SOUND INTENSITY

Introduction Acoustic measurements and acoustic theory have not always progressed
side by side. The publication of Lord Rayleigh's influential work, "The Theory of Sound", laid the
foundations of modern acoustics. The quantity sound intensity was fundamental to this theory. But a full
hundred years were to elapse before the emergence of a thoroughly practical method of measuring
sound intensity. Developments in electronics at the beginning of this century slowly brought
measurement into step with theory. These included the triode amplifier invented by L. de Forest in
1906, and E. C. Wente's first condenser microphone, designed in 1915. A device patented by H. F. Olson
in 1932 measured sound intensity but it apparently worked only under idealized conditions. Despite
several other attempts no commercial device was produced. The commercial era did not begin until
1977, when digital signal processing techniques were applied to the theory independently by F. J. Fahy
and J. Y. Chung. And with advances in microphone design, reliable measurement at last became possible
with two closely spaced microphones. In the short space of time since this breakthrough the method has
become established. While giving theoretical acousticians the chance to measure and visualize
quantities that previously had been confined to their mathematical textbooks, it is also proving
invaluable in many varied applications to the noise control engineer.

Sound Pressure and Sound Power

A sound source radiates power and this results in a sound pressure. Sound power is the cause. Sound
pressure is the effect. Consider the following analogy. An electric heater radiates heat into a room and
temperature is the effect. Temperature is also the physical quantity that makes us feel hot or cold. The
temperature in the room is obviously dependent on the room itself, the insulation, and whether other
sources of heat are present. But for the same electrical power input, the heater radiates the same
power, practically independent of the environment. The relationship between sound power and sound
pressure is similar. What we hear is sound pressure but it is caused by the sound power emitted from
the source. Too high a sound pressure may cause hearing damage. So when trying to quantify human
response to sound, such as noise annoyance or the risk of hearing loss, pressure is the obvious quantity
to measure. It is also relatively easy to measure: The pressure variations on the eardrum we perceive as
sound are the same pressure variations which are detected on the diaphragm of a condenser
microphone. The sound pressure that we hear, or measure with a microphone is dependent on the
distance from the source and the acoustic environment (or sound field) in which sound waves are
present. This in turn depends on the size of the room and the sound absorption of the surfaces. So by
measuring sound pressure we cannot necessarily quantify how much noise a machine makes. We have
to find the sound power because this quantity is more or less independent of the environment and is
the unique descriptor of the noisiness of a sound source.

What is Sound Intensity?

Any piece of machinery that vibrates radiates acoustical energy. Sound power is the rate at which
energy is radiated [energy per unit time). Sound intensity describes the rate of energy flow through a
unit area. In the SI system of units the unit area is 1 m2. And hence the units for sound intensity are
Watts per square metre. Sound intensity also gives a measure of direction as there will be energy flow in
some directions but not in others. Therefore sound intensity is a vector quantity as it has both
magnitude and direction. On the other hand pressure is a scalar quantity as it has magnitude only.
Usually we measure the intensity in a direction normal (at 90°) to a specified unit area through which
the sound energy is flowing. We also need to state that sound intensity is the time-averaged rate of
energy flow per unit area. In some cases energy may be travelling back and forth. This will not be
measured; if there is no net energy flow there will be no net intensity. In the diagram opposite the
sound source is radiating energy. All this energy must pass through an area enclosing the source. Since
intensity is the power per area, we can easily measure the normal spatial-averaged intensity over an
area which encloses the source and then multiply it by the area to find the sound power. Note that
intensity (and pressure) follows the inverse square law for free field propagation.

Why Measure Sound

Intensity?
On the factory floor we can make sound pressure
measurements and find out if the workers risk hearing
damage. But once we have found this, we may well want
to reduce the noise. To do this, we need to know how
much noise is being radiated and by what machine. We
therefore need to know the sound power of the
individual machines and rank them in order of highest
sound power. Once we have located the machine
making most noise we may want to reduce the noise by
locating the individual components radiating noise. We
can do all this with intensity measurements. Previously
we could only measure pressure which is dependent on
the sound field. Sound power can be related to sound
pressure only under carefully controlled conditions
where special assumptions are made about the sound field. Specially constructed rooms such as
anechoic or reverberant chambers fulfil these requirements. Traditionally, to measure sound power, the
noise source had to be placed in these rooms. Sound intensity, however, can be measured in any sound
field. No assumptions need to be made. This property allows all the measurements to be done directly
in situ. And measurements on individual machines or individual components can be made even when all
the others are radiating noise, because steady background noise makes no contribution to the sound
power determined when measuring intensity. Because sound intensity gives a measure of direction as
well as magnitude it is also very useful when locating sources of sound. Therefore the radiation patterns
of complex vibrating machinery can be studie in situ.

