

fifth volume of Naegeli's collection, Rpertoire des

Clavecinistes, in 1803. The two sonatas were published

again the same yezr by Simrock in Bonn as Opus 31, Edition

tres correcte. They were also published a little later by

W. Cappi of Vienna, erroneously as Opus 29.1

The important works which Beethoven composed before

this time were:

16 Piano Sonatas, Op. 2 to Op. 31, No. 1

1 Symphony, Op. 21

Gustav Nottebohm, Ludw van Beethoven Thematisches

Verzeichnis, p. 35.

10
 11

3 Pianoforte Trios, Op. 1

3 Piano Concertos, Op. 15, Op. 19, and Op. 37
6 String Quartets, Op. 18
3 Sonatas for Piano and Violin, Op. 12

As Beethoven ceme to the year of 1802, the year of the

composition of tnis particular sonata, he was becoming pro-

gressively deaf. It was during the sumiuer of 1802 that

Beethoven, while at Heiligenstadt for a health rest, wrote

what is now known as the Heiligenstadt Testament, which is

an attempt to explain his anti-social trends in the light of

his deafness. This document begins as follows:

For my brothers Carl and Beethoven.

0 ye men who think or say that I am malevolent,
stubborn or misanthropic, how greatly do ye wrong me,
you do not know the secret causes of my seeming, from
childhood my heart and mind were disposed to the gen-
tle feeling of good will, I was even eager to accom-
plish great deeds, but reflect now that for 6 years I
have been in a hopeless case, aggravated by senseless
physicians, cheated year after year in the hope of
improvement, finally compelled to face the prospect
of a lasting malady (whose cure will take yeArs or,
perhaps, be impossible), born with an ardent and
lively temperament, even susceptible to the diversions
of society, I was compelled early to isolate myself,
to live in loneliness, when I at times tried to forget
all this, 0 how harshly was I repulsed by the doubly
sad experience of my bad hearing, and yet it was
impossible for me to say to men to speak louder,
shout, for I am deaf, Oh how could I possibly admit
an infirmity in the one sense which should have been
more perfect in me than in others, a sense which I
once possessed in highest perfection, a perfection
such as few surely in my profession enjoy or have
enjoyed.2

It is very possible that Beethovents deafness was a

great asset to future generations of musicians and

2 Alexander W. Thayer, The Life of Ludwig van Beethoven,

Vol. 1, pp. 352, 353.
 12

music-lovers. It made it necessary that he should withdraw

more and more from performance as a pianist; and in thus

withdrawing from public appearances, his thoughts were

turned to greater efforts in composition. This malady also

changed to some extent the character of the compositions

which he wrote for the piano. There was no longer the

incentive to write compositions which he could use to dis-

play his ability as a virtuoso-pianist.

In spite of Beethoven's condition, both physical and

mental, the year 1802 was one of great musical activity.

The works that were published during 1802 were:

Piano Sonatas, Op. 22, Op. 26, Op. 27, Nos. 1 & 2.
Serenade, Op. 25, for flute, violin, and viola.
Septet, Op. 20, in E flat for violin, viola, horn,
clarinet, bassoon, violoncello, and contrabass.
Quintet, Op. 29, for 2 violins, 2 violas, and
violoncello.
Rondo in G, Op. 51, No. 2, for piano.
Transcription for strings of the Piano Sonata,
Op. 14, No. 1.
Variations for Violoncello and Piano on "Bei
Minnern welche Liebe fdhlen.tt
Six Contradances for 2 violins and bass.
Six Rustic Dances for 2 violins and violoncello.3

According to Thayer, the works that were developed that

year were*

Three violin Sonatas, Op. 30.

Two Piano Sonatas, Op. 31, Nos. 1 and 2.
Two sets of Variations for piano, Op. 34, and Op. 35.
Bagatelles for piano, Op. 33.
The Second Symphony, Op. 36.4

3bid., p. 364. 4 Ibid., p. 364.

 13

Nottebohm, who has made a study of the sketchbooks of

Beethoven, tells what compositions were being worked on, or

at least those whose themes Beethoven wrote down at this

time. The important works from the sketchbook which covers

the period from the fall of 1801 to the spring of 1802 are:

Three of the Contradances.

Bagatelle, Op. 33, No. 6.
Last movement of the Second Symphony.
Five of the Rustic Dances.
First and second movements of the Piano and Violin
Sonata, Op. 30, No. 1.
Last movement of the Piano and Violin sonata,
Op. 47.
Sonata for Piano and Violin in C minor, Op. 30,
No. 2.
First movement of Piano Sonata in D minor, Op. 31,
No. 2. (The first sketch only)
Sonata for Piano and Violin in G major, Op. 30,
No. 3.
Variations for Piano in E flat major, Op. 35.
Variations for Piano in F major, Op. 34.
Sonata for Piano in G major, Op. 31, No. 1.

We have from Carl Czerny an interesting statement of

Beethovents opinion of the works he had composed before this

time. Bekker refers to this statement as follows:

"I am by no means satisfied with my works

hitherto, and I intend to make a fresh start from
today," said Beethoven, according to Carl Czerny's
account, to his friend Wenzel Krumpholz, the violin
teacher. Czerny believes that remark was made
shortly before the appearance of Op. 31, "in which,"
he says, "one can tpace the partial fulfillment of
his new resolution.

5 Ibid., pp. 364, 365.

6 Paul Bekker, Beethoven, p. 115.
 14

It is true that these sonatas, and especially Op. 31,

No. 2, do show some important new changes from those that

had gone before. These departures from former practices

will be studied in more detail later as the detailed

analysis of the work is considered.

There are several Beethoven authorities, however, who

seem to think that the Variations, Opus 34 and Opus 35, more

nearly set a new style of writing. They form their opinions

very likely from the comments which Beethoven made concerning

these variations when they were sent to the publishers.

He says, in a letter to Breitkopf and Haertel, dated

October 18, 1802:

I have made two sets of Variations of which the
first may be said to number 8, the second 30; both
are written in a really entirely new y and each
in quite a different way. I should very much like
to have them published by you but under the one con-
dition that the honorarium be about 50 florins for
the two sets--do not let me make this offer in vain,
for I assure you you will never regret the two works.
Each theme in them is treated independently and in a
wholly different manner. As a rule I only hear of it
through others when I have new ideas, since I never
know it myself; but this time I can assure you myself
that the style of both works is new to me. 7

He even considers these works so radical a departure

from former methods of composition that he asked that the

following preface be printed with the variations:

Inasmuch as these V. differ materially from my

earlier ones I have, instead of designating them

7 Thayer, 92. cit., p. 368.

 15

merely by number, 1, 2, 3, etc., included them in

the list of my greater musical works, and this also
for the further reason that the themes are original.
The author.8
It has been of interest to notice that Beethoven struck

out on new paths in his piano works before he did in his

larger symphonic works. Evans, in discussing the first

movement of the First Symphony, gives the following explana-

tion for this fact:

It is safe to hold that its limited presenta-

tion of the Beethoven individuality is not due to
underdeveloped power at the period of its composi-
tion but to the composer's hesitation to trust
himself too far ahead of his compeers. 9

It may also be noted thatthis condition existed through

all the years of Beethoven's creative activity. His keyboard

works seem to show more clearly a style more advanced than

do his symphonic works. Willi Apel gives the following

explanation:

It is interesting to notice that Beethoven's

late style is much more clearly indicated in his
piano sontas and string quartets than in his sym-
phonies, the three last of which belong chronologi-
cally to his late period. Probably the explanation
is found in the fact that the orchestra, with its
large <nd varied resources, compelled him to retain
that attitude of an organizer and strategist which
he abandoned in his works for the pianoforte and
the string quartet.10

8 Ibid.,p. 369.
9 Edwin Evans, Beethoven's Nine Symphonies Fully
Described and Analysed, Vol. 1, p. 19.
10 Willi
Apel, Masters of the Keyboard,
pp. 219, 220.
 16

From the examination of the works written before 1802,

it is considered that a change of style is indeed felt at

the period in which this sonata was written. In many dis-

cussions of Beethoven's works, they are divided into three

periods, the period of imitation and formation to about

1802, the period of mature works to about 1820, and the

period of abstraction to 1827. Whether the division of

Beethoven's works into three periods is valid or not, it is

not the object of this paper to discuss. If these divisions

are made, this sonata would most logiclly come at the

beginning of the second period.

