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GEOMETRY
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To the Teacher,
Analytic Analysis of Lines and Circles is designed to provide students with the
analytic geometry background needed for further college-level geometry
courses. Analytic geometry can be defined as algebraic analysis applied to
geometrical concepts and figures, or the use of geometrical
concepts and figures to illustrate algebraic forms.
Analytic geometry has many applications in different
branches of science and makes it easier to solve a wide
variety of problems. The goal of this text is to help students
develop the skills necessary for solving analytic geometry
problems, and then help students apply these skills. By the
end of the book, students will have a good understanding
of the analytic approach to solving problems. In addition,
we have provided many systematic explanations throughout
the text that will help instructors to reach the goals that
they have set for their students. As always, we have taken
particular care to create a book that students can read,
understand, and enjoy, and that will help students gain
confidence in their ability to use analytic geometry.
To the Student,
This book consists of two chapters, which cover analytical analysis of lines and
circles respectively. Each chapter begins with basic definitions, theorems, and
explanations which are necessary for understanding the subsequent chapter
material. In addition, each chapter is divided into subsections so that students
can follow the material easily.
Every subsection includes self-test Check Yourself problem sections followed by basic
examples illustrating the relevant definition, theorem, rule, or property. Teachers
should encourage their students to solve Check Yourself problems themselves
because these problems are fundemental to understanding and learning the related
subjects or sections. The answers to most Check Yourself problems are given directly
after the problems, so that students have immediate feedback on their progress.
Answers to some Check Yourself problems are not included in the answer key, as they
are basic problems which are covered in detail in the preceding text or examples.
Giving answers to such problems would effectively make the problems redundant,
so we have chosen to omit them, and leave students to find the basic answers
themselves.
At the end of every section there are exercises categorized according to the
structure and subject matter of the section. Exercises are graded in order,
from easy (at the beginning) to difficult (at the end).
Exercises which involve more ability and effort are
denoted by one or two stars. In addition, exercises which
deal with more than one subject are included in a
separate bank of mixed problems at the end of the
section. This organization allows the instructor to deal
with only part of a section if necessary and to easily determine which exercises
are appropriate to assign.
Every chapter ends with three important sections.
The Chapter Summary is a list of important concepts and
formulas covered in the chapter that students can use
easily to get direct information whenever needed.
A Concept Check section contains questions about the
main concepts of the subjects
covered, especially about the definitions, theorems or
derived formulas.
Finally, a Chapter Review Test section consists of three tests, each with sixteen
carefully-selected problems. The first test covers
primitive and basic problems. The second and third tests
include more complex problems. These tests help
students assess their ability in understanding the
coverage of the chapter.
The answers to the exercises and the tests are given at the end of the book so
that students can compare their solution with the correct answer.
Each chapter also includes some subjects which are denoted as optional. These
subjects complement the topic and give some additional
information. However, completion of optional sections is
left to the discretion of the teacher, who can take into
account regional curriculum requirements.
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2
SECTION 1: ANALYSIS OF VECTORS SECTION 1: CONGRUENCE
GEOMETRICALLY
A. THE CONCEPT OF CONGRUENCE . . . .56
A. BASIC VECTOR CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . .10 1. Congruent Figures and Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . .56
1. Directed Line Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 2. Congruent Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
2. Definition of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 B. THE TRIANGLE ANGLE BISECTOR
3. Equal Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 THEOREM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
B. VECTOR OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
THE CONCEPT OF
SECTION 2:
1. Addition of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
SIMILARITY
2. Subtraction of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
3. Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar . . . . . . . . . .17 INTRODUCTION TO SIMILARITY . . . . . . . .67
1. Similar Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
C. PARALLEL VECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
2. Similar Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
1. Parallel Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
2. Non-Parallel Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 SECTION 3:THE ANGLE - ANGLE
ANALYSIS OF VECTORS
SECTION 2:
SIMILARITY POSTULATE
ANALYTICALLY THE ANGLE-ANGLE (AA) SIMILARITY
POSTULATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
A. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VECTORS IN THE
ANALYTIC PLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 WORKING WITH SIMILARITY
SECTION 4:
1. Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 TRIANGLES
2. The Rectangular Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . .24
A. THE SIDE-ANGLE-SIDE (SAS)
3. Position Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
SIMILARITY THEOREM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4. Components of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
5. Equal Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 B. THE SIDE-SIDE-SIDE (SSS)
SIMILARITY THEOREM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
B. VECTOR OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
1. Addition of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 C. THE TRIANGLE PROPORTIONALITY
2. Subtraction of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
THEOREM AND THALES’ THEOREM . . . . . .90
3. Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar . . . . . . . . . .30 1. The Triangle Proportionality Theorem . . . . . . . . .90
2. Thales’ Theorem of Parallel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4. Standard Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
C. PARALLEL VECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 D. FURTHER APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .95
1. Menelaus’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
THE DOT PRODUCT OF
SECTION 3: 2. Ceva’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
TWO VECTORS SECTION 5: FURTHER STUDIES
A. DOT PRODUCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 A. EUCLIDEAN RELATIONS . . . . . . . . . . .103
1. Properties of the Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
B. MEDIAN RELATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
B. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS . . . . .39
1. Angle Between Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
2. Perpendicular and Parallel Vectors . . . . . . . . . . .41
CHAPTER 3
C. REGULAR POLYGONS . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
SECTION 1: BASIC CONCEPTS 1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
2. Basic Properties of a Regular Polygon . . . . . . .219
Arc Length and the Circumference of a Circle .126 3. Inscribed and Circumscribed Polygons . . . . . . .224
SECTION 2: ANGLES AND CIRCLES
A. INSCRIBED ANGLES AND ARCS . . . . . .132 CHAPTER 6
B. ANGLES FORMED BY SECANTS,
TANGENTS AND CHORDS . . . . . . . . . . . .148 AREAS OF REGULAR
SECTION 1:
1. Angles on a Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 POLYGONS AND CIRCLES
2. Angles Inside a Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152 A. AREA OF A CIRCULAR REGION . . . . . .236
3. Angles Outside a Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
B. AREA OF A SECTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
SECTION 3: SEGMENTS AND CIRCLES C. AREA OF A SEGMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
SEGMENTS FORMED BY SECANTS D. AREA OF A RING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
ANDCHORDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
1. The Power of a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174 E. RATIOS IN CIRCLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250
2. Segments Formed by Intersecting Secants . . .175
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION TO SPACE
SECTION 1:
TRIGONOMETRIC
SECTION 1: GEOMETRY
THEOREMS AND FORMULAS Lines and Planes in Space . . . . . . . . . . . .255
A. TRIGONOMETRIC THEOREMS . . . . . . .196 1. Determination of a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
1. The Law of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 2. Mutual Positions of Two Lines in Space . . . . . .258
2. The Law of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 3. Mutual Positions of a Plane and a Line . . . . . . .259
4. Mutual Positions Of Two Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
5. Mutual Positions of Three Planes . . . . . . . . . . . .271
6. The Thales Theorem in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION TO
SECTION 1:
SECTION 2: PERPENDICULARITY
POLYGONS A. Perpendicular Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
A. BASIC CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204 B. Line Perpendicular to a Plane . . . . . . . .283
1. Simple and Closed Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204 C. Perpendicular Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
2. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
D. Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
3. Convex and Concave Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
1. Distance Between a Point and a Plane . . . . . . .291
4. Types of Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
2. Distance Between a Plane and a Line
5. Diagonals in a Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Parallel to the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
B. BASIC PROPERTIES OF A CONVEX 3. Distance Between Two Parallel Planes . . . . . . .292
POLYGON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212 4. Distance Between Skew Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
1. Number of Diagonals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
2. Angle Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
SECTION 3: SOLIDS WITH CURVED
SURFACES
A. Some Important Polyhedrons . . . . . . . .300
1. Prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
SECTION 4: VOLUMES OF SOLIDS
A. Circular Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
B. Areas of Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
C. Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
1. Fundamental Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
SECTIONS AND
SECTION 5:
COMBINATIONS OF SOLIDS
1. Volume of a Right Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
2. Volume of a Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
Volumes of Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
A. BASIC VECTOR CONCEPTS
Some of the quantities we measure in our daily lives are completely determined by their
magnitudes, for example, length, mass, area, temperature, and energy. When we speak of a
length of 3 cm or an area of 5 cm2, we only need one number to describe each of these
quantities. We call such quantities scalar quantities.
On the other hand, to describe a force, we need to record its direction as well as its size. For
example, to describe the velocity of a moving object, we must specify both the speed and the
direction of travel. Quantities such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, and other forces
that have magnitude as well as direction are called vector quantities. We usually show a
vector quantity as an arrow that points in the direction of the action, with length that shows
the magnitude of the action in terms of a suitable unit. The way to represent such quantities
mathematically is through the use of vectors.
1. Directed Line Segment
When we move from Antalya to Berlin
by bus, we have two quantities: the
direction from Antalya to Berlin, and
Antalya Berlin
the length of the displacement between
these cities.
We can sketch a line segment AB as shown in the figure with starting terminal point
point A and finishing point B to represent the movement from Antalya to B
Berlin. The line segment AB with an arrow has direction and length. The
arrow head specifies the direction, and the length of the arrow specifies
the magnitude, at a suitable scale. A and B are the endpoints of the segment. A initial point
Point A is called the initial point and point B is called the terminal point
of the line segment. The resulting segment AB is called a directed line segment.
Definition directed line segment
A line segment with direction is called a directed line segment.
We write AB to denote a directed line segment from point A to point B.
Directed line segments are used in daily life. For example, some
traffic signs for drivers use directed line segments.
In technology we also use directed line segments.
10 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 1 Points M, N, P and K on line d are given. Write all the
d
directed line segments with endpoints M, N, P, or K. M N P K
Solution The directed line segments with endpoints M, N, P, or K are MN, MP, MK, NP, NK,
NM, PK, PN, PM, KP, KN, and KM.
Notice that MN is not the same as NM, and MP is not the same as PM. This is because the
line segments have direction. Pairs such as MN and NM have the same magnitude but
opposite direction.
2. Definition of a Vector
Definition vector
A directed line segment in the plane is called a vector. initial point terminal point
The length of the directed line segment is the length of the
vector. A B
The direction of the directed line segment is the direction of
the vector.
We write AB to mean a vector with initial point A and terminal point B. Alternatively, we can
name a vector with a lower-case letter such as u or p.
For example, consider a line segment AB with length 2 cm.
We can say the length of vector AB is 2 cm, and write | AB| = 2 cm.
3. Equal Vectors
Definition equal vectors
Two vectors that have the same direction and length are ®
u
A B
called equal vectors. We show that two vectors u and v are ®
v
equal by writing u = v . C D
EXAMPLE 2 In the figure, D, E, and F are the midpoints of AB, AC and
A
BC respectively, and DE || BC, EF || AB, DF || AC.
Name all the equal vectors.
Solution In triangle ABC, |DE| = |BF| = |FC| D E
|EF| = |AD| = |DB|
|DF| = |AE| = |EC|.
So DE = BF = FC ED = FB = CF B F C
EF = AD = DB and FE = DA = BD
DF = AE = EC FD = EA = CE.
Analysis of Vectors Geometrically 11
Check Yourself
ABCD is a parallelogram in the figure. D C
1. How many pairs of equivalent directed line segments are there?
2. How many pairs of equal vectors are there?
Answers A B
1. 4 2. 4
Definition opposite vectors
Two vectors are called opposite vectors if and only if their
A B
magnitudes (lengths) are the same but their directions are opposite.
C D
For example, in the figure, AB and BA are opposite vectors. CD and
DC are also opposite vectors. We can write AB = – BA and CD = – DC.
Definition zero vector
A vector whose initial and terminal points are the same is called a zero vector.
We write a zero vector as 0.
A zero vector has no direction and no size.
B. VECTOR OPERATIONS
1. Addition of Vectors
Let PQ and QR be two vectors in a plane. PQ + QR denotes the sum of the vectors PQ and
QR. There are two ways to find the sum of two or more vectors.
a. The Polygon Method
Imagine we want to add n vectors together. Using the polygon method, we draw the first
vector. Then we place the initial point of the second vector at the terminal point of the first
vector, the initial point of the third vector at the terminal point of the second vector, and so
on until we place the initial point of the nth vector at the terminal point of the (n – 1)th
vector. The sum is the vector whose initial point is the initial point of the first vector and
whose terminal point is the terminal point of the last vector.
Let us look at an example. D D
A
Let AB and CD be two vectors in a plane, as in the
diagram. We place the initial point of AB at the E
terminal point of CD to make DE (AB = DE). C B C
Using the polygon method,
CD + AB = CD + DE = CE.
12 Geometry 9
Now look at an example of adding more than two vectors using the polygon method.
As shown in the figure,
u + v + w + x = AE.
B
®
®
u u
® ®
x C x
®
v A
®
v
D ®
w E
®
w
b. The Parallelogram Method
To add one vector to another using the parallelogram method, we draw the first vector, and
then we draw the second vector with its initial point at the initial point of the first vector. We
make a parallelogram by drawing two additional sides, each passing through the terminal
point of one of the vectors and parallel to the other vector. We find the sum by drawing a
vector along the diagonal from the common initial point to the intersection of the two lines.
Look at the example of adding u and v using the parallelogram method:
step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4
®
®
u
®
u
®
u
®
u r
® ® ® ®
v u+v= r
® ® ®
v v v
3
®
v
EXAMPLE Find u + v + w in the figure on the right.
®
u
®
w
Analysis of Vectors Geometrically 13
Solution Let us choose A as a fixed point. We can use the polygon method or the parallelogram
method to add the given vectors u + v + w .
®
v
® ®
® ® u+ v
u u
®
® v
A w A
® ® ®
u + v +w
®
w
by the polygon method by the parallelogram method
EXAMPLE 4 The velocity of a boat is 25 m/min north and the velocity of a river current is 3 m/min east.
Draw a scale diagram to show the velocities as vectors and find the sum.
Solution First we choose a starting point A and North N K
write AN = velocity of the boat due north.
25 m/min
AE = velocity of the current due east.
West East
AN and AE are perpendicular, and AK is A 3 m/min E
the sum of AN and AE:
2 2
|AK| = 25 + 3 = 634. South
This is the sum of the vectors.
c. Properties of Vector Addition
Let u, v, and w be three vectors in a plane P.
1. The sum of any two vectors in P is ®
u
®
v ®
uÎ P ® ®
Þv+uÎ P
also a vector in P (closure property). ®
vÎ P
® ®
v+u
®
u
2. The sum of any two vectors in P is
® ® ® ®
commutative (commutative property). v v+u v
® ® ® ® ® ®
u+v u+v=v +u
commutative
P ®
u
14 Geometry 9
3. The sum of any three vectors in P is associative (associative property).
u +( v + w ) = ( u + v ) + w
® ®
v v
® ®
v u
®
u
® ® ® ®
w u + v +w
® ® ® ® ®
w w u + v +w
®
u
®
4. The sum of the zero vector and a vector AB = u
in P is the vector itself (identity AB +BB =AB
® ® ®
element). u + 0= u
A B
5. The additive inverse of any vector u is – u: u + (– u) = 0 (additive inverse).
® ® ® ® ®
AB = u u +( u ) = 0 BA = u A B
A B A B
A B
EXAMPLE In a triangle ABC, P is the midpoint of AB. Express CP in terms of CA and CB.
Solution A
CP = CA + AP
+ CP = CB + BP P
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
2 CP = CA + CB + AP
+ BP
0 C B
1
CP = (CA + CB)
2
Analysis of Vectors Geometrically 15
2. Subtraction of Vectors
Since subtraction is the inverse of addition, we can find the difference of two vectors u and
v by adding the vectors u and – v (opposite of v) using either the parallelogram method
( u – v = u + (– v )) or the polygon method.
® ®
v v
® ®
® ® uv
uv ®
®
u ® u
® v
u
In a triangle ABC, G is the centroid. Find GA + GB + GC.
Solution Let us label a point G on the extension of CG which A
satisfies |CG| = |GG|. Since G is the centroid of
A¿BC, |CG| = 2|GK|. Therefore |GG| = 2|GK|, G¢
which means that K is the midpoint of GG. We con-
K
clude that AGBG is a parallelogram because K is the G
midpoint of both diagonals AB and GG. So we have
AG = GB which gives us GA + GB = GG.
B C
On the other hand, we have CG = GG = –GC. Using
this result in GA + GB = GG, we get GA + GB = –GC which gives us
GA + GB + CG = 0.
Check Yourself
®
1. Find the following using the vectors in the figure. u
a. v – u b. u + w c. w + v – u ®
w
2. In a triangle ABC, D [BC] and |BD| = 2 |DC|. ®
v
Express AD in terms of AB and AC.
Answers
2 1
1. use the polygon method 2. AD = AC + AB
3 3
16 Geometry 9
3. Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
Multiplying a vector by a scalar makes the vector longer or shorter depending on the value of
the scalar. If the scalar is greater than 1 or less than –1, multiplying makes a longer vector. If
the scalar is between –1 and 1 and non-zero, it makes a shorter vector.
If the scalar is positive, multiplying does not change the direction.
If the scalar is negative, multiplying will make the vector’s direction opposite.
For a real number a and a vector u,
1. if a > 0 then vector a u has the same direction as u and the length |a u| = a| u|.
2. if a < 0 then vector a u has the opposite direction to u and the length |a u| = |a|| u|.
3. if a = 0 then a u = 0.
EXAMPLE 5 Using AB as shown in the figure, draw vector
1 A B
diagrams to show 2AB, – 4AB, and AB.
2
1 1
Solution Since 2 and are positive, 2AB and AB have the AB
2 2
same direction as AB. However, 2AB is twice as long 2 × AB
1
as AB and AB is half as long.
2 4 × AB
On the other hand, –4AB has opposite direction to 1
2
×AB
AB (since –4 is a negative scalar) and it is four times
as long as AB.
a. Properties of the Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
For any vectors u, v, and w and real numbers a and b, the following properties are satisfied.
1. a u is a vector in the plane
2. (ab) u = a(b u )
3. (a + b) u = a u + b u
4. a( u + v ) = a u + b v
5. 1 u = u
6. a 0 = 0
Analysis of Vectors Geometrically 17
6
EXAMPLE Points A, B, C, and M are on the same line. M is between C and B. AB = 3AC. Express the
vector MC in terms of vectors MA and MB.
Solution AB = 3AC so CB = 2AC (1) M
A C B
MA + AC = MC (2)
CM + MB = 2AC (3)
1 1
AC = – MC + MB (4)
2 2
1 1
MA – MC + MB = MC by (2) and (4).
2 2
1 1
MA + MB = MC + MC
2 2
1 3
MA + MB = MC
2 2
2 1
So MC = MA + MB.
3 3
Check Yourself
1 ®
1. Multiply the vector u by the scalars –2, 3, 0.5 and u
3
and draw a vector diagram to show them.
2. Points A, B, C, and M are on the same line. M is between
A and C. AB = 2AC. Express the vector MC in terms of
the vectors MA and MB.
Answers
1
2. MC = (MA + MB)
2
C. PARALLEL VECTORS
1. Parallel Vectors
Definition parallel vectors
Let a and b be two vectors. a and b are called parallel vectors if and only if a = k b where
k 0 and k . We write a|| b to show that two vectors are parallel.
For example, in the diagram, | a| = 2 cm,
®
b
| b| = 1 cm and | c| = 4 cm. ®
a
1
We can express vector a as a = c and a = –2 b.
2 ®
c
Therefore the vectors a, b, and c are parallel, i.e. a|| b|| c.
18 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 7
In a triangle ABC, D and E are the midpoints of sides AB and AC respectively.
Show that DE || BC.
A
Solution BA + AC = BC and DA + AE = DE by the addition of vectors.
1 1
DA = BA, AE = AC
2 2 D E
1 1 1 1
DE = BA + AC = (BA + AC) = BC
2 2 2 2 B C
1
Now DE = BC, so DE || BC by the definition of parallel vectors.
2
EXAMPLE 8 In a quadrilateral ABCD, points E and F are the midpoints of side AB and diagonal AC,
respectively. Show that EF || BC.
A
Solution BA + AC = BC (1) and EA + AF = EF (2).
1
EA = BA E
2
D
1
+ AF = AC B F
2
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
1
EA + AF = (BA + AC)
2 C
1
EF = BC by (1) and (2). Therefore, EF || BC.
2
2. Non-Parallel Vectors
By the definiton of parallel vectors we can conclude that if a and b are non-zero,
non-parallel vectors, then h a = k b when h = k = 0. Look at the proof:
k
Suppose that h k 0, a = b.
h
Then a|| b. This is a contradiction, since a and b are non-parallel. As a result, h = k = 0.
EXAMPLE 9 Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram intersect at their midpoints by using vectors.
Solution Look at the diagram. Let AB = a and BC = b, so
D C
AC = a + b
E
DB = a – b
AE = m( a + b )
A B
EB = n( a – b )
Analysis of Vectors Geometrically 19
AE + EB = m( a + b ) + n( a – b )
a = m( a + b ) + n( a – b)
(m + n – 1) a = b(n – m).
Since a and b are non-zero and non-parallel, we have (m + n – 1) = (n – m) = 0. Therefore
1
m + n = 1 and m = n, and so m = n = .
2
EXAMPLE 10 In a triangle ABC, D, E and F are the midpoints of sides BC, BA and AC respectively. Find the
sum AD + BF + CE.
Solution Let us draw the triangle ABC as in the figure. A
If D, E and F are midpoints then
1 E
AD = (AB + AC) by the result of Example 5.
2 F
1
BF = (BA + BC)
2
1
+ CE = (CA + CB) B D C
2
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
1
AD + BF + CE = ( AB + BA + AC + CA + BC + CB )
2
0 0 0
Therefore, AD + BF + CE = 0.
Check Yourself
1. Name all the pairs of parallel ®
u1
®
u5
vectors in the figure.
2. Add the vector pairs u1 and u5,
®
u2 and u6, and u3 and u7. u2
3. Find the additive inverse of u7 ® ®
u4 u6
and u1.
4. Subtract u8 from u4.
5. In a quadrilateral ABCD, P and
® ®
K are the midpoints of sides AB u3 u7
and DC respectively. Express PK
in terms of DA and CB. ®
u8
Answers
1. look at the directions and lengths 2. use the polygon method 3. use the polygon method
1
4. use the polygon method 5. PK = – (DA + CB)
2
20 Geometry 9
Project: Describe some other areas in which we use directed line segments
(for example: flowcharts, keyboards, ...).
EXERCISES 1
A. Basic Vector Concepts B. Vector Operations
1. Draw any two parallel directed line segments with 4. Using the vectors given on the right, ®
v
the same length but opposite direction. Express sketch the following vectors. ® ®
u w
one of the line segments in terms of the other.
a. u + v b. w – ( u + v)
2. How many equal directed line segments can we c. – w – v – u d. u + ( w + v)
find on two parallel lines?
e. u – 3 v + 2 w
3. Make a scale diagram showing the vectors in each 5. In a plane, [AB] is given. Point K is the midpoint
statement and find their sum. of [AB] and point O is any point in the same
a. A 6 km trip east is followed by a 3 km trip plane. Express OK in terms of OA and OB.
southeast.
6. In a triangle ABC, points D and E lie on [BC] and
b. The velocity of a swimmer is 5 m/min west
and the velocity of a river current is 2 m/min |BD| = |DE| = |EC|. Express the vector AD + AE
north. in terms of AB and AC.
Analysis of Vectors Geometrically 21
13. A trapezoid is a four-sided figure with only two
7. Show that (AB + BC) + CD = AB + (BC + CD)
parallel sides. A line segment which joins the
by using the parallelogram method.
midpoints of the non-parallel sides is called the
median of the trapezoid. Prove that the median of
a trapezoid is parallel to the two parallel sides,
and has magnitude equal to half of their sum.
8. Point O is in the plane of a triangle ABC. Point G
is the centroid of triangle ABC. Show that
OA + OB + OC = 3OG.
14. In a triangle ABC, |BD| = |DE| = |EC|, and
E, D [BC]. If |AD + AE| = 9 cm, find |AB + AC|.
9. Consider any two points A and B in a plane.For
any point P in the same plane, the symmetry of
point P with respect to point A is Q and the 15. In a quadrilateral ABCD, E and F are the midpoints
symmetry of point Q with respect to point B is of the diagonals AC and BD respectively.
point R. Show that PR is always 2AB. (Hint: let A, Show that AB + AD + CB + CD = 4EF.
B, and C be collinear. If |AB| = |BC| then A is
the symmetry of C with respect to B.)
16. In the figure, A
T is the midpoint of BC,
ABC is a triangle, K M
C. Parallel Vectors L
2|AK| = |KB|, and
10. In a triangle ABC, G is the point of intersection of the 2|AM| = |MC|.
medians and P is the midpoint of BG. Show that Use vectors to show that
B T C
1
PA + PC = 4PG. |AL| = |LT|.
2
11. ABCD is a quadrilateral and M, N, P, Q are the
17. Show that the centroid of a triangle divides a
midpoints of AB, BC, CD, and DA respectively. median in the ratio 1:2 using vectors.
Show that MNPQ is a parallelogram.
18. In a parallelogram ABCD, K is the midpoint of
12. In a six-sided polygon ABCDEF, AB = ED, BC = FE, side DC, and the intersection point of diagonals
and CD = AF. Show that FBCE is a parallelogram. AC and BK is T. Show that AC = 3TC.
Analysis of Vectors Geometrically
22
We have studied vectors geometrically. Now let us look at a method for describing vectors
analytically.
We will begin this section by looking at some important axioms.
A. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VECTORS IN THE ANALYTIC
PLANE
1. Axioms
1. For each pair of points P and Q there exists a unique vector v such that PQ = v.
Q
® terminal point
2. For each point P and vector v, there is a v
unique point Q such that v = PQ. ®
v = PQ
P
initial point
Conclusion
1. Two points in a plane determine two opposite vectors.
2. In a plane, if one point is fixed as an initial point then all the other points in the plane
can be chosen as the terminal point of any vector.
2. The Rectangular Coordinate System
y-axis
The rectangular coordinate system is formed by
two perpendicular intersecting number lines, as
quadrant II quadrant I
shown in the diagram opposite.
1. The horizontal number line is called the x-aaxis.
2. The vertical number line is called the y-aaxis.
x-axis
origin
The origin is the point of intersection. At this
intersection, both number lines are 0. The
quadrant III quadrant IV
rectangular coordinate system is split into four
quadrants, which are marked in the diagram
with roman numerals.
Each point in the coordinate system is associated with a pair of real numbers. In an x, y
system, the x-ccoordinate always comes first and the y-ccoordinate always comes second in the
pair (x, y). The first coordinate is called the abscissa of the point and the second coordinate
is called the ordinate of the point.
24 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 11 Plot each pair of coordinates and name the quadrant or axis in which the point lies.
A(2, 3), B(–1, 2), C(–3, –4), D(2, 0), E(0, 5) y-axis
E(0, 5)
Solution A(2, 3) lies in quadrant I.
A(2, 3)
B(–1, 2) lies in quadrant II. B(1, 2)
C(–3, –4) lies in quadrant III.
D(2, 0) lies on the x-axis. x-axis
O D(2, 0)
E(0, 5) lies on the y-axis.
Check Yourself C(3, 4)
Plot the pairs of real numbers and name the quadrant or axis in which the point lies.
A(3, 2), B(–2, 1), C(–4, –3), D(0, 2), E(5, 0)
3. Position Vector
Definition position vector
A vector OP whose initial point is at the origin of the rectangular coordinate plane and which
is parallel to a vector AB is called the position vector of AB in the plane. In other words, if
OP is the position vector of AB, then OP || AB, |OP| = |AB|, and OP = AB.
From this definition we can conclude the following:
y
1. For every vector in the plane there exists a position y2
B(x2, y2)
vector OP which is determined by a pair (x, y), that is,
OP = (x, y).
y1 A(x1, y1)
2. If OP = AB, then OPBA is a parallelogram.
Look at the diagram. We can calculate that x = x2 – x1 and P(x, y)
y = y2 – y1. Therefore the vector AB determined by the
points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) has position vector x
O x1 x2
OP = AB = OB – OA = (x, y) = (x2 – x1, y2 – y1).
y
EXAMPLE 12 Find the position vector of KL with endpoints
5
P
L
K(2, 1) and L(4, 5). 4
3
Solution OP = KL = OL – OK = (4 – 2,5 – 1) 2
OP = (2, 4) 1 K
x
O 1 2 3 4 5
Analysis of Vectors Analytically 25
4. Components of a Vector
y
We have seen how to describe a vector in the plane with
®
reference to its unique position vector. ux
We can also express a vector in the plane as the sum of
® ®
two vectors, one of which is parallel to the x-axis and the uy u
other parallel to the y-axis. These two vectors are called
the components of the original vector. The component
parallel to the x-axis is called the horizontal component x
O
of the vector and the component parallel to y-axis is
called the vertical component. Expressing a vector as the
sum of its components like this is called resolving the vector. For example, in the figure
opposite, the vector u is the sum of the two components ux and uy.
We can represent the vector u as an ordered pair of real numbers:
u1
u = (u1, u2) or u = , y
u2
Q
where u1 is the horizontal scalar component of u, and y2
u2 is the vertical scalar component of u.
®
u y2 y1= u2
Now, ux = (u1, 0) and uy = (0, u2).
Look at the diagram opposite. By applying the y1
P R
Pythagorean theorem for triangle PQR in the figure, we x2 x1= u1
x
can see that the length of the vector u = (u1, u2) is O x1 x2
2 2
| u| = u1 + u2 .
EXAMPLE 13 Find the length of each vector.
3 4
a. u = (2, –3) b. v = (3, 0) c. w = ( , )
5 5
Solution a. | u| = 2 2 + (–3)2 = 4+9 = 13
b. | v| = 32 + 0 2 = 9 = 3
3 4 9 16 9 16 25
c. |w| = ( )2 + ( )2 = = = =1
5 5 25 25 25 25
EXAMPLE 14
Find the length of the vector u with initial point (1, 2) and terminal point (3, 6).
Solution u = (3 – 1, 6 – 2) = (2, 4)
2 2
| u| = 2 + 4 = 4+16 = 20
26 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 15 Find the possible values of a given |AB| = 2ñ5 and the endpoints A(a, 2) and B(1, 4).
Solution |AB| = (1 – a)2 + (4 – 2) 2 = (1 – a) 2 + 4 = 2 5
(1 – a)2 + 4 = 20
(1 – a)2 = 16
1–a = 4 or 1 – a = –4
a = –3 or a=5
Check Yourself
1. Find the position vector of ML with endpoints M(3, 2) and L(2, 3).
2. Find the length of each vector.
a. u = (3, 1) b. v = (0, 3) c. AB with endpoints A(2, 1) and B(5, 4)
Answers
1. ML = (–1, 1) 2. a. ò10 b. 3 c. 3ñ2
5. Equal Vectors
Definition equal vectors
Two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding scalar components are equal.
In other words, the vectors u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2) are equal if and only if u1 = v1 and
u2 = v2.
EXAMPLE 16
u and v are equal vectors with u = (a + b, 3), v = (–1, b – a). Find a and b.
Solution u = v , so a + b = –1 and 3 = b – a.
a + b = –1
, so b = 1 and a = –2.
b–a=3
EXAMPLE 17
The vector v = (3, 7) has initial point (2, 4). What is its terminal point?
Solution Let the terminal point of v be (x, y), so
(x – 2, y – 4) = (3, 7)
x – 2 = 3 and y – 4 = 7 by the equality of vectors.
So x = 5 and y = 11.
Analysis of Vectors Analytically 27
EXAMPLE 18 The initial point and terminal point of MN = (2, 3) are M(2, k) and N(p, 1) respectively. Find p + k.
Solution MN = (p – 2, 1 – k) = (2, 3)
p–2=2 and 1–k=3
p=4 and k = –2
So p + k = 4 – 2 = 2.
Check Yourself
1. A(2, 1), B(1, –3), C(3, 2), and D(a, b) are given. If AC = BD, find |AD|.
2. Let u = (a, a + 1) and v = (3, b) such that u = v. Find a and b.
Answers
1. 3 2. a = 3, b = 4
B. VECTOR OPERATIONS
1. Addition of Vectors
If u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2), then ® ® v2
u+v ®
v
u + v = (u1 + v1, u2 + v2).
The figure opposite shows how the analytic definition of ® u2
u
addition corresponds to the geometric one. u1 v1
Two identical pictures are hung on a wall
by pieces of string as shown in the figure.
Each piece of string exerts a force upon
the picture to support its weight. The sum
of the forces of the first picture is equal to
the force of the second picture. We can
represent the forces as vectors. The box
shows that the sum of the two vectors of first picture second picture
the first picture equals the vector of the second picture.
EXAMPLE 19
u = (1, –2) and v = (–2, 1). Find u + v .
Solution u + v = (1 – 2, –2 + 1) = (–1, –1).
EXAMPLE 20 A(–3, 2) and AB = (5, –2), are given. Find the coordinates of B.
Solution Let us write B(a, b). Now, AB = (a – (–3), b – 2) = (a + 3, b – 2)
(a + 3, b – 2) = (5, –2).
a + 3 = 5 and b – 2 = –2 by the equality of vectors, so a = 2 and b = 0.
Therefore, the coordinates of B are (2, 0).
28 Geometry 9
a. Properties of Vector Addition
Let u = (u1, u2), v = (v1, v2), and w = (w1, w2) be vectors in a plane. Then the following
properties hold.
1. The sum of any two vectors in a plane is a vector. (closure property)
2. u + v = v + u (commutative property)
3. u + ( v + w ) = ( u + v ) + w (associative property)
4. 0 is the identity element:
u + 0 = (u1 + 0, u2 + 0) = (u1, u2) = u.
5. – u is additive inverse of u:
u + (– u) = (u1 – u1, u2 – u2).
2. Subtraction of Vectors
If u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2) then
® v2
v
u– v = (u1 – v1, u2 – v2). v1 v1
The figure opposite shows how the analytic definition ®
u
v®
u2
of vector subtraction corresponds to the geometric v2
® ®
uv
one.
u1
EXAMPLE 21
Subtract v = (3, 2) from u = (2, 4).
Solution u – v = (2 – 3, 4 – 2) = (–1, 2)
a. Properties of Vector Subtraction
Let u = (u1, u2), v = (v1, v2), and w = (w1, w2) be vectors in a plane. Then the following
properties hold.
1. The difference of any two vectors in a plane is a vector.
2. u – v v – u. Therefore, vector subtraction is not commutative.
3. u – ( v – w ) ( u – v ) – w . Therefore, vector subtraction is not associative.
4. u – 0 0 – u. Therefore there is no identity element for subtraction.
EXAMPLE 22
Given w = (1, –3), K(3, 2) and P(–1, 4), find w + KP and w – KP.
Analysis of Vectors Analytically 29
Solution KP = (–1 – 3, 4 – 2) = (–4, 2)
w + KP = (1, –3) + (–4, 2) = (1 – 4, –3 + 2) = (–3, –1)
w – KP = (1, –3) – (–4, 2) = (1 + 4, –3 – 2) = (5, –5)
EXAMPLE 23 M(1, 4), N(3, 2m), K(m, –1), and |MN + NK| = 13 are given. Find m.
Solution MN + NK = MK
|MN + NK| = |MK| = 13
( m 1)2 +( 1 4)2 =13
(m – 1)2 + 25 = 169
(m – 1)2 = 144
m – 1 = 12 or m – 1 = –12
m = 13 or m = –11
3. Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
Let v = (v1, v2) and c , then c v = (cv1, cv2).
EXAMPLE 24
u = (–3, 2) and v = (2, –1) are given. Find –2 u, 3 v , and 3 u + 2 v .
Solution –2 u = (–2(–3), (–2)2) = (6, –4)
3 v = (32, 3(–1)) = (6, –3)
3 u + 2 v = 3(–3, 2) + 2(2, –1) = (–9, 6) + (4, –2) = (–5, 4)
a. Properties of the Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
Let u = (u1, u2), v = (v1, v2) and c, d . Then the following properties hold:
1. c( u + v) = c u + c v. Look at the proof:
c( u + v ) = c(u1 + v1, u2 + v2)
= (cu1 + cv1, cu2 + cv2)
= c(u1, u2) + c(v1, v2)
= c u + c v.
2. (c + d) u = c u + d u
3. (cd) u = c(d u ) = d(c u )
4. 1 u = u
5. 0 u = 0
6. c 0 = 0
7. |c u| = |c|| u|.
30 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 25
Find |2 u – 3 v| given u = (–2, 3) and v = (1, –1).
Solution 2 u – 3 v = 2(–2, 3) – 3(1, –1) = (–4, 6) – (3, –3) = (–4 – 3, 6 + 3) = (–7, 9)
Therefore, |2 u – 3 v | = ( 7) +9 = 49+81 = 130.