Sound Fields A sound field is a region

where there is sound. It is classified according to
the manner and the environment in which the
sound waves travel. Some examples will now be
described and the relationship between pressure
and intensity discussed. This relationship is
precisely known only in the first two special cases
described below.

The Free Field This term describes

sound propagation in idealized free space where
there are no reflections. These conditions hold in
the open air (sufficiently far enough away from the
ground) or in an anechoic room where all the
sound striking the walls is absorbed. Free field
propagation is characterized by a 6 dB drop in
sound pressure level and intensity level (in the
direction of sound propagation) each time the
distance from the source is doubled. This is simply
a statement of the inverse square law. The relationship between sound pressure and sound intensity
(magnitude only) is also known. It gives one way of finding sound power which is described in the
International Standard ISO 3745.

The Diffuse Field In a diffuse field, sound is reflected so many times that it travels in all
directions with equal magnitude and probability. This field is approximated in a reverberant room.
Although the net intensity is zero, there is a theoretical relationship which relates the pressure in the
room to the onesided Intensity, Ix. This is the intensity in one direction, ignoring the equal and opposite
component. One-sided intensity cannot be measured by a sound intensity analyzer but it is nevertheless
a useful quantity: By measuring pressure we can use the relationship between pressure and one-sided
intensity to find the sound power. This is described in ISO 3741.

Active and Reactive Sound Fields

Sound propagation involves energy flow but there can still be a
sound pressure even when there is no propagation. An active
field is one where there is energy flow. In a pure reactive field,
there is no energy flow. At any instant energy may be travelling
outward, but it will always be returned at a later instant. The
energy is stored as if in a spring. Hence the net intensity is zero.
In general a sound field will have both active and reactive
components. Pressure measurements for sound power in fields
which are not well-defined can be unreliable, since the reactive
part is unrelated to the power radiated. We can, however,
measure sound intensity. Since sound intensity describes energy
flow, there will be no contribution from the reactive component
of the field. Two examples of reactive fields follow.

Standing Waves in a Pipe Consider a piston

exciting the air at one end of a tube. At the other end there is a
termination which causes the sound waves to be reflected. The
combination of the forward-travelling and reflected waves
produces patterns of pressure maxima and minima which occur
at fixed distances along the tube. If the termination is completely
rigid all the energy is reflected and the net intensity is zero. With
an absorptive termination some intensity will be measured.
Standing waves are also present in rooms at low frequencies.

How is Sound Intensity Measured? The Euler Equation: Finding the Particle
Velocity Sound intensity is the time-averaged product of the pressure and particle velocity. A single
microphone can measure pressure — this is not a problem. But measuring particle velocity is not as
simple. The particle velocity, however, can be related to the pressure gradient (the rate at which the
instantaneous pressure changes with distance) with the linearized Euler equation. With this equation, it
is possible to measure this pressure gradient with two closely spaced microphones and relate it to
particle velocity. Euler's equation is essentially Newton's
second law applied to a fluid. Newton's Second Law relates
the acceleration given to a mass to the force acting on it. If
we know the force and the mass we can find the acceleration
and then integrate it with respect to time to find the velocity.
With Euler's equation it is the pressure gradient that
accelerates a fluid of density p. With knowledge of the
pressure gradient and the density of the fluid, the particle
acceleration can be calculated. Integrating the acceleration
signal then gives the particle velocity.