 CHAPTER III

T-HE PIANO OF BEETHOVEN'S DAY AND

ITS INFLUENCE ON THIS SONATA

Introduction

It seems advisable in the study of any musical composi-

tion to ascertain if possible the mechanical and physical

condition of the instrument in use at the time the work was

composed. It is of course impossible to determine how a

composition sounded on the instrument in use at the time the

work was written unless recordings are available; yet if one

knows the mechanical construction of the instrument, he may

come to some conclusions that may help him to understand

more fully the work under consideration.

A study of the piano in use at the beginning of the

nineteenth century, the time of the composition of the Piano

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, will show us in some respects both how

Beethoven intended this work to sound and also how these

intentions were realized in performance. This study may

also be of value to those who are to interpret this sonata

on the grand piano in use today.

There is a great deal of difference between the grand

pianos of the early part of the nineteenth century and the

17
 18

modern concert grand. So great is the difference with

special reference to sonority and volume that Beethoven

would be greatly amazed if he could hear one of his composi-

tions played on one of our modern concert grand pianos.

Range

The range of the piano of that period was much smaller

than that of our modern concert grand. Up until 1791, the

range had been five octaves--FF to f3. (Due to the fact

that there are various methods of indicating pitch notation,

the system used in this thesis is indicated in Figure 2.)

C Co
C CC , 0 C 4

Fig. 2.--System of pitch notation used in

this thesis.

At that time it was extended up to c 4 . In 1794, John Broadwood

(1732-1812), an English piano maker, made the first piano of

six octaves, extending the earlier range down to CC. 1 It

was extended still further at Beethoven's request in 1816.

1
Philip James, Early Keyboard Instruments, p. 54.
 19

In that year Nanette stein Streicher (1769-1835),

a Viennese
piano maker, built for Beethoven a piano with
a compass of
six and one half octaves. 2 This was considered quite an
accomplishment.

From an examination of the works for

piano written by
Beethoven, it is found that at the period
that this sonata
was written (1802), Beethoven wrote his
works for performance
on a 5-octave piano. He did not exceed this range until
1804.

Action
The action of the piano of that period
was much lighter
and softer than that of the modern piano.
In making this
statement, differentiation must be made
between the English
piano and the Viennese piano. The English piano had a more
forceful attack produced by a "jack"
action. It produced a
more percussive tone. The Viennese action was more elastic
and produced, according to Dolge, a more
sympathetic tone--
reminding one of the clavichord tone.
This tone was pro-
duced as the hammer in striking grazed
along the string to a
certain extent. 3

Johann Reichardt (1752-1814), music critic

and composer,
tells us that in 1809, Streicher made the
actions of his
pianos harder. Reichardt says:

Alfred Dolge, Pianos and Their Makers,

p. 219.
3 Ibid.,pp.
59-61.
 20

Streicher abandoned the soft and too easily

yielding touch of the other Viennese instruments
and at Beethoven's advice and request produced a
touch of greater resistance and more elasticity,
so that a good performer had increased control
over the sustenance and joining of the tones, and
could obtain more delicate touch and repetition.
he puts a better and more complicated instrument
into the hands of the virtuoso who aimed at some-
thing beyond mere light brilliance of style.4

The average weight required to depress a key of the

piano of the early nineteenth century was approximately one

ounce. When this is compared to the average weight of two

and one half ounces required to depress a key of the modern

piano, it can be readily seen how much easier was the action

of the pianos then in use. 5

Tension

Closely related to the action in its effect upon the

sound produced by the piano is the amount of tension of the

strings, as well as the size of the strings. The Vienna

firm, Wachtl and Bleyer, boasted in 1808, that the total

tension of the strings in their grand piano equaled 9,000

pounds. Compare that to the enormous tension of the strings

on the modern concert grand pianos, whose total tension is

from 35,000 to 40,000 pounds.6 This lower tension, of

course, meant that the sonority and resonance of the

4 PaulBekker, Beethoven, p. 85.

5 Ernest Closson, History of the Piano, p. 87.
6Dolge,$ o. cit.., p. 69o.
 21

instrument must have been much less, as well as to a

greater degree the volume must have been considerably less

than that of the modern concert grand. The tension could

not have been much greater until the all-metal frame was

introduced. Because the tension could not be any greater,

the range of the instrument was of necessity limited because

the wooden frame could not support more strings. Another

factor which limited the volume of tone which could be pro-

duced was the thinner wire which had to be used until the

all-metal frame was developed.

It can be seen how these different factors influenced

each other in such a way that the tones produced by the

piano of that period were far from the powerful tones which

may be obtained from our present-day pianos.

Pedals

The pedals on the piano of Beethoven's time were only

two, the damper pedal and the soft pedal. The soft pedal at

first had been merely a strip of soft material which came

between the hammers and the strings, causing a deadening,

softening effect upon the tones. In 1787, Humphrey Walton,

an English piano maker, patented a soft pedal with shifting

action so that the hammers would strike one, two, or three

strings. In 1789, Johann A. Stein (1728-1792), a Viennese

 22

piano builder, introduced the shifting action soft pedal

on
his pianos.7

The damper pedal produced the same effect as that of

the present-day damper pedal.

In the pianos of the early part of this period, the

pedals were operated by the knees. They were called

genouilleres, the name originating from the French word,

genou, meaning knee. John Broadwood, an English piano

builder, replaced the knee pedals by foot pedals in 1783.

He was copied the same year by the French piano builder,

Sebastian Erard. In Vienna, Johann A. Stein replaced the

knee pedals by foot pedals in 1789.8

How the Piano of Beethoven's Time

Affected this Sonata

As any modern composition is written in such a way that

it can be performed on the instruments in use now, just

so
this sonata was written so that it could be performed on
the
instrument that Beethoven had available to him. As composers
today feel the necessity of better instruments to express

their ideas and influence the manufacture of better constructed

and more mechanically perfect instruments, so Beethoven,

in
his day, because he had ideas which could not be adequately

Jbxmes, op. cit., p. 54.

8 Closson,
p. cit., pp. 87, 95.
 23

expressed upon the instruments of his time, had a great

influence upon the manufacture of a piano of greater

sonority, range, volume, and expressiveness.

As has been stated earlier, the compositions which

Beethoven wrote up until 1804 were written for a piano hav-

ing a range of only five octaves. Although the range had

been extended by certain piano makers to six octaves at the

time of the composition of this sonata, Beethoven doubtless

did not deem it advisable to exceed the range of five

octaves due to the fact that pianos with the extended range

were not yet in popular use.

It is nevertheless true that Beethoven was continually

striving to achieve new tonal possibilities and would gladly

have welcomed the more complete range of the modern piano.

Alfredo Casella, in the preface to his edition of the

Beethoven Sonatas, very aptly expresses it this way:

During Beethoven t s life-time it [the rang) was

extended little by little at both extremities, but
always in a rather hesitant and timid manner. The
daring and imperious genius of Beethoven suffered
much from this materic-l insufficiency, and in his
Sonatas we constantly see his robust and rugged
hands, eager for new tones, knocking against the
conservative barriers--hands which a romantic
musicologist would not have failed to call "the
paws of a furious lion."9

In this sonata Beethoven can easily be imagined to be

knocking at these barriers as he again and again goes up to

9 Alfredo
Casella, Beethoven Sonate per Pianoforte,
Vol. II, p. 7.
 24

the highest and down to the lowest notes he had at his com-

mand. There are a number of passages which in all probability

would have been written differently had Beethoven had at

his command the extended range of the piano of today.

In the first ending of the first movement (Bar 92),

Beethoven would doubtless have continued the bass in octaves,

had he had the possibility of using these additional tones.

This passage is shown in Figure 3.

___ ___

__---i---

Fig. 3.--Bars 92-93, 1st movement of

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2 of Beethoven.

Also in the first movement in the re-statemeat of the

second group in the recapitulation, measures 179-185, the

right hand passage is one octave lower than in the corres-

ponding passage in the exposition. In measure 184, the left

hand part is also one octave lower than in the corresponding

place in the exposition. Reason would show that he would

 25

have made both passages the same, except for transposition,

if it had been possible.