2 2
Check Yourself
1. Find |w| given u = (3, –2), v = (–1, 4), w = (a, b) and v – w = 3 u.
2. Find x given 2 x + y = (1, 2), and x – y = (–4, 4).
Answers
1. |w| = 10ñ2 2. x = (–1, 2)
EXAMPLE 26
Find each vector, given u = (–3, 1) and v = (2, –2).
a. u – 3 v b. 3 u + 2 v c. 4 u + v
Solution a. u – 3 v = (–3, 1) – 3(2, –2) = (–3, 1) + (–6, 6) = (–3 – 6, 1 + 6) = (–9, 7)
b. 3 u + 2 v = 3(–3, 1) + 2(2, –2) = (–9, 3) + (4, –4) = (–9 + 4, 3 –4) = (–5, –1)
c. 4 u + v = 4(–3, 1) + (2, –2) = (–12, 4) + (2, –2) = (–12 + 2, 4 – 2) = (–10, 2)
4. Standard Base Vectors
Definition unit vector
A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector.
3 4
For example, the vector w = ( , ) is a unit vector.
5 5
u 1 1
For any non-zero vector u = (u1, u2), is a unit vector because = and
u1 + u22
2
| u| | u|
u 1 u1 u2
= u = 2 2
,
2 2 .
| u| | u| u1 + u2 u +u
1 2
2 2
u u1 u2 u12 u22 u12 + u22
So = + 2 = u 2 + u 2 + u 2 + u 2 = u 2 + u 2 =1.
2 2 2
| u| u1 + u2 u1 + u2 1 2 1 2 1 2
u
We sometimes use to find the direction of u.
| u|
There are two important unit vectors, i and j, defined as i = (1, 0) and j = (0, 1).
These vectors are special because we can use them to express any vector.
We call these vectors standard base vectors.
Analysis of Vectors Analytically 31
For example, let us express the vector v = (v1, v2) in terms of i and j:
v = (v1, v2) = v1 i + v2 j.
In this expression,
v1 i is the horizontal component,
v2 j is the vertical component,
v1 is the horizontal scalar component, and
v2 is the vertical scalar component.
We can prove the proposition above by using algebraic operations on vectors and the
properties of real numbers:
v = (v1, v2) = (1v1 + 0, 0 + 1v2) = (1v1, 0) + (0, 1v2)
= v1(1, 0) + v2(0, 1)
= v1 i + v2 j.
27
EXAMPLE a. Write the vector u = (5, –8) in terms of i and j.
b. If u = 3 i + 2 j and v = – i + 6 j , find 2 u + 3 v.
Solution a. u = 5 i + (–8) j = 5 i – 8 j.
b. The properties of addition and scalar multiplication of vectors show that we can
manipulate vectors in the same way we manipulate algebraic expressions. Therefore,
2 u + 3 v = 2(3 i + 2 j ) + 3(– i + 6 j )
= (6 i + 4 j ) + (–3 i + 18 j )
= (6 – 3) i + (4 + 18) j
= 3 i + 22 j.
y
Let v be a vector in the plane with its initial point at the
origin. Let be the positive angle between the positive
x-axis and v (see the figure). If we know the length and ®
|v| ®
| v | × sinq
direction of v , then we can resolve the vector into
q x
horizontal and vertical components in terms of : O
®
v has length | v |, and v = (v1, v2) = v1 i + v2 j. | v | × cosq
So v1 = | v | cos and v2 = | v | sin .
EXAMPLE 28
a. | v| = 4 cm and the angle between v and the positive x-axis is 60°. Find the horizontal and
vertical components of v and express v in terms of i and j.
b. Find the angle between the vector u = –ñ3 i + j and the positive x-axis.
32 Geometry 9
Solution a. We have v = (v1, v2), where the scalar components are given by v1 = 4cos 60° = 2 and
v2 = 4sin 60° = 2ñ3. Therefore, the horizontal component is 2 i and the vertical
y
component is 2ñ3 j . Therefore, v = 2 i + 2ñ3 j.
1
b. From the figure we see that has the property that ®
u
1 3
tan (180° – ) = = . 180° q
q
3 3 x
ñ3 O
Thus 180 – = 30°, and so = 150°.
Check Yourself
1. Express v = (3, 2) in terms of standard base vectors.
2. Resolve the vector u with length 3 cm into its components if the angle between the
positive x-axis and u is 120°.
3. Find the angle between the vector v = –3 i – 3ñ3 j and the positive x-axis.
Answers
3 3 3
1. v = 3 i + 2 j 2. ux = ( , 0) , uy = (0, ) 3. = 240°
2 2
C. PARALLEL VECTORS
We know from the geometrical analysis of vectors that two non-zero vectors are parallel if and
only if multiplying one of them by a suitable scalar equals the other, that is,
for any c 0, u 0, and v 0, u || v if and only if u = c v.
It follows that if u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2), then (u1, u2) = (c v1, c v2).
u u
So u || v if and only if 1 2 c.
v2 v2
EXAMPLE 29 1
Show that u = (2, 1) and v = (1, ) are parallel.
2
2 1
Solution = = 2 , so they are parallel.
1 1
2
30
EXAMPLE Find the relation between x and y given A(3, –1), B(2, 3), C(5, –4), D(x, y), and CD || AB.
Analysis of Vectors Analytically 33
Solution AB = (2 – 3, 3 – (–1)) = (–1, 4)
CD = (x – 5, y + 4)
x 5 y+ 4
CD || AB so = .
1 4
4x – 20 = –y – 4, so 4x + y – 16 = 0.
EXAMPLE 31 A triangle ABC has vertices A(3, 2), B(–3, –2), and C(2, –3). E and F are the midpoints of
sides AB and AC respectively. Find the coordinates of E and F.
Solution Let us write E(x, y) and F(m, n).
BE = EA and CF = FA
BE = (x + 3, y + 2) CF = (m – 2, n + 3)
Remember! EA = (3 – x, 2 – y) FA = (3 – m, 2 – n)
If two parallel vectors a x+3=3–x m–2=3–m
and b have at least one
point in common, then 2x = 0 2m = 5
5
a and b lie on the same x=0 m=
straight line (they are 2
collinear). y+2=2–y n+3=2–n
For instance, if
2y = 0
AB = k BC for some 2n = –1
k \ {0}, then A, B, y=0 1
n=–
and C are collinear. 2
5 1
Therefore the coordinates are E(0, 0) and F( ,– ).
2 2
Check Yourself
1. Show that u = (–2, –3) and v = (4, 6) are parallel.
2. Find the value of k if u = (1, k) and v = (3, 6) are parallel.
Answers
1. check the scalar components 2. k = 2
34 Geometry 9
The screen opposite shows a simple problem illustrated using
The Geometer’s Sketchpad. Suppose a current flows at a
certain velocity w downstream. A boat moves at a constant
speed v. Which direction the boat take in order to reach the
other side of the river in the shortest possible time?
The Geometer’s Sketchpad calculates the time as we move the
point H on the screen to set the direction of the boat. Using the
Sketchad we can move H to find the shortest possible time in
the problem.
We can use computer applications such as The Project: y
Geometer’s Sketchpad, Cabri Geometry, or Use The Geometer’s Sketchpad,
Javascript sketchpad to sketch vectors and solve u
Cabri Geometry, or Javascript
problems. We can use an application to a x
problem, and then change certain values to see sketchpad to sketch the vectors
their effect. We can also use a computer v
2 u, – v, u + v, u – 3 v and
application to add and subtract vectors, and to
multiply a vector by a scalar. PQ, QP if P(3, –4) and Q(4, –3).
EXERCISES 1 .2
A. Basic Concepts of Vectors in the 4. The figure shows the y
Analytic Plane vectors u and v. Sketch
1. Plot the points A(–1, 1), B(2, –1), C(3, 1), and the following vectors.
D(–3, –1) in the plane.
a. 2 v b. – u ®
®
v u
c. u + v d. u – 2 v
x
e. 2 u + v O
5. Describe the vector with initial point P and
terminal point Q.
2. Sketch the position vector of the vector with the
a. y b. y
given endpoints.
4 4
a. AB b. CD c. EF Q
3 3
P P
A(–2, –3) C(1, –5) E(0, –3) 2 2
1 Q 1
B(4, –1) D(0, 2) F(–4, 2)
x x
O 1 2 3 4 5 3 2 1 O 1 2 3
3. Find the length of MN given M(1, 4) and N(–2, –1). c. P(3, 2), Q(8, 9) d. P(–1, 3), Q(1, 0)
Analysis of Vekctors Analytically 35
6. Find the vectors a and b if 2 a – 3 b = (4, 2) and 11. Given AB = 5 i + 6 j and B(–4, 8), find the
a + b = (2, 1). coordinates of point A.
B. Vector Operations
7. Find u + v, u – v, 2 u, 2 u – v, u + 3 v, and
–4 u + 3 v for the given vectors u and v. 12. u = 3 i + 4 j and v = 4 i + j are given. Which
vector is the longest?
a. u = (2, 6), v = (1, 3)
b. u = (–2, 3), v = (8, –2)
c. u = (1, 0), v = (0, –2)
1
d. u = i v= j 13. Given u = 3 i + 4 j, calculate | u – i|.
2
e. u = –3 ý + j v = i–j
f. u = 7 i + 5 j v= j– i
1 C. Parallel Vectors
8. Find | u|, | v|, |2 v|, | v|, | u + v|, and | u – v|
3
14. Show that u = (a, b) and v = (2a, 2b) are
for the given vectors u and v.
parallel.
a. u= 3 i + j v= – i + 2 j
b. u= 2 i – j v= –i – j
c. u= (2, 3), v= (0, 1)
15. u || v, u = (1, k – 3), and v = (k, k – 4) are given.
d. u= (3, 4) v= (2, 5)
Find the value of k.
9. Find the horizontal and vertical scalar components
of the vector with the given length and angle with
the positive x-axis. Express the vector in terms of
standard base vectors. 16. In a triangle ABC, the vertices are A(–2, 3),
B(0, 1) and C(4, 1). Points D(–1, 2) and E(1, 2)
a. | v | = 20, = 30°
are on the sides AB and AC respectively.
b. | v | = 30, = 120°
Show that DE || BC.
c. | v | = 1, = 225°
d. | u | = 80, = 135°
e. | v | = 4, = 10°
f. | u | = ñ3, = 300° 17. In a triangle ABC, the vertices are A(1, 3),
3
B(2, 1), and C(3, 2). E( , 2) is on the side AB.
2
Find the coordinates of F if F is on AC and
10. Given AB = –7 i + 2 j and B(3, 11), find the
coordinates of point A. EF || BC.
36 Geometry 9
We have seen how to add and subtract vectors, and how to multiply vectors by a scalar.
In this section we will introduce another operation on vectors, called the dot product.
The dot product is sometimes called the scalar product because the resulting product is a
number and not a vector. It has applications in mathematics, as well as in engineering and
physics.
A. DOT PRODUCT
Definition dot product (scalar product, or Euclidean inner product)
Let u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2) be two vectors in the plane.
The dot product of u and v, denoted by u v, is defined by
u v = u1v1 + u2v2.
Thus, to find the dot product of two vectors we multiply the corresponding scalar components
and then add them together.
EXAMPLE 32 Find the dot product of the given vectors.
a. u = (–2, 3) and v = (5, 4) b. u = – i + j and v = 5 i + j
Solution a. u v = –25 + 34 = –10 + 12 = 2
b. u v = –15 + 11 = –5 + 1 = –4
1. Properties of the Dot Product
The definition of the dot product gives us the following properties.
1. u v = v u (commutative property)
2. u( v + w ) = u v + uw (associative property)
3. c( u v ) = (c u) v
4. u u = | u|2
5. u v 0, and u u = 0 if and only if u = 0.
Proof
1. u v = u1v1 + u2v2 = v1u1 + v2u2 = v u , by the commutative property of real numbers.
2. u( v + w ) = (u1, u2)(v1 + w1, v2 + w2) = u1(v1 + w1) + u2(v2 + w2)
= u1v1 + u1w1 + u2v2 + u2w2
= u1v1 + u2v2 + u1w1 + u2w2
= u v + u w
38 Geometry 9
3. c( u v ) = c(u1v1 + u2v2) = cu1v1 + cu2v2 = (c u ) v
u
2 2
4. u u = u1u1 + u2u2 = u1 + u2 = | u|2, so u = | u|.
5. This proof is left as an exercise for you.
EXAMPLE 33
Find the length of the vector u = (2, –2) by using the dot product.
Solution u u = 22 + (–2) (–2) = 4 + 4 = 8. Therefore, | u| = ñ8.
Check Yourself
1. Find the dot product of u = 3 j and v = i + j.
2. Find the quantity ( u + v)( u – 3 v ) given u = j , v = i.
Answers
1. 3 2. –2
B. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS
1. Angle Between Two Vectors
Definition angle between two vectors
Let u = OE and v = OF be two non-zero vectors. The angle EOF
E
is called the angle between u and v. We use to represent the ®
u
smaller angle between u and v when their initial points coincide.
q
O F
®
v
Theorem dot product theorem
Let be the angle measure between two non-zero vectors u and v. Then
u v = | u|| v|cos .
Proof The proof is a nice application of the law of cosines.
E
As we know, | v – u|2 = ( v – u)( v – u) = v 2 + u 2 – 2 v u (1).
® ®
Applying the cosine law to triangle EOF in the figure, ®
u v u
| v – u|2 = | u|2 + | v|2 – 2| u|| v| cos (2) (0 < < ) q
cosine law: O F
( v – u)( v + u) = | u|2 + | v|2 – 2| u|2| v|2cos ®
v
a = b + c – 2bccos A
2 2 2
The Dot Product of Two Vectors 39
By (1) and (2),
2
v – 2 v u + u2 = | u|2 + | v|2 – 2| u|| v|cos
2 v u = 2| u|| v|cos
Therefore, u v = | u|| v|cos .
EXAMPLE 34
Given u = (2, –2), v = (5, 8) and w = (–4, 3), find the following.
a. u v b. ( u v ) w c. u (2 v ) d. |w|2
Solution a. By the definition of the dot product we have u v = 2 5 + (–2)8 = – 6.
b. Using the result from (a) we have ( u v ) w = – 6 w = – 6(– 4, 3) = (24, – 18).
c. By property 3 of the dot product we have u(2 v) = 2( u v) = 2(–6) = –12.
d. By property 4 of the dot product we have |w|2 = w w = (–4)2 + 32 = 25.
One of the most important uses of the dot product is to find the angle between two vectors if
the scalar components of the vectors are given. We simply calculate the angle by solving the
equation given by the dot product theorem for cos . Let us state this important result clearly.
FINDING THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO NON-ZERO VECTORS
u v
If is the angle measure between two non-zero vectors u and v then cos = --------------------- .
| u|| v|
EXAMPLE 35
a. Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors u = (2, 5) and v = (5, 2).
b. Find the angle between the vectors u = (1, ñ2) and v = (2, 2ñ2).
Solution a. u v = 25 + 52 = 20
| u| = 2 2 +5 2 = 29
| v| = 52 + 22 = 29
20 20
cos = by the formula, and so cos = .
29 29 29
b. u v = 12 + ñ22ñ2 = 2 + 4 = 6
| u| = 12 + 2 = 3
| v| = 4+8 = 12
6 6
cos = = =1
3 12 36
Therefore, = 0°.
40 Geometry 9
Check Yourself
1. Find the dot product of u = (0, 3) and v = (–1, –2).
2. Find the length of u = (1, 3) using the dot product.
3. Find ( u v ) w given u = (0, 3), v = (1, 2), and w = (–2, –1).
4. Find the angle between u = (2, 1) and v = (1, 3).
Answers
1. –6 2. ò10 3. (–12, –6) 4. = 45°
2.Perpendicular and Parallel Vectors
Definition perpendicular (orthogonal) vectors
Two non-zero vectors u and v are perpendicular if and only if the
angle measure between them is 90°. ®
u
®
v
By the dot product thorem, u v = | u|| v|cos . We can conclude that for two non-zero
vectors u and v , u v is zero if and only if equals 90°.
Theorem
Two non-zero vectors u and v are perpendicular if and only if u v = 0.
EXAMPLE 36
Are the vectors u = (6, –2) and v = (1, 3) perpendicular?
Solution u v = 61 + (–2)3 = 0
So the vectors are perpendicular.
37
EXAMPLE Are the vectors u = (3, 5) and v = (2, –6) perpendicular?
Solution u v = 32 + 5(–6) = 6 – 30 = –24. So u and v are not perpendicular.
From the definition of parallel vectors we know that u || v if and only if u = k v . We can
write,
| u| = |k|| v| (1)
2
u v = k v v = k| v| (2)
u v = | u|| v|cos (3).
The Dot Product of Two Vectors 41
From (1), (2) and (3),
|k|| v|| v|cos = k| v|2
k
cos =
| k|
cos = 1 or cos = –1
= 0 or = 180.
From these results we can conclude that two vectors are parallel if and only if the angle
measure between them is 0° or 180°.
Conclusion
Let be the angle measure between nonzero vectors u and v.
Then u || v if and only if u v = | u|| v| or u v = –| u|| v|.
EXAMPLE 38
Determine two vectors in the plane which are perpendicular to u = (4, 2).
Solution Let v = (v1, v2) be perpendicular to u.
u v = 4v1 + 2v2 = 0
v2 = –2v1
If v1 = t R, v2 = –2t, then v = (t, –2t).
Let t = 1 or 3:
v = (1, –2) and v = (3, – 6) are both perpendicular to u.
39
EXAMPLE In an equilateral triangle ABC, D is the midpoint of BC. Find ADBC.
A
Solution In an equilateral triangle, the median is also the
altitude, as show in the diagram.
So AD BC and ADBC = 0.
B D C
40
EXAMPLE In a square ABCD, E is the midpoint of side BC and |BC| = 4 cm. Find AEAB.
42 Geometry 9
®
Solution AB =
a A a B
®
b
b
AE = a + 2
2
E
b 2 ab
AEAB = a( a + )= a + = a2
2 2
2 2 D C
Since a b, a = | a| = 42 = 16.
EXAMPLE 41 Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(2, 3), B(0, 1), C(3, 2).
A
| AH | | BC |
Solution A(A¿BC) =
2
AH = (x0 – 2, y0 – 3) BH = kHC
BC = (3, 1) BH = (x0, y0 – 1)
AHBC = 3(x0 – 2) + (y0 – 3) = 0 HC = (3 – x0, 2 – y0) B H(x0, y0) C
3x0 + y0 – 6 – 3 = 0 x0 y –1
= 0
3x0 + y0 = 9 3 – x0 2 – y0
2x0 – x0y0 = 3y0 – 3 – x0y0 + x0
x0 = 3y0 – 3
x0 – 3y0 = –3
3x0 + y0 = 9 (1)
x0 – 3y0 = –3 (2)
Let us multiply (1) by 3. Then,
9x0 + 3y0 = 27
+ x0 – 3y0 = –3
10x0 = 24
x0 = 2.4 and y0 = 1.8.
AH = (0.4, –1.2) BC = (3, 1)
1
|AH| = 0.16+1.44 = 1.6 = 4 |BC| = 9+1 = 10
10
1 4
A(A¿BC) = 10 = 2
2 10
The Dot Product of Two Vectors 43
Theorem triangle inequality
If u and v are vectors in the plane, then | u + v | | u| + | v|. This property is called the
triangle inequality.
Proof By the property of the dot product, | u + v|2 = ( u + v )2 = u 2 + 2 u v + v 2.
2 u v 2| u|| v|
{| u|2 + | v|2 + 2 u v } {| u|2 + | v|2 + 2| u|| v|}
| u + v|2 (| u| + | v|)2, since both | u| + | v| and | u + v| are non-negative.
Therefore, | u + v| | u| + | v|.
Theorem
u and v are perpendicular in the plane if and only if | u + v|2 = | u|2 + | v|2.
Proof | u + v|2 = ( u + v )2 = u 2 + 2 u v + v 2 = | u |2 + 2 u v + | v |2
= | u |2 + | v |2, since u v = 0.
EXAMPLE 42
| u|= 3, | v|= 4, and the angle between u and v is 60°. Find |2 u – 3 v|.
Solution |2 u – 3 v |2 = (2 u – 3 v)2 = 4 u 2 + 9 v2 – 12 u v
= 4| u|2 + 9| v |2 – 12| v|| v|cos
1
= 432 + 942 – 1234
2
= 36 + 144 – 72
= 108.
2
Now |2 u – 3 v | = 108, and so|2 u – 3 v| = ó108 = 6ñ3.
EXAMPLE 43
Find an equation for the line passing through A(–1, 3) which is perpendicular to n = (3, 5).
Solution Let us choose a variable point B(x, y): y
AB = (x + 1, y – 3).
5)
,
(3
AB and n are perpendicular, so A(1, 3)
n=
B(x, y)
AB n = 0.
x
3(x + 1) + 5(y – 3) = 0 O
3x + 3 + 5y – 15 = 0
3x + 5y – 12 = 0 is the required equation.
44 Geometry 9
Check Yourself
1. Find the value of a if u = (a, 1) is perpendicular to v = (3, 4).
2. In the right triangle ABC, AC is the hypotenuse, BH AC, and H lies on AC.
Find (HC + CB)(AB + BH).
3. Find an equation for the line passing through P(3, –1) which is perpendicular to n = (3, 1).
Answers
4
1. a 2. 0 3. 3x + y – 8 = 0
3
The Dot Product of Two Vectors 45
46 Geometry 9
1 2 3 4
5 6
7 8 9
10
11 12
13 14
15
16
17
18
19 20
21
22 23
24
25
26 27
ACROSS DOWN
1. A vector with length zero. 2. A single vector that is the equivalent of a set of
5. An undefined concept in geometry which has no vectors.
shape or size. 3. The measure of heat of a body or environment.
7. Being the main or most important part. 4. The principal structural member of a ship.
10. Being parallel. 6. The solution of an equation in which every variable
12. The coordinate representing the position of a point is equal to zero.
along a line perpendicular to the y-axis in a plane. 7. An acute angle measured from due north or due
13. A thin straight stick with a point, sometimes used to south.
shoot things. 8. The size of a flat surface, calculated mathematically.
15. A mathematical statement that establishes the 9. The property that states: if a, b A, then a b A
equality of two expressions. for an operation.
16. Any of the four areas into which a plane is divided 11. A point whose position is constant.
by the reference axes in a rectangular coordinate 14. The direction 270° clockwise from due north and
system, designated first, second, third, and fourth, directly opposite east.
counting counterclockwise from the area in which
19. A picture such as a pie chart or bar graph, used to
both coordinates are positive.
illustrate quantitative relationships.
17. One of the two horizontal or vertical vectors whose
20. To give the meaning of (a word or idea).
sum is equal to a given vector.
2 2 2 22. An undefined concept in geometry that describes a
18. In a triangle, the formula cos A = (b + c – a )/2bc.
set of points along a path.
21. Vectors which have the same direction and length.
23. A relatively small, usually open craft used by
24. To arrange in sets of two. fishermen.
25. The act or process of adding.
26. The direction 90° clockwise from north.
27. Either of two points marking the end of a line
segment.
The Dot Product of Two Vectors 47
EXERCISES 1 .3
A. Dot Product
d. u = 2 i – 8 j ,
v = 12 i + 3 j
1. Find the dot product of each pair of vectors.
e. u = 3 i – 4 j , v = 8 i – 6 j
a. u = (–2, 1) v= (3, 6) f. u = 4 i , v = 3 i
b. u = –7 i + 24 j, v= 3 i – j
c. u = ñ3 i + j, v= 3 i – j
7. Find the measure of the interior angles of the triangle
d. u = i – j, v= 2 i
ABC with vertices A(1, 3), B(1, 2), and C(2, 2).
e. u = –19 j, v= 16 j
2. Find the following quantities given u = i + 2 j,
v = –3 i + j , and w = 4 i + 3 j. 8. Find two perpendicular vectors to each given
vector.
a. u w + u w
b. w( u + v ) a. a = 3 i – j b. b = – 8 i – 6 j c. c = i + 2 j
c. ( u + w )( u – w)
d. 2( u v )
9. For what values of t are u = 4 i – 5 j t and
e. ( w – v )( w + u )
v = 3 i – 2 j perpendicular?
f. (3 u – 2 v )( u + 2 v )
3. u, v and w are unit vectors such that
u + v + w = 0. Find u v + v w + w u = 0. 10. | u| = 5 and | v| = 3 are given. For what values
of t are u + t v and u – t v perpendicular?
4. Evaluate the following quantities if the angle measure
between u and v is 60° and | u| = 4, | v| = 3.
a. u v b. | u + v|2
11. For what values of t do a = t i + j and
c. | u – v|2 d. (3 u + 2 v ) ( u + 2 v )
b = i + t j have angle measure 120° between
them?
5. Evaluate | u + v| given | u| = 13, | v| = 5, and
| u – v| = 12.
B. Angle Between Two Vectors
12. Show that the equality | u + v| = | u – v| holds
6. Determine whether the given vectors are
when u and v are orthogonal.
perpendicular or not.
a. u = (4, 6), v = (3, –2)
b. u = (–5, 0), v = (0, 4) 13. Verify the equality
c. u = 3 i , v = –j | u + v|2 + | u – v|2 = 2(| u|2 + | v|2).
48 Geometry 9
14. In a rhombus ABCD, one side measures 6 cm and 21. Find the area of a triangle with vertices
E, F are the midpoints of sides AD and DC
A(2, 2), B(0, 2), and C(1, 4).
respectively. The angle measure between sides AD
and DC is 120°. Find the quantity BEAF.
22. Find the area of a rhombus with vertices A(2, 0),
15. In a rectangle ABCD, DC = 3AD and point E is on
B(–3, 3), C(–8, 0), and D(–3, –3).
DC. Find the quantity AEBE given DE = 2EC
and |AD| = 3 cm.
23. Find the area of a rectangle with vertices A(3, 2),
16. Show that the inequality | u + v| > | u – v| holds B(9, 2), C(9, 5), and D(3, 5).
when the angle measure between u and v is less
than 90°.
24. For any vectors u, v, and w prove that
17. Find two unit vectors that make angles of 45°
( u w ) v – u( vw) is perpendicular to w.
with – i + j.
18. Let u and v be vectors and let be a scalar. Verify
25. Show that the altitudes of an acute-angled triangle
the given properties.
are concurrent using vectors.
a. u v = v u
b. ( u ) v = ( u v ) = u( v )
26. Find the distance of P(x0, y0) from the line
19. Write the equation of the line passing through ax + by + c = 0 using vectors.
A(–1, –1) which is perpendicular to u = (3, 4).
20. Show that the diagonals of a rhombus are 27. Find the area of a parallelogram with vertices
perpendicular using vectors. A(2, –1), B(6, 0), C(8, 3), and D(4, 2).
The Dot Product of Two Vectors 49
CHAPTER SUMMARY
A line segment with direction is called a directed line Equal Vectors
segment. Two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding
A vector in the plane is a directed line segment. component vectors are equal.
Addition of Two Vectors Geometrically In other words, for a = (a1, a2) and b = (b1, b2), then
For two
vectors PO and QR in a plane, PQ + QR is the a = b if and only if a1 = b1 and a2 = b2.
sum of PQ and QR. There are two ways to add vectors Standard Base Vectors
geometrically: the polygon method and the parallelogram
i = (1, 0) and j = (0, 1) are called the standard base
method. vectors.
The Polygon Method Linear Combination of Vectors
In this method we draw the first vector. Then we place
Let u1, u2, ... , uk be vectors in a plane and let c1, c2, ... ck
the initial point of the second vector at the terminal point
be scalars. v = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ... + ck. uk is called a
of the first, the initial point of the third vector at the linear combination of vectors.
terminal point of the second, and so on until we place the
initial point of the nth vector at the terminal point of the Dot Product
(n – 1)th vector. The vector whose initial point is the The dot product of u = (u1, u2) and let v = (v1, v2) is the
initial point of the first vector and whose terminal point scalar quantity u v = u1v1 + u2v2.
is the terminal point of the last vector is the resultant Angle Between Two Vectors
(sum) vector.
Let be the angle between two non-zero vectors u and v.
The Parallelogram Method
1. u || v if and only if u v = | u|| v| or
In this method we draw the first vector, and then draw
u v = –| u|| v| because = 0° or = 180°.
the second vector with its initial point at the initial point
2. u and v are perpendicular if and only if u v = 0.
of the first vector. We make a parallelogram by drawing
two additional sides, each passing through the terminal Concept Check
point of one of the vectors and parallel to the other
vector. The sum is drawn along the diagonal from the 1. Can we use directed line segments in traffic? Give an
common initial point to the intersection of the two lines. example.
2. What is the difference between a vector and a scalar?
Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
3. Is it possible to add a hundred vectors in a plane using the
For a real number a and a vector u: polygon method or the parallelogram method?
If a > 0, then the vector a u has the same direction 4. How do you change the direction of a vector using a real
to u and the length |a u| = a| u|. number?
If a < 0, then the vector a u has the opposite 5. a. Draw a diagram to show how to add two vectors.
b. Draw a diagram to show how to subtract two vectors.
direction to u and the length |a u| = |a|| u|.
6. Can you equalize two non-parallel vectors using
If a = 0, then a u = 0.
multiplication by two real numbers?
Parallel Vectors 7. In a plane, how many components do you need to resolve
Let a and b be two vectors. a and b are parallel if and a vector?
only if a = k b where k 0. 8. How many standard base vectors are there in the plane?
Non-P Parallel Vector 9. What is the difference between the inner product and dot
product of two vectors?
If a is not parallel to b, then h a = k b when h = k = 0.
10. How do you use the dot product to find the angle measure
Components of a Vectors between two vectors?
A vector in a plane has two components, called the 11. How do you use the dot product to determine whether two
horizontal and vertical components of the vector. vectors are parallel or not?
12. How do you use the dot product to determine whether two
Let | a| = (a1, a2) be a vector, then | a| = a12 + a12 . vectors are perpendicular or not?
50 Geometry 9
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1A
1. In triangle ABC, G is the centroid. Describe
6. Find the coordinates of B if AB = (7, 3) and
AG + GC + CA. A(2, –1).
A) 0 B) AG C) BG D) 2 CA E) AC A) (9, –4) B) (9, –2) C) (9, 4)
D) (–9, –4) E) (9, 2)
2. In the figure, K, L, M, N, P, R are the midpoints of
the sides ABCDEF
7. u = –2 i + 3 j and v = i – 2 j are given.
respectively. Describe
Find 3 u – 2 v.
KB+LC+MD+NE+PF.
A) 4 i + 5 j B) 8 i + 5 j
A) AR B) RA C) FK D) FA E) PA
C) –8 i + 13 j D) –4 i + 13 j
E) 4 i + 13 j
P
3. In the figure,
|AB| = |BC| = |CD| 8. Find the unit vector with opposite direction to
®
a b ®
® ®
c d
and the vectors a, b, c, d AB given A(6, 3), and B(2, 6).
are given. Which one of
A B C D 4 3 4 3 4 3
the following is the linear A) ( , ) B) ( , ) C) ( , )
5 5 5 5 7 7
combination of c in terms of a and d? 4 3 4 3
D) ( , ) E) ( , )
a+ d 2a + d 2a + d 7 7 5 5
A) ---------------- B) ------------------- C) -------------------
2 2 3
a + 2d
a + 2d
9. u = i – 5 j and v = 2 i + 3 j are given. Find
D) ------------------- E) -------------------
3 2 3 u + 2 v.
1 A) 3 i – 2 j B) 5 i – j C) 7 i – 9 j
4. AD = 1 AB and BE = BC are given. Express
4 2 D) 2 i + 3 j E) 8 i – j
DE in terms of AB and BC.
y
3 1 1 1
10. Describe the unit vector a in the
A) AB + BC B) AB + BC figure.
4 2 4 2 x
O 60°
3 1 1 1 ®
C) AB – BC D) AB – BC a
4 2 4 2
1 3
E) BC – AB 3 1 3 1
2 4 A) i + j B) – i + j
2 2 2 2
1 3 1 3
5. (–1, 4) + v = (4, 5) is given. Find v. C) i – j D) i + j
2 2 2 2
A) (3, 9) B) (–5, –1) C) (5, 1) 3
E) i
D) (1, 5) E) (9, 3) 2
Chapter Review Test 1A 51
D C
11. For how many values of m > 0 are a = (2, 1 – m) 16. ABCD is the rectangle in
and b = (m + 1, –4) parallel? the figure. 3
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5 Find AB AC if
A B
|AB| = 4 and 4
|BC| = 3.
A) 9 B) 12 C) 15 D) 16 E) 20
12. Which one of the following is true for vectors
a = (3, –6), b = (–6, 7) and c = (9, –13)?
17. In the figure, D and E A
A) a = 4 b + 3 c B) a = 3 b + 4 c are the midpoints of
D E
the sides of triangle
C) a = 4 b – 3 c D) a = 3 b – 4 c
ABC.
E) a = b + c B C
Find (AD – AE) BC. 10
A) 100 B) 150 C) 0 D) –50 E) –100
13. Find the measure of the angle between the unit
18. G is the centroid of a triangle with vertices
vectors a and b in degrees if their dot product is 1 .
2 A(1, 1). B(–4, 2), and C(0, 6). Find the scalar
A) 45° B) 60° C) 120° D) 135° E) 150° product of AB BG.
A) –8 B) –14 C) 0 D) 1 E) 12
19. A triangle ABC has vertices A(1, 1), B(–4, 2), and
14. A(2, 5), B(–1, 3), C(m, 6), and AB BC are given.
C(0, 6). Find the scalar component of AB along
Find m.
BC.
A) 3 B) 2 C) 1 D) –2 E) –3 4 4 3 3 3
A) B) – C) D) E)
2 2 4 4 2
A
20. ABC is a triangle with
15. Which one of the following is perpendicular to |AB| = 4, 4 5
|AC| = 5,
v = (3, –4)?
4 3 3 4
|BC| = 6. Find B C
A) ( , ) B) (4, –3) C) ( , ) 6
5 5 5 3 AC (AB + BC).
3 4 4 3
D) ( , ) E) ( , )
5 5 5 5 A) 20 B) 24 C) 25 D) 30 E) 50
52 Geometry 9
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1B
1. | a| = 3 | b| = 5, and the angle between a and 6. In the right triangle ABC, mA = 90°, D [AC],
b is 60°. Find | a + b|. and |AB| = k. Find BA BD.
k2 k
A) 7 B) 8 C) 9 D) 10 E) 11 A) k B) k2 C) D) E) 2k2
2 2
7. What is the angle between a = (1, ñ3) and
2. In the figure,
A b = (–4, –4ñ3) in degrees?
|AB| = |AC| = 4, 120° 2 A) 60° B) 120° C) 135° D) 150° E) 180°
mA = 120°, and 4 D
|AD| = |DC|. 2
A K B
Find BC BD.
8. A square ABCD has side
B C 3 cm, and K, L are the P
A) 48 B) 36 C) 30 D) 24 E) 18 midpoints of sides AB and Q
L
BC respectively. P and Q
trisect AC as shown in the D C
figure. Find DP PQ.
3. Given | a| = 12, | b| = 5, and | a – b| = 8, find
A) 0 B) 1 C) –1 D) –2 E) 3
cos( a, b).
3 7 3 5 12
A) B) C) D) E)
8 8 4 13 13 9. a, b, and c are three vectors such that b = a – 2 c,
b c , and | a| = 4| c|. Find the angle between
a and c in degrees.
A) 30° B) 45° C) 60° D) 75° E) 90°
4. In an equilateral triangle ABC, D [AC], |BC| = 6,
and |CD| = 2. Find BC BD.
A) 30 B) 24 C) 20 D) 18 E) 12 10. Which one of the following is false for two vectors
a, b and a scalar k ?
A) If a b, a b = 0.
B) If a || b, b a = 0.
5. | a| = 7, | b| = 10, and | a + b| = ò73 are given.
C) a b = b a
Find | a – b |.
D) (k a + k b) = k( a + b)
A) 3 B) 8 C) 13 D) 15 E) 17
E) (k ak b) = k2 a b
Chapter Review Test 1A 53
11. In the figure, ABCD is a D E
C 16. In a triangle ABC, AB = (–4, 2a), AC = (a, –4)
parallelogram and
and the length of BC is 10 cm. Find a possible
|BC| = 1, value of a.
|DC| = 2, A B
|DE| = |EC|. Find A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5
(BC + CE)(AD + DE).
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4
17. In a square ABCD A E D
with side 2 cm,
12. In an equilateral triangle ABC, D and E are the
|AE| = |ED| and
F
midpoints of [AC] and [BC] respectively.
|DF| = |FC|.