Applications in Building Acoustics

Measuring Airborne Sound
Insulation Sound intensity measurement has
many applications in building acoustics; quantities
such as noise reduction and acoustic absorption are
fundamentally related to sound power. Therefore,
intensity rather than pressure is the logical quantity
to measure. For example, sound intensity
measurements provide an alternative approach for
measuring airborne sound insulation. Measurements
of the sound reduction index of a building element
can be carried out in the laboratory or in situ, as
shown in the diagram. In the source room the
spatially averaged sound pressure level is calculated
from sound pressure measurements. In the receiving
room, a grid applied to the measurement surface
defines the areas of interest. The average sound
intensity flowing through each grid-segment can be
measured directly by using a sound intensity
analyzing system. The sound power emitted by each
segment in the grid is simply the average sound
intensity multiplied by the segment's area. Since the
flow of sound intensity through any surface in the
room may be examined, it is possible to measure the
contribution of the various flanking and leakage transmissions towards the total power in the receiving
room. A significant advantage of the intensity approach is that the apparent sound reduction index R'n
for any area on the measurement grid may be found. So if a compound partition is to be studied, for
example a wall containing a window, R'n may be found for both the wall material and the glass.

Pressure and Particle Velocity

When a particle of air is displaced from its mean position there is

a temporary increase in pressure. The pressure increase acts in
two ways: to restore the particle to its original position, and to
pass on the disturbance to the next particle. The cycle of pressure
increases (compressions) and decreases (rarefactions) propagates
through the medium as a sound wave. There are two important
parameters in this process: the pressure (the local increases and
decreases with respect to the ambient) and the velocity of the
particles of air which oscillate about a fixed position. Sound
intensity is the product of particle velocity and pressure. And, as
can be seen from the transformation below, it is equivalent to the
power per unit area definition given earlier.

In an active field, pressure and particle velocity vary

simultaneously. A peak in the pressure signal occurs at the same
time as a peak in the particle velocity signal. They are therefore
said to be in phase and the product of the two signals gives a net
intensity. In a reactive field the pressure and particle velocity are
90° out of phase. One is shifted a quarter of a wavelength with
respect to the other. Multiplying the two signals together gives
an instantaneous intensity signal varying sinusoidally about zero.
Therefore the time-averaged intensity is zero. In a diffuse field the pressure and particle velocity phase
vary at random and so the net intensity is zero.
Instrumentation
There are three essential components in a
sound intensity analyzing system: analyzer,
probe and calibrator. Brüel&Kjær makes a
complete range of these components, as
well as providing postprocessing software
packages, to give a choice of systems
dedicated to intensity measurement.

The Analyzer Brüel&Kjær

produces many different intensity
analyzers for laboratory and field use.
Some examples are given here. The Type
2133 is a real-time analyzer with digital
filters for parallel analysis of 1/1-, 1/3- and
1/12-octave bands. Dual channel analyzers
such as Type 2032 use the Fast Fourier
Transform to give the cross spectrum, and
hence the intensity in narrow bands. For
in-situ measurements, however, portable
instruments are advantageous. Here the
Type 4437 is an economical solution. It
measures the intensity in 1/1- octave
bands, is battery operated and is easily
portable.

The Two-Microphone Probe

A number of Brüel&Kjær phase-matched
probes are available for sound intensity
measurements. For all the probes, remote
control units allow the averaging to be
controlled without the need to touch the analyzer.

The Sound Intensity Calibrator Type 3541 generates known sound pressure, intensity
and particle velocity levels in a small coupler. The calibrator is suitable for amplitude calibrations of the
two microphone channels and for checking the values of intensity and particle velocity calculated by the
analyzer. The calibrator can also be used to detect the residual intensity in the analyzing system and
hence the pressure-residual intensity index which is a measure of the phase mismatch in the system
(see Appendix).
INTENSITY ANALYZER The Sound Intensity Calibrator
Inverse Square Law
The inverse-square law, in physics, is any physical law stating that a specified
physical quantity or intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
source of that physical quantity. The fundamental cause for this can be understood as
geometric dilution corresponding to point-source radiation into three-dimensional space (see
diagram).
Radar energy expands during both the signal transmission and also on the reflected return, so
the inverse square for both paths means that the radar will receive energy according to the
inverse fourth power of the range.
In order to prevent dilution of energy while propagating a signal, certain methods can be used
such as a waveguide, which acts like a canal does for water, or how a gun barrel restricts hot
gas expansion to one dimension in order to prevent loss of energy transfer to a bullet.