In measures 189-192, the upper voice in the right hand

is modified, making a harmonic relationship to the second

voice, whereas, in the corresponding place in the exposition,

this passage is in bare octaves. In order that this may be

more easily seen, Figure 4 shows this passage as it appears

in the exposition (Bars 59-62), and Figure 5 shows it as

modified in the recapitulation (Bars 189-192).

Fig. 4.--Bars 59-63, 1st movement,

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven.

Had Beethoven written this passage as the corresponding

passage in the exposition, this would have resulted in the

loss of some very beautiful harmonies, so that it is felt

that one should not alter this passage even when it is being

performed on the more extended piano of today.

V _

Fig. 5.--Bars 189-192, 1st movement,

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven. _
 26

In the third movement, there are several places

in the
left hand where only a single bass note is
given, but from
which we ca.n easily infer an octAve from passages of
simi-
lar nature. In measures 43, 246, and 262, such passages

are found. By comparing measures 42-43 with measures

270-
271, it can easily be seen that Beethoven would probably

have used this octave in measure 43 as he

did in measure
271 if he had had the extended r-.Ange. Measures 24 and 262
come in a group of musical sequences where
they are the only
two left hand passages which do not have
the octave in the
bass. In these passages the intention is so obvious
that
editors have often supplied the lower tone.

Also in the third movement the upper part is

modified
in measures 307-313, to create again, as in the first move-
ment, a harmonic relationship to the second
part; whereas,
again in the corresponding passage in the exposition,
only
bare octaves are found. Figure 6 sibows measures 307-313,
as altered in the recapitulation, and Figure
7 shows measures
79-85, as they appear in the exposition.

Fig. 6.--Bars 307-313, 3rd movement,

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven.
 27

Tovey has this to say about the passage:

It is by no means certain that the change in bars

307-314 was necessitated by the 5-octave pianoforte.
An immediate jump to a higher octave at 307 would be
awkward, and the pr 8ent
effect of an entry of another
voice is beautiful.

Fig. 7.--Bars 79-85, 3rd movement,

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven.

There are two passages which should be discussed because

the effect which they produce when played on the piano of

Beethoven's time differs so greatly from the effect which

they produce when played on the modern grand piano. The

passages are the recitative sections in measures 143-148 and

153-158 of the first movement. In both of these passages

Beethoven has the pedal marked to be sustined without

changing it throughout the entire passage. According to

1 Donald F. Tovey, A Companion to Beethoven's Piano-

forte Sonatas, p. 136.
 28

evidence of Czerny, Beethoven wanted the melody of this

recitative to be heard as from far away and wrapped up in

a sort of sonorous mist.1 1

What with the softer, lighter action, the reduced ten-

sion, and the greatly decreased volume and sonority of the

piano then in use, and what with the possibility of using a

soft pedal capable of causing the hammers to strike only one

string (a true una corda pedal), it is very probable that it

was comparatively easy to obtain this effect. On the modern

concert grand piano, this effect is not so easily obtained.

If one will examine these two passages, it will be seen that

they are built primarily upon the dominant chords of D minor

and F minor respectively up until the last measure of each

passage. It is not, therefore, to be considered so extreme

to use one pedal through the whole of each passage, or at

least up until the last measure of each passage. This

marvelous conception can be obtained, however, only upon the

condition that the una corda pedal be used and that the

melody be played with as soft a touch as is possible in each

case. It seems that a little better effect is produced also

if the pedal is raised on the last measure of each passage

at the point where the dominant harmonies change to tonic.

With the increased sonority and volume of the modern pianos,

unless great care is taken to play these passages just as

11 Casella, p. cit., p. 102.

 29

softly as possible, the result will not be a sonorous mist

but rather a muddy, displeasing effect.

It is because of these two recitative passages that

this sonata is sometimes c:,lled the Recitative Sonata, a

name which, of course, was not suggested or even inferred

by Beethoven.
 CHAPTER IV

GENERAL ASPECTS OF STYLE

Mood or Character
Anyone who sets out to determine the mood or who tries

to establish a program for any composition must realize

that he is treading on dangerous territory unless he has

sufficient evidence from the composer himself to validate

his conclusions.

There is one statement from Beethoven himself concerning

this sonata which has led to its being called the Tempest

Sonata. At one time when Anton Schindler was making an

attempt to understand the meaning of this sonata and of the

Sonata in F minor, Op. 57, he asked beethoven for an explana-

tion of them. Beethoven answered curtly: "Read Shakespeare's

TeMpe st 1

It is a well known fact that Beethoven read Shakespearets

works, but it is quite a different thing to say that the

Tempest of Shakespeare is the programme for either of these

two sonatas. Schindler has been ridiculed and derided for

making this statement, which has, nevertheless, been

lRobert h. Schauffler, Beethoven, The Man Who Freed

Music, p. 154.

30
 31

established by later investigations. Reinhold Zimmerman

has recently devoted an article to Beethoven entitled

"Anton Schindle ein Leben fuAr Beethoven," in the Beethoven

Almanach der Deutschen Musikblcherei auf das Jahr 1927. He

shows that Schindler has been proved right in the end in

the eyes of modern scientific criticism.2

Some writers have denounced in no uncertain terms the

idea that there is any connection between the Beethoven

Sonatas and the Shakespearean play. They say that Beethoven

was too great an artist to need a programme for his master-

pieces. How they harmonize their statements with the fact

that Beethoven himself gave programme notes to his Sixth

Symphony, it is not necessary to discuss.

One of these, Behrend, who refuses to see any connec-

tion between these two works of art, does, however, make at

least a partial programme for this work when he relates it

to the Heiligenstadt Testament:

If one looks for the deeper relation between

the Master's work and the events of his life, one
will involuntarily find the text of this tone poem
in the well-known "Heiligenstadt Testament." 3
If one should search diligently in this sonata and com-

pare it with the Tempest, it is not hard to suppose that

similarities of mood could be found, so that one might even

2 Romain
Holland, Beethoven The Creator, pp. 381-382.

NWilliam Behrend, Ludwig van Beethoven's Pianoforte

Sonatas, p. 88.
 32

find certain passages suggesting definite characters in the

drama. The great problem is to prove that what one has

suggested is what Beethoven had in mind when he wrote the

sonata.

Romain Rolland seems to have caught the right spirit

when he says that the mood and atmosphere are essentially

the same. He says-

What then is the general Stimmung of the Tempest?

The unchaining of elementary forces, passions,
madnesses of man and of the Elements; also the domina-
tion of the Spirit--the magician who at his will can
assemble and dissipate illusion.
But is not this also precisely the definition of
the art of Beethoven at this stage of his maturity,
and particularly in the first Largo allegro of Op. 31,
No. 2, and in the whole of the Appassionata? .

.
The torrent of a wild implacable Force; the sovereignty
of thought, that soars above it all. 4

In any case, it appears evident from the hearing of the

first movement of the sonata that it is highly dramatic in

character and tragic in mood. The alternation of piano and

forte, of largo and allegro create the effect of dramatic

action, as does also the recitative section. The other two

movements are not so highly dramatic.

Tempo

The consideration of the tempo of a musical work is

always important. Most modern composers have given their

4 Rolland, a. cit., p. 192.

 33

own tempo indications on their compositions which in a pre-

cise way by means of metronome markings convey their

intentions.

The metronome, which was invented by Johann Nepomuk

Maelzel, made its appearance during Beethovents lifetime,

so that metronome markings by Beethoven himself are avail-

able for some of his works. Care must be taken, however, in

saying that oniLy one definite speed is proper and right for

any composition because the resonance of the instrument and

the acoustics of the hall have much to do with the speed at

which a composition will sound most clearly.