Find DC (BA + AE).
Find EF (EA + AB).
1 2
A) | AB|2 B) | EB|2 C) | DC| B C
2
1 1 A) 1 B) 2 C) –2 D) –1 E) 0
D) |DC|2 E) |EB|
2 2
13. In an equilateral triangle ABC with side 1 cm,
what is BC CA? 18. a + b = (1, 3) and 2 a + b = (4, 6) are given.
1 1 3 3 Find the measure of the angle between a and b.
A) B) C) D) –2 E)
2 2 2 2
A) 30° B) 45° C) 90° D) 135° E) 150°
14. For what values of k are the vectors a = (12k, 9)
and b = (–4, 3) linearly dependent?
19. In a triangle ABC, AB = (–2, –5) and
A) –3 B) –2 C) –1 D) –0 E) 1
AC = (2, –2). Find the length of BC.
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5
15. In a square ABCD, the A D
side is 4 cm,
[AB] [EP], [PD] [PC],
P
and |AE| = |EB|. E
20. a = (12, –5), and b = (3, 4) are given. Find
Find PE (PC + PD).
sin( a, b).
B C 5 12 63 10 4
A) B) C) D) E)
A) –16 B) –12 C) –10 D) –8 E) –6 13 13 65 13 13
54 Geometry 9
A. THE CONCEPT OF CONGRUENCE
1. Congruent Figures and Polygons
The world around us is full of objects of various shapes and sizes. If we tried to compare some
of these objects we could put them in three groups:
objects which have a different shape and size,
objects which are the same shape but a different size, and
objects which are the same shape and size.
The tools in the picture at the right have different shape and size.
The pictures below show tools which have the same shape but different size. In geometry,
figures like this are called similar figures. We will study similar figures in Chapter 3.
The pictures below show objects which are the same size and shape.
Factories often need to
In this section, we will study figures which have this property.
produce many parts
with exactly the same
size and shape.
56 Geometry 9
Definition congruent figures
Figures that have the same size and shape are called congruent figures. We say ‘A is congruent
to B’ (or ‘B is congruent to A’) if A and B are congruent figures.
The pictures at the bottom of the previous page show some examples of congruent objects.
The pictures below show two more examples. In these two examples there is only one piece
left to fit in the puzzle. Therefore, without checking anything, we can say that each piece and
its corresponding place are congruent.
Congruence in nature:
the petals of this flower
are congruent.
2. Congruent Triangles
Definition congruent triangles
Two triangles are congruent if and only if their corresponding sides and angles are congruent.
We write ABC DEF to mean that ABC and DEF are congruent.
In the figure below, ABC and DEF are congruent because their corresponding parts are
Challenge!
Remove five toothpicks
congruent. We can write this as follows:
to make five congruent A D AB DE
triangles.
B E and BC EF
C F AC DF.
We can show this symbolically in a figure as follows:
A D
B C E F
DABC DDEF
Congruence 57
EXAMPLE 1 Given that MNP STK, state the congruent angles and sides in the two triangles without
drawing them.
Solution M S MN ST
N T and NP TK
A short history of the symbol:
Gottfried Wilhelm P K PM KS.
Leibniz
(1640-1716)
introduced for congruence As we can see, the order of the vertices in congruent triangles is important when we are
in an unpublished manuscript in
1679. considering corresponding elements. Any mistake in the ordering affects the correspondence
In 1777, between the triangles.If two triangles are congruent then we can write this congruence in six
Johann Friedrich
Häseler different ways. For instance, if ABC is congruent to DEF, the following statements are all
(1372-1797) true:
used (with the tilde reversed).
ABC DEF
In 1824,
Carl Brandan ACB DFE
Mollweide
(1774-1825) BAC EDF
used the modern symbol for
congruence in Euclid’s Elements. BCA EFD
CAB FDE
CBA FED.
If two triangles are congruent then we can write this congruence in six different ways. For
instance, if ABC is congruent to DEF, the following statements are all true:
ABC DEF
ACB DFE
BAC EDF
BCA EFD
CAB FDE
CBA FED.
EXAMPLE 2 Complete each statement, given that PRS KLM.
a. PR _____ b. _____ K c. _____ SP
d. S _____ e. ML _____ f. L _____
Solution a. PR KL b. P K c. MK SP
d. S M e. ML SR f. L R
58 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 3 Decide whether or not the two triangles in A K 4 N
the figure are congruent and give a reason for 60°
your answer. 30°
8 8
B 4 C M
Solution Let us calculate the missing angles:
m(C) = 60° (Triangle Angle-Sum Theorem in ABC)
m(M) = 30° (Triangle Angle-Sum Theorem in KMN)
Now we can write the congruence of corresponding parts:
AB KM (Given)
BC KN (BC = KN = 4)
AC MN (AC = MN = 8)
A M (m(A) = m(M) = 30°)
B K (m(B) = m(K) = 90°)
C N (m(C) = m(N) = 60°)
Therefore, ABC MKN by the definition of congruent triangles.
EXAMPLE 4 ABC EFD is given with AB = 11 cm, BC = 10 cm and EF + ED = 19 cm. Find the
perimeter of EFD.
Solution Since ABC EFD, AB = EF, BC = FD and A E
AC = ED by the definition of congruence.
So by substituting the given values we get 11 11 8
11 = EF, 10 = FD and AC = ED.
Since we are given that EF + ED = 19 cm, B 10 C F 10 D
we have 11 + ED = 19 cm; ED = 8 cm.
So P(EFD) = EF + ED + FD = 11 + 8 + 10 = 29 cm.
Congruence 59
Check Yourself
1. KLM XYZ is given. State the corresponding congruent angles and sides of the
triangles.
2. State the congruence JKM SLX in six different ways.
3. Triangles KLM and DEF are congruent. P(KLM) = 46 cm, the shortest side of KLM
measures 14 cm, and the longest side of the DEF measures 17 cm. Find the lengths of
all the sides of one of the triangles.
4. Triangles DEF and KLM are congruent. If DE = 12.5 cm, EF = 14.4 cm and the perimeter
of the triangle KLM is 34.6 cm, find the length of the side DF.
5. Two line segments KL and AB bisect each other at a point T. If AL = 7 and the lengths of
the segments KL and AB are 22 and 18 respectively, find the perimeter of KTB.
Answers
What would happen if 1. KL XY K X 2. PKM SLN, KMP LNS, MPK NSL,
the blades of this ship’s
propellor or these wheels LM YZ L Y PMK SNL, KPM LSN, MKP NLS
were not congruent?
KM XZ M Z
3. 14 cm, 15 cm, 17 cm 4. 7.7 cm 5. 27
a. The Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Congruence Postulate
Postulate Side-A
Angle-S
Side (SAS) Congruence Postulate
If two sides and their included angle in one triangle are respectively congruent to two sides
and their included angle in another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent. This
postulate is called the Side-A
Angle-S
Side (often shortened to SAS) Congruence Postulate.
In the figure opposite,
B E
AB DE,
A D and
AC DF.
A C F D
So by the SAS Congruence Postulate,
ABC DEF.
Congruent triangles in
construction
60 Geometry 9
b. The Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) Congruence Theorem
Theorem Angle-S
Side-A
Angle (ASA) Congruence Theorem
If two angles and their included side in a triangle are respectively congruent to two angles
and their included side in another triangle, then the triangles are congruent. This theorem
is called the Angle-S
Side-A
Angle (or ASA) Congruence Theorem.
c. The Side-Side-Side (SSS) Congruence Theorem
Theorem Side-S
Side-S
Side (SSS) Congruence Theorem
If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of another triangle, then the triangles
are congruent. This theorem is called the Side-S Side-SSide (or SSS) Congruence Theorem.
d. The Hypotenuse-Leg (HL) Congruence Theorem
As we have already seen, hypotenuse-leg congruence is a particular case of SSA congruence.
Theorem Hypotenuse-L
Leg (HL) Congruence Theorem
If the hypotenuse and leg of one right triangle are congruent to the hypotenuse and leg of
another right triangle, then the triangles are congruent. This theorem is called the
Hypotenuse-L Leg (or HL) Congruence Theorem.
e. The Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Congruence Theorem
Theorem Angle-A
Angle-S
Side Congruence Theorem
If two angles and a side not shared by these angles in a triangle are congruent to two angles
and a corresponding side in another triangle, then the triangles are congruent. This theorem
is called the Angle-A
Angle-S
Side (or AAS) Congruence Theorem.
Congruence 61
f. Theorems that Can Be Proved with Congruence
We can use congruence to prove some important results. In this section we will look at some
examples of this.
Theorem
If two triangles are congruent then
1. their corresponding medians are congruent,
2. their corresponding angle bisectors are congruent, and
3. their corresponding altitudes are congruent.
Theorem
If a line parallel to one side of a triangle bisects another side of the triangle, it also bisects the
third side.
EXAMPLE 5 In a triangle ABC, P and R are the midpoints of AB and BC, respectively. AC = 3x – 1 and
PR = x + 2 are given. Find PR.
A
1
Solution PR = AC (Triangle
2 Midsegment
P
Theorem) 3x 1
1
x + 2 = (3x – 1) (Substitute) x+2
2
x=5 (Simplify) B R C
So PR = 5 + 2 = 7.
Theorem Angle Bisector Theorem
The distances from a point lying on the bisector of an angle to each side of the angle are
congruent.
62 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 6 In a triangle ABC, m(BAC) = 90° and CN is the angle bisector at vertex C. Given that
AN = 5 cm, find the length of the altitude to BC in the triangle NBC.
A
Solution Let us draw NH such that NH BC.
5
By the Angle Bisector Theorem, NH AN.
N
Since AN = 5 cm, NH = 5 cm. This is the
required length.
B H C
Check Yourself
1. In the figure opposite, M X
MNP SVT. State the
Z T
congruent altitudes of the V
two triangles.
D Y
N S
P E
H
2. In each triangle below, M and N are the midpoints of the sides on which they lie. Find the
value of x using the information given.
a. A b. S c. K
M
x M x8
M N 14
5+x 4
R 12 S T N J L N Z
Congruence 63
B. THE TRIANGLE ANGLE BISECTOR THEOREM
Theorem Triangle Angle Bisector Theorem
1. The bisector of an interior angle of a A
triangle divides the opposite side in the
same ratio as the sides adjacent to the
angle. In other words, for a triangle ABC
and angle bisector AN, B N C
AB BN
= .
AC CN
A
Proof of 1 We begin by drawing two perpendiculars NK
and NL from N to the sides AB and AC L
respectively, then we draw the altitude K
AH BC.
B H N C
AH BN
A( ABN ) 2 BN
= = (1) (Definition of the area of a triangle and simplify)
A( ANC ) AH NC CN
2
Now let us find the same ratio by using the sides AB and AC and the altitudes NK and NL.
Since N is the point on the angle bisector, by the Angle Bisector Theorem we have NK = NL.
NK AB
A( ABN ) 2 AB
= = (2) (Definition of the area of a triangle and simplify)
A( ANC ) NL AC AC
2
AB BN
= (By (1), (2) and the transitive property of equality)
AC CN
EXAMPLE 7 Find the length x in the figure. A
12 6
Solution = (Triangle Angle Bisector 12
8 x 8
Theorem)
3 6
=
2 x
B 6 D x C
x=4
64 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 8 In the figure, m(CAB) = 2 m(ABC). C
Given that AC = 4 cm and AB = 5 cm, find
the length of BC. 4
A 5 B
Solution Let AD be the bisector of angle A.
Then m(B) = m(DAB) = m(DAC), since m(CAB) = 2 m(ABC).
So DAB is an isosceles triangle. Let AD = DB = x. If BC = a then CD = a – x.
By the Triangle Angle Bisector Theorem in BAC,
5 x C
= ax a
4 a–x
D
5(a – x) = 4x 4
x x
5a
x= . (1)
9
A 5 B
Now we can use Property 8.1:
x2 = 5 4 – x(a – x)
x2 = 20 – ax + x2
ax = 20. (2)
Substituting (1) into (2) gives
5a
a = 20 ; a2 = 36 ; a = 6 cm.
9
Congruence 65
INTRODUCTION TO SIMILARITY
1. Similar Figures
D C
As we saw at the beginning of the previous M
chapter, sometimes objects are the same r1
Similar figures are like shape but different size. We see many things O1
the same photograph in
like this in nature and in daily life. A B
two different sizes. The L K
two pictures below are
similar figures.
Figures which are the same shape but not H G X
necessarily the same size are called similar
r2
figures. For example, two circles, two squares
O2
or two equilateral triangles are always similar
figures.
E F Y Z
We can define the concept of similar
polygons more formally using the language of geometry.
2. Similar Triangles
Definition similar triangles
Two triangles are called similar triangles if A
their corresponding angles are congruent and K
their corresponding sides are proportional. In
other words, if
A K L
AB BC AC B
B L and = = M
KL LM KM C
C M
then ABC KLM.
We have just seen that we need to check two conditions to identify similar polygons: their
angles must be congruent and their sides must be proportional. However, to show that two
triangles are similar we only need to check one condition. This is because each condition
implies the existence of the other. We will prove this later in this chapter.
Note
We must be careful to list the vertices of similar triangles in corresponding order, so that it is
clear which angles are congruent and which sides are proportional. For example, if
ABC KLM then
The Concept of Sýmýlýtary 67
A K ABC KLM
B L
C M
AB BC AC
and = = . ABC KLM
KL LM KM
Conversely, if
A E
AB BC AC
B F and = = then we can conclude ABC EFG, in that order.
EF FG EG
C G
Notice that we can also write ABC EFG as
ACB EGF
BAC FEG
BCA FGE
CBA GFE
CAB GEF.
All of these similarities are the same. However, we cannot write ABC FEG or ABC EGF
in this situation, because in these examples the vertices are not written in corresponding order.
EXAMPLE 9 The two triangles in the figure are similar to A K
each other. Write this similarity using
C L
geometric notation.
Solution First we write the congruent angles:
B M
A L
B M
C K. Now we can write the similarity: ABC LMK.
Definition scale factor of similarity
The ratio of the lengths of corresponding sides of similar triangles is called the scale factor
of the similarity, and denoted by k.
AB BC AC
The scale factor measures For example, if ABC KLM then = = = k. We can say that k is the scale
the difference in size of KL LM KM
two similar triangles. factor of ABC to KLM.
68 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 10 In the figure, KLM YTS. Find the scale S
factor of KLM to YTS.
6
18 K M
Solution If KLM YTS then 9
3
5
KL 5 LM 3 KM 6
= , = and = . L
YT 15 TS 9 YS 18
T 15 Y
KL LM KM 1
So = = = k= .
YT TS YS 3
1
So the scale factor of KLM to YTS is .
3
EXAMPLE 11 The two triangles in the figure are similar. A
D
Write the similarity and find its scale factor,
then find x and y. 8 6 6
y
Solution First let us find the corresponding angles.
Since A E E 4 F
B x C
B F, we can write ABC EFD.
C D
AB BC AC
Now we find the scale factor k: if ABC EFD then = = = k.
EF FD ED
8 x 6
This means = = = k , so the scale factor is k = 2.
4 6 y
x 6
Finally, 2 = so x =12; 2 = so y 3.
6 y
EXAMPLE 12 In the figure, ABC DEF. Find m(DEF). A
60°
Solution Since ABC DEF, D
F
A D, B E and C F. ?
50°
So m(ABC) = m(DEF). By the Interior B E C
Angle-Sum Theorem in ABC,
m(B) = 180° – (60° + 50°) = 70°. So m(E) = m(B) = 70°.
The Concept of Sýmýlýtary 69
Remark
If ABC DEF and the scale factor of similarity is 1 then ABC DEF, i.e. the triangles
are congruent.
EXAMPLE 13 In the figure, ABC CED. Find the values D
of x and y. y
A
x
4 E 9
Solution Since ABC CED, by the definition of 4
similarity we can write B 12 C
AB BC AC
= = = k.
CE ED CD
AB 4
Since = , k =1.
CE 4
So the scale factor is 1 and therefore ABC CED. Therefore, by the definition of congruence,
corresponding sides are equal: AB = CE, BC = ED and AC = CD.
So 4 = 4, 12 = y, and x + 4 = 9, i.e. y = 12 and x = 5.
Congruent and similar
triangles in construction
Check Yourself
1. MNK CAB is given. Write the congruent angles and the ratios of the corresponding
sides.
2. The two triangles in the figure are similar. Write the Q
similarity and find x and y.
A y
12
10 x
R
6
B 8 C P
3. Which of the following triangles are always similar to each other?
A) isosceles triangles B) obtuse isosceles triangles
C) right triangles D) equilateral triangles
Answers
2. ABC RQP, x = 4, y = 15
70 Geometry 9
EXERCISES 2 .1
A. Introduction to Similarity 5. In each question, the two triangles are similar.
1. State whether the figures in each pair are similar. a. If ABC KLM, find x + y.
a. 5 K
ñ3
A
O1 O2
y 10
4 3
7
b. B x C L 15 M
2
7 7
2
b. If ABC DFE, find x and y.
2
E
7 2 A
18 x
a 4 10
b y
c. 6 b a
4 4
a b a b B 7 C D 30 F
10 4
c. Find b.
d.
10 X K
6
14 25 b
7
12 5
Y 15 Z L 50 M
2. In the figure, X M
d. Find x and y.
XYZ PMN. N A A
a. List the
30 x
corresponding 20 10
Y Z P
congruent angles.
B C B y C
b. Write the ratios of the corresponding sides. 40
c. Find PM in terms of XY, YZ and MN. e. Find the value of x + y if ABC DEF.
A
3. Find x, y and z A
8 6 D
x x 3
in the figure if y D
ABC CDE. E B 10 C E y F
9
z 6
f. Find x if A
B 12 C L
KLM ABM.
x
4. The sides of a triangle have lengths 4, 6 and 8. 5 4
Find the length of the shortest side of a similar
triangle S if the longest side of S has length 20. B 2 K 6 M
The Concept of Sýmýlýtary 71
THE ANGLE-ANGLE (AA) SIMILARITY POSTULATE
Postulate Angle-A
Angle (AA) Similarity Postulate
If two angles in one triangle are congruent to two angles in another triangle, then the
triangles are similar. This postulate is known as the Angle-A
Angle (AA) Similarity Postulate.
In the previous section we said that three congruent corresponding angles are needed for
triangles to be similar. However, the AA Similarity Postulate tells us that just two congruent
angles are enough. Can you see why?
This easel is a physical
model of AA similarity.
Can you find the similar
triangles?
EXAMPLE 14 In the figure, A D. Prove that the two A
triangles are similar and find x and y.
4 6
C y
B
x
5 D
8
E
Solution Statements Reasons
1. A D 1. Given
2. ACB DCE 2. Vertical Angles Theorem
3. ABC DEC 3. AA Similarity Postulate with 1 and 2
Now let us find x and y. Since ABC DEC,
AB CB AC 4 x 6 1
= k. This means = k, so k .
DE CE DC 8 5 y 2
x 1 6 1
So and , i.e.
5 2 y 2
5
x 2.5 and y 12.
2
The Angle – Angles Sýmýlýrýty Postulate 73
EXAMPLE 15 In the figure, KL ON.
Find MO if KL = 2, KM = x, NO = 6 and MO = 2x + 3.
K L
M
N O
Solution If we find that the triangles are similar, we will be able to find x and y.
Statements Reasons
1. K O 1. Alternate Interior Angles Theorem (KL ON)
2. L N 2. Alternate Interior Angles Theorem
3. KLM ONM 3. AA Similarity Postulate with 1 and 2
Now, since KLM ONM, we can write
KL KM LM 2 x 1
= k. So k, i.e. k .
ON OM NM 6 2x 3 3
1 x
Now
3 2x 3
2 x 3 3x
3 x.
So MO = (2 3)+ 3 = 9.
EXAMPLE 16 In the figure, BC DE. 2
A
Write the triangle similarity and find x and y. 4
B
4 C
3
If a figure contains two or x
more triangles, sometimes D
redrawing the triangles as y
separate figures can help
you solve the problem. E
Solution First prove the similarity:
Statements Reasons
1. B D 1. Corresponding Angles Postulate (BC DE)
2. BCA E 2. Corresponding Angles Postulate
3. ABC ADE 3. AA Similarity Postulate
So the similarity is ABC ADE. So
AB AC BC 2 4 4
= = , and = = = k.
AD AE DE 5 4+ x y
74 Geometry 9
2 4 2 4 A
So = and .
5 4+ x 5 y 2 4
5 B 4+x
2(4+ x) = 20; 2 y 20; 4 C
3
8+ 2 x = 20;
y 10. D x
2 x =12; y
E
x 6,
EXAMPLE 17 In the figure, A E. 3x 2
A
Find x and y. D
2x 1
y 10
B
x
E
5x + 2
Solution First we find the similarity: C
Statements Reasons
1. A E 1. Given
2. B B 2. Common angle
3. ABC EBD 3. AA Similarity Postulate
Now, since ABC EBD,
AB BC AC
= = .
EB BD ED
5x – 3 6 x + 2 10
So = =
x 2x – 1 y
5x – 3 6 x + 2 5x 3 10
= and =
x 2x 1 x y
(5 x – 3)(2 x – 1) = x(6 x+ 2)
12 10
D 10 x2 6 x 5 x + 3 = 6 x2 + 2 x =
F 3 y
10 x2 11x + 3 – 6 x2 – 2 x = 0
E 12 y = 30
4x2 – 13x 3 = 0
A C 5
1 y= .
(4x – 1)( x 3) = 0; x or x = 3,
B 4 2
Triangles ABC and DEF 1 5
x cannot be , because in this case AB would have a negative length. So x = 3 and y = .
are similar. 4 2
Notice that in Examples 7 and 8, we were able to use alternate interior angles and
corresponding angles because there were two parallel lines in the given figures. In general, if
there are parallel lines in a figure then it can be useful to check for similar triangles as a way
of solving a problem.
The Angle – Angles Sýmýlýrýty Postulate 75
EXAMPLE 18 In the figure, ED BC, A
AD = 12, CD = 8 and EC = 16. Find EF.
12
Solution We can see that there are two similarities in this
D
E
figure because of parallelism. One of them is ?
AED ABC, and the other is EDF CBF. F 8
AD and CD are related to the first similarity,
B C
and EF is related to the second similarity. So
we will use both similarities to find the
answer. By the AA Similarity Postulate, A
AED ABC and EDF CBF. So
12
AE ED AD ED DF EF
k1 and k2 . 20
AB CB AC CB BF CF
E D
Also, k1 = k2 because ED is common in x
CB 8
Similar triangles define F
both similarity. 16 x
the form of this ironing
board. AD AD 12 12 B C
So k1 = k2 = k = .
AC AD + DC 12+8 20
EF 12 x
Let EF = x, then CF = 16 – x. Since k ,
CF 20 16 x
3(16 x) 5 x
48 3 x 5 x
48 8 x
6 x. So EF = 6.
EXAMPLE 19 In the figure, AB EF CD, AB = 6, BF = 2 A
and FC = 1.
D
Find x and y. 6
E
y
x
B 2 F 1 C
Solution By considering the parallel lines and the AA Similarity Postulate we can find three pairs of
similar triangles in the figure (can you see them all?). After this, we need to decide which
similarities to use.
To find x we can use EFC ABC, and to find y we can use EBF DBC.
EF FC x 1
Since EFC ABC, ; ; x 2.
AB BC 6 3
BF EF 2 2
Since EBF DBC, ; ; y 3.
BC DC 3 y
76 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 20 In the figure, AB EF DC. Prove that A
1 1 1
= + . D
x y z y E
z
x
Solution EFC ABC (AA Similarity Postulate) B m F n C
x n
So = . (1) (Definition of similarity)
y mn
Also, EBF ~ DBC. (AA Similarity Postulate)
x m
So = . (2) (Definition of similarity)
z mn
If we add (1) and (2) side by side, we get
x x n m
+ = +
y z m+n m+n
1 1 n+ m
x + =
y z m+n
1 1
x + =1
y z
1 1 1
+ = , as required.
y z x
EXAMPLE 21 Prove the Triangle Angle Bisector Theorem,
c m
A
i.e. = in the figure. c b
b n
Solution Look at the figure.
B m D n C
AD is the bisector of A. If BA = c, AC = b,
BD = m and DC = n, then we need to prove b
c m
that = .
b n K
In the figure,
BAD DAC (AD is an angle bisector)
BAD DKC (Alternate Interior Angles Theorem)
DAC DKC. (Transitive property of congruence)
So ACK is an isosceles triangle and CK = CA = b.
Then, since BAD DKC and BDA KDC, we have ABD KCD by the AA Similarity
Postulate.
AB BD c m
So = , i.e. = as required.
KC CD b n
The Angle – Angles Sýmýlýrýty Postulate 77
Check Yourself
1. Find x and y in the 6. Find x and y in A D
A 3y + 5
the figure x
figure if BC DE. 3 y 2
B
if AB DE. 8
C
4 2y
x 1 B 3x + 3
E
D 6 E
2. In the figure, X
YZ TK. Write the a a1 7. In the figure, D
Z
triangle similarity and Y AB EF DC, A
y a
find a and y. a+2 AB = 3, E
3 5
K DC = 5 and
6
T BC = 8. Find ?
the length of B F C
FC. 8
3. Find the length A
AE = x in the figure.
D
6 4
3
8. E
Ax E C
D
4. Find the value of a in A 2
1
the figure. a D A B C
mirror tree
a
3
B E C The boy in the picture has placed a
7 mirror on level ground at point B so that
he can see the top of the tree in it. The
5. Find the value of x boy’s eyes are 1.5 m from the ground,
D C
x in the figure AB = 1.2 m and BC = 9.6 m.
8 Given 1 2, find the height of the
if DC AB.
A 12 B tree.
Answers
16
1. x = 1.5, y = 2 2. XYZ XTK, a = 2, y = 3 3. 3 4. 5 5. 6. x = 3, y = 1
3
7. 5 8. 12 m
78 Geometry 9
EXERCISES 2 .2
A. The Angle-Angle Similarity Postulate A
A 5. BCEF in the figure is a
1. In the figure,
parallelogram. 4
DE BC.
Find x. F E
Find x and y. 8 x
6
D E
6
4 3
B x C 3 D
B y C
6. In the figure, A
BCD CAB.
Find x.
2. In the figure, A
D
10
BC DE. 4 x
Find the length x
AD = x. B 8 C
D 8 E
6 7. In the figure, A x+1
E
AB DE. x2
B 14 C
Find x. C
x
D
x+5
3. In the figure, A B
A DEB and
D 10
B ACD. 8. Find x in the A
6 9
Find the length figure.
2
BE = x. B x E C E
B 3 C 5 D
4. In the figure, A
12
B
AB DE. Find 9. Find the length A
2
x and y. 15 10 BD = x in the E
C figure.
10
x 9 8
D y E B x D C
The Angle – Angles Sýmýlýrýty Postulate 79
10. Find x in the figure. E A
A 12. Find x in the x
x
6 9 figure if E
10
A D. 6
B 10 C D 5
B 8 D C
11. When you place a mirror on level ground and look
at it, an angle is formed between your line of sight
(from your eyes to the mirror) and the ground. 13. Find x and y in D
This angle is the same as the angle formed the figure. A x
between what you see in the mirror and the ground.
12
Emre, Efshan and Faruk are brothers and sister. 25
Emre’s eyes are 140 cm from the ground. He wants 15
C
to find the eye level of Efshan and Faruk by looking 8 y
at their eyes in a mirror and using triangle geometry. B
E
a. Find the height of Efshan’s eye level if she is
50 cm away from the mirror and Emre is 60 cm
away from the mirror in the picture.
A
14. Find x in the
figure. 3
D E
2
x
5
B C
15. In the figure, C
b. Find the height of Faruk’s eye level if he is 45 cm EF BD and 6
D
away from the mirror and Emre is 65 cm away x
DE BC.
from the mirror. F
Find x. 8
A E B
A
16. In the figure,
x
EF CG and
G
DE BC. 4
B
Find x. 3 C
F
D 7 E
80 Geometry 9
17 . In the figure, G 21 . If AB DC EF D
x
DE BC and in the figure, A
A
EF AG. Find x. find x. E 12
5
x
B F C
4
3 F
D
E
B 5 C A
22 . In the figure,
DE BC and 8 10
EF DC. F
Find x. D E
G
18 . ABCD in the figure is x 5
a parallelogram, B C
F
EF = 4, D C
6
AB = 14 and 4
E
FC = 6.
? 23 . Find x in the A
Find the length
of AE. A 14 B figure. x 4
D E
3x 5
B C
G
19 . ABCD in the figure is
x
a parallelogram.
Find x. D
F 24 . Find x in the A
C
2 figure.
4 E 12 12
A B B 8 D E x C
A
20 . Find x and y in D 25 . Find x in the
the figure. C
figure. 12
5 E
y
2
A 3 F x B B x D 3 E 9 C
The Angle – Angles Sýmýlýrýty Postulate 81
In the previous section we looked at the Angle-Angle Similarity Postulate. We can use this
postulate to prove a set of theorems which can help us decide whether two triangles are
similar. In this section we will look at each theorem in turn.
A. THE SIDE-ANGLE-SIDE (SAS) SIMILARITY THEOREM
Theorem Side-A
Angle-S
Side (SAS) Similarity Theorem
If an angle in a triangle is congruent to an angle in another triangle, and if the lengths of the
sides which include these angles are in proportion, then the triangles are similar. This
theorem is called the Side-A Angle-S
Side (SAS) Similarity Theorem.
Proof Let us draw an appropriate figure.
AB AC C
Given: A D and = .
DE DF F
Prove: ABC DEF.
Let us take a point B on DE such that DB= AB.
C¢
Now let us draw BC such that BC is parallel A B
to EF. Then by the AA Similarity Postulate, E
DB DC BC B¢
DBC DEF. So . (1) D
DE DF EF
AB AC
Also, we know that DB= AB and . (2)
DE DF
If we replace AB with DB then we can conclude from equations (1) and (2) that DC= AC.
Thus, ABC DBC by the SAS Congruence Theorem. So ABC DBC. Finally, since
ABC DBC and DBC DEF, we have ABC DEF by transitivity.
EXAMPLE 22 Find x in the figure.
6 5 AC BC E
Solution Since , we have .
12 10 CE CD A
12
Also, ACB ECD. 6
C 8
So by the SAS Similarity Theorem, x
ACB ECD. This means 5 10
B
6 5 x 1 D
k;k .
12 10 8 2
x 1
So ,
8 2
8
x 4.
2
Workýng Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 83
EXAMPLE 23 Find the length of segment DE in the figure.
A
Solution There are no given angles; we only know that 4
A is a common angle, so we cannot use the 5
E
AA Similarity Postulate. However, if we check
D x
the ratios of the sides, we see that
11
AE AD
= , and since A is a common angle, 7
AB AC
AED ABC by the SAS Similarity Theorem.
B 9 C
4 5 x 1
Thus, = = = k. So k = , which gives us
12 15 9 3
1 x
=
3 9
3 = x.
Check Yourself
1. Find x in the figure. A
D 8
4
C x
2
5 10
E
B
2. Find x in the figure. A
3
4 E
x
D 5
2
B 9 C
3. In the figure, AD BC, A 4 D
AB = 12 cm, BC = 9 cm,
12
AC = 6 cm and AD = 4 cm. 6 ?
Find DC.
B 9 C
4. Find x in the figure D 4 C
if DC AB.
8 6 x
A 9 B
Answers
9
1. x = 4 2. 3. 8 cm 4. 12
2
84 Geometry 9
B. THE SIDE-SIDE-SIDE (SSS) SIMILARITY THEOREM
Theorem Side-S
Side-SSide (SSS) Similarity Theorem
If the lengths of the corresponding sides of two triangles are all in proportion, then the
triangles are similar.
AB AC BC A D
Proof Given: = = (1)
DE DF EF
Prove: ABC DEF
Let us take a point X on DE such that X Y
B C
AB = DX. (2)
Then we draw a line XY such that XY EF.
E F
Then by the AA Similarity Postulate,
DXY DEF.
DX XY DY
So = = . (3)
DE EF DF
By substituting (2) into (3) and using (1), we have AC = DY and BC = XY.
So by the SSS Congruence Theorem, ABC DXY.
Since ABC DXY and DXY DEF, we have ABC DEF by transitivity.
EXAMPLE 24 Show that ABC DCA in the figure.
AB 16 AC 10 A
5
Solution Since = = 2, = =2 D
DC 8 AD 5
BC 20 16
and = = 2, then 10 8
AC 10
by the SSS Similarity Theorem,
ABC DCA. B 20 C
EXAMPLE 25 Find x and y in the figure. A
50°
AD AE ED 4.61 5 4.08 5 4.61
Solution = = because = = .
AB AC BC 13.83 15 12.24 70° D
60°
So by the SSS Similarity Theorem, E 4.08
10.39
AED ACB. 8.83
Thus m(B) = m(D) so x = 70°, and x y
m(E) = m(C) so y = 60°. B 12.24 C
Workýng Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 85
Check Yourself
1. Find x and y in the figure. A
4.52 70° 4
60° E
D
4.90 5.04
3.48
x y
Answers
B 9.80 C
1. x = 60°, y = 50°
Similar triangles have many properties which are useful for solving problems. Let us look at
the most useful ones.
Properties 9
1. The scale factor of similarity of two triangles is equal to
a. the ratio of the lengths of corresponding altitudes,
b. the ratio of the lengths of corresponding angle bisectors, and
c. the ratio of the lengths of corresponding medians.
In other words, if ABC DEF then
AB BC AC h h h n n n V V V
= = = k= a = b = c = A = B = C = a = b = c .
DE EF DF hd he h f n D n E n F Vd Ve V f
2. The ratio of the perimeters of two similar triangles is equal to the scale factor of similarity, i.e.
P( ABC )
if ABC DEF then k.
P( DEF )
3. The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the scale factor of
similarity, i.e.
A( ABC )
if ABC DEF then k2 .
A( DEF )
EXAMPLE 26 In the figure, ABC EFD. Find x.
A F
Solution Since ABC EFD, we can use the definition 25
of similarity and Property 9.1 and write H
6 15 G
AB BC AC CH D
= = = .
EF FD ED DG
B x C
6 x E
So = , i.e.
15 25
x =10.
86 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 27 Find the length x = OK in the figure at the A
L
right.
12
O
5 x
B D C K M
Solution We are given m(B) = m(M) and A
L
m(C) = m(L).
12
So ABC KML. (AA Similarity Postulate)
Therefore, m(A) = m(K).
B 8 C K M
Since AD and KO are angle bisectors, by
Property 9.1 we have
AD AB BC AC
= = = .
KO KM ML KL
5 8
So =
x 12
x = 7.5.
EXAMPLE 28 In the figure, AB = AC = 9 and A
BD = BC = 6.
Given that CF bisects C,
F D
CE E
find .
CF
B C
Solution ABC ACB (Isosceles Triangle Theorem with AB = AC)
BDC BCD (Isosceles Triangle Theorem with BD = BC)
So ABC BCD and ACB BDC. (Identical angles)
So by the AA Similarity Postulate, ABC BDC and so CE and CF are angle bisectors in BDC
and ABC respectively.
CE BD DC BC
So = = = , (Definition of similarity and Property 9.1)
CF AB BC AC
CE 6 2
i.e. = = .
CF 9 3
Workýng Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 87
EXAMPLE 29 The sum of the perimeters of two similar triangles is 49 cm and the scale factor of their
2
similarity is . Find the perimeter of the smaller triangle.
5
Solution Let the perimeter of the smaller triangle be PS, and the perimeter of the larger one be PL.
Then PS + PL = 49 cm. (1)
P 2
Also, by Property 9.2, S = . (2)
PL 5
PS 2
Substituting (1) into (2) gives = .
49 – PS 5
So PS = 14 cm.
EXAMPLE 30 ABC and MNP are two similar triangles with scale factor of similarity
BC 3
= . Given that
NP 2
A(ABC) = 45 cm2, find A(MNP).
2 2
Solution By Property 9.3, A( ABC ) = BC . So 45 3
= ; A( MNP) =
45 4
;
A( MNP ) NP A( MNP ) 2 9
A( MNP ) = 20 cm 2.
EXAMPLE 31 In the figure, AD = DF = FB and the area of
quadrilateral BCGF is 15 cm2. Find the area
A
D E
of quadrilateral FGED.
F G
Solution Let AD = DF = FB = x, A(ADE) = S1 and
B C
A(AFG) = S2.
Since FG BC, we have AFG ABC by the AA Similarity Postulate.
AF 2 x 2
The scale factor of this similarity is = = .