Gravitation and Newton's inverse square law

Isaac Newton was a giant of modern science, and one of the key architects of the modern
world. One of his major insights was that the force of gravitational attraction between
two bodies had a precise mathematical aspect.

In this step we look at Newton’s inverse square law: an important example of a power law that
falls outside of the inverse relations we have talked about previously, but is still closely related
to it.

Inverse square laws

A variables yy is related to a variable xx by an inverse square law if we can

write y=a/x2y=a/x2 for some constant aa. Here is the case when a=1a=1.
There are some obvious similarities with the inverse relation y=1/xy=1/x, but also some
important differences. Both functions have a vertical asymptote x=0x=0 and a horizontal
asymptote y=0y=0. Both pass through the point [1,1][1,1]. However while y=1/xy=1/x is an odd
function, y=1/x2y=1/x2 is an even function.
In addition, as xx gets large positive, 1/x21/x2 gets smaller much faster than 1/x1/x. On the
other hand if xx is a small positive number approaching 00, then 1/x21/x2 grows much quicker
than 1/x1/x.

Newton’s law of gravitation

In 1687 Newton published one of the most far-reaching and influential books of all time: what is
now called The Principia (although the original name was longer and in Latin). In this work
Newton laid the foundation for modern physics, with his elucidation of his three Laws of Motion,
a statement of his Law of Gravitation, and a derivation and explanation of Kepler’s laws.

Inverse Square Law Formula

The inverse square law describes the intensity of light at different distances from a light source.
Every light source is different, but the intensity changes in the same way. The intensity of light is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance. This means that as the distance from a light
source increases, the intensity of light is equal to a value multiplied by 1/d2,. The proportional
symbol, , is used to show how these relate. The relationship between the intensity of light at
different distances from the same light source can be found by dividing one from the other. The
formula for this is shown below. Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the
inverse square law is true for any other waves or rays on that spectrum, for example, radio
waves, microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays. The intensity of
visible light is measured in candela units, while the intensity of other waves is measured in
Watts per meter squared (W/m2).
Proportional:

I = light intensity (candela, W/m2)

means "is proportional to"
d = distance from a light source (m)
Intensity at different distances:
I1 = light intensity at distance 1
I2 = light intensity at distance 2
d1 = distance 1 from light source (m)
d2 = distance 2 from light source (m)
Inverse Square Law Formula Questions:
1) If a bright flashlight has a light intensity of 15.0 candela at a distance 1.00 m from the lens,
what is the intensity of the flashlight 100.0 m from the lens?
Answer : The intensity at the farther distance can be found using the formula:

If d1 = 1.00 m from the lens, and d2 = 100.0 m from the lens, then I1 = 15.0 candela, and we
need to solve for I2. This requires rearranging the equation:

Now, substitute the values that are known in to the equation:

I2 = (0.0001)(15.0 candela)
I2 = 0.0015 candela
The intensity of the flashlight at a distance of 100.0 m is 0.0015 candela.
2) The intensity of a radio signal is 0.120 W/m2 at a distance of 16.0 m from a small transmitter.
What is the intensity of the signal 4.00 m from the transmitter?
Answer: The intensity at the near distance can be found using the formula:
If d1 = 4.00 m from the transmitter, and d2 = 16.0 m from the transmitter, then
I2 = 0.120 W/m2, and we need to solve for I1. This requires rearranging the equation:

Now, substitute the values that are known in to the equation:

I1 = (16.0)(0.120 W/m2)
I1 = 1.92/m2
The intensity of the radio signal 4.00 m from the transmitter is 1.92 W/m2.