At one time Beethoven told iviosel that from then on he

was planning to use only metronome markings instead of the

Italian terms, allegro, lrgo, etc., because he considered

these terms too vague and indefinite. He never did carry

out this idea, although he did give metronome markings for

5
many of his compositions in addition to the Italian teams

The following excerpt from a letter to the publisher

Schott, dated December 18, 1826, shows the importance that

Beethoven attributed to correct tempi:

The metronomic indications (for the Missa

Solemnis) will follow shortly. Wait for them. In
our centu they are certainly needed; and I have
letters from Berlin saying that the first per-
formance of the symphony (Ninth) went off with

5 Frederick Dorian, The History of Music in Performance,

p. 199.
 34

great success, which I attribute in large part to

the metronome markings. We can hardly have any
tep ordinari any mo e, now that we must follow
our free inspiration

Another quotation from Beethoven which was published

in
the Wiener Vaterlaendische Blaetter of October 13, 1813,

also shows his regard for correct tempi:

I look upon the invention of the metronome as

a welcome means of assuring the performance of my
compositions everywhere in the tempi conceived by
me, twhicho regret have so often been
t
misunderstood.-[

It has commonly been objected that the metronome marks

given by Beethoven did not really convey his intentions,

and
furthermore that the speeds indicated were at times unplay-

able. The above quotation seems to indicate that the metro-

nome markings really do convey Beethoven's intentions and

that they are also playable by the performers of today.

Rudolf Kolisch, by a study and comparison of Beethoven's

works, has provided tempo marks for all of them. In doing

this, he studied the character and figuration of the move-

ment, the Italian musical term, the meter signature, and the

relation between the metric unit and the tempo unit. by

comparing works of similar nature and meter, Kolisch deter-

mined metronomic markings for compositions not having them

from those which did have them.

6Rudolf Kolisch, "Tempo and Character

in Beethoven's
Music,," Musical quarterly, XXIX (April 1943), pp. 174,
175.
7 Ibid.,
p. 177.
 35

The only piano sonata for which Beethoven gave metro-

nome marks is the Sonata, Op. 106, in B flat major.

Beethovents metronome markings are not available, therefore,

for this sonata under consideration. From the study described

above, Kolisch gives the markings for the first movement of

this sonata as: ot = 120. He compares this movement to

movements from the string quartets, Op. 18, No. 3; Op. 127;

Op. 131; and Op. 135; and to the Violin Sonata, Op. 30,

No. 2; and to the Piano Sonata, Op. 81a, by saying:

The allegro alla breve is characterized by the

sharp juxtaposition of the two contrasting elements:
energetic half-notes and soft, espressivo, legato
quarters.8

The second movement of this sonata is compared to the

slow movements of the Piano Sonatas Op. 2, No. 1; Op. 2,

No. 2; and Op. 7. The tempo indication given is: () = 30-44).9

In the opinion of the writer, this indication is somewhat slow.

The third movement he compared to a movement from the

string quartet Op. 18, No. 6, to which it is very similar in

character. The marking for this movement is: ( )= 88).10

The tempo indications given by the various important

editions of the Beethoven sonatas follow for reference.

The Kalmus Urtext Edition and the Breitkopf and Haertel

Urtext Edition brought out by Carl Krebs, as might be

8 Ibid.,
XXIX (July 1943), p. 293. 9 Ibid.,
p. 309.
10 Ibid., XXIX (April 1943), p. 185.
 36

expected, give no tempo markings since Beethoven gave none

in his manuscript.

The Schirmer's Library Edition of the Sonatas edited by

BUlow-Lebert gives the following tempo indications:

lst Movement Lar ( 44)

Allg( 108)
2nd Movement Adagio ( = 50)

3rd Movement Allegretto ( [ 80)

The Ricordi Edition, under the editorship of Alfredo

Casella, gives these indications:

1st Movement La ( ,) = 48)

Allgo ( elI = 116)

2nd Movement 'd ( ,FI 60)
3rd Movement Allegretto ( ,I. 84)
Artur Schnabel in his edition of the Beethoven Sonatas
gives the following temp i:

1st Movement Largo ( ) = 60)

Allegro ( oI = 120)
2nd Movement Adagiot ( J =44)
3rd Movement Alle-gretto 69)
There is, it is to be noticed, a slight variation in

the markings given in the various editions of the sonata,

but they do agree at least in principle.

 37

Dynamics

Beethoven was one of the early composers to indicate in

his music directions for the dynamic interpretation of his

works. This does not in any way indicate that earlier com-

posers did not wish their music to be performed with due

regard for the varying shades of dynamic intensity. It

merely indicates that it was at this period that the use of

letters to indicate dynamics became common.

The following quotation from Ferdinand Ries (1784-1838),

a pupil of Beethoven, shows not only how important Beethoven

considered the interpretation of a composition with the

proper dynamics and expression, but it also gives an

interesting insight into a side of Beethoven's character

often overlooked:

When Beethoven gave me a lesson I must say

that contrary to his nature he was particularly
patient. I was compelled to attribute this and
his friendly disposition, which was seldom inter-
rupted, chiefly to his great affection and love
for my father. Thus, some times, he would permit
me to repeat a thing ten times, or even oftener.
* . . If I made a mistake in passages or missed
notes and leaps which he frequently wanted empha-
sized he seldom said anything; but if I was
faulty in expression, in crescendos, etc., or in
the character of the music, he grew angry because,
as he said, the former was accidental while the
latter disclosed lack of knowledge, feeling, or
attentiveness. The former slips very frequently
happened to him even when he was playing in
public.1 1

1 1Thayer, a. cit., p. 314.

 38

In this particular sonata the most important use of

dynamic marks is that of the piano subito following a forte

or a crescendo, a device which is very characteristic of all

of Beethoven's music. He uses this device nine times in the

first movement, seventeen times in the second, and nineteen

times in the third movement.

Beethoven was also very partial to the sforzando. This

sudden explosive accent is used fifty-six times in the first

movement, fourteen times in the second movement, and forty-

three times in the third movement.

Ornamentation

There are only three types of ornaments used in this

sonata, but it seems advisable that they should be discussed

because of the variance of opinion concerning their execu-

tion.

In the first movement the only ornament used is the

turn, and here it creates no particular difficulty. It

appears twice on the same note in measures 6 and 156, and

should be played as shown in Figure 8.

Fig. 8.--Bar 6, 1st movement,

Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven.
 39

The trills in the second movement present no particular

difficulty because they all have the ending of the trill

with the Nachschlag written out. There has been, however,

a controversy over the question of the note with which the

trill should begin. The question seems to be one of those

which cannot be solved with any degree of certainty.

Casella has come to the conclusion that in Beethoven the

trill should begin with the principal note, because of the

fact that when Beethoven desires the trill to begin with the

upper auxiliary, he almost always indicates the beginning of

the trill with an appoggiatura on the upper note. 1 2 The

trills in this movement should begin on the principal

according to modern editors.

The turns in the second movement are not realized in

the same way in the modern editions. All the turns in this
movement, with the exception of the one in bar 20, are of

the same nature. In the Urtext, the turn is shown to be

over an eighth-note tied to a dotted sixteenth-note which

is followed by a thirty-second-note. Casella does not show
the tie between the eighth-note and the dotted sixteenth-

note, so that his realization of the turn places the

auxiliary notes between the eighth and the dotted sixteenth-

notes as shown at a in Figure 8. The turn realized in this

12
Casella, pp. cit., pp. 9, 10.
 40

manner would seem to imply that the rhythm of the original

motive were rather than

.
The Bulow-Lebert edition shows the tie and begins the
turn immediately after the beginning of the tied dotted

sixteenth-note, as shown at b in Figure 9. This seems to

be more in harmony with the principal motive, of which this

turn is an embellishment.

sof 11-'1 4 1 2 =1

Fig. 9.--Turns from 2nd movement of

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven, as
realized by Casella (a), and Bulow-Lebert
(b).

The turn from measure 29 presents no particular diffi-

culty. It consists of four notes played after the tied c1

,
as shown in Figure 10.

ee -N S, --- -:t-

Fig. l0.--Turn from Bar 20, 2nd move-

ment, Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven,
realized by Bulow-Lebert.
 41

The only ornament in the last movement is the inverted

mordent or Schneller. Here the question to decide is

whether the inverted mordent should come before or on the

beat. Casella thinks that in Beethoven all inverted

mordents should come before the beat and denounces strongly

those who chetpen the music by placing them on the beat.

The writer is inclined to agree with this idea, and plays

the inverted mordents before the beat.