AB 3x 3
Then, by Property 9.3,
A( AFG) 2 S2 4
= ( )2 ; = ;
A( ABC ) 3 S2 +15 9
4S2 + 60 = 9S2; 60 = 5S2; S2 = 12 cm2.
Similarly, since DE FG we have ADE AFG by the AA Similarity Postulate.
AD x 1
The scale factor of this similarity is = = , and so by Property 9.3,
AF 2 x 2
A( ADE) 1 S 1
= ( )2 ; 1 ; S1 = 3 cm 2 .
A( AFG) 2 12 4
So A(FGED) = S2 – S1 = 12 – 3 = 9 cm2.
88 Geometry 9
Note: If the area of the top triangle in the figure opposite is A, A
then the areas of the other parts of the figure are as shown.
3A
5A
7A
9A
...
P( ABC )
EXAMPLE 32 Prove Property 9.2: If ABC PRN then
P( PRN )
= k.
Solution Let us draw an appropriate figure. A
P
Given: ABC PRN
P( ABC )
Prove: =k
P( PRN )
R N
Proof: B C
We will write a flow-chart proof.
AB = k PR
AB BC AC
ABC PRN = = =k BC = k RN
PR RN PN AC = k PN
Given Definition of Property of
similarity proportion
P( ABC ) k( PR RN PN ) P( ABC )
k
P( PRN ) PR RN PN P( PRN )
P(ABC) = AB + BC + AC Substitution and simplification Simplification
Perimeter of a triangle
P( ABC ) AB BC AC
P( PRN ) PR RN PN
P(PRN)= PR + RN + PN Substitution
Perimeter of a triangle
Check Yourself
1. Find the length of segment BC in the figure A
if BD = 24 and AB ED. 3
D
B ? C
5
4
2. The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is and the perimeter of the smaller
9
triangle is 12 cm. Find the perimeter of the bigger triangle.
Workýng Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 89
3. In the figure, A
BC = 10 cm and DC = 4 cm. D
A( DEC )
Find the value of the ratio . 4
A( ABC )
B E C
10
4. What is the area of quadrilateral FGED in the figure? A
3
D E
2
F G
1
B C
A( ABC ) 8
5. Prove Property 9.3: if ABC DEF then = k2 .
A( DEF )
Answers
4 32
1. 9 2. 18 cm 3. 4.
25 3
C. THE TRIANGLE PROPORTIONALITY
THEOREM AND THALES’ THEOREM
1. The Triangle Proportionality Theorem
Theorem Triangle Proportionality Theorem
A line parallel to one side of a triangle which intersects the other two sides of the triangle at
different points divides these two sides proportionally. In other words, in the figure below,
m x
= .
n y
Look at the figure. A
Proof
Given: DE BC
m x
AD AE
Prove: =
DB EC D E
ABC ADE (AA Similarity Postulate)
n y
AB AC
So = .
AD AE
B C
Let AD = m, DB = n, AE = x and EC = y.
m+ n x+ y
Then =
m x
n y
1+ =1+
m x
n y DB EC AD AE
= . So = , and so = , as required.
m x AD AE DB EC
90 Geometry 9
Conclusion
Using the properties of ratio in the previous figure, we can conclude that if DE is parallel to
AD AE AB AC AB AC
BC then = , = and = .
DB EC DB EC AD AE
Theorem Converse of the Triangle Proportionality Theorem
If a line divides two sides of a triangle proportionally then it is parallel to the third side of the
triangle.
A
Proof Look at the figure.
AD AE
Given: =
DB EC
D E
Prove: DE BC
B C
AD AE DB AD EC AE AB AC
= + = + =
DB EC AD AD AE AE AD AE
Given Properties of Simplification
proportion (using the figure) D B
ABC ADE DE BC
E C
SAS Similarity Definition of Converse of the
Theorem similarity Corresponding
BAC DAE Angles Theorem
Common angle
EXAMPLE 33 In the figure, TS AC, BT = 6 cm,
T
A
BS = 9 cm, AB = 2x + 4 and
BC = 5x. Find SC. 6
B
Solution Since TS AC, by the Triangle Proportionality 9
Theorem we can write S
C
BT BS
=
BA BC
6 9
=
2 x + 4 5x
10 x = 6 x +12; 4 x =12; x = 3 cm.
So BC = 5x = 5 3 = 15 cm and
SC = BC – BS = 15 – 9 = 6 cm.
Workýng Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 91
EXAMPLE 34 In the figure, AK = 12 cm, KB = 4 cm, A
AC = 20 cm, NC = 5 cm, BC = 24 cm
and MC = 6 cm. Show that KN BC and 12
MN AB. 20
K N
Solution To show that the lines are parallel, it is
4 5
sufficient by the Converse of the Triangle
Proportionality Theroem to show that B M 6 C
AK AN BM AN 24
= and = .
KB NC MC NC
Since AN = AC – NC,
AN = 20 – 5 = 15 cm.
Similarly, BM = 18 cm.
AK 12 AN 15 AK AN
So = = 3 and = = 3. So = , and so by the Converse of the Triangle
KB 4 NC 5 KB NC
Proportionality Theorem, KN BC.
BM 18 AN 15 BM AN
Also, = = 3 and = = 3, so = and so by the same theorem, MN AB.
MC 6 NC 5 MC NC
EXAMPLE 35 In the triangle ABC at the right,
3
A
EF AC, AK = KD, BD = 2DC and AE = 3 cm. E
Find the length of segment EB. ?
K
B D F C
DK DF
Solution In ADC, = =1. (Triangle Proportionality Theorem and AK = KD)
AK FC
So DF = FC.
Let DF = FC = y, then BD = 2CD = 4y.
AE FC
So in ABC we have = (Triangle Proportionality Theorem)
EB BF
3 y
=
EB 5y
EB =15 cm.
92 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 36 In ABC at the right, AF = FE, DB = 5 cm, BE = 4 cm and EC = 6 cm. Find the length of
AD.
Solution First we find a point K on AB such that
DC KE. Then in DBC,
BE BK
= . (Triangle Proportionality Theorem)
EC KD
4 BK
So = A
6 5 – BK
6 BK = 20 – 4 BK
10 BK = 20 D
F
BK = 2 cm.
K
Hence KD = BD – BK = 5 – 2 = 3 cm.
B 4 E 6 C
On the other hand, in AKE we have
AF AD
= =1. (Triangle Proportionality Theorem and AF = FE)
FE DK
So AD = 3 cm.
2. Thales’ Theorem of Parallel Lines
Theorem Thales’ Theorem
If two transversals intersect three or more parallel lines then the parallel lines divide the
transversals proportionally. This theorem is known as Thales’ Theorem.
A D
Proof Look at the figure.
Given: AD BE CF B K E
AB DE
Can you see the
Prove: =
BC EF C L F
proportional lengths?
First we draw a line which is parallel to AC and
passes through D. Let us label the intersection
A D points K and L of this new line with BE and CF.
Then BKDA and CLKB are parallelograms, since if the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
parallel then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram. So DK = AB and KL = BC. (1)
B E DK DE
Since KE LF, by the Triangle Proportionality Theorem in DLF we have = . (2)
KL EF
AB DE
C F Substituting (1) into (2) gives us = , as required.
BC EF
Workýng Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 93
EXAMPLE 37 In the figure, AS BR CM DN.
Find the lengths m, n, x and y using the information in the figure.
Solution Since AS BR CM DN and AD, AN and NS are tranversals, we can apply Thales’
Theorem:
AK SR m 3 9 KP RM 3 4 15
= ; = ; m = and = ; = ; n= .
KP RM 3 4 4 PN MN n 5 4
AB SR 4 3 16 AB SR 4 3 20
; = ; x= and ; = ; y= .
BC RM x 4 3 CD MN y 5 3
Check Yourself
1. Find the value of m n in the figure. A
m 6
D E
7 n
B C
2. In the figure, DE AB. A
x+1
Find the value of x.
D
x2
B x+5 E x C
3. In the figure, DE BC, DF BE, A
AD = 12, DB = 4 and
AF = 6. Find the lengths x and y.
6
12
F
x
D E
4 y
B C
4. Find the value of x in the figure. A
3
5 K
x
E D
F
4
C
B
94 Geometry 9
5. In the figure, DC EF AB.
DE = 50 cm, EA = 70 cm, CF = x and D C
and FB = x + 20 cm are given. Find
the value of x.
E
F
A
B
Answers
8 12
1. 42 2. 5 3. x = 2, y = 4. 5. 50 cm
3 5
D. FURTHER APPLICATIONS
1. Menelaus’ Theorem
Theorem Menelaus’ Theorem
Let ABC be a triangle. If a line d intersects
A
the two sides AB and AC and the extension d
S
of the third side BC of ABC at points R, S R
PB CS AR
and P respectively, then =1. P
PC SA RB B C
A
Proof Let us draw the line k through point B and
d
parallel to side AC (Parallel Postulate), and let S
T be the intersection point of lines k and d. R
T
Then PBT PCS by the AA Similarity P
Postulate. B C
k
Menelaus of Alexandria
(c. 40-140 AD) was a
So PB = BT . (1)
PC CS
Greek mathematician
and astronomer. He was Moreover, BRT ARS by the AA Similarity Postulate.
the first mathematician
to describe a spherical So BR = BT . (2)
triangle, and proved the AR AS PB BT
theorem described here
Dividing (1) by (2) side by side gives PC = CS ; PB AR = AS ; PB AR CS =1.
in his book Sphaerica, BR BT PC BR CS PC BR AS
which is the only book he PB CS AR
wrote that has survived. So =1, as required. AR AS
PC SA RB
Workýng Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 95
EXAMPLE 38 In the figure, BD = 8 cm, DC = 6 cm,
AC = 22 cm and AF = FD.
A
Find the length of AE.
E 22
Solution Let AE = x. Then EC = 22 – x.
F
By Menelaus’ Theorem in ADC,
DB CE AF 8 22 – x AF
=1; =1.
BC EA FD 14 x FD
B 8 D 6 C
Since AF = FD, we have 8 22 – x =1
14 x
8(22 – x) = 14x
x = AE = 8.
Note
It can also be shown that the converse of Menelaus’ Theorem is true: in the figure on the
PB CS AR
previous page, if =1 then d intersects AB, AC and the extension of side BC.
PC SA RB
2. Ceva’s Theorem
Theorem Ceva’s Theorem
Let P be a point in the interior of a triangle
A
ABC. If the lines joining P and the vertices of
the triangle intersect the sides BC, AC and AB
at points K, N and T respectively, then T
P N
BK CN AT
=1.
KC NA TB
B K C
Proof Considering AKC and line BN with A
Menelaus’ Theorem gives us
KB CN AP
=1. (1) N
BC NA PK T P
Similarly, applying Menelaus’ Theorem to
ABK and line CT gives us
B K C
KC BT AP
=1. (2)
CB TA PK
Dividing (1) and (2) side by side gives
KB CN AP
BC NA PK = 1 = BK CN AT =1.
KC BT AP 1 KC NA TB
CB TA PK
96 Geometry 9
39
A
EXAMPLE In the figure at the right, K is the intersection
4 y
point of AP, BR and CS. BP = x, PC = 6 cm,
CR = 8 cm, AR = y, AS = 4 cm and SB = 6 cm S
R
K
x 8
are given. Find the ratio . 6
y
B x P 6 C
Solution Ceva’s Theorem applied to ABC gives us
BP CR AS x 8 4 x 9
=1. So =1, and so = .
PC RA SB 6 y 6 y 8
EXAMPLE 40 Find the length x in the figure, using the A
information provided.
4 4
Solution Ceva’s Theorem in ABC gives us 5 E
BD AE CF 2 4 CF CF D T
=1. So =1; = 3. 6
DA EC FB 4 6 FB FB 2
x
Similarly, Menelaus’ Theorem in ABF with
B F C
respect to line CD gives
FC BD AT CF FC 3 3 2 5 15
=1. Since = 3, we get = . So =1, i.e. x = .
CB DA TF FB CB 4 4 4 x 8
Note
It can also be shown that the converse of Ceva’s Theorem is true: in the figure on the
BK CN AT
previous page, if =1 then the lines BN, CT and AK intersect at a common point
KC NA TB
inside the triangle.
Check Yourself 8 A
1. In the figure, EC = 2 AE, BK = KE 6
E
and AF = 6 cm. F K
Find the length of FB. ?
B C
2. In the figure, AE = BD, A
AF = 8, 8
FB = 5 and F E
DC = 6. 5 ?
What is the length of EC? B D 6 C
Answers
15
1. 4 cm 2.
4
Workýng Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 97
EXERCISES 2 .2
A. The Side-Angle-Side (SAS) 3. ABC and PRS are triangles with a = 12 cm,
Similarity Theorem b = 8 cm, m(C) = 70°, p = 8, r = 6 and
1. Find the value of x in each figure, using the m(S) = 70°. Are these triangles similar?
information given.
a. b.
A D T x K
6 4
C 3 4 3
x P 4. In each case, determine whether the two
3
E 9
8 12 triangles described are similar.
B N
15 a. triangles ABC and KPS with
M
a = 10 cm, b = 8 cm, m(C) = 65°,
c. d. K k = 5 cm, p = 4 cm and m(S) = 65°
K x
x
T 3m K b. triangles PRS and KMN with
m
n 2
3n m(R) = m(M) = 75°,
S K
2m m 2 p = 12 cm, s = 10 cm,
2n n
R K k = 18 cm and n = 15 cm
12
12 K c. triangles XYZ and STK with
P
X S, y = 3 cm, z = 4 cm, t = 9 cm and
k = 2 cm
B. The Side-Side-Side (SSS)
2. Find the value of x in each figure, using the Similarity Theorem
information given. 5. State whether the triangles in each pair are similar
a. 2 b. 4 or not by considering the given lengths.
5
x
x
a. A b.
4 6
2 3 K
12 D C
5 3 12 8 5 12 9
6 3
4
B 6 C E 3 F A 4 B L 15 M
c. d. 4
8
c. d. M
15 7 6
P 24
x 10 T
T 18
6 x 12
9 18 8 9
1
7 5 10 R 6 S
N 7 S 9 P
98 Geometry 9
6. Find the congruent angles in each figure. 9. Find the value of the A
2
ratio
a. A D 2 F D E
A( ADE)+ A( BCGF ) 4
5 A( FGED ) F G
4 8 2
4 1
in the figure. B C
B 5 C E
b. A
3
5
C
B 7 12
4 10. In the figure, D C
D 21 E ABCD is a rhombus. 4
E
If A(EBF) = 16 cm2,
what is A(ABCD)?
A 6 B F
7. Find the area of ABC A
2
in the figure. D
11. Find the value of the A
2
B
13 A( ABC )
ratio in the
A( FKED ) C
B 5 E C
figure.
3
D E
F 4 K
8. In the figure, A
BC EG.
If A(AFG) = 12 cm2, 12. Write a two-column proof to show that the ratio of
E G
A(BDFE) = 20 cm2 and F the perimeters of two similar triangles equals the
A(DCGF) = 15 cm2, what scale factor of their similarity.
is A(AEF)? B D C
Workýn Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 99
C. The Triangle Proportionality 16. In the figure, MNP is M
?
Theorem and Thales’ Theorem a triangle and K
2
J MN KS, T
13. In the figure, MN KL, JM = 5
and MK = 2. Find each ratio. KN TS,
5
JN JN NS = 3 cm,
a. b. N 3 S 6 P
NL JL M N SP = 6 cm and
NL NL 2 KT = 2 cm.
c. d.
JN JL K L
What is the length of MK?
17. Determine whether or P
14. Find the value of x in each figure by using the
not MN PS in the M
information given.
figure, given each set
a. A b.
K of extra information.
3 x x
E P
D R N S
8 8
6 a. PR = 18 MR = 6
SR = 24 NR = 8
B C M 12 R 3 N
b. PR = 12 MP = 8
c. X d. M
SR = 16 NR = 12
6 8 6
P Z T c. MR = 5 MP = 4
x
8 K 24
6 T RN = 6 NS =
P
x
6 5
B d. PR = 15 MR = 12
N
RN = 16 NS = 4
15. In the figure, A
AD = 8 cm, 8 18. ABCD in the figure is a D F C
DB = 6 cm, D E
parallelogram with 2
?
EF AB and DE BC. 6
CE = 2 cm, E
Find each ratio. B F C EB = 4 cm and
H 4
AC AC BF FC FH AD.
a. b. c. d.
AE EC FC BC What is the length of FH? A B
100 Geometry 9
19. In the figure, DC EF AB. D C D. Further Applications
Find the value of x. 10 x
23. Find the length x in each figure by using
E F
Menelaus’ Therom.
12 9
a. A b. M
A B 3
3 4
4 K
E S
F 2
5 6
x T
x
6
B 6 D 4 C N P
c. d.
A A
20. Write a proof of the Converse of the Triangle 3
x
Proportionality Theorem in two-column form. 3 E
E 18
1
K D 2
4 x
B D C B T C
(Hint: Draw a line parallel
to DE through B.)
21. A point on the hypotenuse of a right triangle
divides the hypotenuse into two segments of
lengths 12 and 16. Given that the point is
equidistant to the legs of the triangle, find the
lengths of the legs of the triangle.
24. Find the length x in each figure by using Ceva’s
Theorem.
a. A b. M
2
5 2
3 T
F K
5
E
x
22. In the triangle C 2 6 P
x
S
ABC at the right, D E 6 4 4
B D C
1 N
m(A) = 90°,
CD DE, c. x
S
3 N
DE = 1, 9
10
AD = 3 and T M
AB = BE. A B
12
Find the length of CE. 10
P
8
(Hint: Draw the perpendicular EH AB.)
K
Workýn Wýth Sýmýlar Trýangles 101
A. EUCLIDEAN RELATIONS
Theorem
The altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle divides the right triangle into two smaller
right triangles which are similar to the original triangle, and therefore also similar to each other.
Proof Look at the first figure. A
Given: ABC is a right triangle and AH is the
altitude to the hypotenuse.
Prove: ABC HBA HAC
B H C
We will give the proof in paragraph form.
Let m(BCA) = x.
A A
Then, m(ABC) = 90° – x, m(HAB) = x
x
and m(HAC) = 90° – x. 90° x
So each smaller triangle is similar to the
90° x x
larger triangle by the AA Similarity Theorem,
B H H C
and therefore the two smaller triangles are
A
also similar to each other.
Remember!
The geometric mean of
two numbers a and b is
a positive number x 90° x x
a x
such that = , B H C
x b
i.e. x = a b.
This theorem leads us to two more useful theorems.
Theorem Euclidean theorems
In any right triangle, when the altitude to the A
hypotenuse is drawn, the following two
statements are true: c
b
h
1. The length of the altitude is the geometric
mean of the lengths of the two segments B p H q C
of the hypotenuse formed by the altitude a
(AH2 = BH CH in the figure).
2. The length of each leg is the geometric mean of the length of its adjacent hypotenuse
segment and the length of the hypotenuse. (CA2 = CH CB in the figure).
Further Studýes 103
Proof Let us draw an appropriate figure (shown at the right).
Given: ABC is a right triangle and AH is the altitude to the hypotenuse.
Prove: AH2 = BH CH (1) and
For any right triangle
ABC, the relations BA2 = BH BC and CA2 = CH CB (2)
h2 = p q, c2 = p a and We will write the proof of (1) in paragraph form.
b2 = q a are also called
Euclidean relations. By the theorem at the beginning of this
A section, AHB CHA.
c b By the definition of similarity, corresponding sides are proportional:
h
BH AH
p q
= , i.e. AH2 = BH CH, as required.
B H C AH CH
a
Now let us prove (2). By the same theorem, HBA ABC. So by the definiton of
similarity, corresponding sides are proportional:
BH BA
, i.e. BA = BH BC.
2
=
BA BC
CH CA
, i.e. CA = CH CB.
2
By a similar argument, HAC ABC. So =
CA CB
EXAMPLE 41 Find the lengths a, c and x in the figure. B
Solution Since ABC is a right triangle and BH is an
c a
altitude, we can use the Euclidean relations: 6
h2 = p q; 62 = x 3; x = 12,
a2 = 3 (3 + 12) = 3 36; a = 6ñ3, A x H 3 C
c = 12 (12 + 3) = 180; c = 6ñ5.
2
EXAMPLE 42 Prove that
1 1
= +
1
h2 b2 c2
in the figure. A
b c
h
B k H p C
a
104 Geometry 9
Solution By the Euclidean relations,
b2 = k a and c2 = p a.
If we multiply these side by side, we get
b2 c2 = k p a 2 . So b 2 c 2 = h 2 a 2 and so
h2
1 a2
2
= 2 2 (Divide both sides by b2 c2 h2)
h b c
1 b2 + c2
2
= 2 2 (Pythagorean Theorem in ABC)
h b c
1 b2 c2 (Properties of rational numbers)
2
= +
h b2 c2 b2 c2
1 1 1
2
= 2+ 2.
h c b
EXAMPLE 43 In ABC at the right, CA AB, C
AH BC, AC = 3AB, BH = x and
x
HC = y. Find the ratio .
y y
Solution Let AB = m, then AC = 3m.
By the Euclidean relations in ABC, H
x
AB = BH BC and AC = CH CB. So
2 2
m2 = x(x + y) and A B
2
9m = y(x + y).
If we divide the first equality by the second, we get
m2 x ( x + y) x 1
= . So = .
9m 2
y ( x + y) y 9
Check Yourself
1. Find x, y and h using the information in the A
figure.
y 8
h
B 12 H x C
Further Studýes 105
2. According to the figure, what is the value A
AH
of the ratio ?
BH H
5
B 7 C
3. Find the length of BC in the figure. A
B
H C
2
D
4. Find the value of x in the figure. A
B 6 D 3 C
5. Find the lengths of MS and PN using the information P
in the figure. S
M 8 N
Answers
25 8 5
1. x = 4, y = 8ñ3, h = 4ñ3, 2. 3. 20 4. 3ñ6 5. MS = , PN 4 5
49 5
B. MEDIAN RELATIONS
Like the angle bisectors and altitudes of a triangle, the medians in a triangle have some very
useful properties.
Properties 10
Let ABC be any triangle. Then the following
A
statements about ABC are true.
1. If AD, BE and FC are medians then their
2z
common point of intersection G divides F E
y G
each median in the ratio 1 : 2. For example, x
2x 2y
in the figure,
z
1 2 GD 1
GD = AD and AG = AD, so = . B D C
3 3 AG 2
106 Geometry 9
2. If AD, BE and CF are medians and points K A
and G are as shown in the figure, then
BC
FE BC, FE = and AK = KD.
2 F K E
We can conclude that KG = KD – GD, i.e.
G
AD AD AD GD
KG = – = and KG = .
2 3 6 2 B D C
3. If AD, BE and FC are medians then
a2 c2 b2
b2 + c2 = 2Va2 + , a2 + b2 = 2Vc2 + and a2 + c2 = 2 Vb2 + .
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
We can conclude that 3(a + b + c ) = 4(Va + Vb + Vc ).
EXAMPLE 44 In triangle ABC in the figure, A
m(BAC) = 90°, AG GC, AG = 6 cm and
point G is the centroid of ABC. Find the 6
?
length of AC.
G
Solution Let us extend AG so that it cuts BC at point
B C
D. Since G is the centroid of ABC, by
AG 6
Property 10.1 we have GD = = = 3 cm. A
2 2
Also, since AD is a median to the hypotenuse
(because it passes through the centroid of 6
ABC), we have AD = BD = DC = 9 cm.
G
The Pythagorean Theorem in GDC gives us 3
GC2 + GD2 = DC2 B 9 D 9 C
GC2 = 81 – 9
= 72
GC = 6ñ2 cm.
And so by the Pythagorean Theorem in AGC,
AC2 = AG2 + GC2
= 62 + (6ñ2)2
= 36 + 72
= 108
AC = 6ñ3 cm.
Further Studýes 107
EXAMPLE 45 AD, BF and CE in the figure are the medians A
of triangle ABC. Find the lengths x and y.
K F
GC E
Solution EG = (Property 10.1) x 2
2
G 8
8 y
x=
2 B D C
x = 4.
GD
KG = (Property 10.2)
2
y
2 = ; y= 4
2
46
A
EXAMPLE In the figure, G is the centroid of ABC,
AD = DC = 8 cm, GD = 4 cm and 8
GC = 10 cm. Find the length of AB. D
E 4
G
Solution Let us draw a line from vertex A to the centroid 8
G. Then GD is a median of AGC. 10
Let AG = x, then in AGC, B C
16 2
x2 +10 2 = 2 42 + (Property 10.3)
2
A
x2 +100 = 32+128
x2 = 60 8
x D
x = 60 cm. E
4
Also, CE is a median of ABC. So G
8
GC 10
EG = (Property 10.1)
2
B C
10
=
2
= 5 cm.
BD is also a median of ABC. So
BG = 2 GD (Property 10.1)
= 2 4 = 8 cm.
108 Geometry 9
Finally, GE is a median of ABG. So
c2 (Property 10.3)
82 +( 60 )2 = 2 5 2 +
2
c2
64+60 = 50+
2
74 2 = c2
c = 2 37 cm.
Check Yourself
1. In the figure, G is the centroid of ABC. Find the A
value of m + n.
12 F
D
G
5
n
m
B E C
2. Find the value of x in the figure, using the A
information given.
D
F
6 x
2
B E C
3. In the figure, G is the centroid of ABC. Find the
A
length of AC.
13
10 13
G
B C
4. In a triangle ABC, D BC and AD is a median. Given AB = 8 cm, AC = 10 cm and
AD = 6 cm, find the length of BD.
5. Va, Vb and Vc are the medians to the sides a, b and c of a triangle ABC. a = 14 cm,
Vb = 12 cm and Vc = 15 cm are given. Find Va.
Answers
1. 16 2. 5 3. 24 4. ò46 cm 5. 3ò33 cm
Further Studýes 109
In this book we are studying congruent and similar triangles. To determine whether two triangles are congruent or similar, we
have considered their vertices and side lengths. Transformations give us a different way of determining whether two figures are
congruent or similar. A transformation means rotating, reflecting, resizing or sliding a figure in the plane.
The study of transformations in geometry is called transformational geometry. Transformational geometry is useful for creating
repeating patterns in a plane, and has applications in genetic research, molecular biology, studies of crystals, and the decorative
arts. The two most basic transformations are reflection and resizing.
Reflection
A reflection (also called a flip) is a transformation that reflects an object onto its mirror image. Mirrors and lakes create examples
of reflections in the real world.
A¢ D A
E
B¢ B
C¢ F C
Triangle A B C is the reflection of triangle
ABC across the mirror line DF. Notice that
AD = A D, BE = B E, and CF = CF.
A geometric reflection is defined by a central line called the mirror line. Every point in a geometric reflection is the same distance
from this mirror line, and the reflection is the same size as the original image. The mirror line can be anywhere in the plane and
the reflection will always have these properties.
Resizing
Resizing is the second basic transformation. Other words for resizing include dilation, contraction, compression, enlargement
and expansion. In each case the transformation changes the size of a figure but not its shape. Every resizing transformation uses
a fixed point called the center of the resizing.
B
B¢
O
C¢ C
A¢
A
O is the center of resizing.
A B C is a resizing of
ABC.
A resizing transformation makes a figure bigger or smaller but the new figure is still similar to the old one: all the angles stay the
same and corresponding sides of the figure are all in proportion.
Two other transformations are translation and rotation.
Translation
A translation (also caled a slide) is a transformation in which every point in a n A¢¢
figure moves the same distance in a specified direction. A translation is like m A¢
sliding a figure across a distance, without turning it or reflecting it. We can A
also think of a translation as two successive reflections. B¢¢ C¢¢
B¢
In the figure, triangle A ''B ''C '' is a translation of triangle ABC: we can slide
ABC up and right across the page to match triangle A ''B ''C '' completely. B C¢
C
Alternatively we can reflect ABC across two parallel lines to get the same
transformation: A 'B 'C ' is a reflection of ABC, and A ''B ''C '' is a reflection of A 'B 'C '. Notice that AA '' = BB '' = CC '' and
lines m and n are parallel.
Rotation
A rotation (also called a turn) is the movement of an object in a circular direction. e
C¢
A rotation takes place around a point which is called the center of the rotation. C¢¢
f
The distance from any point on the shape to this center stays the same during a
A¢
rotation. A rotation is also like two reflections across non-parallel lines. The A
intersection of these lines is concurrent with the center of the rotation. A¢¢ B¢¢ B¢
In the figure, A ''B ''C '' is a rotation of ABC about center O. A ''B ''C '' is also
the result of two reflections of ABC, first across line f and then across line e. B C
Notice that angle AOA'' measures 90°, and lines e and f are non-parallel. O
Congruent or Similar?
If we can match one shape to another completely using one or more turns, flips or slides then the two shapes are congruent. To
determine whether two shapes or similar we can draw lines connecting corresponding vertices. If these lines all meet at the same
point then we can say that the shapes are similar.
Exploring Transformational Geometry
We can use transformations to solve problems in plane geometry. Try to solve the following two problems using transformations.
Can you do it?
1. If x + y + z = 2 in the figure, find D x F C 2. ABC in the figure is an equilateral C
the measure of EBF. triangle. Find m(CHB ).
y z
(Hint: Rotate CBF 90° about 1
(Hint: Consider the reflection of 15
E
point B.) CHB about line CB.) H
17
Answer: 45° Answer: 150° 8
A 1 B A B
EXERCISES 2 .4
A. Euclidean Relations 4. In the figure at the right, S
1. In each case, find the indicated length using the m(TSX) = 90°,
information in the figure. SY YX = 9 and ?
a. b. P 3 TY = 3. What is the
A T 3 Y X
S
length of SY?
6
5. In the figure, J
B 9 H 16 C M N 3
JM KM S
AC = ? SN = ?
c. d. MS JK, R
R
XR JK, x
Y
12 2ò15 KR = RS = SM, M
J K X
SJ = 3 and RX = x.
Z
K What is x?
X 4 V
8
T
6. In the figure, A
JK = ? YX = ?
polygon BDEH is a
e. f. 12
rectangle.
T
8 m(BAC) = 90°, B C
N L H
S M ?
AH BC,
8 D E
10 HE = HC and
6
X AH = 12 are given.
K
V What is the area of rectangle BDEH?
SX = ? NL = ?
2. In the figure, A 7. In the figure, K
m(BAC) = 90°, ?
m(K) = 90°,
10 N
AH BC, KN = NM, ?
BC = 4 BH and B H C LH = 10 and
AB = 10. HM = 6. L 10 H 6 M
What is the length of segment AC? What is the length
3. In the figure at the P of KL?
K
right,
5 8. In the figure, A
PM MN,
m(BAC) = 90°, 13
MK PN, ?
8 ED AD,
PM = 5 cm and M N E
5
BD = DC,
MN = 8 cm.
AE = 13 and B D C
What is the ratio PK ?
KN EB = 5. Find the length of AC.
112 Geometry 9
9. In the figure, A B. Median Relations
AH BC and
14. In the figure, A
m(BAC) = 90°.
G is the centroid
2 AB = 5 AC,
B m H n C of ABC. 12 F
BH = m and D
If AE BC, G
HC = n are given. What is m ?
5
n AG = 12 and
DG = 5, B E C
find the length of BC.
10. In the figure, A
G is the centroid
of ABC, ?
AG GE and G E 15. The sum of the lengths of the medians of a
6
AB = BC. 1 triangle ABC is 27 cm.
B C
If GE = 6 cm and a. Find the sum of the distances from the centroid
EC = 1 cm, what is the length of AG? of ABC to each of its vertices.
b. Find the sum of the distances from the centroid
11. In the figure, C
to the midpoints of the sides of ABC.
m
AH = 2ñ5 and
H
m2 + n2 = 41. b
n
Find b c. 2ñ5
16. In the figure, point G is X
A c B the centroid of XYZ and
PT YZ. ?
12. In the figure, If TZ = 4, what is the P
G
T
A
m(BAC) = 90°, length of XT? 4
?
AD = AC, Y Z
BD = 7 and
B 7 D 18 C
DC = 18.
Find the length of AB.
17. In a triangle ABC, D AB and CD is a median. If
AB = 6, AC = 8 and CD = 7, find the length of
13. In the figure, C CB.
AC AB,
ED BC and
D
4
AD = CD.
Given AC = 4 cm 18. G is the centroid of a triangle ABC with G DE,
and AE = 3 cm, A 3 E ? B DE BC, D AB, E AC and BC = 12. What is
find the length of EB. the length of DE?
Further Studýes 113
19. In the figure, G is the M 25. A triangle ABC has side lengths a, b and c such
that 2a2 = 3b2 + c2 and b = 6. Calculate the
centroid of MNP
and point O is the length of the median to side c.
12
intersection point of its 8
O G
three angle bisectors. ?
MN = 8, 26. In the figure, G and A
N T K P
MP = 12 and K are the centroids
NP = 10 are given. Find the length of OG. of ABC and ADC
E
respectively. Given K
G
4
20. In ABC, D and E are the midpoints of sides AB GK = 4, find the
and BC respectively, and G is the intersection B D C
length of BC.
point of AE and CD. If AE + CD = 24, what is
DG + EG?
21. In the figure, A 27. In the figure, G is A
G is the centroid the centroid of E
of ABC, and ABC, GD BC,
F E
D G
AE = EC. GE AB and
G GF AC.
If FC = 18, what K
B F C
is the length of B D C If the perimeter of
GK? ABC is 48, what is GD + GE + GF?
22. In a triangle ABC, D, E and F are the midpoints of
the sides AB, BC and AC, respectively. Given that 28. In the figure, A
the perimeter of DEF is 24, find the perimeter of AD = DB,
ABC. BE = EC,
D
DF = 2 FC and ?
23. In the figure, G is A Va Vc.
F
the centroid of If EF = 3, what is 3
ABC, BD = DC G 5 the length of AC? B E C
5 2
and GD = . B D C
2
Find the length of BC.
29. In the figure, A
24. Find the value of A G is the centroid of
4
m2 + n2 by using D ABC, AE = EG E
4 8 D 2
the information in E
m and DK = 2.
n K
4 Find the length of
the figure. G
B 10 C AB.
B C
114 Geometry 9
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. Introduction to Similarity 2. The ratio of the perimeters of two similar triangles is
equal to the scale factor of similarity, i.e.
Figures which are the same shape but not necessarily the
same size are called similar figures. P( ABC )
if ABC DEF then = k.
We use the symbol to show similarity: A B means P( DEF )
polygon A is similar to polygon B. 3. The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal
Two polygons are similar if to the square of the scale factor of similarity, i.e.
1. corresponding angles are congruent, and P( ABC )
if ABC DEF then = k2 .
2. corresponding sides are proportional. P( DEF )
Two triangles are called similar triangles if their
corresponding angles are congruent and their 5. The Triangle Proportionality Theorem and
corresponding sides are proportional. Thales’ Theorem
The ratio of the lengths of corresponding sides of similar
(Triangle Proportionality Theorem) A line parallel to one
triangles is called the scale factor of the similarity, and
side of a triangle which intersects the other two sides of
denoted by k.
the triangle at different points divides these two sides
If ABC DEF and the scale factor of similarity is 1 then proportionally.
ABC DEF.
(Converse of the Triangle Proportionality Theorem) If a
2. The Angle-A
Angle (AA) Similarity Postulate line divides two sides of a triangle proportionally then it
is parallel to the third side of the triangle.
If two angles in one triangle are congruent to two angles
in another triangle, then the triangles are similar. (Thales’ Theorem) If two transversals intersect three or
more parallel lines then the parallel lines divide the
3. The Side-A
Angle-S
Side (SAS) Similarity Theorem transversals proportionally.
If an angle in a triangle is congruent to an angle in another (Menelaus’ Theorem) Let ABC be a triangle. If a line d
triangle, and if the lengths of the sides which include intersects the two sides AB and AC and the extension of
these angles are in proportion, then the triangles are the third side BC of ABC at points R, S and P
similar.
BP CS AR
respectively, then =1.
PC SA RB
4. The Side-S
Side-S
Side (SSS) Similarity Theorem
If the lengths of the corresponding sides of two triangles
(Ceva’s Theorem) Let P be a point in the interior of a
are all in proportion, then the triangles are similar.
triangle ABC. If the lines joining P and the vertices of the
Properties of Similarity
triangle intersect the sides BC, AC and AB at points K, N
1. The scale factor of similarity of two triangles is equal to
BK CN AT
a. the ratio of the lengths of corresponding altitudes, and T respectively, then =1.
KC NA TB
b. the ratio of the lengths of corresponding angle bisectors,
c. the ratio of the lengths of corresponding medians. 6. Euclidean Relations
In other words, if ABC DEF then
The altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle forms
ha hb h n n n V V V
= = c = A = B = C = a = b = c = k. two triangles which are similar to the original triangle,
hd he hf nD nE nF Vd Ve Vf
and therefore also similar to each other.