Occurrences
Gravitation
Gravitation is the attraction between objects that have mass. Newton's law states:
The gravitational attraction force between two point masses is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation
distance. The force is always attractive and acts along the line joining them.
If the distribution of matter in each body is spherically symmetric, then the objects can be
treated as point masses without approximation, as shown in the shell theorem. Otherwise, if we
want to calculate the attraction between massive bodies, we need to add all the point-point
attraction forces vectorially and the net attraction might not be exact inverse square. However, if
the separation between the massive bodies is much larger compared to their sizes, then to a
good approximation, it is reasonable to treat the masses as point mass while calculating the
gravitational force.
As the law of gravitation, this law was suggested in 1645 by Ismael Bullialdus. But Bullialdus did
not accept Kepler’s second and third laws, nor did he appreciate Christiaan Huygens’s solution
for circular motion (motion in a straight line pulled aside by the central force). Indeed, Bullialdus
maintained the sun's force was attractive at aphelion and repulsive at perihelion. Robert
Hooke and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli both expounded gravitation in 1666 as an attractive
force (Hooke’s lecture "On gravity" at the Royal Society, London, on 21 March; Borelli's "Theory
of the Planets", published later in 1666). Hooke's 1670 Gresham lecture explained that
gravitation applied to "all celestiall bodys" and added the principles that the gravitating power
decreases with distance and that in the absence of any such power bodies move in straight
lines. By 1679, Hooke thought gravitation had inverse square dependence and communicated
this in a letter to Isaac Newton. Hooke remained bitter about Newton claiming the invention of
this principle, even though Newton's Principia acknowledged that Hooke, along with Wren and
Halley, had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the solar system, as well as giving
some credit to Bullialdus.

Electrostatics
The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged particles, in addition to
being directly proportional to the product of the electric charges, is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them; this is known as Coulomb's law. The deviation of the
exponent from 2 is less than one part in 1015.

Light and other electromagnetic radiation

The intensity (or illuminance or irradiance) of light or other linear waves radiating from a point
source (energy per unit of area perpendicular to the source) is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the source; so an object (of the same size) twice as far away,
receives only one-quarter the energy (in the same time period).
More generally, the irradiance, i.e., the intensity (or power per unit area in the direction
of propagation), of a spherical wavefront varies inversely with the square of the distance from
the source (assuming there are no losses caused by absorption or scattering).
For example, the intensity of radiation from the Sun is 9126 watts per square meter at the
distance of Mercury (0.387 AU); but only 1367 watts per square meter at the distance
of Earth (1 AU)—an approximate threefold increase in distance results in an approximate nine
fold decrease in intensity of radiation.
For non-isotropic radiators such as parabolic antennas, headlights, and lasers, the effective
origin is located far behind the beam aperture. If you are close to the origin, you don't have to go
far to double the radius, so the signal drops quickly. When you are far from the origin and still
have a strong signal, like with a laser, you have to travel very far to double the radius and
reduce the signal. This means you have a stronger signal or have antenna gain in the direction
of the narrow beam relative to a wide beam in all directions of an isotropic antenna.
In photography and stage lighting, the inverse-square law is used to determine the "fall off" or
the difference in illumination on a subject as it moves closer to or further from the light source.
For quick approximations, it is enough to remember that doubling the distance reduces
illumination to one quarter; or similarly, to halve the illumination increase the distance by a factor
of 1.4 (the square root of 2), and to double illumination, reduce the distance to 0.7 (square root
of 1/2). When the illuminant is not a point source, the inverse square rule is often still a useful
approximation; when the size of the light source is less than one-fifth of the distance to the
subject, the calculation error is less than 1%.
The fractional reduction in electromagnetic fluence (Φ) for indirectly ionizing radiation with
increasing distance from a point source can be calculated using the inverse-square law. Since
emissions from a point source have radial directions, they intercept at a perpendicular
incidence. The area of such a shell is 4πr 2 where r is the radial distance from the center. The
law is particularly important in diagnostic radiography and radiotherapy treatment planning,
though this proportionality does not hold in practical situations unless source dimensions are
much smaller than the distance. As stated in fourier theory of heat "as the point source is
magnification by distances , its radiation is dilute proportional to the sin of the angle, of the
increasing circumference arc from the point of origin"
The energy or intensity decreases (divided by 4) as the distance r is doubled; measured in dB it
would decrease by 6.02 dB per doubling of distance.

Sound in a gas
In acoustics, the sound pressure of a spherical wavefront radiating from a point source
decreases by 50% as the distance r is doubled; measured in dB, the decrease is still 6.02 dB,
since dB represents an intensity ratio. The pressure ratio (as opposed to power ratio) is not
inverse-square, but is inverse-proportional (inverse distance law):