Variants in the Text

In the Schirmer Library Edition of this sonata edited

it
by Bulow and Lebert, the time signature for the first move-

ment is shown as C, rather than Aas shown in the Urtext

Edition of Breitkopf and Haertel. The alla breve signature

of the Urtext is certainly more in harmony with the character

of the movement. Most editions show the signature as in the

Urtext.
In measure 37 of the first movement according to the

Urtext, the bass motive appears as c-a-cl. In order to make

this bass motive conform to the others which it follows by

sequence, it would have to be c-e-a. Casella, in the

Ricordi Edition, changes the motive to c-e-a, evidently to

conform to the rest of the passage, but gives no explanation

of this change. It cannot be determined whether this is

actually a slip made by Beethoven or whether he intentionally

changed the motive.

 42

In the first movement, some editions show ties connect-

ing the three bass notes of measure 19 to those of measure 20.

These ties do not appear in the original edition. A greater

climax is felt at this place if the ties are not observed.

Piano Idiom

It seems advisable that thought should be given to the

manner in which the music of this sonata is adapted to the

keyboard; that is, whether it is pianistic. In spite of the

fact that Beethoven himself was a pianist and probably the

greatest pianist of his time, he thought badly for the piano

to such an extent that many passages in his works are very

awkward to play and very difficult to finger. One can

appreciate this fact perhaps a little better if he will make

a comparison of the way Chopin's music seems to fit the hand

of the performer and seems to fall from his fingers, while

the music in many passages of Beethoven's works seems to

elude the grasp of the fingers, seems to be written even to

be performed on some other instrument.

There are several cases in this particular sonata which

are notable examples of awkward passages for the pianist's

hand. In the second movement especially are several such

passages where very awkward crossings of the hands are indi-

cated. In measures 23-29, there is such a passage, which,

as originally written, is most awkward. Klindworth deserves
 43

credit for a new pianistic arrangement of this passage and

of the similar passage of measures 65-72. It appe ars in

the Casella edition. Rather than cross hands, Klindworth

divides the melody so that the player exchanges hands on it

as well as the accompaniment figure. Figure 11 shows

measures 23 and 24 as arranged by Klindworth. From these

two measures, the performer can easily see how the rest of

the passage and the similar passage in bars 65-72 should be

performed.

# r4--A

Fig. ll.--Bars 23-24, 2nd movement,

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven, as
arranged by Klindworth.

Henselt has made a pianistic arrangement of the

passage in bars 51-55 of the second movement, which as

originally arranged was very unpianistic because of awkward

hand crossings. In this arrangement, bars 52 and 54 are

 44

played as written, but bars 51, 53, and 55 are so arranged

that the melody and the accompanying broken chord figure are

divided between the hands so that hand crossing is not

necessary. Figure 12 shows how measure 51 is played in

this arrangement. From it the player can deduce the manner

of playing measures 53 and 55.

1-

X-...tw.-s 'noto

Fig. 12.--Bar 51, 2nd movement,

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven, as
arranged by Henselt.

There are several passages in the first movement which,

while not particularly awkward to perform, are much easier

to play if they are divided between the hands instead of

being played all by one hand.

The passage in measures 13-16 of the first movement is

much easier if divided between the two hands as shown in

Fig. 13.
 45

ilei
1092 op

Fig. 13.--Bars 13-16, 1st move-

ment, Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven,
as divided between the two hands.

The arpeggios in measures 97 to 102 are made simpler

for performance if they are divided between the hands as

shown in Figure 14.

no~ "awas
MEN" H~ ~ZZ7~ -- _--

Fig. 14.--Bars 97-99, 1st move-

ment, Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven.

The first note in the bass clef of measure 119 of the

first movement is much easier to play if taken with the

right hand. This le-ves the left hand in the same position

as in the previous measure so that it can continue the

triplet figure uninterruptedly.

 46

The playing of the arpeggio figures in measures 161-162,

165-166, and 169-170 is made much easier if divided between

the hands. Figure 15 will show bars 161-162 from which the

pianist may deduce the method of performing the other two

passages.

Fig. 15.--Bars 161-162, 1st move-

ment, Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven.

In measures 21-40 of the first movement is an example

of a case where the crossing of the hands is to be advised.

The left hand will play all the notes of melodic importance

on both the bass and treble staves while the right hand is

free to play the triplet figures throughout. This manner

of performance is indicated by Beethoven himself in the

parallel passage in the development. Greater force may be

secured in the bass motives of this whole passage if each

note is played by the thumb and third finger together. The

tied whole notes of measures 22-24 and 26-28 may be sus-

tained for the proper duration even with change of pedal if

 47

they are played by both hands but sustained only by the

thumb of the right hand. The left hand plays the note to
give it sufficient force. The right hand plays the note at
the same time in order to sustain it while the left hand
plays the answering melodic figure in the soprano.

In the third movement the passage in measures 201-207

is greatly simplified for performance if the first note

of
measures 201, 2003, 205, and 207 is played by the left hand
instead of playing the whole passage with the right
hand.
Credit is due to the Casella Edition of this sonata

for the most of these changes wnich help to make this

sonata
more pianistic, and, therefore, easier to perform.
 CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF FORM

Introduction

This sonata, as has been mentioned in Chapter II, was

composed just after Beethoven had said that he intended to

strike out on a new road. The three piano sonatas of Op. 31

were written shortly after making this statement, but if one

is really looking for a change of style, he will more nearly

find it in this D minor Sonata than in the other two of this

opus. This sonata consists of three movements, all of which,

curiously enough, are cast in sonata-allegro form. This is

the only piano sonata by Beethoven all of whose movements

are in the sonata-allegro form. The fact that there is

strongly contrasted subject-matter in the three movements is

a strong testimony of the elasticity of the sonata form in

Beethoven's hands. It is certain that no monotony arises

from the fact that the three movements are all cast in the

same form.

Another unusual thing about the three sonatas of Op. 31

is that none of them bear dedications, in contrast to most

of Beethoven's works which were dedicated to friends or

patrons.

48
 49

The First Movement - Largo - Allegro

The first movement of this sonata and that of the Ninth

Symphony are the only two opening allegro movements which

Beethoven wrote in the key of D minor. These two first

movements have two other important features in common. They

both start on a chord that is not the tonic chord of the key,

arid the principal motive of each is based upon the notes of

a chord.

The first movement of this work opens with an arpeggiated

chord on the dominant in the first inversion in largo tempo.

When a sonata-allegro movement begins with a largo, one is

led to believe that the beginning is a slow introduction

after the type so frequently used in the Haydn symphonies.

This opening g which only lasts for a measure and three-

quarters cannot be designated as such. It is rather an

integral part of the movement. The notes of this chord form

the core of the thematic material for the whole first move-

ment.

The first movement of the so-called Pathetique Sonata,

Op. 13, does open with a section in slow tempo which in con-

trast to this sonata may properly be called a slow introduc-

tion, because it does not constitute an important part of

the thematic material of the movement, in spite of the fact

that it does appear later as a sort of link between the

exposition and the development section.

 50

This is not the only occasion when Beethoven began a

movement with a chord that was not the tonic chord of the

key. The First Symphony, Op. 21, in C major, shocked the

critics by beginning with a dominant seventh chord which

leads to a tonic chord in the key of F major rather than to

a tonic chord in the key of C major, the key of the move-

ment. The Ninth Symphony in D minor, as stated above, opens

with a chord on A in such a way that one cannot determine

whether it is the chord of A major or A minor.

The basing of the important thematic material of this

movement upon the notes of a triad is not an unusual device

with Beethoven. It occurs very often in Beethoven's works

and especially in those of the middle period. It is used in

the first two movements of this sonata and in the following

piano sonatas: Op. 2, No. 1; Op. 2,.No. 2; Op. 27, No. 2;

and Op. 57. It is used in the two middle movements of the

1' major quartet, Op. 59, No. 1, and in the first movement of

the E minor quartet, Op. 59, No. 2. It appears in the

finales of the fourth and fifth piano concertos, Op. 58 and

73, and also in the Third, Fifth, and Ninth symphonies.

The first arpeggiated chord is answered by an allegro

theme of eighth notes grouped in pairs in descending sequence,

still on the dominant, over a bass which always appears to

have the tendency to rise. This allegro theme ends in

measure 6 with an adagio pause on the dominant.