Summary 115
(Euclidean Theorems) In any right triangle, when the
Concept Check
altitude to the hypotenuse is drawn, the following two
statements are true: 1. State five different ways of proving that triangles are
similar.
1. The length of the altitude is the geometric mean of the
lengths of the two segments of the hypotenuse formed 2. How many pairs of similar triangles are formed when an
by the altitude. altitude is drawn to the hypotenuse of a right triangle?
2. The length of each leg is the geometric mean of the 3. What do we know about ratio of the altitudes of similar
length of its adjacent hypotenuse segment and the triangles?
length of the hypotenuse. 4. Which special kind of triangle are always similar to each
other?
7. Median Relations
Let ABC be a triangle with medians AD, BE and FC which
intersect at a point G. Then the following statements are
true:
1. G divides each median in the ratio 1 : 2, i.e. in the
figure,
AD 2 AG
GD = and AG = AD (so GD = ).
3 3 2
A
2z
F E
y G
x
2x 2y
z
B D C
2. If points K and G are as shown below, then
BC GD
FE BC, FE = , AK = KD and KG = .
2 2
A
F K E
B D C
a2 2 c2
3. b2 + c2 = 2 Va2 + , b + a2 = 2 Vc2 + and
2 2
b2
a2 + c2 = 2Vb 2 + .
2
116 Geometry 9
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2A
1. A
D 5. In the figure,
A D
60° d 1 d 2 d 3. d1
6 4
4 6 If AB = 6,
B E
d2
50° 60° 70°
BC = 8 and
8 ?
B C E F DE = 4, C F
d3
ABC DEF is given with m(B) = 50°, what is the length
m(C) = m(D) = 60°, m(E) = 70°, AC = 4 cm of EF?
and DE = 6 cm. What is the scale factor of 8 9 16
A) B) 4 C) D) 5 E)
similarity of these triangles? 3 2 3
1 2 3 2 3
A) B) C) D) E)
2 3 4 5 5
6. In the figure, A
2. In the figure, E is the ?
B DE BC. If
intersection point of AD A ?
DB = 6,
6
and BC. AE = 4, 4
E DE = 8 and
D E
EB = EC = 6, BC = 14, what is 8
6 9 6
ED = 9 and the length of AD?
C
DC = 8 are given. Find 8 B 14 C
the length of AB. D
A) 6 B) 7 C) 8 D) 9 E) 12
16 18
A) 3 B) 4 C) 5 D) E)
3 5
7. In the figure, A
3. In the figure, A 3
DH BC, D
m(B) = m(DEA), 5
AD = 5, D 7 AB AC and 5
DB = 9 and HB = HC. If
9
AE = 7. E AD = 3 and B ? H C
What is the length of ? BD = 5, what is the length of BH?
B C
EC?
A) 3 B) 4 C) 2ñ5 D) 5 E) 4ñ2
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5
4. In the figure, A 8. In the figure, A
4
DE BC. Find the AD = 4, D
length of AE. 8 ? DB = 8, 8
BE = 12, 70° ?
D E E 6
EC = 6 and B 12 C
4 3
m(DEB) = 70°. What is m(ACB)?
B C
A) 9 B) 8 C) 7 D) 6 E) 4 A) 50° B) 55° C) 60° D) 65° E) 70°
Chapter Review Test 2A 117
9. In the figure, A 13. Find the length x in A
m(B) = m(DCA), the figure.
x
m(A) = m(BED), D 10 ò59
9
BD = 6, 6
DC = 9 and B 12 C
B ? E C
AC = 10. Find the A) ò85 B) 4ñ5 C) 6ñ2 D) 8 E) 5ò2
length of BE.
20 24 25
A) B) 7 C) D) E) 8
3 5 3
14. Find the value of x A
10. In the figure, A
in the figure.
D, B, C and D, E, F
? x
are two sets of 8
collinear points. 4 9
F B H C
If AE = 8,
EB = DB = 4,
E 5 A) 5 B) 6 C) 2ò10 D) 3ñ5 E) 8
4
BC = 6 and
D 4 B 6 C
FC = 5, what is the
length of AF?
15. In the figure, C
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6
AC AB and
AH BC. If H
11. In the figure, A AC = 6 cm and 6
AF = 9, 4 AB = 8 cm, what is ?
9 E
FB = 6, the length of AH?
AE = 4, A 8 B
F
8
EC = 8 and 6 A) 3 cm B) 3.6 cm C) 4 cm
BD = 3. D) 4.8 cm E) 5.4 cm
B 3 D x C
What is the length
DC = x?
A) 6 B) 7 C) 8 D) 9 E) 12
16. Find the length x in A
the figure.
12. A triangle T has sides with lengths 8, 10 and 12. x 6
The longest side of another triangle which is
similar to T has length 30. Find the perimeter of
B H 4 C
the second triangle.
A) 55 B) 60 C) 65 D) 70 E) 75 A) 8 B) 7 C) 3ñ5 D) 6 E) 3ñ3
118 Geometry 9
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2B
1. In the figure, A 5. In the figure, D C
x
m(A) = m(DEC). D DC EF AB,
10 ?
If BE = 12, 5 DE = 10,
E F
EC = 3 and EA = 12 and
B 12 E 3 C
DC = 5, FB = 9.
12 9
what is the value of x? What is the length
of CF?
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6 A B
15 17
A) 6 B) 7 C) D) 8 E)
2 2
2. A line d which is parallel to side EF of a triangle
DEF cuts DE and DF at the points M and N 6. In a triangle KLM, points R and P lie on the sides
respectively. If DM = 8, P(DMN) = 18 and KL and LM respectively such that MR and KP are
P(DEF) = 45, what is the length of DE? altitudes of KLM. If T is the intersection point of
A) 16 B) 20 C) 22 D) 24 E) 26 KP and MR, KT : MT = 2 : 3 and MP = 6, what is
the length of KR?
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6
3. In the figure, C
m(C) = m(ABD), 7. In the figure, C
AB = 8, AD EF BC, D
10 E
BC = 10 and D AD = 4 and 6
4
4 ? BC = 6.
AD = 4. x
What is the A 8 B Find the length A F B
length of BD? EF = x.
A) 6 B) 5 C) 4 D) 3 E) 2 A) 2 B) 2.4 C) 3 D) 3,6 E) 4
8. In the figure, A
CD is the bisector of ?
4. In the figure, A
D E
DE AB. x+1 C and DE BC. 4
Find the value of x. D If BC = 12 and
x2 EC = 4, what is the B 12 C
length of AE?
B x+5 E x C
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5 A) 8 B) 6 C) 4 D) 3 E) 2
Chapter Review Test 2B 119
9. In the figure, A D 13. In the figure, A
AD BC and 5
m(BAC) = m(ACE) = 90°
6
AB DE. If x
and AE BC. 8
DE = 6 cm and E If BH = 16 and
B 16 C
5 H ?
AE = EC = 5 cm, AH = 8, what is the
E
what is the length x? length of EH?
B C
A) 12 cm B) 13 cm C) 14 cm
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 6
D) 16 cm E) 18 cm
10. In the figure, A 14. In the figure, A
6
AD EF and m(BAC) = 90° and
D c b
FH BC. AH BC. If 8
E
Find the value of x. 4 BC = 12 and
5
H
F AH = 8, what is the B H C
value of b c? 12
B x C
A) 60 B) 104 C) 48 D) 96 E) 80
A) 15 B) 12 C) 10 D) 9 E) 8
11. In the figure, A 15. In the figure, C
AE = 5, 6 5 AC AB,
AD = EC = 6, D E AB = 3x – 1, 3x + 1
3 ñ3 × x
DB = 9 and AC = ñ3x and
F 6
DF = 3. 9 BC = 3x + 1.
x
What is the length Find the value of x. A 3x 1 B
C
FC = x?
B A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5
A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 8 E) 9
16. In the figure, A
m A
12. What is in the m AC AB,
n D x
figure? AH BC, 2ñ3
n 10 8
AH = 2ñ3 and 30°
B H C
m(BCA) = 30°.
B 17 C
Find the value of x.
1 2 3 3 3
A) B) C) D) E)
2 3 2 4 5 A) 8 B) 6ñ3 C) 6 D) 4ñ3 E) 4
120 Geometry 9
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2C
1. In the figure, A 5. The base KM of an isosceles triangle KLM measures
m(A) = m(DEC). 24 cm and one leg measures 27 cm. Points A and
m 13 B are situated on the sides KL and LM respectively,
Find the value of .
n 12 such that LA = LB. If P(LAB) = 26 cm, find AK.
D
4 m A) 9 cm B) 12 cm C) 15 cm
B n E 6 C D) 18 cm E) 27 cm
5 5 5 4 3
A) B) C) D) E)
9 8 6 5 5
6. In the figure, A
2. In the figure, A m(DBF) = m(AEF),
11
AB AC, AE = 11 and
4
BC BD and BC EC = DB = 4. E
x
B C Find the length of BC. F
bisects ACD. 4
If AC = 4 and D 4 B ? C
DC = 9, 9 A) 5 B) 6 C) 7 D) 8 E) 10
what is the value
of x? D
7. In the figure, D
25
A) 5 B) 6 C) 7 D) 8 E) AD EF BC.
8
AD = m, C
m E
3. In the figure, A BC = n,
? n
m(ACD) = m(B), D EF = x, x
4
BD = 6 and 6 m + n = 15 and A F B
AC = 4. Find the m n = 54 are given. Find the value of x.
length of AD. B C
A) 3 B) 3.6 C) 4 D) 4.2 E) 5.4
3
A) 1 B) C) 2 D) 3 E) 4
2
8. In the figure, A
E
4. In the figure, D 6 C AB ED
8 G
DC EF AB. AG = CD,
If DC = 6, AF = 8, 2 12
F C
EK = 8 and 8 2 GC = 2 and
E F
KF = 2, K DE = 12. ?
D
what is the length of What is the
A ? B
B
AB? length of FB?
A) 12 B) 15 C) 16 D) 18 E) 24 A) 9 B) 10 C) 12 D) 15 E) 16
Chapter Review Test 2B 121
9. In the figure, ABC is A 13. Find the length x in C
3
a right triangle and H the figure. 3
H
DEFH is a square.
D
If AH = 3 and 6
F
8
BD = 8,
A x B
what is the length of B E C
one side of DEFH?
A) 10 B) 12 C) 13 D) 4ò10 E) 6ñ5
A) 2ñ6 B) 5 C) 4ñ2 D) 6 E) 3ñ5
10. In the figure, ABC C 14. In the figure, C
is a right triangle and AB AC. If
D
m(CBD) = 30°. ? m(ADC) = 45°, ?
4
DB = 2 and 6ñ2
If AB = 6 and
30° CD = 6ñ2, 45°
DB = 4,
what is the length of A D 2 B
what is the length of A 6 B
BC?
BC?
(Hint: Draw an altitude from D to AB.) A) 9 B) 3ò10 C) 10 D) 3ò13 E) 13
A) 4ñ3 B) 6 C) 3ñ3 D) 2ñ6 E) 3ñ2
15. In the figure, E
11. In the figure, A AC = 3.
D
DC = 2 AD and Find the length of
D
AE = EF. ? BE.
2 ?
If DE AB and E C
30°
DE = 2, 3 °
30
what is the length of B F C 30°
A B
AB?
A) 12 B) 10 C) 8 D) 6 E) 4
A) 8 B) 9 C) 12 D) 15 E) 16
12. In the figure, G is the C 16. In the figure, A
?
centroid of ABC. m(A) = 90°, D 2
If CD = DB, BD = DC,
6 D
GC = 6 and ? AC = 2 and
G B 2ñ5 C
GB = 8, what is the BC = 2ñ5.
8
length of GD? What is the length of AD?
A B
3 5
A) 1 B) C) 2 D) E) 3
A) 2 B) ñ5 C) 3 D) 2ñ3 E) 2ñ5 2 2
122 Geometry 9
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2C
1. In the figure, A 5. In the figure, A
DE BC and 4 m(A) = m(C), 4
AB EF. AD = 4, 6
D
If AD = 4, D E AF = 6, 2 F
?
DB = 6 and 6 DF = 2 and 3
FC = 3, what is the EF = 3. B E C
value of x? B x F 3 C Find the length of BD.
3 5 9 11
A) 1 B) C) 2 D) E) 3 A) 6 B) 4 C) D) E) 2
2 2 2 4
2. In the figure, DE BC, A
6. In the figure, A
DE = y,
DE BC and EF is 4
BC = x, ?
the angle bisector of D 6 E
BD = 8 cm and
x–y 2 D E DEC. 6
= . y
x+ y 7 8 If AE = 4 and
Find the length of AD. B x C DE = EC = 6, find B F C
the length of BF. ?
A) 16 B) 15 C) 12 D) 10 E) 9
A) 8 B) 9 C) 10 D) 12 E) 15
3. In the figure, A
BC DE KL. 7. In the figure, A
If AD = 2 BD and D E AB AC, D
BK = KD, what is the AD = DC and
B C 5
DE BC = 4 EC.
value of ? K L
KL B E C
Given DE = 5, find
D the length of BC.
1 2 3 4 A) 10 B) 15 C) 20 D) 25 E) 30
A) 1 B) C) D) E)
2 3 2 3
4. In the figure, A
8. Find the length A
m(B) = m(EDC), EC = x in the figure.
y
AB = 12, 25
12 D
BE = 2, D 8
E
DE = DC = 8, 8
8 x
AD = y and EC = x.
What is the value of B 2 E x C C
B
x + y?
120 90 75 75 60
A) B) C) D) E)
A) 12 B) 13 C) 15 D) 17 E) 18 17 17 17 13 13
Chapter Review Test 2C 123
9. In the figure, D 4 C 13. In the figure, C
DC AB, AB BC,
12 6 x
AB = 9, BC = 12 cm, b
AD = 12, AB = c and 12
BD = 6 and A 9 B AC = b.
DC = 4. What is the value of x? If b – c = 4 cm, what A c B
is the perimeter of ABC?
A) 6 B) 7 C) 8 D) 9 E) 10
A) 60 cm B) 54 cm C) 48 cm
D) 40 cm E) 28 cm
10. In the right triangle 8
A
ABC in the figure, CD D
is the angle bisector ?
10 14. In the figure, A
of C.
B 9 E C AB = AC, ?
Find the length of BD
m(BAC) = 90°,
if AD = 8, DE = 10 and BE = 9.
DB = 7 and D 7 B 16 C
A) 11 B) 13 C) 15 D) 16 E) 17 BC = 16.
What is the length of AD?
A) 15 B) 16 C) 17 D) 18 E) 20
11. In the figure, A
G1 is the centroid of
ABD and G2 is the
G1 G2 15. In the figure, A
centroid of ADC.
AC = BC.
If BC = 24 cm,
Find the length of
what is the length of B D C ?
AC. 9
G1 G 2 ?
A) 8 cm B) 10 cm C) 12 cm
B 3 H C
D) 14 cm E) 16 cm
A) 10 B) 12 C) 13 D) 14 E) 15
12. In the figure, ADGE is A
a rectangle and G is E 16. A right triangle KLM has m(L) = 90°. A line is
D
the centroid of the drawn through K parallel to LM, and another line
G
triangle ABC. is drawn through M perpendicular to KM. E is the
If BC = 12, B 12 C intersection of these two lines. If KE = 25 and
find the length of DE. KM = 15, what is the length of LM?
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6 A) 3 B) 6 C) 9 D) 12 E) 15
124 Geometry 9
Arc Length and the Circumference of a Circle
In the previous section we considered the degree measure of an arc. We can also measure an
arc in terms of its length.
Definition circumference
The length of the complete arc of any circle is called the circumference of the circle.
Property
The ratio of the circumference of any circle to the length of its diameter is always the same
number, called pi () and pronounced like the English word ‘pie’.
Corollary
The circumference of a circle with radius r is 2r.
126 Geometry 9
ppppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp THE HISTORY OF PI ( )
p
Whenever we see a circular object, the constant number is always there.
ppppppppppppp
For example, the circumference of any circular disk with radius r is 2r and
its area is r2. The volume and surface area of a cylinder and a
3.141592653589793
circular cone are also related to . We can use this mysterious number to
calculate things such as the orbits of planets and the shortest airline route
between two cities.
ppppppppppppp
238462643383279
r
ppppppppppppp
h h r
50288419716939
ppppppppppppp
Area = p×r2 Surface Area = 2p×r2+2phr Surface Area = 4p×r2
pr2×h
Volume = 4p×r3
Circumference = 2p×r Volume = pr2×h 3 Volume =
3
93751058209749445
the Gaussian curve y
ppppppppppppp
2
y = ex 1.5 However, it is even more remarkable that we find in many other applications
that have nothing to do with circles. The area under a Gaussian curve is ñ, and
electrical engineers also use in calculations of alternate currents and radiation.
In calculus, mathematicians have found different relations between and
923078164062862089
integer numbers. Here are some examples:
ppppppppppppp
1 0 1 x
1 1 1 1 1 1 Abraham Sharp:
1 ... 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 3 5 7 9 11 13 ...
9862803482534211706798214
1
k
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ppppppppppppp
2( 1) 3
k 2
2 1 1 1
1
1
1
1
...
k0 2k 1
6 4 9 16 25 36 49
lim 2 n 1 2 2 2 2 ... 2
Newton : n
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12
80865132823066470938446095
... n
2 1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9 9 11 11 3 1/ 4
3 24 x x2 dx 1
ppppppppppppp
4 1 2
n 1 4 n 1
0
1
5058223172535940812848111745 n 1 4 n 2
1
So what is the history of this magic number?
ppppppppppppp
02841027019385211055596446229
Before the invention of the wheel, early peoples
identified the circle as a powerful symbol of nature.
This was because they could see circular objects
4895493038196442881097566593344612847
everywhere in nature, such as in the sun, the moon,
and some flowers.
ppppppppppppp
5648233786783165271201909145648566923
ppppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp
slightly bigger than 3. The Babylonians used
3.141592653589793
Egyptians used
256
8
.
8
p
In order to build circular buildings or temples, people needed to estimate the
total distance around a circle in terms of the total distance across it. Early
civilizations realized that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is the
ppppppppppppp
same in all circles. After careful calculation, they found that this ratio was
25
for this constant, and the
Since was so important, many people tried to find its approximate numerical
ppppppppppppp
value. The first serious effort was made by Archimedes (287-212 BC). He obtained an approximate value by constructing
regular polygons inside and around a circle. When he compared the perimeter of a hexagon inside a unit circle and the
circumference of the circle, he concluded that is greater than 3. When he compared the perimeter of the hexagon around
238462643383279
the circle and the circumference, he found that is less than 2ñ3. Then he doubled the number of sides of the polygon to 12
ppppppppppppp
and made similar comparisons. He continued this process until the number of sides of the polygon reached 96. He concluded
223 22
that is between and . The upper bound 22 is still used today as a fairly good approximation for .
71 7 7
After this, Egypt, India and China used
50288419716939
Archimedes’ method and increased the
ppppppppppppp
number of sides to obtain more
accurate results. An amazing Chinese
calculation using polygons with more than
93751058209749445
ppppppppppppp
3000 sides gave five correct decimals of
(3.14159). The Chinese also found the
355
fraction , which approximates to six
113
correct decimal places. With this number, the Chinese held the world record calculation of for more than a thousand years,
923078164062862089
ppppppppppppp
until Arabic numerals provided a more efficient way to use arithmetic.
After the discovery of trigonometric functions and infinite series, formulas were found which made it possible to approximate
without using geometry. By the end of the 19th century, mathematicians had calculated the value of to hundreds of
decimal places with these formulas. In the 20th century they began to use new computers and other mathematical methods.
9862803482534211706798214
In 1989 more than one billion decimal places were known. In 1999 more than 206 billion decimal places were determined,
ppppppppppppp
and further calculations are expected.
For a long time, people wondered whether was an exact
fraction such as
80865132823066470938446095
22
7
. In other words, is a rational
ppppppppppppp
number or an irrational number?
5058223172535940812848111745
Recall that if a decimal number is also a rational number,
its decimal part always has a repeating pattern. For
example, 22 3.142857142857142857142857...
.
ppppppppppppp
7
02841027019385211055596446229
With this in mind, people searched for a repeating pattern
in the decimal expansion of . However they couldn't find any pattern. In the 18th century the German mathematician J. Lambert
4895493038196442881097566593344612847
proved that no repeating pattern can be found. He used continued fractions to prove that there are no integers whose ratio is equal
ppppppppppppp
to . In other words, although we can show easily5648233786783165271201909145648566923
with a circle, we will never be able to write it exactly in numbers.
EXAMPLE 1 What is the circumference C of a circle with radius
3 cm?
Solution C = 2r
= 2 (3)
= 6 cm.
EXAMPLE 2 What is the radius of a circle with circumference 2?
Solution C = 2r
2 = 2r
r = 1.
Theorem
A circle with radius r is given. If the measure
A
of a central angle is , the length of its
r
intercepted arc is 2r. a a
360° B arc length AïB = × 2pr
O r 360°
Proof In order to find the length of the intercepted arc, first we need to know what fractional part
of circle is intercepted. Since 360° represents a whole circle, is the fractional part.
360°
Therefore the length of the intercepted arc is 2r.
360°
EXAMPLE 3 What is the length of the arc intercepted by a 40° central angle of a circle with radius 6 cm?
Solution Let the length of the intercepted arc be l.
Then by the theorem above, l 2 r
360°
40°
2 6
360°
4
cm.
3
129 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 4 The figure shows a regular pentagon D
inscribed in a circle with radius 4 cm.
Find the following. E C
a. m(EOD) b. m(DïE) O
c. m(AùBC) d. the length of EùDC
A B
Solution a. All the triangles inside the circle are
congruent, so m(EOD) = m(EOA) = m(AOB) = m(BOC) = m(COD) = .
In this book, we write
So 5 = 360°, which means = m(EOD) = 72°.
AïB to represent the arc
AB and its length. We b. Since by definition m(EOD) = m(DïE), m(DïE) = 72°.
write m(AïB) to mean
the angle measure of c. m(AùBC) = m(AOC) = 2, so m(AùBC) = 2 72° = 144°. (Can you also calculate this
AïB. 2 using part b?)
144 2 16
d EùDC = 2r 2r 4 cm.
360 5 5 5
EXAMPLE 5 The figure shows a section of a stone floor.
O is the center of the sector, m(AOB) = 90°
and OC = CA = AE = 2 m.
Given that the straight lines divide the arcs
into equal lengths, find the following arc
lengths.
a. AïB b. CïD
c. EïF d. FïG
90°
Solution a. AïB = 2 4 = 2 m.
360°
67.5° 3
b. CïD = 2 2 = m.
360° 4
45° 3
c. EïF = 2 6 = m.
360° 2
22.5° 3
d. FïG = 2 6 = m.
360° 4
Basýc Concepts 130
EXAMPLE 6 The lanes around the circular road junction
in the figure form circles with radii 24 m,
27 m and 30 m. m(AOB) = 120° and
m(COD) = 20° are given.
What are the circular distances along the
lanes between the cars at
a. A and B?
b. C and D?
120°
Solution a. 2 24 =16 m.
360°
20°
b. 2 27 = 3 m.
360°
Check Yourself A
1. In the figure,
m(AOB) = + 50° and
a + 50° C
m(AùCB) = 3 + 10°. O
Find the actual degree measure
B
m(AOB).
2. A central angle of a circle with radius 27 cm creates an intercepted arc of length 18 cm.
Find the measure of the central angle.
3. What is the length of the arc which is intercepted by a 30° central angle of a circle with
radius 12 cm?
Answers
1. 125° 2. 120° 3. 2 cm
131 Geometry 9
A. INSCRIBED ANGLES AND ARCS
Recall that a central angle is an angle whose vertex lies at the center of a circle. In this
section we will look at another type of angle in a circle.
Definition inscribed angle, intercepted arc
An angle whose vertex lies on a circle and
B
whose sides contain chords of the circle is
called an inscribed angle. The arc of the
circle between the sides of the inscribed
angle is called the intercepted arc of the C
A
inscribed angle.
An arc can also be intercepted by a central
angle or an angle formed by a chord and a BAC is an inscribed angle. BïC is its intercepted arc.
tangent. We will examine these two cases
later.
Theorem
The measure of an inscribed angle is equal to half the angle measure of its intercepted arc.
Proof Look at the figure. We can see that
AOC and AOB are isosceles triangles. B
Let us name the angles b
A b
m(OAC) = m(OCA) = and a 2b
2(a + b)
O 2a
m(OAB) = m(OBA) = . a D
Then m(COD) = 2 and m(BOD) = 2
C
by the triangle exterior angle theorem.
Since COD and BOD are central angles,
m(CïD) = 2 and m(BïD) = 2.
Therefore m(BïC) = 2 + 2, which we can write as m(BïC) = 2( + ).
m(BïC)
So m(BAC) = , as required.
2
132 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 7 In the figure, m(AïB) = 124° and
A
m(B) = 65°. Find the angle measures.
a. m(C) b. m(AïC) C
O
c. m(A) d. m(BïC) 124°
65°
m(AïB)
Solution a. m(C) = by the theorem we have B
2
just seen.
124° 130°
So m(C) = = 62°.
2 A
53°
b. m(AïC) = m(B) m(AïC)
= 65° 62°
C
2 2
O
m(AïC) = 130° 124°
65°
c., d.
In ABC, m(A)+m(B)+m(C)=180° B
m(A) + 65° + 62° = 180°
m(A) = 53°.
m(BïC)
So = 53°, which means m(BïC) = 106°.
2
Corollary
The measure of the arc intercepted by an B
inscribed angle is twice the measure of the 2a
inscribed angle.
For example, in the figure,
a C
m(BïC) = 2 m(BAC). A
Corollary
The measure of an inscribed angle is half the
measure of the central angle which intercepts
the same arc.
a O 2a
133 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 8 Find the value of in the figure. A
13°
O
a
Solution Since BAC is an inscribed angle, C
m(BïC) = 2 m(BAC)
B
m(BïC) = 2 13°
m(BïC) = 26°. A
13°
Also, BOC is a central angle,
so m(BOC) = m(BïC) and so O
a
m(BïC) = = 26°.
C
B 26°
Corollary
The measures of all the inscribed angles A
which intercept the same arc of a circle are C a
2a
equal.
D a
B
a
E a
F
m(C) = m(D) = m(E) = m(F) = m(AïB) =
2
EXAMPLE 9 Find the value of in the figure. O
D
52°
a
C
B
Solution BOC and BDC are inscribed angles intercepting BïC,
so m(BOC) = m(BDC) = = 52° by the corollary we have just seen.
Angles and Cýrcles 134
Sailors use navigation charts that contain information
about the horizontal angle of danger for different places.
An angle of danger helps ships to avoid rocks and other
dangers in the water. Here is one example of how the angle
of danger works.
The map below shows two lighthouses on the coast and
some dangerous rocks in the water. On a chart, navigators
draw the smallest circle that passes through the light-
houses and contains all of the rocks. Joining the two light-
houses to any point on the circle creates an angle, which
is the angle of danger for the rocks. The angle of danger is
the same for any point on the circle (can you see why?).
When the ship is sailing, the navigator checks the angle created by his ship and the two lighthouses. If the angle is
smaller than the angle of danger then the ship is safe. If the angle is greater than the angle of danger then the ship
is in a dangerous area, too close to the rocks.
<
EXAMPLE 10 The figure shows a circle O with
D
84°
C
m(AïB) = 80°, m(BïC) = w, x
m(CïD) = 84° and m(DïA) = 90°. y
90°
Find the values of x, y, z and w. w
O
A
z
80°
B
m(AïD) m(AïB) m(AùDC)
Solution x= y= z=
2 2 2
90° 80° 90° 84°
= = =
2 2 2
= 45°. = 40°. = 87°.
Also, m(BïA) + m(AïD) + m(DïC) + m(CïB) = 360°. So
80° + 90° + 84° + w = 360°
w = 106°.
So x = 45°, y = 40°, z = 87° and w = 106°.
EXAMPLE 11 A, B, C and D are four points located counter-clockwise on a circle and E is the intersection
point of AC and BD. P is a point outside the circle such that P, A, B and P, D, C are collinear.
Given that m(P) = 45° and m(BEC) = 85°, find m(C).
Solution Let us draw the figure. Since C and B
C
intercept the same arc, we can write
D a
m(C) = m(B) = .
In APC, P 45°
85°
E
a+45°
m(BAC) = m(P) + m(C) a
A
B
= 45° + .
Similarly, in AEB,
m(BEC) = m(BAE) + m(B)
85° = + 45° +
40° = 2
= 20°.
So m(C) = = 20°.
Angles and Cýrcles 136
EXAMPLE 12 A, B and C are three points on a circle centered at O such that m(BAC) = 80°. What is
m(OBC)?
A
Solution Look at the figure. Let m(OBC) = .
m(BïC) 80° D
We have m(BAC) = , so
2
O 2a
m(BïC) a
80° = , which gives us m(BïC) = 160°. B
2 C
Now let us extend the radius BO to D. 160°
Then BD is a diameter.
Since CBD is an inscribed angle, m(CïD) = . Therefore,
160 + 2 = 180°.
= 10°.
EXAMPLE 13 In the figure, O is the center of the circle D
?
C
and m(AïB) = 40°.
Find m(OCD).
O
A 40° B
Solution Let m(OCD) = . D C
So m(AïD) = 2. a
Since BùAD is a semicircle, 2 + 40° = 180°.
2a O
So = 70° = m(OCD).
A 40° B
Property
Any inscribed angle which intercepts a
D E
semicircle is a right angle
C
(since = 180° ÷ 2 = 90°).
Conversely, if an inscribed angle is a right
angle then it intercepts a semicircle. A B
O
137 Geometry 9
Activity Folding a Right Angle Inscribed in a Semicircle
Fold and draw the diameter AB. Fold a chord AC.
Draw the chord AC.
Fold the chord BC. Draw the chord BC. Check that ACB is a right angle.
EXAMPLE 14 In the figure, O is the center of the circle, D
m(BïD) = 60° and 60°
m(AïC) = 80°.
Find m(CAD). ?
A B
O
80°
C
Angles and Cýrcles 138
Solution By the properties of inscribed angles, D
60° 60°
m(BAD) = = 30° and
2
30°
80° A B
m(ABC) = = 40°. 50° O 40°
2
In ABC, m(C) = 90° since it intercepts a
80°
semicircle.
C
So m(BAC) + 90° + 40° = 180°
m(BAC) = 50°.
Finally, m(CAD) = 50° + 30° = 80°.
EXAMPLE 15 What is the radius of O in the
figure?
C
O
A
5 12
Solution Since ABC is an inscribed right angle, it
intercepts a semicircle.
C
So AC is a diameter. In ABC,
O
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 A
5 12
AC2 = 52 + 122
AC = 13. B
13
Therefore the radius of the circle is .
2
EXAMPLE 16 In the figure, O is the center of the circle, A
m(BïC) = 118° and m(AïB) = 88°.
88°
Find D
O
a. m(A). b. m(C).
B
c. m(CDA). d. m(ABC).
C
118°
139 Geometry 9
Solution a., b.
A
Since A and C intercept semicircles,
they are both right angles. 88°
44° D
m(AùBC) O
c. m(CDA) = 59°
2 B
88° +118°
=
2 C
118°
=103°.
m(AïB)
d. m(BDA) = = 44°,
2
so m(ABD) = 180° – 90° – 44° = 46°.
m(BïC)
Similarly, m(BDC) = = 59°,
2
so m(CBD) = 180° – 90° – 59° = 31°.
So m(ABC) = 46° + 31° = 77°.
Property
The arcs between two parallel chords are
congruent, i.e. in the figure,
AA CC
m(AïB) = m(CïD). a a
BB DD
Proof Let us draw BC.
Since AC BD, m(ACB) = m(CBD).
A C
Since the inscribed angles ACB and CBD a a
are congruent, the arcs intercepted by these
angles are congruent. B D
So m(AïB) = m(CïD).
Angles and Cýrcles 140
Activity Folding Parallel Chords
Fold and draw a chord AB.
Fold and draw the perpendicular bisector of AB, which is a diameter of the circle.
Fold and draw an other chord that is perpendicular to the diameter.
Compare AB and CD by folding. Are they parallel?
141 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 17 In the figure, AB CD. A
154°
Find m(DBA) = .
D a
B
108°
C
Solution Since AB CD,
m(ABD) = m(BDC) = by the property A
154°
we have just seen. 2a
Therefore m(AïD) = m(BïC) = 2.
D a
So 154° + 108° + 4 = 360° a
B
4 = 98°
108° 2a
= 24.5°. C
EXAMPLE 18 In the figure, AB CD,
m(DïE) = 120° and
A
C
m(CDE) = 3 m(ABC).
B O
Find m(AïB).
D E
Solution Let m(ABC) = . Then m(CDE) = 3. 120°
Therefore m(AïC) = 2 and m(CïE) = 6.
Since CùED is a semicircle,
A
6 + 120° = 180° 2a
C
6 = 60° a
6a
= 10°. B O
2a 3a
Since AB CD, m(AïC) = m(BïD) = 2. D E
Hence
120°
m(BïD) + m(AïB) + m(AïC) = 180°
4 + m(AïB) = 180°
m(AïB) = 140°.
Angles and Cýrcles 142
EXAMPLE 19 In the figure, AC = AB and m(AïB) = 86°.
86°
A
a
Find m(BAC) = .
B C
O
Solution Since m(AïB) = 86°, m(C) = 43°. A
a
Since AB = AC,
43° 43°
B C
m(ACB) = m(ABC) = 43°.
O
In ABC, + 43° + 43° = 180°.
So = 94°.
EXAMPLE 20 Find m(C) in the figure. C
?
D x 2x
B
72°
A
Solution By the properties of inscribed angles,
4x C
m(BïC) m(DïC) 2x
= x and = 2x. D x 2x
2 2 B
So m(BïC) = 2x and m(DïC) = 4x.
72°
However, since m(DAB) = 72° we have
A
m(DùCB)
= 72°, which means
2
6x
= 3x = 72° x = 24°.
2
Finally, m(C) + 3x = 180°
m(C) + 72° = 180°
m(C) = 108°.
143 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 21 AC in the figure is an arc of O. C
CO AO is given.
B
Find the angle measure . a
O A
Solution Let us complete the circle.
C
Since m(O) = 90°, m(AùBC) = 90°. 90°
B
Since the major arc AïC is an intercepted arc, a
m(AïC) = 2. So 90° + 2 = 360°
= 135°.
O A
2a
EXAMPLE 22 Prove that the interior angles of a triangle add up to 180° by using inscribed angles in a
circle.
Solution Let us draw a triangle ABC and its
A
circumscribed circle, and then name the 2z
y
interior angles as shown in the figure.
2x
By the property of inscribed angles,
x O
m(AïC) = 2x, m(BïC) = 2y and m(AïB) = 2z. B
z
We know that 2x + 2y + 2z = 360°, so C
2y
x + y + z = 180°.
Therefore the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
Angles and Cýrcles 144
EXAMPLE 23 In the figure, AB = BC = BE = BD. E
D
Find m(EBD).
? 40°
A B C
Solution We can draw a semicircle with diameter AC
80°
and center B. The semicircle passes through D
D and E (can you see why?). E
Since EïD is an intercepted arc, m(EïD) = 80°.
Since EBD is the central angle of this arc, 80° 40°
m(EBD) = 80°. A B C
EXAMPLE 24 In the figure, A
AB = BC,
30°
BD = CD
and m(A) = 30°.
?
Find m(ABC). B
C
D
Solution Let us draw the segment AC. Since BAD
and BCD intercept the same arc BïD, A
m(BAD) = m(BCD) = 30°.
30° 30°
BD = DC implies m(CBD) = 30°.
Since CAD and CBD both intercept the
60°
arc CD, m(CAD) = 30°. B 60°
30°
30° C
So m(BAC) = 60°.
D
Since AB = BC and m(BAC) = 60°,
ABC is an equilateral triangle.
Therefore m(ABC) = 60°.
145 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 25 O is the center of the semicircle in the A
figure. Given that AC = 8 cm and
BD = 12 cm, find m(AïC).
D O B C
Solution Let us connect A and D, as in the figure.
A
Since DAC intercepts a semicircle, it is a right
angle. By the Euclidean Theorem in DAC, y
8
8 = x (x + 12)
2
D O BxC
2
x + 12x – 64 = 0 12
x = 4 cm.
Applying the Euclidean Theorem once more gives us
y2 = 12 x
= 12 4
y = 4ñ3 cm.
Therefore the sides of ABC are AB = 4ñ3 cm, BC = 4 cm and AC = 8 cm. These are side
lengths of a 30°-60°-90° triangle, so m(ACB) = 60° and m(ADC) = 30°.
It follows that m(AïC) = 60°.
EXAMPLE 26 A line segment AB is the diameter of a semicircle centered at O. C and D are two points
located counter-clockwise on the semicircle such that m(BCD) = 110°. What is m(BOD)?
Solution Look at the figure. Since m(BCD) = 110°, C
m(DùAB) = 220°. D 110°
m(BùCD) + m(DùAB) = 360° a
A B
m(BùCD) + 220° = 360° O
m(BùCD) = 140°.
Notice that BOD is a central angle, and we
know that the measure of a central angle is
same as the angle measure of its intercepted arc. So m(BOD) = 140°.
Angles and Cýrcles 146
EXAMPLE 27 In the figure, O1 and O2 are the centers of B
the circles and m(AùDC) = 220°. C
?
Find m(ABO2).
O1
O2 D
Solution Let us draw a diameter of O1 passing B
through O2 and name its other endpoint E.
ABO2 and AEO2 both intercept AïO2. a C
So m(ABO2) = m(AEO2) = . E a F
a
In O2, AO2 = CO2 (radii). O1
O2 D 220°
Also, AE AO2 and EC CO2 because the
inscribed angles intercept semicircles.
A
Therefore ECO2 and EAO2 are congruent
by the AAS congruence theorem.
So m(EO2C) = m(EO2A).
Since m(AùDC) = 220°, m(AùFC) = 360° – 220° = 140°.
140°
In O2, m(EO2C) = m(EO2A) gives us m(AïF) = m(FïC) = = 70°.
2
Finally, in EAO2 we have + 70° + 90° = 180°
= 20°.
So m(ABO2) = 20°.
Check Yourself
1. In the figure, O is the center of the D
semicircle. Find the value of . E C
a 150°
A B
O
A
2. Find the value of in the figure. B 55°
a
C
E
D
147 Geometry 9
3. In the figure, B C
m(AùKB) + m(DùMC) = 160° and
K M
m(BïC) = 70°. a
Find the value of . O
A D
4. Find the value of in the A
figure. a
B
50°
O
5. In the figure, 3 AD = 2 AB A
and AE = 2 EC. 118°
Find the value of .
O
D E
a
B F C
Answers
1. 120° 2. 105° 3. 150° 4. 25° 5. 59°
B. ANGLES FORMED BY SECANTS, TANGENTS
AND CHORDS
A point in the plane can have three possible positions relative to a circle: it can be inside the
circle, on the circle or outside the circle. This gives us three possible positions for the vertex
of an angle associated with a circle.
1. Angles on a Circle
A
a. The angle between two
chords 2a
We have already seen that the measure of an a O
C
inscribed angle formed by two chords is half
B
the measure of its intercepted arc.
1
m(ACB) = m(AïB)
2
Angles and Cýrcles 148
b. The angle between a secant (or chord) and a tangent
Theorem
The measure of the acute angle formed by a secant and a tangent is half the measure of the
intercepted arc of the corresponding central angle.
Proof Look at the figure. Let m(APB) = .
2a B
Since OP BP, m(OPA) = 90° – .
A
Also, AOP is an isosceles triangle, which 90 a a
Remember! 90 a P
gives us m(OAP) = 90° – . r 2a
A secant line is a line r
that passes through two So m(AOP) = 180° – (90° – + 90° – ) = 2. O
distinct points on a circle.
Since AOP is a central angle, m(AïP) = 2.
m(AïP)
Therefore m(APB) = .
2
EXAMPLE 28 In the figure, A is the point of tangency of
the line to the circle. If m(A) = 63°, B
find m(AùCB).
m(AùCB) 63° C
Solution Since m(A) = , A
2
m(AùCB)
63° = .
2
So m(AùCB) = 126°.
EXAMPLE 29 In the figure, the line is tangent to the
circle O at B. Find m(ABC).
O
92°
B
?
A C
Solution Let m(ABC) = , then
m(AïB) = 2.
O
Since AOB is a central angle,
92°
m(AOB) = m(AïB) = 2. B
a
So 92° = 2, and so m(ABC) = = 46°. A 2a
C
149 Geometry 9
Property
The two corresponding angles formed by a
chord (or a secant) and the two tangents
which intercept the same arc are congruent.
b
A b
a
a D
B
C
m(ÐBAD) = m(ÐCDA)
EXAMPLE 30 In the figure, AC and DB are tangent lines.
D
Find m(ABD). C
? B
Solution Since CAB and ABD intercept the same 63°
A
arc, by the property we have just seen they
are congruent.
So m(ABD) = 63°.
Property
The acute angle between a chord and a D
tangent is congruent to the inscribed angle B
a
which intercepts the same arc.
C
ÐC intercepts AïB,
so m(ÐC) = m(ÐABD)
EXAMPLE 31 In the figure, EF and BA are tangent to the A
circle, AB = AD and m(F) = 20°.
B
Find m(AEG).
O
D
?
G
E 20°
Angles and Cýrcles 150
Solution Let m(B) = , then m(ADB) = since A
ADB is isosceles. B
a
a
°+
Then m(EDF) = .
20
O
By the triangle exterior angle theorem in a
D
DEF, m(DEG) = 20° + .
20
a
°+
Since BAD and DEG both intercept AùOE,
a
G
E 20°
m(BAD) = 20° + .
F
Finally, in ADB,
20° + + + = 180°
20° + 3= 180°
160°
= .
3
EXAMPLE 32 In the figure, d is tangent to the circle at A
and O is the center of the circle.
d
Given m(BïC) = 58° and m(CïD) = 100°, find B x
A
y
the angle measures x, y and z. 58° z
O
C
D
100°
m(BïC) 58° d
Solution y= = = 29°
2 2
B x
m(CïD) 100 A
z= = = 50° y
2 2 58° z
Since ABC is a semicircle, O
C x
m(BïC) + m(AïB) = 180°
D
58° + m(AïB) = 180° 100°
m(AïB) = 122°.
m(AïB) 122°
By the property of secant and tangent lines, x = = = 61°.
2 2
EXAMPLE 33 Two lines l1 and l2 are tangent to a circle at points A and C respectively. B is a point on the
circle such that AB = BC and m(A) = 130°. What is m(ABC)?
151 Geometry 9
Solution Look at the figure. Since m(EAB) = 130°, l1
D
m(DAB) = 50°.
A
100°
Therefore m(AïB) = 100°. Since the two E 130°
chords are congruent,
B
m(AïB) = m(BïC) = 100°.
We know
100°
m(AïC) + m(AïB) + m(BïC) = 360°. So
C l2
m(AïC) + 100° + 100° = 360°
m(AïC) = 160°.
160°
Hence m( ABC ) 80 .
2
Check Yourself B
1. O is the center of the circle in the figure. y
A
What is the value of the angle measure x in x
C
terms of y? O
T
2. In the figure, m(BAT) = 50°,
AD = DC and BD AC. 50° A
Find the value of the angle measure . B a
D
Answers
1. x = 90° – y 2. 40° C
2. Angles Inside a Circle
Theorem
The measure of the angle formed by two
secants (or two chords) that intersect in the
C
interior of a circle is half the sum of the
A
measures of the arcs intercepted by the P a
a
angle and its vertical angle. D
m(AïB) + m(CïD)
=
B 2
Angles and Cýrcles 152
Proof 1 Let m(ADB) = y and m(CBD) = x.
C
In BPD, = x + y.
A 2x
m(AïB) + m(CïD) = 2x + 2y P
a
2y
= 2(x + y) (1) x y
D
B
2 ( x + y)
m(CPD) = = x + y = (2)
2
By (1) and (2),
m(AïB) + m(CïD)
m(CPD) = , as required.
2
Proof 2 Let m(AïB) = x and m(CïD) = y. E x
If we construct AE such that AE BC, then C
a y
m(EïC) = x by the property of parallel chords. A a
Also, m(EAP) = m(CPD) = because P D
x
these are corresponding angles. B
m(EùCD)
Therefore m(EAD) =
2
( x + y)
= .
2
x+ y
So , as required.
2
EXAMPLE 34 In the figure, m(AïB) = 62° and
D
154°
m(CïD) = 154°.
Find m(DEC) = .
a
A C
Solution By the theorem we have just seen, E
m(AïB) + m(CïD) B
62°
=
2
62 154
=
2
=108°.
153 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 35 The figure shows a semicircle with center O. B
Find m(BED) = x.
x D
E
A 40°
C
Solution If we complete the circle we can write B
180° 40° 180°
180° – x
2
O
180° – x 110°
D
x
x
0°
x 70.
18
E
40°
A
C
EXAMPLE 36 A, B, C and D are four points located counter-clockwise on a circle such that m(AïB) = 60°
and m(CïD) = 80°. If K is the intersection point of the two chords AC and BD, find m(AKD).
Solution Look at the figure. Let m(CKD) = . 80°
C
80° 60° D
Then 70°.
b
2
a K
Since + = 180°,
+ 70° = 180° A
= 110° = m(AKD).
60° B
EXAMPLE 37 In the figure, – = 70° and A
m(AEB) = 70°. a
D 70°
Find the values of and .
b E
B
Angles and Cýrcles 154
Solution 70° so =140°.
2
We are also told that – = 70°. Adding these
two results gives us
+ = 140°
+ – = 70°
––––––––––––––––––––
2 = 210°
= 105°.
Finally,
+ = 140°
105° + = 140°
= 35°.
EXAMPLE 38 In the figure, O is the center of the circle, A
m(ABC) = 40° and m(BïC) = 60°.
Find the angle measure .
a
O C
40°
60°
B
Solution Since m(ABC) = 40°, A
m(AïC) = 2 40° = 80°. 80°
Now let us extend CO to the diameter CD. D
a
O C
Then m(BïD) = 180° – 60° 40°
60°
= 120°. 120°
B
Finally,
m(AïC) + m(BïD)
=
2
80 120
=
2
=100 .
EXAMPLE 39 The figure shows a semicircle with center O. D
E
ED AC and AE = ED are given.
C
Find the angle measure . a
20°
A O B
155 Geometry 9
Solution Since m(CAB) = 20°, m(BïC) = 40°.
Since chords AE and DE are congruent, we can write m(AïE) = m(EïD) = x.
Since ED AC, m(AïE) = m(DïC). So m(DïC) = x.
In the semicircle, 40° x x x 180° x D
E x
3x 140°
x C
140° a 40°
x . 20°
3
A O B
140
40
m(BïC) + m(AïE) 3
So =
2 2
260
6
130
.
3
EXAMPLE 40 Show that x = + + in the figure at A
the right. a
D
b
q x
C
B
Solution Let us draw a circle passing through A, B and A
2b 2q
C and then extend CD and BD as shown. a
By inscribed angles, E
F
m(AïE) = 2,
D
m(AïF) = 2 and b
q x
C
m(BïC) = 2.
B
By intersecting chords,
2a
m(BïC) + m(EïF)
x=
2
2 2 + 2
= .
2
So x = + + , as required.
Angles and Cýrcles 156
EXAMPLE 41 Four points are placed around a circle and the midpoints of the arcs between each adjacent
pair of points are marked. Finally, the opposite pairs of midpoints are joined by two chords.
Prove that these chords intersect at right angles.
Solution Let A, B, C and D be the four points and let d D
X, Y, Z and W be the midpoints. Then let W c
m(AïX) = m(XïB) = a d Z
c
m(BïY) = m(YïC) = b A
C
m(CïZ) = m(ZïD) = c a
a b
m(DïW) = m(WïA) = d, so Y
X
a b
2a + 2b + 2c + 2d = 360°, i.e. B
a + b + c + d = 180°. Then
m(XïY) + m(ZïW) a b c d
=
2 2
180°
2
90°, as required.
EXAMPLE 42 Show that in a triangle, the measure of the angle formed by the altitude and the angle
bisector at a given vertex is equal to the half of the absolute difference of the other two angles
in the triangle.
Solution Look at the figure. A 2y
| y – z|
We want to show that x . 2z
2 x
y z
Without loss of generality, let us assume that B C
H N
y > z.
180° 2y 180° 2x 2z
So we want to show that 2x = y – z.
m(ABC) = y m(AïC) = 2y. D E
2x
m(ACB) = z m(AïB) = 2z.
Now extend AH and AN, so m(DïE) = 2x. We know
m(AïC) + m(BïD) 2y + m(BïD)
m(AHB) = 90° = 90° = m(BïD) = 180° – 2y.
2 2
Also, m(BïA) + m(AïC) + m(CïE) + m(EïD) + m(DïB) = 360°.
2z + 2y + m(CïE) + 2x + 180° – 2y = 360°.
157 Geometry 9
So m(CïE) = 180° – 2x – 2z.
Since AN is an angle bisector, m(BAN) = m(NAC). So
m(BïE) = m(CïE)
180° – 2y + 2x = 180° – 2x – 2z
4x = 2y – 2z
2x = y – z, as required.
Check Yourself
A
1. Find m(DïE) in the figure. E
102° 84°
B K
D
15° F
2. Find m(AFB) in the figure, A
?
E
using the information given. K
70°
B 45°
C
D
3. A, B, C, D and E are five points located counter-clockwise on a circle such that
m(CïD) = 50° and m(BFE) = 130°. F is the intersection point of EC and BD. What is
m(BAE)?
Answers
1. 12° 2. 10° 3. 75°
Angles and Cýrcles 158
3. Angles Outside a Circle
a The angle between two tangents
Theorem
The measure of an angle formed by two
A
tangents to a circle is half the difference of
the intercepted arcs.
C P
B m(AùCB) – m(AïB)
m(APB) =
2
Proof Look at the figure.
Let m(PAB) = m(PBA) = because they
intercept the same arc, AïB. So AP = PB.
A
Then m(APB) = 180° – 2.
a
Also, m(AïB) = 2 because m(PAB) = . 360° 2a
2a 180° 2a
So m(AùCB) = 360° – 2. C P
180° a a
Half the difference of the intercepted arcs is
B
m(AùCB) – m(AïB) 360° – 2 – (2 )
=
2 2
360° – 4
=
2
= 180° – 2 = m(APB).
m(AùCB) – m(AïB)
So m(APB) = , as required.
2
EXAMPLE 43 In the figure, PA and PB are tangent to the
circle at A and B. Given m(AùCB) = 250°,
A
a
P
find m(P) = .
C
Solution Since m(AùCB) = 250°, B
m(AïB) = 360° – 250° = 110°.
By the theorem we have just seen,
m(AùCB) – m(AïB) 250 – 110
= = = 70.
2 2
159 Geometry 9
Property
The angle formed by two tangents and the
A
angle of the minor arc intercepted by these
tangents are supplementary.
180° a
a P
B + m(AïB) = 180°
EXAMPLE 44 In the figure, PA and PB are tangent to the
circle at A and B. If m(P) = 40°, find A
m(AùCB).
C 40° P
Solution m(AïB) + 40° = 180° by the property just B
given. So
m(AïB) = 180° – 40°
= 140°.
So m(AùCB) = 360° – 140°
= 220°.
EXAMPLE 45 Lines PA and PB are tangent to a circle at points A and B, and C is a point on the minor
arc AB. Find m(ACB) if m(APB) = 50°.
Solution Look at the figure.
m(AùCB) + 50° = 180° A
m(AùCB) = 130°.
C 50° P
Also, m(AïB) + m(AùCB) = 360°
m(AïB) + 130° = 360° B
m(AïB) = 230°.
Since m(ACB) is an inscribed angle,
m(AïB) 230°
m(ACB) = 115°.
2 2
Angles and Cýrcles 160
EXAMPLE 46 In the figure, A and B are points of tangency
on the larger circle, and D and E are points of A
tangency on the smaller circle. Given
D
m(APB) = 80°, find m(F).
P 80°
F ? C
E
B
Solution m(AïB) = 180° – m(P)
= 180° – 80°
= 100°.
A
m(AïB) 100°
m(ACB) = = = 50°. D
2 2
100°
P 80° 130°
m(DïE) = 180° – m(ACB) F ? 50° C
= 180° – 50° E
B
= 130°.
m(DïE) 130°
Finally, m(DFE) = = 65.
2 2
EXAMPLE 47 In the figure, AB is tangent to both circles A
B
and m(ABC) = 40°. Find m(ADC) = .
40°
a
D
C
Solution Let us draw the common tangent d,
as shown.
m(BïC) A 80° 100°
= m(ABC) m(BïC) = 80°. K B
2 100° 80°
By complementarity, a 40°
D
C
m(BKC) = 180° – 80° = 100°.
So m(AKC) = 80°. d
m(AïC) = 180° – m(AKC)
= 180° – 80°
= 100°.
m(AïC) 100
So = = = 50.
2 2
161 Geometry 9
b. The angle between two secants
Theorem
The measure of the angle formed by two secants of a circle is half the difference of the
intercepted arcs.
Proof Look at the figure. In ADP, = + . A
So = – . a C
As we have seen, this m(AïB) – m(CïD) = 2 – 2 = 2( – ) 2b
theorem is also true for
2a q
tangents: the measure O P
of the angle formed by Therefore m(AïB) – m(CïD) = 2, and so b
D
two tangents to a circle
is half the difference of m(AïB) – m(CïD) B
the intercepted arcs. m(P) = = , as required.
2
EXAMPLE 48 Find m(CPD) = x in the figure. C
88° A
O
20°
x
m(CïD) – m(AïB) 88 20
Solution x= = = 34 D B P
2 2
EXAMPLE 49 Find m(AïB) in the figure, using the P
information given. 35°
D
20° C
A
?
B
Solution 1 m(DAC) = 20° m(DïC) = 40° P
Let m(AïB) = . Then 35°
D
40°
40
35 = (by the theorem above) 20° C
2 A
40 = 70
=110 . a
B
Solution 2 By the triangle exterior angle theorem in PAC, m(ACB) = 20° + 35° = 55°.
So m(AïB) = 2 55° = 110°.
Angles and Cýrcles 162
EXAMPLE 50 In the figure, AB = CD, O is the center of C
the circle and AB CH.
Find m(BïC).
D O
52°
P A H B
Solution Let us extend CH to make it a diameter. C
Since OE bisects AB, let us write 2a
180 a
m(AïE) = m(EïB) = .
Since AB = CD, m(AïB) = m(CïD) = 2. D O
m(EïB) = m(BïC) = 180° – . 52°
B
P A H
Now, from the theorem we have just seen, a a
E
m(BïC) – m(AïD)
m(P) = .
2
180 – (180 3 )
52 . So 52 .
2
Therefore, m(BïC) = 180° – = 180° – 52° = 128°.
EXAMPLE 51 Find the angle measure in the figure.
C
B
100°
F 40°
A
a
E
Solution m(CED) = m(CïD) = 2. D
In DEF, m(EDF) = 80° – .
m(BïE) = 2 m(EDF) = 160° – 2.
C
m(CïD) – m(BïE) B
Now, m(A) =
2 2a
100°
F 160 2a 40°
2 – (160 2 ) 100° A
40 = a
2 E
D
80° a
40 = 2 – 80
120 = 2
60 = .
163 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 52 In the figure, BD = DC, A
AB CF and AC BE. 70° E
Find m(FDE) = . F
Solution Since ED and FD are medians to the a
hypotenuse in the right triangles BEC and
B D C
BFC, BD = DC = ED = FD.
This means that we can draw a circle A
Remember! centered at D in which BD, DC, ED and FD 70°
2a E
The length of the median are all radii.
to the hypotenuse of a F
right triangle is equal to So m(EïF) = 2.
half the length of the
hypotenuse. 180° – 2 a
Finally, m( A )
2
B D C
180° – 2
70° =
2
70° = 90° –
= 20°.
c. The angle between a secant and a tangent
Theorem
The measure of the angle formed by a secant line and a tangent is half the difference of the
intercepted arcs.
Proof Look at the figure. We need to prove
A
m(AïB) – m(AïC) a
m(P) = .
2 2a 2b
q P
In ABP, = + . So = – .
m(AïB) – m(AïC) = 2 – 2 = 2( – ) C
b
Therefore,
B
m(AïB) – m(AïC) 2 ( – )
= = – = .
2 2
m(AïB) – m(AïC)
So = m(P) as required.
2
As you can see, this proof is very similar to the proof that the angle formed by two secants
is half the difference of the intercepted arcs.
Angles and Cýrcles 164
EXAMPLE 53 In the figure, PA is tangent to the circle at A,
100°
m(AïC) = 160° and m(BïC) = 100°. C
B
Find m(P).
? P
160°
A
Solution m(AïC) + m(BïC) + m(AïB) = 360°
160° + 100° + m(AïB) = 360°
m(AB) = 100°
m(AïC) – m(AïB)
So m(P) =
2
160 100
=
2
= 30.
EXAMPLE 54 In the figure, O is the center of the circle and
B y
B is a point of tangency. Find the values of x,
y and z.
40° x z
A C P
O
Solution Since m(BAC) and m(CBP) intercept the
same arc, they are congruent.
So y = 40°.
B 40°
Also, m(ABC) = 90° because it intercepts a 100°
semicircle. 80°
40° 50° z
A
So x = 50°, which gives us m(AïB) = 100°. O C P
m(AïB) – m(BïC)
Finally, z =
2
100 80
=
2
=10.
In summary, x = 50°, y = 40° and z = 10°.
165 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 55 In the figure, PA is tangent to the circle at A. A
Find the values of x and y. P
x 40°
140°
B
140 x
Solution 40° =
2 y
C
80° =140° x
x = 60°.
A
140° x 2 y = 360° x 40° P
140°
140° 60° 2 y = 360° B
2 y =160°
y 2y
y = 80. C
Check Yourself
1. A, B, C and D are four points located counter-clockwise on a circle. PA and PC are tangent
to the circle, and 2 m(ABC) = 3 m(ADC). What is m(APC)?
2. In the figure, the two lines are tangent to
O. Find the angle measure .
50° P
O
a
3. AB is the diameter of a semicircle centered at O. C and D are two points on the semicircle,
and P is a point outside the circle such that P, B, A and P, C, D are collinear. Given
m(DAP) = 60° and m(P) = 22°, find m(DCO).
C
4. Find the angle measure in the figure.
D
60°
35°
P a
A B
Answers
1. 36° 2. 25° 3. 38° 4. 12.5°
Angles and Cýrcles 166
EXERCISES 3 .1
A. Inscribed Angles and Arcs 5. O is the center of the C D
semicircle shown at
1. In the figure, the right. CD AB, 15
A 20
m(AïC) = 108°. y AD = 20 cm and
B x 108° AC = 15 cm are A O B
Find the angle measures
given. Find CD.
x, y and z. O z
B
C
C 74°
6. Find the value of in
O
the figure. D a
2. In the figure, 73°
E
A B
x y
m(AïC) = 64° and
A
64°
m(BïD) = 146°. E O
z 7. Find the indicated E 82°
Find the angle 146°
C measures by using the A
measures x, information given. D
y and z. D
a. m(E)
O 61°
b. m(AïE)
c. m(BïD) C B
3. Find the angle A 84°
23°
d. m(D) 92°
measures using the
information in the figure. B E
A
a. m(C) O a
70°
b. m(CïD) 8. Find the value of in
the figure. O
c. m(BAC) C D B 20°
C
d. m(E)
e. m(BAD)
9. O is the center of the
A
circle shown at the 36°
24° C
right. Given
4. In the figure, AD = CD, D B
m(OAC) = 36° and O
m(CïD) = 80° and 80°
A m(ACB) = 24°, find
3 m(ADB) = m(BDC).
m(BOC).
Find m(BïC). C
10. A, B, C, D and E are five points located
B
counter-clockwise on a circle. m(AED) = 145°
and m(BCD) = 100° are given. Find m(ADB).
?
167 Geomtery 9
B. Angles Formed by Secants, 16. A and B are two points on a circle centered at O.
Tangents and Chords A line PA is tangent to the circle, and the points
B, O and P are collinear. Find m(ABP) if
11. In the figure, B d
y m(APB) = 44°.
m(AùKB) = 264° and
d is tangent to the
circle at A. Find the K O x
17. AB is the diameter of D
degree measures 264° C
A the semicircle shown a
x and y. 125°
at the right.
If m(BCD) = 125°
and BC = CD, A O B
12. Two circles are externally tangent to each other at find the value of .
point C. A, B and C are located counter-clockwise on
the smaller circle, and B, C and D are collinear
such that DE is the diameter of the larger circle. 18. Given that O is the O
Given m(BAC) = 62°, find m(CDE). center of the arc in a
the figure, find A 52° 63° C
m(AOC) = .
13. In the figure, A
m(BAC) = 52° and 52° B
B E
m(CïE) = 110°.
Find m(BDE) = .
a
19. In the figure, 24°
A
T and S are points of
D T
C tangency, BS = CS
E ?
and m(A) = 24°.
C
14. O is the center of the A Find m(ETS).
circle in the figure
and OA BC. 87°
O B
Find m(CBO). D ? B S F
C
20. O is the center of the A
circle shown at the
15. In the figure, m(ADB) = m(BAC) = m(DBA)
D right.
and m(DAC) = 30°.
a C AB = x + 5 cm, B C
Find the value of . O
AC = x – 2 cm and
30°
BC = x + 6 cm are
given. Find the
B
A radius of the circle.
Angles and Cýrcles 168
21. In the figure, AB is C 26. A, B, C and D are four points located clockwise on
the diameter of the a circle, and P is a point outside the circle such
circle and CD = BD. D that P, D and C are collinear. PA is tangent to the
Find the radius of the circle, AD = AB, m(P) = 40° and m(AùBC) = 140°.
circle if AC = 10 cm. Find m(BAC).
A O B
27. AB is tangent to the A
semicircle shown at a
the right. Find the
angle measure by
22. P is a point outside a circle O and PA is tangent using the information
to the circle at A. A, B, C are located clockwise 50°
in the figure. 40°
around O, and PC is a secant line where P, C
B E O C
and B are collinear. If PA = AC and m(P) = 80°,
find m(OCB).
28. In the figure, O is C
A
the center of the
76°
23. AB is the diameter C circle, A is a point
of the semicircle at D of tangency and
m(BAC) = 76°. O
the right. a
Given AB = 12 cm, 80° 55° Find the angle B
A O B measure .
m(DAB) = 80°
and m(ABC) = 55°, find DC.
29. In the figure, O is ?
24. P and O are the the center of the E D
E circle, F 30°
centers of the two T 80°
m(DFC) = 80° and O
semicircles shown C
m(CïD) = 30°.
opposite. Given
A P O B
TB = 6ñ2 cm, find Find m(DïE). A B P
OB.
30. In the figure, A
25. In the figure, AB is C m(AïE) = 2 m(EïD).
a diameter, 32° E
Find the value of . 78°
CH = 3ñ3 cm and 3ñ3
F
AH = 3 cm. A 3H B
G a D
Find the radius of B
the circle. C
169 Geometry 9
31. In the figure, O is the A 35. The figure shows
A
center of the quarter D two tangents to O.
circle and C Find the value of .
a 64° 2a 15° C
m(ODB) = 64°. O a P
Find m(ACO) = .
O B B
36. Find the angle E
D
measure x using the
x P
information in the A 106° 52°
O
32. In the figure, E figure.
D 66° C
BC = CD = DE and
m(BAE) = 84°. B
Find the value of . O a C
37. In the figure, PA A
84°
A
and PB are
a P
B tangents, D 80°
m(AED) = 80° E
66°
and m(CïD) = 66°. B
C
Find the value of .
33. A and B in the P
figure are points of 42° A 38. Find the value of y A
tangency. Given 60° in terms of x using
y
m(BïC) = m(CïD) O the information
a O
and the angle B D given in the figure.
x D
measures shown, C B
C
find the value of . 40°
39. E
D
34. A and B in the A
44°
figure are points of a 18°
tangency on O. A B C
O
34° P
Find m(PBC) if ? AB is the diameter of the semicircle shown. Find
m(APB) = 34°. C B m(DAB) = .
Angles and Cýrcles 170
40. The points D, E and A 44. In the figure, PA and E
F are points of PC are tangents, 35° D
tangency on the m(APB) = 100°,
a C
circle at the right, D E
m(BEC) = 35°
28° A
and O is the center and AE = DE.
O 100° B
of the circle. Find the value of .
63° a P
Find the value of .
B F C
45. Given that the three
41. The figure shows D lines are tangents, y
O with C
y find the value of
66°
AD OC and 40° x x + y in the figure.
m(COB) = 40°. A B
O P
Find the value of
x
x + y.
42. In the figure, C is a P 46. Find the value of A
point of tangency in the figure. D
66°
and AB = AC.
A
Find the value of . a T
C a
B
65° C
B
43. In the figure, T is a 100° B 47. In the figure, P is a m
point of tangency, point of tangency on P
A C
m(BPT) = 60° a O. Find the value D
a
and m(AïB) = 100°. P 60° of using the 132°
A B
Find the value of . information given. O
T
171 Geometry 9
48. m is tangent to the m 52. The two circles in D
A
circle in the figure at the figure are 95°
C a
D. Find the value of tangent to each E
. D 25° other at C, and B C
48° a m(CDE) = 95°.
B
Find the value of .
A
53. Find the diameter O
of O in the figure. M P
30°
4
N
49. The circles in the P
4
figure are internally A
tangent at P. Find
5 x 54. In the figure, AB is B
C A
the length AB = x. a common tangent, 6
B
11 AD = 4 cm and 4 C
BE = 6 cm. E
D D
Find the length of F
the segment AB.
50. In the figure, DE is E 55. The figure shows
F
O and a tangent D
an arc of O and B
C line FG. Find the
OABC is a square.
value of . O 24°
Find m(DBA) = . a A
E
C
48° a
O A D B
G
56. A and B are the E
51. In the figure, O is E centers of the
quarter circles in ?
the center of the 65° D
semicircle, C
the figure shown. D C
ED = DC and O
Find EC. F
a B
m(AED) = 65°. 4
Find the angle
measure . A A B
Angles and Cýrcles 172
57. In the figure, O is D
the center of the C
circle and EF = AO. F ?
E
Given m(AïE) = 15°, A B
O
find m(BïC).
58. In the figure, AB C
and AC are tangents a F
and m(EïF) = 150°. 150°
Find the value of . D
E
72° 33°
A B
59. In the figure, O is A
the center of the
circle and BD = AC. O
B
If m(ACB) = 56°,
find the value of . a
D
C
60. In the figure, A T
and C are points A
of tangency,
?
AB CD,
AB = AP and D
AD = CD.
B C P
Find m(BAD).
173 Geometry 9
SEGMENTS FORMED BY SECANTS AND
CHORDS
1. The Power of a Point
Definition power of a point
A point A and a circle are given. A line that
Q
passes through A intersects the given circle
at P and Q. The product AP AQ is called the P
A
power of the point A with respect to the given
circle.
It is an amazing fact that P is independent of
the choice of the line APQ. In other words,
the power of a point is unique for a given point and a given circle. For example, in the figure
opposite we can write the power p as
p = AP AQ = AB AC = AD AE.
The concept of the power
of a point was first
described by the Swiss
mathematician Jakob
Steiner in 1826.
The line APQ (or the line ABC, or both) may be tangent to the circle. In this case, P and Q
(or B and C) become the same point. However, the property of the power of a point still holds:
P, Q P, Q
A B A
C
B, C
AP × AQ = AB × AC AP × AQ = AB × AC
AP2 = AB × AC AP2 = AB2
AP = AB
174 Geometry 9
The point A may also lie either inside or outside
the circle. When the point is inside the circle, Q
the lines through the point become chords and B
the power equality becomes A
AP AQ = AB AC. P
In all cases, the same equality holds. It is
C
known as the power of a point theorem.
When the point is inside the circle, the
theorem is also called the intersecting chords P
theorem. When the point is outside the circle, r
the theorem can be called the intersecting
secants theorem. The proof of each theorem A O
will be shown later. d
Now consider a point A outside a circle
centered at O with radius r. If the distance
between A and O is d then AP2 + r2 = d2 by the Pythagorean Theorem. So AP2 = d2 – r2.
We know that the power P of A with respect to O is AP2. Therefore we can write the
equality as p = AP2 = d2 – r2 and p = d2 – r2.
2. Segments Formed by Intersecting Secants
Theorem intersecting secants theorem
If two secants intersect outside a circle, the product of the lengths of one secant segment and
its external segment is equal to the same product for the other segment.
We can summarize this rule informally as ‘outer × whole = outer × whole’.
Proof Look at the figure. We need to show that A
PC PA = PD PB. C
In the figure, m(A) = m(B) because they
intercept the same arc, namely CD. P
Similarly, m(ACB) = m(ADB). D
So ADP and BCP are similar triangles by B
the AAA similarity theorem.
PD PA
So we can write = , which means
PC PB
PC PA = PD PB, as required.
Remember that this result is one case of the power of a point theorem.
175 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 56 Find the length x in the figure.
B 6 A
5
P
Solution By the intersecting secants theorem,
O 6
PA PB = PC PD
C
x
5 (5 + 6) = 6 (6 + x)
D
55 = 36 + 6x
19 = 6x
19
x= .
6
EXAMPLE 57 ABC in the figure is an equilateral triangle. A
AE = 6 cm and CD = 2 cm are given.
Find the length AB = x. 6
x
E
B D 2 C
Solution Since ABC is equilateral, A
EC = x – 6 cm and BD = x – 2 cm.
6
So CD CB = CE CA x
2 x = (x – 6) x E
x6
x = 8 cm.
B x2 D 2 C
Segments and Cýrcles 176
Theorem
If a secant and a tangent intersect outside a circle then the product of the secant segment
and its external segment equals the square of the length of the tangent segment.
We can summarize this rule informally as ‘outer × whole = tangent squared’.
Proof Look at the figure. We need to show that A
PA2 = PC PB.
P
Since CAP and ABC intercept the same
arc, they are congruent. As P is a common C
angle for ACP and BAP, by the AAA
similarity theorem the triangles are similar. B
PA PC
So = , which gives us PA2 = PC PB,
PB PA
as required. Recall that this is also one case of the power of a point theorem.
EXAMPLE 58 Point A in the figure is a point of tangency. A
6
Find the length BC = x.
P
O 2
Solution By the theorem we have just seen, C
PA = PC PB
2 x
B
62 = 2 (2 + x)
36 = 2 (2 + x)
18 = 2 + x
x = 16.
EXAMPLE 59 In the figure, O is the center of the G
semicircle and E and F are points of F
E
tangency. Given AF = CD, find the length x
DE = x.
A 4 B 6 O C D
Solution AF2 = AB AC
= 4 16 G
AF = CD = 8. E
F
DE2 = x2 = CD BD x
x2 = 8 (6 + 6 + 8) (CD = AF is given) A 4 B 6 O 6 C D
x = ó160
= 4ò10.
177 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 60 A, B and C are three points located clockwise on a circle. P is a point outside the circle such
that PA is a tangent and P, B and C are collinear. If AB = 6 cm, AC = 8 cm and PA = 16 cm,
find PB.
C
Solution Look at the figure. m(PAB) = m(PCA) B a
since they intercept the same arc. The angle
P b 6 O
P is common to both PAB and PCA. 8
a
So PAB PCA by AAA similarity. 16
A
6 PB
So = PB 12 cm.
8 16
EXAMPLE 61 In the figure, AE = EB and D
12 C
DE = DC = 12 cm.
Find DF. ?
O F
E B
Solution Since AB = CD = 12 and AE = EB, A
AE = EB = 6 cm.
D
By the power of E, AE2 = EF ED 12 C
Also, ED = DC = 12 cm (given).
O F
So 62 = EF 12
36 = EF 12 E 6
B
A 6
EF = 3 cm.
Finally, DF = DE – EF = 12 – EF = 12 – 3 = 9 cm.
EXAMPLE 62 In the figure, C is a point of tangency. P
2
Find the lengths x and y. 3
D
A x
Solution PC2 = PD PE (1) y 7
C
B
x2 = 2 9 E
x = 3ñ2.
Similarly, PC2 = PA PB. (2)
By (1) and (2) we can write
PD PE = PA PB
2 9 = 3 (3 + y)
18 = 3 (3 + y)
y = 3.
Segments and Cýrcles 178
EXAMPLE 63 In the figure, A is a point of tangency, P
A
PA = 8 cm and PB = BC.
B O
Find CD.
C
?
Solution PA = PC = 8 cm, so PB = BC = 4 cm.
D
In the larger circle,
PA2 = PB PD
82 = 4 PD
64 = 4 PD
PD = 16 cm.
Finally,
CD = PD – PC
= 16 – 8
= 8 cm.
EXAMPLE 64 AB is the diameter of a semicircle centered at O, and C and D are two points located
counter-clockwise on the semicircle. PD is tangent to the semicircle at D and PO intersects
the circle at C. If PC = 3 cm and PD = 6 cm, find the radius of the semicircle.