 51

This pause is followed in measure 7 by another arpeg-

giated chord in largo tempo. This time it is the first

inversion of the dominant chord of the key of F major, the

mediant of the original key of D minor.

The two-note-group figure returns again over a series

of bass notes rising by semitones until the first tonic chord

of the key is reached in measure 13, and this is a chord of

the six-four. The two-note-group figure continues on this

tonic chord until the last half of bar 20, when it is com-

pleted by a dominant seventh which goes into the next

section.

This next section from bars 21 to 41 is called by most

analysts a transition from the first group to the second

group of the exposition.

It is in bar 21 that the first fundamental tonic chord

occurs, and it is this section that is the most highly

developed later in the development section. This has led

some to say that the opening measures up to bar 21 are only

improvisatory in nature and that the main theme of the first

group really begins with the first fundamental tonic chord

of the movement in measure 21.

The thematic material beginning at measure 21 is based

on the members of the tonic triad in the bass, the source of

which is the opening arpeggiated chord from measure 1. This

is answered in dialogue fashion in the soprano by two

 52

measures of notes which hover around al, using a semitone

above and below. The bass rises in sequence fashion in

measure 25 and is answered again by the same two measures

in the soprano. The bass continues to rise in these sequen-

tial chord-tone motives answered each time now only by one

note in the soprano, until it ends on the dominant chord of

A minor (the dominant minor) in bar 41, where the second

group begins. It is doubtless because of the rise of the

bass through these measures in sequence fashion that this

section, bars 21 to 41, is quite properly called a transi-

tion. This position is strengthened when it is noticed that

there is no suggestion of the material of this section in

the recapitulation. It is the opinion of the writer that

this section is a transition because of the sequential

figures in the bass. From measure 29 on, at any rate, it is

a transition.

The second group begins on the dominant of the key of

A minor, so that the second group falls into the dominant

minor in relation to the key of the movement. In the usual

definition of the sonata-allegro form, the second group is

defined as falling in the relative major if the key of the

movement is minor. It is of interest to note that in the

piano sonatas of Beethoven the second group appears more

often in the dominant.minor than in the relative major. uf

the seventeen sonata-allegro movements of the piano sonatas
 53

of Deethoven which are in minor tonality, the second group

is in the dominant minor nine times, in the relative major

six times, and in the submediant major twice. The second

group of the last movement of this sonata is also in the

dominant minor.

The first section of the second group consists of a

theme, the notes of which are grouped in pairs of eighth

notes as in opening allegro in measures 2 to 6. The first

four bars of this section are based on the dominant seventh

chord; the second four measures are based on the tonic six-

four chord; and the next six measures are based on the

dominant chord, the theme here descending on the chord of

the dominant ninth to the second theme of the second group.

The second theme (measures 55-74) of the second group,

which is of the chorale type, consists of the same notes as

used in the soprano answer in measures 22-25, with the excep-

tion tha.t the order of notes is different and the rhythm is

changed. This theme strongly emphasizes the flat supertonic

on the third beat of the measure, and both hands play the

same chords. This same theme is repeated an octave higher.

The second repetition starts another octave higher but is

diverted into a rising sequence which finally lands on the

tonic in measure 63 with a IV-VI 6 -I6-V-I cadence. This

theme is now repeated in the extreme bass in measure 63 with

an antiphonal answer in the treble which consists of

 54

dominant-tonic, tonic-dominant chords in syncopated rhythm.

The third time this theme is repeated in the bass, the GG#

does not come back to the Aa as usual but descends to GG,

where it begins a rising sequence of eighth-notes with a

piano subito leading back to the key of A minor. Against

this rising bass line, the treble descends in two-note

groups of double-thirds in quarter-notes with a skip of an

octave between each two-note group. This passage leads to

the cadence theme.

The cadence theme (Bars 75-87) consists of a two-bar

theme in double counterpoint which is based on the tonic

six-four chord and the dominant chord of A minor. This two-

bar theme is inverted in the next two measures and then the

four bars are repeated with syncopated variation. The first

two measures of this theme in the syncopated version are

repeated again and lead to a close in the tonic after two

additional bars. There is then a four-bar melodic link in

bare octaves leading back through the first ending to a

repetition of the exposition. This link on the repetition

consists of bare octaves descending a single step from a to

S and going on into the development section. (In the number-

ing of measures, the measures of the first ending are num-

bered the same as those of the second ending.)

The development section (Bars 93-142) begins with the

Largo figure used at the beginning of the movement. There
 55

is first an arpeggiated chord on the first inversion of the

D major triad. This is followed by a diminished seventh

chord on B#, and then by a chord of F# major in the second

inversion.

The movement then changes to allegro. The figure on

the tonic chord and its answering soprano figure used in

bars 21-24 now is given in the key of F# minor. The bass

rises by steps as before and the answering figure is given

only twice in the soprano as in the exposition. This pas-

sage is treated in the same manner as in the exposition,

rising by steps and going through the keys of F# minor,

B minor, G major, C major, A major, and D minor. After two

measures in D minor, the next two measures lead to a dominant

pedal in D minor (Bar 121), over which the second theme of

the second group is developed in contracted form, which

brings the accents closer together. This section (Bars 125-

126) consists of a four-measure phrase which is repeated

twice in lower positions and builds up to a dynamic climax.

This is followed by five measures still over the dominant

pedal and similar in nature to the cadence theme. Four

measures in bare octaves follow, similar to the link between

the exposition and its repetition. This leads to the

recapitulation.

The recapitulation starts just as the opening of the

movement with a largo (Bar 143), but this is not followed

 56

immediately by the allegro as before. A recitative of four

bars based mainly on the dominant chord of D minor is

inserted here between the g and allegro. The allegro

which then follows is identical to that of the exposition.

This is followed as in the exposition by the arpeggiated

chord in largo tempo on the dominant of F minor. There fol-

lows another recitative of four bars based on the dominant

chord of F minor.

The use of the recitative is not new in instrumental

music. It was used by Karl Philipp Emanuel Bach in the

Andante of his first sonata, written in 1742.1 Beethoven

used this device again in the third movement of the piano

sonata, Op. 110, part of which movement is distinctly named

recitativo and arioso dolente. At the same place in the

Fifth Symphony as this recitative of the Sonata Op. 31,

No. 2, Beethoven puts an oboe solo which might also be

called a recitative.

After the second recitative Beethoven offers another

surprise. He does not go back to the transitional material

from measures 21-41 of the exposition. This material is not

used at all in the recapitulation. Instead of this material,

Beethoven uses (Bar 159) four pianissimo staccato repetitions

of the first inversion of the chord of C# major, the dominant

of F# minor. This is followed by two measures of arpeggios

1 Apel, p. i., pp. 182-183.

 57

in the key of F# minor. This is repeated in G minor and

then again in D minor which brings us to the second group in

the tonic key.

The second group in the recapitulation (Bars 171-217)

is an exact transposition of the second group of the exposi-

tion into the tonic key, and, therefore, needs no comment.

This is followed by a short coda consisting solely of the

tonic chord which rumbles around in the bass in eighth notes

similar in manner to the cadence theme for six measures.

The movement ends with two more chords on the tonic, the

last of which has a fermata.

Due to the fact th.t Beethoven used great freedom in

the use of themes and in the structure of this movement,

it might be conceivably said that it does not really fit

into the sonata-allegro form, but rather looks forward to

the more free fantasia form used by Beethoven in later

sonatas.

In Table 1 will be found a structural diagram of the

first movement of this sonata. The table shows how the

first movement would be analyzed structurally from the view-

point of the sonata-allegro form rather than from the view-

point of the free fantasia form. The three main sections of

the movement, the subdivisions of each section, the measures

included in each subdivision, and the key of each subdivision

are also shown.

 58

TABLE 1

STRUCTURAL DIAGRAM OF ThE FIRST MOVEMENT

Section Subdivision Measures Key

Exposition
lst Group 1-21 D minor
Transition 21-41 Modulating
2nd Group
lst theme 41-55 A minor
2nd theme 55-74 A minor
Cadence theme 75-87 A minor
Link 87-92 .......