Solution The figure illustrates the problem. P
Let BO = r and extend PO to point K.
6
Then CO = OK = r. 3
D
By the power of point P, C
62 = 3(3 + 2r) r
36 = 3(3 + 2r) A
O r B
12 = 3 + 2r r
r = 4.5 cm. K
EXAMPLE 65 In the figure, O is the center of the circle,
BF = 2 cm and BE = 4 cm.
C
Find the length of chord CD. ?
D
O
F
2
A E 4 B
179 Geometry 9
Solution BE2 = BF BC
42 = 2 BC C
BC = 8 cm. 3
O 4
Since FC = BC – BF, D
5
H
3
FC = 8 – 2 5 5
F
= 6 cm. 2
A 5 E 4 B
If we draw DO and extend through BC,
DH BC and CH = HF (can you see why?).
So AEOD becomes a square, and DH = AB = 9.
Finally, in CDH, DH2 + CH2 = CD2
92 + 32 = CD2
90 = CD2
CD = ò90
= 3ò10 cm.
EXAMPLE 66 The radius of the circle in the figure is
C
B A
10 cm, and BC = 12 cm. 12
?
Find AD.
D
Solution Let O be the center of the circle, and let us
C H B4 A
draw OH such that OH BC. 6 6
So CH = HB = 6 cm.
D
Since ADOH is a rectangle (can you see O 10
why?), OD = AH = 10 cm.
Then AB = AH – HB = 10 – 6 = 4 cm.
Then by the power of point A,
AD2 = AB AC.
= 4 16
= 64.
So AD = 8 cm.
As an exercise, try to find another solution to this problem without using the power of a point.
Can you do it?
Segments and Cýrcles 180
EXAMPLE 67 In the figure, DP = DB, PA and DB are
tangent to O. BC = 11 cm and A
PB = 9 cm are given.
D
What is the radius of the circle? O
P 9 B
Solution By the power of P, 11 C
PA = PB PC
2
PA2 = 9 20
PA = 6ñ5 cm.
Since AD and BD are tangents from a
common point, they are congruent. A
Notice that OA PA. Constructing the line D
AB, we can also say that m(ABC) = 90° O
because of the congruency of BD, AD and DP
P 9 B
in APB. So the segment AC is a diameter of 11 C
the circle.
Now, in ACP,
AP2 + AC2 = PC2
(6ñ5)2 + AC2 = 202
180 + AC2 = 400
AC2 = 220
AC = 2ò55 cm. Therefore the radius is ò55 cm.
EXAMPLE 68 In the figure, PB is a common tangent,
B
PA = AB, CD = 5 cm and DE = 3 cm. ?
A
Find AB.
5 3
P C
D E
Solution Let AB = AP = x and PC = y.
Then x2 = y(y + 5). (1)
2
Also, (2x) = (y + 5)(y + 8). (2) B
x
A
(2) y8
4 4y y 8 x
(1) y
3y 8 P y
5 3
C
D E
8
y cm.
3
181 Geometry 9
2
Finally, x y( y 5)
8 8
( 5)
3 3
8 23
9
2
x AB 46 cm.
3
EXAMPLE 69 In the figure, DE and AC are the diameters B
of the semicircles and F and G are points of
G
tangency. Given AF = 3 cm and CG = 12 cm, F
3 12
find AC.
Solution Look at the figure. A D O E C
m(B) = m(OGB) = m(OFA) = 90°
(Can you see why?) B
r
So OGC ABC. r G
F
r 12 3 12
Then 12r + 36 = 12r + r2 r
r
r 3 12 r
r r
r = 6 cm. A D O E C
In BC, AB2 + BC2 = AC2
92 + 182 = AC2
AC = 9ñ5 cm.
EXAMPLE 70 The figure shows O with a point of B4 A
tangency at D. AB AE, AB = 4 cm, 8
AD = 8 cm and OE = 15 cm are given. O D
Find DE.
?
Solution Let us extend AB to C as shown. Then
B4A
C
AD2 = AB AC 6H 6
8
82 = 4 AC AC = 16 cm. O
10
D
So BC = 16 – 4 = 12 cm.
Let us draw OH so that OH BC. 15
Then CH = HB. (Can you see why?) E
Segments and Cýrcles 182
Since ADOH is a rectangle, AH = DO = 10 cm.
In DOE, DO2 + DE2 = OE2
102 + DE2 = 152
DE2 = 125
DE = 5ñ5 cm.
Check Yourself
1. Two secant lines passing through a point P intersect a circle at points A, B, C and D such
that P, D, A and P, C, B are respectively collinear. A, B, C and D are located clockwise on
the circle, and PC = 4 cm, BC = 8 cm and AD = 3 DP are given. Find PA.
2. ABC is a triangle and AE and CD are two altitudes inside the triangle. BE = 6 cm,
EC = 8 cm and BD = 9 cm are given. Find AD.
PB A
3. In the figure, PC = 4 PA. What is ?
BC
P B C
A
4. In the figure, AB = 14 cm, AC = 8 cm and
D
BC = 9 cm. Find the length BE = x.
B 8
x
E
5. In the figure, m(DïE) = m(DïC), A
4
E
AD = 6 cm and AE = 4 cm. 6
Find the radius of the semicircle with D
diameter BC.
B O C
Answers
1 1
1. 8ñ3 cm 2. cm 3. 4. 4 cm 5. 9 cm
3 15
183 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 71 Find the value of x + y in the figure. E
D
F
x 4
y
P 2
C
Solution By the corollary we have just seen, 3
6
PA PD = PB PE = PC PF, i.e. B
6 4 = 3 x = 2 y. A
So x = 8 cm and y = 12 cm, and x + y = 8 + 12 = 20 cm.
EXAMPLE 72 A, C and B are three points located counter-clockwise on a circle centered at O, and D is the
intersection point of AB and OC. If AD = 4 cm, CD = 3 cm and BD = 6 cm, find OD.
Solution Look at the figure. Let OD = x and let us
E
extend CO to point E on the circle. 3+x B
Then OC = OE = 3 + x. 6
O x
By the power of a point theorem, D 3
4
6 4 = 3(3 + 2x) C
8 = 3 + 2x A
5
x= = 2.5 cm.
2
EXAMPLE 73 The two circles in the figure are internally E
tangent at C. EF = FC, AF = 4 cm and
BD = 9 cm are given. Find the length EC.
A 4 F
B
9
D
C
Solution BD = BF = 9 cm (common tangent segments). E
So
AF BF = EF FC 4
A F 9
4 9 = EF2 B
EF = 6 cm. 9
D
So EC = 2 6 = 12 cm. C
Segments and Cýrcles 184
EXAMPLE 74 Find the values of x and y using the
information in the figure, given that
A is a point of tangency.
Solution AP2 = PE PD
82 = 4(4 + x + 3)
16 = 7 + x
x = 9.
DF FE = BF FC
3x=5y
3 9 = 5y
27
y= .
5
EXAMPLE 75 In the figure, m(BAD) = m(BCD) = 90°. D
Find the length x. 3
A C
4 6
Solution Since m(A) = m(C) = 90°, they
D
are supplementary.
3
So ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral and AC and A C
4 6
DB are chords.
x
Hence 4 6 = 3 x
x = 8.
B
185 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 76 O is the center of the semicircle in the
A
figure and AH BC. Find the length AB.
?
B 5 O 3 H 2 C
Solution When we reflect the semicircle along BC we get
BH HC = AH HA
8 2 = AH2 A
AH = 4.
In ABH,
AB2 = AH2 + BH2 B 5 O 3 H 2 C
2 2 2
AB = 4 + 8
AB = 4ñ5. A¢
EXAMPLE 77 The figure shows O with OH BC, C
BP = 4 cm, AP = 8 cm and H
5 OH = 3 OA. Find OA. B
O
4
Solution PA = PB PC
2 ?
82 = 4 PC A 8 P
PC = 16 cm.
So BC = 16 – 4 = 12 cm. C
E
Since OH BC, BH = HC = 6 cm. 6 2kH
3k
Let us extend OH to make it a diameter. O 6 B
Then let OH = 3k and OA = 5k. 5k 4
5k
So HE = 2k and DO = 5k. D
A 8 P
Then BH HC = DH HE
6 6 = 8k 2k
36
k2 =
16
3
k= .
2
3 15
Finally, OA 5k 5 cm.
2 2
Segments and Cýrcles 186
EXAMPLE 78 O is the center of the semicircle in the
D
C
figure. Find the length BD.
12
Solution Let us draw AC. Then AC BC. (Can you see
A 10 O 10 B
why?)
In ABC, since BE is an angle bisector, by the
angle bisector theorem we have C
D
E
BC CE 12 3 CE 3k
. 12
AB AE 20 5 AE 5k
Now let CE = 3k and AE = 5k. Also,
A 10 O 10 B
AB2 = BC2 + AC2
202 = 122 + AC2
AC = 16 cm.
So 16 = 5k + 3k = 8k k = 2 cm. Hence CE = 6 cm and AE = 10 cm.
In BCE, BC2 + CE2 = BE2
122 + 62 = BE2
BE = 6ñ5 cm.
Then AE CE = BE DE
60
10 6 = 6ñ5 DE DE 2 5 cm.
6 5
Finally, BD = BE + ED = 6ñ5 + 2ñ5 = 8ñ5 cm.
EXAMPLE 79 What is the radius of the circle in the A
figure?
13 10
Solution Let us draw BE such that BE AC.
Since BH AC and ABC is an isosceles B C
13
triangle, AH = HC = 5.
In ABH, AH2 + BH2 = AB2
BH2 + 52 = 132 A
BH = 12. 5
H E
13
So BH HE = AH HC 5
12 HE = 5 5
B 13 C
25
HE = .
12
187 Geometry 9
25 169
Then BE = BH + HE = 12 .
12 12
169 1 169
Since BE is a diameter (can you see why?), r .
12 2 24
EXAMPLE 80 In the figure, AH BC. A
Prove the Euclidean theorem
h2 = p k. h
B p H k C
Solution Since m(A) = 90°, we can construct a
circumscribed circle such that BC is a A
diameter. Reflecting ABC along BC gives us
AH = HA = h.
h
By the power of H, p k
B C
H
AH HA = BH HC
h
hh=pk
h2 = p k, as required.
A¢
Check Yourself
1. Find the radius of the circle by using the given D
measures.
ñ5 E ñ5
A 1 B
Segments and Cýrcles 188
2. AB is a diameter of a circle centered at O and CD is chord perpendicular to AB. E is the
intersection point of AB and CD. If AO = 6 cm and CD = 10 cm, find the lengths EB and
OE (EB < radius).
3. What is the length of the shortest chord which A
9
passes through C in the figure? C
4
B
O
Answers
1. 3 2. EB = (6 – ò11) cm and OE = ò11 cm 3. 12
189 Geometry 9
EXERCISES 3 .2
A. Segments Formed by Tangents 5. The radii of the
circles opposite
1. The figure shows O P
are 8 cm and 3 cm.
and two tangents. 5
What is the
B A 12 B
Find the radius of distance between
the circle. 8 the circles at their closest point?
A
O C
6. In the figure, ABCD D C
is a rectangle and O
and C are the E
6
2. A and B in the P 4ñ3 centers of the arcs. K
60° A F
figure are points of
Given AD = 6 cm 2
tangency on O. B
and BF = 2 cm, A O
Find the length BC. O
find FK.
B
?
7. In the figure, T K P
3. In the figure, C
and S are circles T
AB = 8 cm and and MNPK is a 6 S
AC = 6 cm. rectangle with
Find CD. MN = 8 cm and M N
8
MK = 6 cm.
Find TS.
A D B
4. The radii of the
B 8. In the figure, K
two circles shown at
8 KL = 20 cm and T
the right are 4 cm
PL = 15 cm. P
and 2 cm. A ?
Find KM.
What is the shortest
distance between the two circles? M L N
Segments and Cýrcles 190
B. Segments Formed by Secants and 13. AB and AC at the A
Chords right are tangent to 6
O. Find the radius E
9. Find the length B 4 A 8
DC = x in the 6 of O.
P
figure. 5 B O D C
x C
D
10. A, B, C and D are four points located 14. Find the length CD B 6 A 4
counter-clockwise on a circle. P is point outside P
in the figure. E 2
the circle and PA is tangent to the circle at A. P, C
?
D and B are collinear and E is the intersection D
point of AC and BD. If AP = 8 cm, PD = 4 cm and
DE = 5 cm, find AE EC.
15. Find the lengths P
11. ABCD in the figure D F C x and y in the y
is a rectangle and K 6
figure. 4
and E are points of A
C B
E
tangency.
x
Given CG = 16 cm
and BG = 2 cm, G
D
find DF. B
A K
16. In the figure, A
12. CB in the figure is 1
C P
E PA = 4ñ3 cm, C
tangent to the B
circle O. Find the BC = PC and O E
radius of O. 2PE = DE.
30°
D
A O ? B Find PE + BC.
191 Geometry 9
17. In the figure, P 21. In the figure, E
D
PA = 8 cm, PA = 12 cm, ?
B
PC = 14 cm and 8 PB = 6 cm and C
B
AC = 12 cm. C BC = 2 cm. 6
A D?
Find CD. Find DE.
A 12 P
22. In the figure,
18. O is the center of A AE = 4 cm and F
the quarter circle EB = 2 cm.
?
shown at the right. B Find the length
Find the length of of segment AC.
E
segment AE using
D
the information 8 C
B E A
given.
O C 4 D
19. Find the radius of 23. Find BE in the A
B
the circle O in the figure, using the
6 A
figure. 2 information given. H
O O
P
C 6
2ñ5
D B E 4 C
20. O is the center of 24. AB is a diameter of P
the semicircle at the 4 2
the circle in the
T
figure. Given O right. E
AC = 5 cm and D Find AB.
3
OA = 3 cm,
A B ? C
find BC. A H 1 B
Segments and Cýrcles 192
25. In the figure, P A H B 29. OA is a radius of a circle centered at O, and BC is
PA = AH = HB, ñ7 a chord of this circle such that AO BC. D is the
PT = 3ñ3 cm and 3ñ3 O intersection point of OA and BC. Given AD = 3 cm
and CD = 6 cm, find OD.
OH = ñ7 cm.
T
What is the radius
of O?
26. O is the center of A
30. O is the center of D
8
the semicircle D
10
the semicircle shown F
E C
shown at the right. E in the figure.
7 2
AE = 10 cm, ?
Find OF by using the
AD = 8 cm and A 6 O B
information given.
m(DïE) = m(EïC) B ? C
O
are given.
Find the radius of O.
27. In the figure, O is A 31. In the figure, C A
the center of the 2 CE = 9 cm, 9
E
semicircle, EF = 3 cm and E F
3
G
AE = 2 cm and FG = 2 cm. ?
O D
OC = 3 cm. Find GD. B D
3
Find BG.
C G? B
28. In the figure, C
D
m(AùDC) = m(BùCD), 2 32. AùCB is an arc of O B
CP = 2 cm and ?
in the figure. If
P
AP = 3 cm. CD = 2 cm and C 2D
3
B 6
Find DP. DO = 6 cm, ?
find AD. A O
A
193 Geometry 9
33 . Find the radius of C 37. O is the center of A
C
the circle in the
the circle in the 2ñ3
figure, using the 6 figure. D 30°
given information. A
H 12
B m(ADC) = 30°, O
4 AD = 2ñ3 cm and 4ñ3
BD = 4ñ3 cm are
D
given. Find CD. B
34. A, B, C and D are four points located clockwise on
a circle centered at O such that BD is a diameter
of the circle. AC and BD intersect at E,
m(BAC) = 60°, DE = 4 cm and BE = 8 cm.
Find BC.
38. In the figure, A O C
B
AC EF and
EF is tangent to the
D
semicircle at F.
E F
If AB = 8 cm and
35. In the figure,
BD = 12 cm, find DE.
M is the center of 2 N
the circle, 3
P
MP = 3 cm and M
PN = 2 cm.
What is the length
of the shortest chord which passes through P?
39. In the figure,
36. O is the center of A AC = 2 cm and
A 2
the circle shown at BC = 8 cm. C O
?
ñ6
the right. Find the length of 8
C
AH = ñ6 cm and P D H O the shortest chord
HC = 3 cm are which can be drawn B
given. Find AP. B through C.
Segments and Cýrcles 194
40. AB is a diameter of D 43. O and M are the C
the semicircle at the centers of the two
12 G
right. EC AB, E
K
C circles in the figure
DK = FK = KC and and D is a point of A
E F
B
O
EK = 12 cm are A F B tangency. Find OF if M
given. Find the radius of the semicircle. OG = 12 cm and
AE = 6 cm.
D
41. ABCD in the figure 20
D C
44. In the figure, C
is a rectangle and O
10 O is the center of
is the center of the 16
O the semicircle,
semicircle. 6
A ? E B BD = 3 cm and
If AD = 16 cm, E
F CD = 6 cm. D
CD = 20 cm and
OC = 10 cm, find AE. Find AE. ?
3
A O B
42. O1 and O2 are the
centers of the
circles shown A
45. In the figure, A
O1 ?
opposite. AB = AC,
13 O2
AE = 8 cm and 8 C
If BC = 3 cm and
C DE = 6 cm.
AC = 13 cm, what is 3 E
B Find AC.
the sum of the radii B 6
of the circles? D
195 Geometry 9
A. TRIGONOMETRIC THEOREMS
We now know how to calculate one or more angles or side lengths in a right triangle from
given information about the triangle. However, there are also relations between the angles
and sides of any triangle (not just right triangles). In this section we will study these general
relations and use them to solve triangle problems.
1. The Law of Cosines
Theorem law of cosines
In a triangle ABC with side lengths a, b and c, A
a = b + c – 2bc cos A
2 2 2
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
b
c
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C.
B a C
Proof First we draw CH as an altitude of the
A
triangle. Point H now divides AB into two segments
such that AH = x and HB = c – x. Consequently
In a triangle ABC, a is x
the side opposite A, b is there exist two right triangles: CAH and CHB. c H
the side opposite B and b
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to each
c is the side opposite c. h
A right triangle gives us
cx
q h2 + (c – x)2 = a2 (1)
c b
h2 + x2 = b2. (2)
B a C
B a C We can subtract these side by side:
a, b and c can also mean h2 + (c – x)2 = a2
the lengths of sides a, b
and c respectively. h2 + x2 = b2
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
We also write A to mean
h2 + (c – x)2 – h2 – x2 = a2 –b2
the angle at A, B to
mean the angle at B and c2 – 2cx + x2 – x2 = a2 – b2.
C to mean the angle at
C: in the figure, m(A) = . So a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cx. (3)
194 Geometry 9
In the right triangle CAH,
C
x
cos A = , i.e. x = b cos A.
b
Substituting this value of x in (3) gives us
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cb cos A. b
h
We can rewrite this as
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A,
which is the required result.
A x H
The proofs of the other two identities are similar.
They are left as an exercise for you.
Notice that by rewriting the three parts of the law of cosines we obtain the relations
b2 + c2 – a2
cos A =
2bc
a2 + c2 b 2
cos B =
2ac
a2 + b 2 – c2
cos C = .
2ab
Note
By the law of cosines:
1. If two sides of a triangle and the angle between them are known, it is possible to calculate
the length of the third side of the triangle.
2. If the three sides of a triangle are known, it is possible to calculate the trigonometric
values of the angles in the triangle.
EXAMPLE 1 In the figure, ABC is a triangle with
A
AC = 4, BC = 6 and m(ACB) = 60°.
Find AB. 4
Solution By the law of cosines, c 60°
C
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
c2 = 62 + 42 – 2 6 4 cos 60° 6
1
c2 = 36 + 16 – 2 6 4 B
2
c2 = 28
c = ò28 = 2ñ7.
Trýgonometrýc Theorems and Formulas 195
EXAMPLE 2 In the figure, ABC is a triangle with
A
AB = 2, BC = ñ3 and m(ABC) = 150°.
Find b. b
2 150°
B ñ3 C
Solution By the law of cosines,
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
3 3
b2 = (ñ3)2 + 22 – 2 ñ3 2 – cos 150 = –
2
2
b2 = 3 + 4 + 6
b2 = 13
b = ò13.
EXAMPLE 3 The figure shows a triangle ABC with C
AC = 3, AB = 7 and m(ACB) = 120°. Find a. 120° a
3
Solution By the law of cosines,
A 7 B
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C
1 1
7 2 = a2 + 32 2 a 3 (cos 120 = )
2 2
49 = a2 +9+ 3 a; ( a – 5)( a+8) = 0;
2
a + 3a 40 = 0; a = 5 , a = –8.
(–5) (8)
Since the length of a side cannot be negative, a = 5.
EXAMPLE 4 Find cos A in the triangle in the figure. C
Solution By the law of cosines, 5
b2 + c2 – a2 2
cos A =
2bc
52 + 42 – 2 2
=
2 5 4 A 4 B
25+16 – 4
=
40
37
= .
40
196 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 5 Find the measure of angle B in the figure. B
Solution By the law of cosines, 3 6
2 2 2
a +c – b
cos B =
2ac
A
32 +6 2 – (3 3)2 3ñ3
= C
2 36
9+ 36 – 27
=
36
18 1
= = .
36 2
1 1
So cos B = . We know that m(B) < 90° and cos 60° = . Therefore m(B) = 60°.
2 2
Check Yourself
1. The side lengths of a triangle are 4, 5 and 6 units respectively. Find the cosine of the
smallest angle in the triangle.
A
2. ABC is a triangle with AB = 4,
Inscribed and 4 120° x
circumscribed: BC = ò61 and m(BAC) = 120°. Find AC.
B ò61 C
Answers
The black line shows an 1. 0.75 2. 5
inscribed triangle.
The red line shows a
circumscribed circle. 2. The Law of Sines
Theorem law of sines
Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a, b and c C
which is inscribed in a circle with radius R.
a b c
Then = = = 2 R. b a
sin A sin B sin C O
R
A c B
OB = R
Trýgonometrýc Theorems and Formulas 197
Proof Look at the figure.
C
In the right triangle CDA,
hC E
sin A , i.e. hC = b sin A. (1)
b F a
b
In the right triangle CDB, hb
ha
hC hc
sin B = , i.e. hC = a sin B. (2)
a A D B
From (1) and (2) c
we obtain b sin A = a sin B, i.e.
a b (I)
= .
sin A sin B
hb
Similarly, in the right triangle BFA we have sin A , i.e. hb = c sin A. (3)
c
hb
Finally, in the right triangle BFC, sin C which gives hb = a sin C. (4)
a
a c
From (3) and (4) we obtain c sin A = a sin C, i.e. = . (II)
sin A sin C
a b c
From (I) and (II) we obtain = = . (Result 1)
sin A sin B sin C
To show the relation with the radius R of
A
the circumscribed circle, we can use the figure
M
opposite.
M is a point on the circle such that MC is the O
diameter of the circumscribed circle and
B C
m(MBC) = 90°. Since BAC and BMC are
circumscribed angles having the same arc BïC
on the circle, m(BAC) = m(BMC).
Since m(M) = m(A) we have sin M = sin A.
In the right triangle MBC,
a a a
sin M = = , i.e. sin A = .
MC 2 R 2R
a
So = 2 R. (Result 2)
sin A
a b c
Combining Result 1 and Result 2 gives us = = = 2 R.
sin A sin B sin C
198 Geometry 9
Note
Let ABC be an inscribed triangle. By the law of sines:
1. If the measures of the three angles and the radius
of circumscribed circle are known, it is possible to
find the side lengths of the triangle.
2. If the radius of the circumscribed circle and the
side lengths of the triangle are known, it is possible
to calculate the trigonometric values of the
angles of the triangle.
EXAMPLE 6 In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 30° and the length of side a is 8 cm. Find the area of the
circumscribed circle of ABC.
Solution By the law of sines, A
30°
a 8
= 2 R so 2 R.
sin A sin 30 R
8
So 2 R, i.e. R = 8 cm.
1
8 C
2 a=
We can calculate the area A of a circle with B
the formula A = R2.
So the area is 82 = 64 cm2.
EXAMPLE 7 In a triangle ABC, m(B) = 45°, m(C) = 30° and the length of side c is 4 cm. Find the
length of side b.
Solution By the law of sines, A
c b 4 b
= , i.e. = . b
sin C sin B sin 30 sin 45 4
4 b
So = and b = 4ñ2 cm. 45° 30°
1 2 B C
2 2
Trýgonometrýc Theorems and Formulas 199
EXAMPLE
8 In a triangle ABC, the measures of the interior angles are 30°, 60° and 90° respectively. The
radius of the triangle’s circumscribed circle is 6 cm. Find the perimeter of the triangle ABC.
Solution By the law of sines,
a b c
= = = 2 6 =12. This gives
sin 30 sin 60 sin 90
1
a = sin 30 12 = 12 6 cm, C
2
B
3 60°
b = sin 60 12 = 12 = 6 3 cm and
2 6
30° O
c = sin 90° 12 = 12 cm.
Since the perimeter P(ABC) = a + b + c we A
can write
P(ABC) = 6 + 6ñ3 + 12 = 18 + 6ñ3 cm.
Check Yourself
1. In a triangle ABC, a = 5 cm and the radius of the circumscribed circle is 5 cm. Find m(A).
2. In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 30°, m(B) = 135° and b = 4ñ2 cm. Find the length of side a.
Answers
1. 30° or 150° 2. 4 cm
200 Geometry 9
EXERCISES 4
A. Trigonometric Theorems 3. A triangle ABC has sides a, b and c such that
1. Find the length of side x in each triangle. a2 – b2 – c2 – (b c) = 0. Find m(A) = .
a. A b.
A
4. A triangle ABC has sides a, b and c such that
30° c2 – b2 = a2 + ñ2 b a. Find m(C) = .
3 120° x
2
3
B 4 C 5. Find the length x in each figure.
B
x a. A b. A
C
A 45° 75°
c. A d. x 2 ñ3 x
2 x
B
4 2 B 60°
4 150° B C
30°
60° C
B x C C
A
c.
6 8
2. Find the length x in each figure. B
30°
C
a. A b. A x
1
4 3 D
D 4 A(DABC) = A(DDBC)
2 x E
D
2 x
1
B
5
C B 4 C 6. Calculate sin in each figure.
c. A d. a. A b.
A
A
3 10
6 ñ5
3 4 120°
x 2 x a 30° a
D
1 B C B 4 C
C
B 3 D 2 C 3
B c. d.
D C A
e. A f. A
6 a
30° 9
2 E
x 4
E a 30°
2 4 3
D B D C
4 A B
B 1 2BD = DC
1 D B ABCD is a square
3 x
C C CE = BE
Trýgonometrýc Theorems and Formulas 201
7. The side lengths of a triangle ABC are 3, 7 and 8
units respectively. What is the circumference of
the circumscribed circle of the triangle?
8. In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 75°, m(B) = 60° and
AB = c = 10 cm.
a. Find the length of the side b.
b. Find the radius of the circumscribed circle of
the triangle.
9. In a triangle ABC, A
m(ACB) = 120°,
m(ABC) = 30° 6ñ3 cm
x
and AB = 6ñ3 cm.
Find AC. 120°
30°
B C
10. A triangle ABC has side lengths a = 3, b = 3ñ3
and c = 6. Its circumscribed circle has radius R = 3.
Find the measure of each interior angle of the
triangle.
11. A triangle ABC has sides a = 7 cm, b = 24 cm and
c = 25 cm. Find A(ABC).
12. A triangle ABC has sides of length 8, 15 and 17
units respectively. Find the radius of its
circumscribed circle.
202 Geometry 9
In this section we will study geometric figures with many sides, which we call polygons.
A. BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Simple and Closed Curves
A curve is one of the basic undefined concepts in geometry. We can define a curve informal-
The basic undefined ly as any figure which you can draw without lifting your pencil from a piece of paper.
concepts in Euclidean
geometry are point, line, A curve can be called simple, closed, or neither simple nor closed. A simple curve is a curve
straight line and plane.
We use the term ‘curve’
which never crosses itself in the plane. In other words, it is a curve which you can draw
to describe what Euclid without lifting your pencil from the paper and without passing through any point twice.
meant by ‘line’, since a
Euclidean line was not A closed curve begins and ends at the same point. In other words, if the final position of your
necessarily straight.
pencil is the same as its starting position, and if you do not lift your pencil from the paper in
between, then you have drawn a closed curve.
The curves a, c, d and f below are simple curves. The curves b, e and g are not simple, since
they pass through the red points shown more than once.
Curves c, e, f and g are closed, and curves a, b and d are not closed.
a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
A curve which is both simple and closed is called a simple closed curve. Curves c and f above
are simple closed curves.
A curve can also contain straight line segments. Some examples are shown below.
a. b. c. d.
simple, not closed not simple, closed simple closed not simple, not closed
204 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 1 State which curves in the figure are
a. simple. b. closed. c. simple closed.
a b c d e f
Solution a. simple: a, c, e and f; not simple: b and d
b. closed: c, d and f; not closed: a, b and e
c. c and f are simple closed curves
EXAMPLE 2 Decide which curves in the figure are
a. simple. b. closed. c. simple closed.
a b c d e f
Solution a. simple: a, c, d and f; not simple: b and e
b. closed: b, c and d; not closed: a, e and f
c. c and d are simple closed curves
2. Definitions
Now we are ready to define a polygon as a special type of curve.
Definition polygon
A polygon is a simple closed curve that is made up entirely of straight
line segments such that
1. each line segment intersects exactly two other line segments and
the segments intersect only at their endpoints, and
2. no two segments with a common endpoint are collinear.
Polygons make a striking
design on this soccer ball.
Polygons are the most important type of simple closed curve.
Introductýon to Polgons 205
These shapes are examples of polygons:
The word ‘polygon’ comes
from the Greek words
poly (meaning ‘many’)
and gonia (meaning
‘angle’). So ‘polygon’ These shapes are not polygons:
means ‘many angles’.
A A
O B O B
Each line segment in a polygon is called a side of the polygon. The intersection point of two
line segments is called a vertex (plural vertices) of the polygon. In a polygon, the number of
sides is equal to the number of vertices. Two vertices which share the same side of a polygon
are called consecutive vertices, and the angles they form with the side are called consecutive
angles. Two sides which share a common vertex are called consecutive sides.
In the adjacent figure, line segments AB, BC sides
and CD are three sides of the polygon. Points
B
A, B, C and D are some of the vertices of the
polygon. The vertex pairs {A, B}, {B, C} and A
{C, D} are three examples of consecutive interior C
angles
vertices. The pairs {A, C} and {B, D} are not
consecutive vertices. The pairs of sides {AB, BC}, E
D
{BC, CD} and {CD, DE} are three examples of
consecutive sides. The pairs of sides {AB, CD}
vertices
and {BC, DE} are not consecutive. The angle
pairs {ABC, BCD} and {BCD, CDE} are two examples of consecutive angles.
A polygon separates a plane into three
D exterior
regions: the polygon itself, the interior region M
of the polygon, and the exterior region of the E P C Q
polygon. For example, point P in the figure interior
opposite is in the interior of the polygon, A B
point Q is in the exterior of the polygon, and
point M is on the polygon.
206 Geometry 9
In a polygon with vertices A, B, C, etc. the
B
angles ABC, BCD, CDE, etc. are called B¢
A¢
interior angles. We often name these angles C
A
simply with the letter of their vertex: A, B, C¢
C, etc.
We form an exterior angle of a polygon by D
extending one side of the polygon in one D¢
direction. In other words, the supplementary
angle of the interior angle at a given vertex is called the exterior angle at that vertex. An
exterior angle is often represented by a capital letter with a dash (A, B, C, etc.) accord-
ing to its vertex.
As we can see, m(A) + m(A) = 180°, m(B) + m(B) = 180°, etc.
Note C C2¢
Each vertex of a polygon has two exterior C 1¢ D
angles and the measures of these two angles
are equal. For example, in the figure, E
B
m(C1) = m(C2).
because these are vertical angles. A
3. Convex and Concave Polygons
A polygon is called convex if the lines which
contain its sides do not contain points in the
interior of the polygon. It is called concave if
any of the lines which contain the sides also
contain points in the interior of the polygon.
The figure at the right shows the difference
between a convex polygon and a concave
polygon. a convex polygon a concave polygon
We can also determine whether a polygon is
convex or concave by checking its angles. If every interior angle of a polygon measures less
than 180°, the polygon is convex. If one or more of the interior angles is greater than 180°,
the polygon is concave.
Introductýon to Polgons 207
EXAMPLE 3 State whether each polygon is convex or concave.
a. b. c. d.
Solution a. b. c. d.
convex concave convex concave
4. Types of Polygon
We can classify polygons according to how many sides they have. A triangle (three sides) is
the simplest type of polygon. A polygon with four sides is called a quadrilateral. A polygon
with fifteen sides is called a 15-ggon, a polygon with twenty-three sides is called a 23-ggon, and
a polygon with n sides is called an n-ggon. The table shows some more special names.
number of sides name number of sides name number of sides name
3 triangle 7 heptagon 11 undecagon
4 quadrilateral 8 octagon 12 dodecagon
5 pentagon 9 nonagon n n-gon
6 hexagon 10 decagon
208 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 4 Classify each polygon by counting its sides.
a. b. c.
Solution a. a heptagon (seven sides)
b. a pentagon (five sides)
c. a quadrilateral (four sides)
We name a polygon by listing the capital letters of the vertices in order, beginning with any
vertex and moving either clockwise or counterclockwise around the polygon.
For example, we can refer to the shape E
opposite as hexagon ABCDEF, polygon F
D
ABCDEF or polygon BAFEDC. We cannot call
it polygon ACDEFB or hexagon FDEABC A
because in these cases the vertices are not C
written in order. B
EXAMPLE 5 Name each polygon by listing its vertices.
a. E D
b. c.
V T L K
S
C Z J
F
M
P
M N R G
A B H
Solution a. polygon ABCDEF b. polygon TVZMNPRS c. polygon MHGJKL
Note that these are not the only possible answers to the question. As an exercise, try finding
one more name for each polygon in the example.
We name the sides of a polygon by referring to its vertices. In a triangle, each side is named
by the lower-case form of the opposite vertex. In other polygons, each side is usually named
by the lower-case form of the vertex at the beginning of the side, moving counterclockwise
around the polygon.
Introductýon to Polgons 209
For example, the sides of the triangle in the
C E d D
The lower-case letters figure opposite are a, b and c, which are
a, b, c, etc. also indicate respectively opposite the vertices A, B and C. e c
the lengths of the sides b
of a polygon. In the second polygon, the sides a, b, c, d, e a F
C
and f take their names from the vertices A, B, A f b
C, D, E and F, counted in a counterclockwise c
A a B
direction. B
EXAMPLE 6 Label the sides of each polygon by referring to its vertices.
a. E b. P c. P d.
K T
D C M
F S
P
S
A B R
N T K
Solution a. E b. P c. P d.
K t T
d n
e D c s
C M k
m p k S
F
P
b S
f p r
p
t s
A a B R
N T K
5. Diagonals in a Polygon
Definition diagonal
A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that joins two non-consecutive vertices.
In the polygon ABCDE opposite, line segment
D
AD is a diagonal. It joins the non-consecutive
vertices A and D. Line segment AC is another E
l
ona
diagonal that joins vertices A and C. BE, BD C
diag
and CE are other diagonals in the polygon.
Notice that a triangle has no diagonals
A triangle has no diagonal. because it has no non-consecutive vertices. A B
210 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 7 Draw and name the diagonals in each polygon.
a. E D
b. K
c. Z Y
P X
C
A
S V
M
B
N T
Solution a. E D
b. K c. Z Y
P X
C
A
S V
M
B N T
AD, AC, BE, BD, CE KN, MP SY, SX, SV, TZ, TY, TX, VZ, VY, XZ
Check Yourself
1. Which of the following curves are polygons? If a curve is a polygon, is it convex or concave?
a. b. c.
2. Classify each polygon by counting its sides.
a. b. c. H
I G
A F
B E
C D
Answers
2. a. a heptagon b. an octagon c. a nonagon
Introductýon to Polgons 211
B. BASIC PROPERTIES OF A CONVEX POLY-
GON
In the rest of this book we will use the word ‘polygon’ to mean a convex polygon, unless
stated otherwise.
1. Number of Diagonals
What is the total number of diagonals that we can draw from every single vertex of an n-sided
polygon? Let us try to answer this question.
Imagine a polygon with n sides. If we choose one vertex then there are n – 1 other vertices
left on the polygon. By the definition of a diagonal, we cannot draw a diagonal through two
adjacent vertices. So there are (n – 1) – 2 = n – 3 vertices left, and so the number of diago-
nals which we can draw from a single vertex of an n-sided polygon is n – 3.