Development 93-142 Various keys

Recapitulation
1st Group 143-158 D minor
Transition 159-171 Modulating
2nd Group
lst theme 171-185 D minor
2nd theme 185-204 D minor
Cadence theme 205-217 D minor
Coda 217-228 D minor

The Second Movement -Adagio

The second movement is in the sonata-allegro form but

without the development section, or as it is sometimes called

"modified sonata-allegro form." Due to the fact that the

theme of the first group is repeated in embellished form

before the transition, and to the fact that the theme of the

second group is a four-bar theme which repeats itself, it is

probable that a development section would have been super-

fluous and would only have prolonged the movement to the

point of monotony.
 59

The second movement opens with an arpeggiated chord as

does the first movement. This time it is on the tonic chord

of the key, B flat major. At first this appears to be only

a preliminary measure, but on the repetition in measure 9

it can be seen that this opening chord is really a part of

the theme. The theme seems to be cast in an eight-bar group

which is answered by a nine-bar group making a double period.

The nine-bar group comes as thle result of an extension of

the final phrase by going through a deceptive cadence before

arriving at the final tonic chord. The melody is of a

sequential type based upon the figure shown in Figure 16.

It is embellished with turns on its repetition in bars 9 to

17. The dominant minor ninth chord figures largely in this

movement.

Fig. l6.--Bars 1-3, 2nd movement,

Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven.

A rhythmic figure which is very characteristic to

Beethoven, fy, introduces the transition (Bar 17).

This figure appears three times as if played by timpani on

the tonic chord. The transition brings in a theme which,

 60

like the soprano answer in bars 21-25 of the first movement,

hovers around one note with a note a semitone above it and

a note a semitone below it. The theme modulates through

E major to C major in preparation for the second group in

F major. The rhythmic figure continues both above and below

the melody as a dominant pedal in F major until C major is

reached, when it becomes a tonic pedal.

The figure beginning in the last half of measure 24,

which is repeated in sequential fashion twice, appears to

the writer to be related to the development section of the

first movement (Bars 121-132) where the second theme of the

second group is developed. Notice the similarity of the two

figures as shown in Figure 17.

6-A--
SfS

Fig. 17.--Bars 126-128, 1st movement,

Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, at a, and Bars 23-25,
2nd movement, same sonata, at b, Beethoven.

The second group begins with an anacrusis in measure 30

in the key of F major, the dominant major. It is a typical

 61

classical theme of Mozartean character, in spite of the fact

that Beethoven had said that he was going to strike out on

new paths. This second group is an eight-measure period in

decided contrast to the theme of the first group.

The rhythmic timpani figure appears again in the bass

at measure 38, and the soprano goes up the chord of the

dominant minor ninth for four measures and descends by a

florid passage in thirty-second notes forming a link to the

recapitulation.

The theme of the first group appears in the recapitula-

tion altered in much the same manner as it was in measures

9-17. The second part of this theme is richly ornamented

in bars 51-58 by an accompaniment of broken chord figuration

in thirty-second notes both above and below the melody.

The timpani rhythmic figure returns and ushers in the

transition to the second group. The transition is slightly

altered and modulates to F major in preparation for the

second group in the tonic key, B flat major.

The second group of the recapitulation is an exact

transposition into the tonic key of the second group of the

exposition and needs no comment.

This leads to the coda (Bar 81), the first eight bars

of which are after the same pattern as the link between the

exposition and the recapitulation. The following nine

measures (Bars 89-98) and the first eighth note of the tenth
 62

are based upon the theme of the first group. Measures 98-

103 consist of a new theme built on the subdominant over a

tonic pedal. This theme is repeated in the bass, still with

the tonic pedal, while the soprano uses the figure which

appeared in bars 87-89. The movement closes with a dominant-

tonic cadence repeated five times in different positions, all

over the tonic pedal.

Table 2 shows the formal structure of the second move-

ment.

TABLE 2

STRUCTURAL DIAGRAkvi OF THE SECOND M0VEMIENT

Section Subdivision Measures Key

Exposition
1st Group 1-17 B flat major
Transition 17-30 Modulating
2nd Group 31-38 F major
Link to
Recapitulation 38-42 B flat major

Re capitulation
lst Group 43-59 B flat major
Transition 59-72 Modulating
2nd Group 73-80 B flat major
Coda 80-103 B flat major

The Third Movement - Allegretto

The last movement of this sonata is a practically

unbroken perpetual motion of sixteenth notes in three-eight

 63

time. This fact, however, is not at once apparent when

listening to the movement because of the fact that Beethoven

accents unusual beats and puts in syncopations. The move-

ment can be favorably compared to the piano etude which was

to be developed later by the romantic composers.

The first theme is built on the rhythmic figure

which is very persistent throughout the whole movement.

Thayer says the following, concerning this theme:

A circumstance related by Czerny, if accepted

as authoritative, proves that two of the three
sonatas were completed in the country. "Once when
he (Beethoven) saw a rider gallop past his windows
in his summer sojourn in Heiligenstadt near Vienna,
the regular beat (of the horse's hoofs) gave him
the idea for the themeaf the Finale of the D minor
sonata, Op. 31, No. 2.

The entire first group is built upon this one melodic

and rhythmic figure. It falls into regular phrases of four

measures, consisting mainly of tonic and dominant harmonies

answering each other, with an occasional flat supertonic.

The first group ends with a short codetta making use of a

descending chromatic figure.

The transition to the second group begins with the

first group figure in the bass (Bar 30) in the tonic key,

with the dominant of the key of C major substituted in bar

34. This is followed by a four-bar arpeggio on the chord of

C major. The first group figure then appears in the bass in

that key and goes into the second group by means of a pivot

Thayer, Op. cit. , p. 368.

 64

chord which is the supertonic of the old key, C major, and

the subdominant of the new key, A minor.

The rhythm of the first theme of the second group is

really in two-eight meter, so that a cross rhythm effect is

produced. It also has the effect of causing one not to

realize that the whole movement is practically a perpetual

motion. This theme (Bar 43), as shown in Figure 18, con-

sists of six repetitions of a Schneller on f2 slurred to e2

followed by a descending passage to a cadence on the tonic.

This is repeated in broken octave form and is extended by

two repetitions of the last four bars of the theme with two

different harmonizations.

Fig. 18.--Bars 43-51, 3rd movement,

Sonata Op. 31, No. 2, Beethoven.

The second theme of the second group is built upon the

tonic chord (Bars 68-79). The first six measures of this

theme make use of the rhythm of f/t, while the last six
 65

measures change this to ff , the rhythm of the first

group theme.

The cadence theme (Bar 79) might be said to be

derived
from the last part of the first theme of the second
group
because it progresses stepwise. It is played first in
octaves and then varied on the repetition by the
use of
broken octaves. This leads to four measures (Bars 87-90)

of the tonic chord in A minor to close the exposition.

These four measures are rhythmically divided by

a figure
which would create two-eight meter again, were
it not for
the accents which Beethoven places on the first
beat of
each measure. This is followed by a leading-tone seventh

chord in the original key, D minor, which

by a four-bar
link leads to a repetition of the exposition
and then on to
the development section.

The development section consists almost

entirely of the
use of the melodic and rhythmic figure of the
first group,
which progresses through various keys and
also appears in
inversion.

The development begins with four bars of the

leading-
tone seventh chord of G minor in piano, followed
by four
bars on the tonic chord of that key in
forte, all making use
of the figure of the first group. This same process is
repeated in A minor in the next eight measures.
In measure
110, the main theme figure appe ars in
the bass with the
 66

accompaniment in the treble in the key of D minor. Beginning

in measure 118, the main theme figure appears in inversion

in the treble in C minor. In measure 126, it appears again

in regular form in the bass in B flat minor. The theme

appears in inversion in the treble in E flat minor in

measures 134-138, in B flat minor in measures 138-142, in

G flat major in measures 142-144; and in A flat major in

measures 144-148.

Notice how the lowest bass note of each of these groups

continues to rise as it did in the first movement, C, D flat,

E flat, F, G flat, G natural, A flat, A natural and B flat in

measures 126-151.

In measure 150, the first eight measures of the first

group theme appear in the key of B flat minor in regular

form. This is followed by a modulatory passage in the same

rhythm which leads back to the tonic key, D minor, in

measure 173.

Beginning with an anacrusis before measure 174 is a

four bar theme in D minor, whose first pavt seems to be

derived from the first group theme and whose last part might

be conceivably derived from the last part of the first theme

of the second group because it proceeds stepwise. This is

repeated in D minor, and the whole eight bars are then given

in G minor. The theme is shortened to the last two bars,

which appear in D minor and then in G minor, and then again

 67

three times in D minor with sforzandos. This leads to six-

teen bars of descent on the dominant ninth of D minor which

close in pianissimo to the recapitulation.

The first group theme in bars 215-232 of the recapitula-

tion is an exact repetition of bars 1-18 of the exposition.

Suddenly the flat supertonic of D minor beco-Mes the sub-

dominant of B flat major and the theme continues in that key

to close in measure 242. The codetta based on the descending

chromatic scale passage which appeared here in the exposition

is omitted.

The transition begins, as in the exposition, with the

first group figure in the bass, this time in B flat minor.

The fourth bar introduces the dominant of F minor, and four

bars of tonic arpeggios follow in that key. This eight bar

group is repeated twice going from F minor to C minor, and

then from C minor to G minor. It is started again in G minor

in measure 267 and by means of an augmented sixth chord in

the tonic key, ) minor, it leads to the second group.

The second group (Bars 271-318) of the recapitulation

is an exact transposition into the tonic key of the second

group of the exposition and needs no comment.

In measure 31V, a link leads to the coda beginning with

an anacrusis before bar 323.

The coda begins as the development section with four

bars on the leading tone seventh chord of G minor in piano,

 68

followed also in piano by four bars of the tonic chord in

that key. This eight bar period is repeated in A major

which proves to be the dominant key of the movement. The

following twelve measures consist of dominant preparation

ending pianissimo.

There follows in rather an unusual manner a complete

statement of the first group theme in the original key,

which begins with a sudden fortissimo and has sforzandos on

each of the third beats of the first eight measures. The

codetta from the exposition based upon a chromatic descend-

ing passage re-appears and is heard three times instead of

twice as in the exposition, the last time fortissimo.

This is followed in piano by a four measure phrase of

tonic-dominant, dominant-tonic harmony with change of

register on each two bars, all based on the first group

theme. This phrase is repeated and is followed by seven

bars all on tne tonic chord to end the movement softly.

Table ;5 shows the formal structure of the third move-

ment. From this diagram one can see how this movement falls

into the typical sonata-allegro form, as far as its

structure
is concerned. It is also obvious from the table that the

second group in the exposition is in the key of the dominant

minor; whereas, ordinarily in the classical sonata-allegro

form the second group is in the key of the relative major if

the movement as a whole is in a minor tonality.

 69

TABLE 3

STRUCTURAL DIAGRAM OF ThE THIRD MOVEMENT

Section Subdivision Measures Key

Exposition
lst Group 1-31 D minor
Transition 31-43 Modulating
2nd Group 43-79 A minor
Cadence theme 79-90 A minor
Link 90-94 ...... 0

Development 95-214 Various keys

Recapitulation
lst Group 214-242 D min. ending
in B flat maj.
Transition 242-271 Modulating
2nd Group 271-307 D minor
Cadence theme 307-318 D minor
Link 319-322 .......
Coda 323-399 D minor

Conclusion

The three movements of this sonata are very logically

united into one whole by the use of the arpeggiated chord at

the beginning of the first and second movements, and it might

conceivably be said that the bass notes of the beginning of

the third movement are a representation of this same

arpeggiated chord. The use of the dominant ninth chord

occurs at transition passages in all three movements.

The first movement of this sonata is the one in which

Beethoven to a greater extent than in the other movements

 70

left the old paths. The connecting of the largo and allegro

tempi into one unified movement is certainly a forward step

toward greater freedom in tempo. The use of the recitative

and the omission of the transition in the recapitulation

point to greater freedom in formal structure.

In the second movement, Beethoven, especially in the

theme of the second group, reverts to the classical purity

of phrasing, similar to that of lozart. The fact that this

second movement is in modified sonata-allegro form is a

change from ordinary procedures, in which the slow movement

was usually in one of the song-forsis.

The last movement which is developed mainly from one

figure and continues in almost perpetual motion for the

greater part of the movement, points forward to the

piano
etude which was developed to a great extent in the
Romantic
Period.

From these various considerations, this sonata can

rightfully be said to have started on new paths not

used in
the earlier sonatas.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Apel, Willi, Masters of the Keyboard, Cambridge, Mass.,

Harvard University Press, 1947.

Banister, H. C., Lectures on Musical Analysis, London,

George Bell and Sons, 1887.

Bie, Oscar, His of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players,

translated by E. E. Kellett and E.W. Naylor, London,
J. M. Dent and Company, 1899.

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Beethoven's Letters, translated by

J. S. Shedlock, London, J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd., 1926.

Behrend, Williara, Ludwig van Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas,

London, J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd., 1927.

Bekker, Paul, Beethoven, London, J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd.,

1927.

Blom, Eric, Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas Discussed, London,

J. lvI. Dent and Sons Ltd., 1938.

Closson, Ernest, Histr of the Piano, translated by Delano

Ames, London, Paul Elek, 1947.

Dolge, Alfred, Pianos and Their Makers, Covina, California,

Covina Publishing Coirpany, 1911.

Dorian, Frederick, The History of Music in Performance,

New York, W. VV. Norton and Co., Inc., 1942.

Evans, Edwin, Beethoven's Nine Symphonies Fully Described

and Analysed, Vol. I, London, William Reeves, 1923-1924.

Harding, H. A., Anal of Form as Displayed in Beethovents

Thirty-two Pianoforte Sonatas, London, Novello and
Company, Limited, 1901.

James, Phillip, Earl Keyboard Instruments from Their Begin-

nings to the Year 1820, London, Peter Davis, Ltd., 1930.

71
 72

Kastner, Rudolf, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas, London, William

Reeves, no date.

Milne, A. Forbes, Beethoven, Vol. I, The Pianoforte Sonatas,

London, Oxford University Press, 1925.

Nottebohm, Gustav, Ludw van Beethoven Thematisches

Verzeichnis, Leipzig,~Breitkopf and haertel, 1925.

Rolland, domain, Beethoven the Creator, translated by Ernest

Newman, New York, Harper and Brothers, 1929.

Schauffler, Robert Haven, Beethoven, The Man Who Freed Music,

Garden City, New York, Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1936.

Thayer, Alexander Wheelock, The Life of Ludwig van Beethoven,

3 vols., New York, Beethoven Association, 1934.

Tovey, Donald Francis, A Companion to Beethoven's Pianoforte

Sonatas, London, The Associated Board of the R. A. M.
and the R. C. M., 1931.

Articles

Kolisch, Rudolf, "Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music,"

Part I and II, Musical 1,rterly, XXIX, Nos. 2 and 3
(April and July, 1943), 169-187, and 291-312.

Meyerstein, E. H. W., "The Problem of dvil and Suffering in

Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas," The Music Review, V,
No. 2, (May, 1944), 96-111.

Recordings

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Sonata in D minor, 9 31, No. 2,

recorded by Walter Gieseking, uolumbia Master Works,
(C-DFX 132/3) (C-D)X 277/8), CM-X39, 4 sides, 2 twelve
inch records.

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Sonata in D minor, p.31, No. 2,

recorded by Artur Schnabel, Beethoven Society, Vol. VIII
(not available separately).

Editions of Music

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Sonatas for the Piano, 2 vols.,

edited by Hans von Bulow and Sigmund Lebert, New York,
G. Schirmer, Inc., 1923.
 73

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Sonate 2e Pianoforte, 3 vols.,

edited by Alfredo Casella, Milan, G. Ricordi & Co.
1944.

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Sonaten f{tr Klavier, Urtext edition,

3 vols., edited by Carl Krebs, Berlin, Breitkopf

&
Haertel, 1898.

Beethoven, Ludwig van, 32 Sonatas for the Pianoforte, 2 vols.,

edited by Artur Schnabel, New York, Simon and Schuster,
1935.

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Sonatas for Piano, 2 vols., original

version, unedited, Scarsdale, N. Y., Edwin F. Kalmus,
no date.