For example, consider the hexagon in the E D
figure opposite. From vertex A we can draw
diagonals only to vertices C, D and E: since
vertices B and F are adjacent to vertex A, we F C
cannot draw a diagonal to these vertices.
So the number of the diagonals which we
A B
can draw from vertex A is 3. We can check
this in the formula above: n – 3 = 6 – 3 = 3.
Theorem 1 n( n 3)
A convex polygon with n sides has diagonals.
2
Proof 1 An n-sided polygon has n vertices, and from each vertex we can draw n – 3 diagonals. So the
total number of diagonals that we can draw is n(n – 3). But this means that we are counting
each diagonal twice, since a diagonal joins two vertices. So the expression n(n – 3) must be
divided by 2.
n( n 3)
So the number of diagonals in an n-sided polygon is .
2
Proof 2 An n-sided polygon has n vertices. Consider all the lines determined by these n points.
Remember that there is only one line which passes through two distinct points, and no three
vertices of the polygon are collinear. So the number of lines determined by the n noncollinear
Remember: vertices of the polygon is equal to C(n, 2) (i.e. the number of combinations of n points taken
C(n, r) means the number
of possible combinations two at a time). Since n of these lines include the sides of the polygon, the rest of the lines are
of n elements taken r at a the diagonals of the polygon.
time: n( n – 1) n( n 3)
n!
So the number of diagonals is C( n, 2) – n = n= .
C( n, r ) = . 2 2
r !( n – r )!
212 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 8 a. Find the number of diagonals in a heptagon (a 7-sided polygon).
b. Find the number of diagonals in an 11-sided polygon.
n( n 3)
Solution a. We know that the number of diagonals in an n-sided polygon is . Substituting
2
7 (7 3) 7 4
n = 7 in the formula we get = =14. So a heptagon has 14 diagonals.
2 2
b. Using the same formula, the number of diagonals in an 11-sided polygon is
11 (11 3) 11 8
= = 44.
2 2
EXAMPLE 9 a. Find the number of sides of a polygon which has 9 diagonals.
b. Find the number of diagonals which pass through one vertex of the polygon in part a.
n( n 3)
Solution a. Let n be the number of sides. The number of diagonals of an n-sided polygon is .
2
n( n 3)
So =9
2
n2 – 3n = 18
n2 – 3n – 18 = 0, which factors as (n + 3)(n – 6) = 0, so n = –3 or n = 6.
Since the number of sides cannot be negative, the polygon must have six sides.
b. We know that there are n – 3 diagonals through one vertex of an n-sided polygon, and
substituting 6 for n gives us n – 3 = 6 – 3 = 3. So the answer is three diagonals.
2. Angle Measures
We know that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°. What about the sum of the
interior angles of other polygons? Before trying to find a general rule, think about this
question: If you pick any vertex of a polygon and draw all the possible diagonals from this
vertex, how many triangles are formed?
Look at the figures and count the triangles.
a quadrilateral (4 sides) a pentagon (5 sides) a hexagon (6 sides)
In each figure we have drawn diagonals from one vertex to each of the other vertices. The
diagonals form triangles. In each case, the number of triangles formed is two less than the
number of sides of the polygon. In fact, it can be shown that for an n-sided polygon the
number of triangles formed is n – 2.
Introductýon to Polgons 213
Theorem 2
The sum of the measures of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is (n – 2) 180°.
Proof As we have seen, drawing all the possible A
diagonals of an n-sided polygon from one B
vertex makes n – 2 triangles. The sum of the
measures of the interior angles in a polygon C
is the sum of the measures of the angles of
D
these triangles. Since the sum of the
measures of the interior angles of a triangle is
E G
180°, the sum of the measures of the interior F
angles of an n-sided polygon is (n – 2) 180°.
EXAMPLE 10 a. Find the sum of the measures of the interior angles of a polygon with 9 sides.
b. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is 1620°. How many sides does the polygon have?
Solution a. Since the sum of the interior angles of a polygon with n sides is (n – 2) 180º, by substituting
n = 9 we obtain (9 – 2) 180° = 1260°.
So the answer is 1260°.
b. Using the same formula gives us the equation
(n – 2) 180° = 1620°
n–2=9 (dividing both sides by 180°)
n = 11. So the answer is 11.
Theorem 3
The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360°.
Proof Let S be the sum of the angle measures. A
E
polygon with n sides has n vertices. Since the F
interior and exterior angles at one vertex are
D
supplementary and there are n vertices, the
sum of the measures of all the interior and
exterior angles of the polygon is n 180°. Since C
the sum of the measures of the interior A
B
The sum of the measures angles is (n – 2) 180°, we can write
of the interior angles of a
polygon depends on the S = n 180° – ((n – 2) 180°) = (n 180°) – (n 180°) + (2 180°) = 360°, as required.
number of sides, but the
sum of the measures of
the exterior angles is The next two activities will also help us to understand why the sum of the exterior angles of
always 360°. any polygon is 360°.
214 Geometry 9
Activity 1
Draw a convex quadrilateral and extend the sides to
form an exterior angle at each vertex. Then cut out
2
3
each exterior angle and join them all together, as
2
shown in the second figure opposite. 1
4 3
What can you conclude? 1 5 4
Activity 2
The sequence of polygons shown below shows the polygon getting smaller and
smaller. What is the sum of the measures of the exterior angles of the polygon?
EXAMPLE 11 The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a polygon is 1800°.
a. How many sides does this polygon have?
b. How many diagonals does it have?
Solution a. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon with n sides is (n – 2) 180°, so we need to
solve the equation (n – 2) 180° = 1800°. Dividing both sides by 180° gives us
n – 2 = 10; n = 12.
So the polygon has 12 sides.
n( n 3)
b. The number of diagonals in an n-sided polygon is .
2
12 (12 3) 12 9
For n = 12, we get = = 54 .
2 2
So the polygon has 54 diagonals.
Introductýon to Polgons 215
EXAMPLE 12 The measures of the interior angles of a heptagon are in the ratio 4 : 5 : 6 : 7 : 7 : 8 : 8.
Find the measure of each interior and exterior angle of this heptagon.
Solution Let x be the constant of proportionality, then the interior angles are 4x, 5x, 6x, 7x, 7x, 8x
and 8x. If we add these together we get 45x, which it is the sum of the measures of the
interior angles. Using the formula (n – 2) 180° for n = 7 (i.e. a heptagon), we find that the
sum of the measures of the interior angles of a heptagon is 900°.
So 45x = 900°, i.e. x = 20°.
So the interior angles are 80°, 100°, 120°, 140°, 140°, 160° and 160°, and the supplementary
angles 100°, 80°, 60°, 40°, 40°, 20° and 20° are the exterior angles.
EXAMPLE 13 The figure which is constructed when we
N
extend the sides of a convex n-gon for any 3x
E D
n > 4 is called an n-p
pointed star. P
x
2x K
The figure at the right shows a 5-pointed star. A C
m(T) = m(K) = 2x, B
2x
x
m(S) = m(P) = x and m(N) = 3x are
T
given. Find the value of x. S
Solution In ETK,
m(DEN) = m(T) + m(K) (DEN is an exterior angle of ETK)
The measure of an exterior = 2x + 2x
angle in a triangle is the
sum of the measures of the = 4x.
two other interior angles.
Similarly, in DPS,
C
m(EDN) = m(P) + m(S) (EDN is an exterior angle of DPS)
=x+x
A B = 2x.
m(B)=m()+m(C)
So in NED,
3x + 4x + 2x = 180° (sum of the interior angles of a triangle)
9x = 180°
x = 20°.
Note
The arms of this starfish
The sum of the measures of the interior angles at the corners of an n-pointed star is
form a five-pointed star. (n – 4) 180°.
216 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 14 The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a polygon is 540° more than the sum of the
measures of the exterior angles. How many sides does the polygon have?
Solution The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a polygon is 360°, and the sum of the
measures of the interior angles of a polygon with n sides is (n – 2) 180°.
So (n – 2) 180° = 360° + 540°
(n – 2) 180° = 900° (divide both sides by 180°)
n – 2 = 5; n = 7. So the polygon has 7 sides.
EXAMPLE 15 In a polygon, the ratio of the sum of the measures of the exterior angles to the sum of the
1
measures of the interior angles is .
3
a. How many sides does the polygon have?
b. How many diagonals does the polygon have?
c. Find the sum of the measures of the interior angles of the polygon.
Solution a. The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a polygon is 360° and the sum of the
measures of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is (n – 2) 180°.
360° 1
So = with n 2. By simplifying and cross multiplying we get
( n 2) 180° 3
n – 2 = 6; n = 8.
So the polygon has 8 sides.
b. The number of diagonals in an n-sided polygon is n( n 3) .
2
8 (8 3) 8 5
For n = 8, we get = = 20 .
2 2
So there are 20 diagonals.
c. Using the formula (n – 2) 180° for n = 8 gives us (8 – 2) 180° = 1080°.
So the sum of the measures of the interior angles of the polygon is 1080°.
EXAMPLE 16 Is it possible for the smallest interior angle of a 9-sided polygon to measure 141°?
Solution A 9-gon has nine interior angles. If the smallest angle measures 141°, each other interior
angle will have to measure more than 141°. So the sum of the measures of the interior angles
will be greater than 9 141° = 1269°.
We also know that the sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is (n – 2) 180°.
For nine sides, this becomes (9 – 2) 180° = 1260°.
Since 1269° is greater than 1260°, the smallest interior angle of a 9-sided polygon cannot
measure 141°.
Introductýon to Polgons 217
EXAMPLE 17 What is the maximum number of acute interior angles that a polygon can have? Explain your
answer.
Solution A polygon can have at most three acute interior angles, because if an interior angle is acute
then its exterior angle is obtuse and the sum of the measures of more than three obtuse
angles is more than 360° (since 360° ÷ 4 = 90°, which is not an obtuse angle). These obtuse
angles would not form a polygon, since the sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a
polygon is 360°. So the answer is three.
Check Yourself 2
1. A given polygon has 20 sides.
a. Find the sum of the measures of the interior angles of the polygon.
b. Find the number of diagonals in the polygon.
2. The measures of the interior angles of a hexagon are in the ratio 3 : 5 : 6 : 7 : 7 : 8. Find
the measure of each interior and exterior angle of this polygon.
3. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a polygon is 1080° more than the sum
of the measures of its exterior angles.
a. How many sides does this polygon have?
b. How many diagonals does it have?
Answers
1. a. 3240° b. 170
2. interior angles: 60°, 100°, 120°, 140°, 140°, 160°
exterior angles: 120°, 80°, 60°, 40°, 40°, 20°
3. a. 10 b. 35
C. REGULAR POLYGONS
1. Definition
A polygon is called equilateral if all its sides are congruent. It is called equiangular if all its
interior angles are congruent. A polygon may be equilateral, equiangular, both equilateral and
equiangular, or neither equilateral nor equiangular.
Definition regular polygon
A polygon which is both equilateral and equiangular is called a regular
polygon.
For example, the polygons in the next figure are regular because all the
sides of each polygon are the same length, and all the angles of each
polygon are congruent.
218 Geometry 9
an equilateral triangle a square a regular pentagon a regular hexagon
The following polygons are not regular:
equilateral but equiangular but equiangular but equilateral but
not equiangular not equilateral not equilateral not equiangular
2. Basic Properties of a Regular Polygon
a. Interior angle measures
We know that the sum of the measures of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is (n – 2) 180°.
Since the interior angles of a regular polygon are all congruent, the measure of each interior
( n – 2) 180°
angle is .
n
EXAMPLE 18 What is the measure of each interior angle of a regular 8-sided polygon?
Solution Substituting n = 8 in the formula ( n 2) 180° , we get the measure of each interior angle
n
as (8 2) 180° = 6 180° =135°.
8 8
b. Exterior angle measures
We know that the measures of the interior angles of a regular polygon are equal, and so the
measures of the exterior angles are also equal. We also know that the sum of the measures
of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360°. So the measure of each exterior angle of any
360°
regular n-gon is .
n
EXAMPLE 19 What is the measure of each exterior angle of a regular 12-sided polygon?
360°
Solution Substituting n = 12 in the formula , we get the measure of each exterior angle as
n
360°
= 30°.
12
Introductýon to Polgons 219
EXAMPLE 20 Determine the number of sides of a regular polygon if
a. one interior angle measures 140°.
b. one exterior angle measures 36°.
Solution a. Using the formula ( n – 2) 180 for a polygon with n sides gives us the equation
n
( n 2) 180°
140°, n 0
n
(n – 2) 9 = n 7 (by cross multiplication and simplification)
9n – 18 = 7n ; 2n = 18 ; n = 9.
So the polygon has 9 sides.
b. Using the formula 360° where n is the number of sides gives us
n
360°
= 36°, n 0
n
n = 10. (by cross multiplication and simplification)
So the polygon has 10 sides.
D
EXAMPLE 21 In the figure opposite, ABCDE is a regular
pentagon and ABF is an equilateral triangle.
What is m(AFE)? E C
F
A B
Solution The measure of an interior angle of a regular D
(5 2) 180° 3 180°
pentagon is = =108°,
5 5
and each interior angle of an equilateral E C
66° F
66°
triangle measures 60°.
60°
The Pentagon in Washington 48°
So m(EAB) = 108° and m(FAB) = 60°, 60° 60°
is a remarkable architectural
example of a regular polygon. and so m(EAF) = 108° – 60° = 48°. A B
Since ABCDE is a regular pentagon, the line segments AB and AE are
congruent. Line segments AB and AF are also congruent because
ABF is equilateral. And so line segments AF and AE must be
congruent. We can conclude that AFE is an isosceles triangle and
the base angles AFE and AEF are equal.
180° 48°
So m( AFE) = = 66°.
2
Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 22 In the figure, ABCDE… is a regular polygon A
and m(BDE) = 120°.
How many sides does this polygon have? B
C
120°
D E
( n 2) 180°
Solution We know the formula a = for
n A
the measure a of an interior angle of a regular
polygon with n sides. Let us try to find a
B
using the information we are given.
x
Since ABCDEF… is a regular polygon, it is 120°+x
equilateral and equiangular. This means that C x
120°
the line segments AB, BC and CD are congruent
D E
and A, B and C have equal measures.
BCD is isosceles, so we can write m(CBD) = m(CDB) = x.
So m(BCD) = m(CDE) = x + 120°.
Thus in BCD, x + x + (120° + x) = 180° (sum of the interior angles of a triangle)
x = 20°.
So the measure of one interior angle of the regular polygon is a = 120° + 20° = 140°.
( n 2) 180°
Substituting this in the formula a = where n is the number of sides, we get the
n
( n 2) 180°
equation =140°, n 0
n
(n – 2) 9 = n 7 (by cross multiplication and simplification)
9n – 18 = 7n; 2n = 18; n = 9. So the polygon has 9 sides.
EXAMPLE 23 In the figure, ABCDEF… is a regular polygon A ...
and line segments AH and FH bisect A and B
F respectively. If m(AHF) = 150°, find the
C
number of sides of the polygon.
150° H
D
E
...
F
Introductýon to Polgons 221
Solution Since ABCDEF… is a regular polygon, A, A
...
B
B, C, D, E and F are all congruent
m( A )
and m( BAH ) = m( EFH ) = because C x
2
AH and FH are angle bisectors. 150° H
In the figure, D
x = 150° ÷ 5 = 30°.
E
All the triangles are isosceles, so ...
F
(180 – 30 )
m( BAH ) = = 75 and
2
m(B) = m(C) = ... = 2 75° = 150°.
So one interior angle of the regular polygon measures 150°.
( n 2) 180°
Now, using the formula we can write
n
( n 2) 180°
=150°, n 0
n
(n – 2) 6 = n 5 (by cross multiplication and simplification)
6n – 12 = 5n
n = 12.
So ABCDEF... has 12 sides.
EXAMPLE 24 Prove that the midpoints of the sides of a regular polygon form the vertices of another
regular polygon with the same number of sides.
Solution Let ABCDEF… be an n-sided regular polygon
B K A
and let points K, L, M, N, P, etc. be the
L
midpoints of the sides AB, BC, CD, DE, EF,
C
etc. respectively. First we will show that
polygon KLMNP… is a regular polygon. In M
other words, we will show that it is both
D G
equilateral and equiangular.
N R
E P F
222 Geometry 9
Statements Reasons
1. AB BC CD ... Polygon ABCDEF… is equilateral.
2. A B C ... Polygon ABCDEF… is equiangular.
3. AK KB BL LC ... Points K, L, M, N,… are midpoints.
4. KBL LCM MDN ... By 2 and 3
5. KL LM MN ... Corresponding sides of congruent triangles
6. BKL BLK CLM CML ... Corresponding angles of congruent triangles
7. AKB BLC CMD... Straight angles
8. KLM LMN MNP... By 6 and 7
9. Polygon KLMNP... is equilateral. By 5
10. Polygon KLMNP... is equiangular. By 8
So polygon KLMNP… is a regular polygon. Also, each vertex of KLMNP... lies on exactly one
side of the polygon ABCDE... . In other words, KLMNP... has n vertices. Since the number of
vertices of a polygon is equal to the number of sides, KLMNP... has n sides.
In conclusion, KLMNP... is an n-sided regular polygon.
The pattern on this cowfish and
the structure of this honeycomb are
made up of hexagons. Can you
think of a reason why the hexagon
is such a useful shape?
Check Yourself
1. Determine the number of sides of a regular polygon if
a. one interior angle measures 168°.
b. one exterior angle measures 18°.
E D
2. In the figure opposite, ABCDEF is a regular hexagon,
M
ABKL is a square and points C, K and M are collinear. K
L
Find m(MKL). F C
Answers
1. a. 30 b. 20 2. 15° A B
Introductýon to Polgons 223
3. Inscribed and Circumscribed Polygons
Definition inscribed polygon, cyclic polygon, circumscribed circle, circumcircle
A polygon is called an inscribed polygon (or cyclic polygon) if all of its vertices lie on the same
Remember:
circle. This circle is called the circumscribed circle (or circumcircle) of the polygon.
x y means x is congruent
to y. Congruent angles Look at some examples of inscribed polygons:
have the same measure.
Congruent line segments
B E I
have the same length.
Congruent triangles have H
congruent angles and A D
congruent sides.
J
F L
C G K
Definition circumscribed polygon, inscribed circle
A polygon is called a circumscribed polygon if its sides are all tangent to the same circle. This
circle is called the inscribed circle of the polygon.
Look at some examples of circumscribed polygons:
Property 1
A regular polygon is always an inscribed and circumscribed polygon, and its inscribed and
circumscribed circles have the same center. Conversely, if the inscribed and circumscribed
circles of a polygon have the same center then this polygon is a regular polygon.
Note that we may be able to draw both inscribed and circumscribed circles for other
polygons, but if their centers are not at the same point then these polygons are not regular.
224 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 25 A square has sides 6 cm long. Find the radii of its inscribed and circumscribed circles.
Solution Look at the figure. The centers of the
B A
inscribed and circumscribed circles lie at the
r
intersection of the diagonals of the square.
The radius r of the inscribed circle is half the O
R
length of the side of the square, i.e. 3 cm.
The radius R of the circumscribed circle is C K D
half the length of the diagonal of the square.
By the Pythagorean Theorem,
AD2 + CD2 = AC2
62 + 62 = AC2
AC = 6ñ2.
So the radius of the circumscribed circle is R = 6ñ2 ÷ 2 = 3ñ2 cm.
EXAMPLE 26 A regular hexagon has sides of length 8 cm. Find the radii of its inscribed and circumscribed
circles.
Solution Look at the figure. The centers of the A
B
inscribed and circumscribed circles of the
hexagon lie at point O. OH is the radius of
In a circle, a central the inscribed circle and OD is the radius of
angle is an angle formed C O F
by two radii. In the figure
the circumscribed circle.
below, AOB is a central
angle and DOE is a central angle and measures
m(AOB) = m(AïB). 360°
60°. D H E
A 6
DOE is an isosceles triangle with altitude OH.
O 8
In addition, m(HOE) = m(DOE) ÷ 2 = 30° and HE = = 4 cm.
B 2
HE HE 4
In the right triangle OHE, sin 30° = so OE = = = 8 cm, and
OE sin 30° 0.5
HE HE 4
tan 30° = so OH = 4 3 cm.
OH tan 30° 1
3
So the radius of the circumscribed circle is 8 cm and the radius of the inscribed circle is
4ñ3 cm.
Introductýon to Polgons 225
a. Formulas for the radii of inscribed and circumscribed circles
There is a relation between the side length of
a regular polygon, the number of sides, and
the radii of its inscribed and circumscribed O
circles.
Let a be the length of a side of a regular
polygon, let n be the number of sides and let
A H B
r and R be the radii of the polygon’s inscribed
and circumscribed circles, respectively.
360°
Look at the figure. AOB is a central angle and m( AOB) = .
n
AOB 180° AB a
AOB is isosceles and OH is its height. So m( HOB) = = and HB = = .
2 n 2 2
HB HB a
In the right triangle OHB, sin HOB = ; OB = ; R= , and
OB sin HOB 180°
2 sin
n
HB HB a
tan HOB = ; OH = ; r= .
OH tan HOB 180°
2 tan
n
a
So the radius of the circumscribed circle is R= and the radius of the inscribed
180°
a 2sin
circle is r = . n
180°
2tan
n
The table at the right shows the relation between a, n, r and R for regular polygons with 3, 4
and 6 sides.
EXAMPLE 27 A 12-sided regular polygon has sides of length 10 cm. Find the radii of its inscribed and
circumscribed circles.
a a
Solution We can use the formulas R = and r = , where n is the number of
180° 180°
2 sin 2 tan
n n
sides and a is the length of one side. For n = 12 and a = 10 cm,
10 5 10 5
Use a trigonometric R= = and r= =
table or a calculator to 180° sin15° 180° tan15°
find the trigonometric
2 sin 2 tan
12 12
values of the angles.
5 5
= =
0.2558 0.2679
R =19.55 cm r =18.66 cm.
226 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 28 The circumscribed circle of a regular hexagon with side length 10 cm is also the inscribed
circle of an equilateral triangle. Find the length of one side of the triangle.
a
Solution We will use the formulas r = and
180° B
2 tan
a n
R= .
180°
2 sin
n
The radius of the inscribed circle of the triangle S P
is equal to the radius of the circumscribed
circle of the hexagon. In the triangle, n = 3 O
and a is unknown so K N
a a a L M
r= = = . A C
180° 180° 2 tan60
2 tan 2 tan
n 3
In the hexagon, n = 6 and a = 10 cm so
a 10 5 5
R= = = = =10 cm.
180° 180° sin 30° 0.5
2 sin 2 sin
n 6
a
Since r = R we have =10; a = 20 tan 60°; a = 20ñ3 cm. This is the length of one
2 tan60°
side of the triangle.
Check Yourself 4
1. One side of an equilateral triangle measures 6ñ3 cm. Find the radii of its inscribed and
circumscribed circles.
2. One side of a square measures 10ñ3 cm. The inscribed circle of the square is also the
circumscribed circle of an equilateral triangle. Find the length of one side of this triangle.
3. The inscribed circle of a regular hexagon is the A F
circumscribed circle of a square with side length
4ñ2 cm. Find the length of one side of the
hexagon. B E
O
C D
Answers
8 3
1. r = 3 cm, R = 6 cm 2. 15 cm 3. cm
3
Introductýon to Polgons 227
Activity 1
The figure opposite shows a regular triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon and hexagon constructed on a common
base which is 2 cm long. Use a ruler and a protractor to draw each of the following polygons on a base which is
4 cm long.
a. a regular triangle
b. a regular quadrilateral
c. a regular pentagon
d. a regular hexagon
e. a regular octagon
f. a regular decagon
(Hint: Calculate the size of the interior angles first.)
Activity 2
THE GAME OF SPROUTS
Sprouts is a pencil-and-paper game which has interesting mathematical properties. It was invented by the
mathematicians John Horton Conway and Michael S. Paterson at England’s Cambridge University in 1967. Here
is a quote from Conway: ‘The day after Sprouts sprouted, it seemed that everyone was playing it. At coffee or
tea time there were little groups of people peering over ridiculous to fantastic sprout positions.’
The game is played by two players, starting with a few dots drawn on a sheet of paper. The game continues
according to the following rules:
1. Players take turns drawing a line between two dots, or from a dot to itself.
2. The line may not cross any other line. 1 2
3. After drawing a line, the player adds a new dot on the same line.
4. No dot may have more than three lines coming out of it.
5. The player who makes the last move wins.
The diagram at the right shows a 2-dot game of Sprouts. 3 4
After the fourth move (picture 4), it is impossible to make another
move, so the second player wins. The final figure shows that there
are two dots (shown in green) that are still ‘alive’, i.e. they
are only connected to two lines. But since these two survivors are in separate regions, they cannot be joined
together.
The secret to winning the game lies in using your lines to divide the paper up into parts that trap dots. If the 2-dot
game gets too easy for you, start with more dots.
This game is a good way to improve your understanding of how space can be divided on a flat surface.
228 Geometry 9
TESSELLATIONS
A tessellation (also called a tiling) is created when a shape is repeated over and over again to cover a plane
without any gaps or overlaps. The word ‘tessellate’ means to form or arrange small squares in a checkered or
mosaic pattern. It comes from the Greek word tesseres, which in English means ‘four.’ This is because the first
tessellations were made from square (i.e. four-sided) tiles.
Tessellations are all around us in our natural and man-made environment. Whenever we want to cover or
decorate a surface with shapes that neither overlap nor leave gaps, we work with tessellation.
The honeycombs in a beehive are one of the best natural examples of tessellation. The hexagonal cells in a comb
fit together perfectly without any gaps. Examples of man-made tessellations include floor tilings, brick walls,
wallpaper patterns, textile patterns and some stained glass windows.
There are three types of tessellation: regular, semi-rregular and irregular.
Regular Tessellations
A regular tessellation is a tessellation which is made up entirely of congruent regular polygons which all meet at their
vertices. Only three regular polygons tessellate in the Euclidean plane: the triangle, the square and the hexagon.
a tessellation of triangles a tessellation of squares a tessellation of hexagons
How do we know that only three types of regular polygon form a regular tessellation? Since the regular polygons
in a tessellation must fill the plane at each vertex, their interior angle must be an exact divisor of 360°. This only
works for the triangle, square and hexagon. The interior angles of all other regular polygons are not exact divisors
of 360°, and therefore these figures cannot fill the plane without leaving gaps. Look at some examples:
The interior angle of an equilateral The interior angle of a square The interior angle of a pentagon
triangle is 60°, and 6 60° = 360°. is 90°, and 4 90° = 360°. is 108°, and 4 108° = 324°.
So a triangle forms a regular So a square forms a regular So a pentagon does not form a
tessellation regular tessellation.
tessellation.
The interior angle of a hexagon is 120°, For regular polygons with more than six
and 120° + 120° + 120° = 360°. sides, the polygons overlap.
Semi-R
Regular Tessellations
Semi-regular tessellations are made up of two or more types of regular polygon which fit together in such a way that
the arrangement of polygons at every vertex point is identical. There are eight possible semi-regular tessellations
which are different combinations of equilateral triangles, squares, hexagons, octagons and dodecagons. The
pictures show two examples of semi-regular tessellations.
Irregular Tessellations
Irregular tessellations place no restriction on the number of different polygons or the order of the polygons around
the vertices. There are an infinite number of irregular tessellations. Here are two examples:
Can you see any other examples of tessellation in the world around you? Draw pictures of the patterns you find.
How many different shapes make up your tessellations?
EXERCISES 5 .1
A. Basic Concepts 4. State whether each polygon is convex or concave.
1. State which of curves 1-6 are a. b.
a. simple. b. closed.
c. simple closed.
c. d.
1 2 3 4 5 6
2. State whether each figure is a polygon. If it is not 5. Classify each polygon by counting its sides.
a polygon, explain why.
a. b.
a. b.
c. d.
c. d.
e.
6. Find a polygon in each picture. Classify the polygon
by counting its sides.
a. b.
3. For the polygon opposite, list D
E
c. d.
a. its vertices. C
F
b. its consecutive vertices and
angles. A B
Introductýon to Polygons 231
7. Name each polygon by listing its vertices. B. Basic Properties of a Convex Polygon
a. D b. P 10. Four polygons have 9, 12, 15 and 21 sides respectively.
C
For each polygon, state
E R
F
K a. the number of diagonals.
A B M N
b. the sum of the measures of its interior angles.
c. V d. X N
X Y 11. Find the number of sides of a convex polygon
M
which has
Z
S T K L a. 14 diagonals. b. 35 diagonals.
c. 77 diagonals. d. 170 diagonals.
8. Name the sides of each polygon by referring to its 12. How many sides does a polygon have if the sum of
vertices.
the measures of its interior angles is
a. D b. R
B a. 540°? b. 1440°? c. 1800°? d. 2880°?
C
K P
T
M
13. The number of diagonals in a given polygon is
A N
three times the number of sides of the polygon.
c. Z d. M L Find the sum of the measures of the interior
Y
angles of this polygon.
N K
T
X H G 14. The measures of the interior angles of a pentagon
are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5 : 7 : 8. Find the measure
of each interior and exterior angle of this
9. Name the diagonals in each polygon. pentagon.
a. D b. P
C
15. In the figure, ABCDEF is a E
A hexagon with
105°
m(E) = 105°,
B N F 110° 100° D
M
m(D) = 100°,
c. T d. N A
m(F) = 110°, C
P ?
M 40° 50°
S Z m(HAB) = 40° and H B G
H L m(BCG) = 50°.
X
Y G K Find m(ABC).
232 Geometry 9
16. In the figure, ABCD is a D B 20. Can the largest interior angle of a heptagon
concave quadrilateral
2x ? x measure 128°? Explain your answer.
with
C
m(DAB) = 4x,
m(D) = 2x, 21. What is the maximum possible number of right
4x
m(B) = x and A 4x + 20° angles in a convex polygon with more than 4
m(BAE) = 4x + 20°. sides?
E
Find m(BCD).
C. Regular Polygons
22. State whether each shape is a regular polygon.
17. In the figure, ABCD is a D
concave pentagon. 2x a. a rectangle b. a trapezoid
m(A) = 3x, c. a rhombus d. a square
? E C
6x
m(D) = 2x, e. an equilateral triangle f. a kite
m(C) = 6x, 105°
3x 5x15°
m(ABC) = 105° and A B F
m(CBF) = 5x – 15° are given. Find the measure 23. Three regular polygons have 9, 12 and 16 sides
of AED. respectively. For each polygon state
a. the measure of an interior angle.
b. the measure of an exterior angle.
18. In the figure, S
m(S) = m(N) = 3x, E 3x D
P
x 2x
R 24. The interior angle of a regular polygon measures
m(R) = 2x and
A C 165°. How many sides does this polygon have?
m(P) = m(K) = x. 3x x
B
Find the value of x. N K
25. The measure of an interior angle of a regular
polygon is six times the measure of an exterior
angle. How many sides does this polygon have?
19. Three interior angles of a polygon measure 110°,
125° and 135° respectively, and all the other
interior angles measure 170°. How many sides 26. ABCDE is a regular polygon. Find the measure of
does this polygon have? the angle between the diagonals BE and BD.
Introductýon to Polygons 233
27. In the figure, ABCDEF is a E D 33. In the figure, ABCDE is a regular P
regular hexagon and END
pentagon. Points P, E and H are
? D
is an equilateral triangle. collinear and points P, C, F are
F C E C
Find m(AEN). N also collinear. m(AEH) = 45° H
45° 30° F
and m(BCF) = 30°. Find the
A B
A B measure of EPF.
28. The inscribed circle of a square has radius
34. In the figure, ABCD... is a
2ñ3 cm. Find O
regular polygon with OH AB
a. the length of one side of the square. and OE CD. O is at the A 80° D
b. the radius of the circumscribed circle of the center of the polygon and H E
B C
square. m(HOE) = 80°. How many
sides does the polygon have?
29. One side of an equilateral triangle measures
4ñ3 cm. Find the radii of the inscribed and 35. In the figure, ABCDEF is a E D
1H
circumscribed circles of this triangle.
regular hexagon with DH = 1 cm
2
and HC = 2 cm. Find the F C
length of AH.
30. The circumscribed circle of a regular hexagon has A B
radius 8 cm. Find
a. the length of one side of the hexagon.
b. the radius of the inscribed circle of the 36. The sum of the measures of five interior angles of
hexagon.
a regular polygon is 270° more than the sum of
the measures of all its other interior angles. How
many sides does this polygon have?
31. The circumscribed circle of a regular hexagon
with side length 10 cm is also the inscribed circle
of an equilateral triangle. Find the length of one
37. Prove that any diagonal in a regular pentagon is
side of this triangle.
parallel to one of its sides.
32. The difference between the radii of the inscribed
and circumscribed circles of an equilateral 38. Prove that the intersection points of the diagonals
triangle is 4 cm. Find the length of one side of this of a regular pentagon form the vertices of another
regular pentagon.
234 Geometry 9
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles
A. AREA OF A CIRCULAR REGION
Definition circular region
The union of a circle and its interior region is called a circular region.
Theorem area of a circular region
The area of a circular region is the product of and the square of the radius of the circle:
A = r2 .
Proof Let us draw two n-gons such that the circle is
inscribed in one n-gon and circumscribes the
other n-gon, as shown in the figure. Let the
circle have area A and circumference C, and O
Inscribed or
let us say that the area of the polygon r
circumscribed? h
inscribed in the circle is A1 and its
perimeter is P1, and the area of the polygon
which circumscribes to the circle is A2 and its
C1
perimeter is P2. Then A1 < A < A2.
The triangle is inscribed
in circle C1. Circle C1 1 1 1 1
circumscribes the
Since A1 h P1 and A2 r P2 , we get h P1 r P2
2 2 2 2
triangle.
If we increase the number of sides of the polygons infinitely many times (n ) then h will
get closer and closer to r and the areas A1 and A2 will both get closer and closer to the area
C2 of the circle.
Also, as h r we get P1 P2 C = 2r.
Circle C2 is inscribed in
the square. The square 1 1
circumscribes circle C2. So A r C r 2r r 2 , as required.
2 2
Geometry 9
236
EXAMPLE 1 Find the area of a circle with radius 3 cm.
Solution r = 3 cm means A = r2 = 32 = 9 cm2.
EXAMPLE 2 The circumference of a circle is 16 cm. Find its area.
Solution C = 2r = 16 gives us r = 8 cm.
So A = r2 = 82 = 64 cm2.
EXAMPLE 3 The area of a circle is 48 cm2. Find its circumference.
48 48 4 3 4 3
Solution A = r2 = 48 gives us r 2 , r cm.
4 3
So C 2 r 2 8 3 cm.
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles
237
EXAMPLE 4 Within a circle with radius 8 cm we draw a square whose vertices lie on the circle. Find the
area of the region between the square and the circle.
Solution A square is a regular polygon, so the center of
D C
the circle and the center of the square are the
same point. So we can say that the diagonal O
a
of the square is equal to the diameter of the O
circle:
A a B
2r = d = añ2, i.e. 2 8 = añ2 and
16
a 8 2 cm.
2
Abetween the square and circle = Acircle – Asquare
= r2 – a2
= ( 82) – (8ñ2)2
= (64 – 128) cm2.
EXAMPLE 5 In the figure, the given three circles are
tangent to each other at the points A, B and
C and the points O1, O2 and O3 on AC are the 1 O1 O3 O2 3
A C
centers of these circles. The radii of the B
smallest and middle-sized circles are given as
1 cm and 3 cm respectively. Find the area of
the shaded region.
Solution Let the radii of the circles with centers O1, O2 and O3 be r1, r2 and r3 and let their areas be
A1, A2 and A3 respectively. We know that O1, O2 and O3 lie on the line AC.
Since AB = 2r1 = 2 cm and BC = 2r2 = 2 3 = 6 cm, we have
AC = AB + BC = 2 + 6 = 8 cm. So AC = 2r3 = 8 cm, i.e. r3 = 4 cm.
So the area of the shaded region is
A3 – A2 – A1 = ( r32) – ( r22) – ( r12)
= (42 – 32 – 12)
= (16 – 9 – 1)
= 6 cm2.
Geometry 9
238
EXAMPLE 6 An equilateral triangle with side length 12 cm is inscribed in a circle and circumscribes
another circle. Find the difference in area of these two circles.
a2 3 a3
Solution We know that the area of an equilateral triangle is or u r or .
4 4R
12 2 3 12 12 12 12 12 12
Equating these expressions gives us r .
4 2 4R
From this we get r = 2ñ3 cm and R = 4ñ3 cm. So
Abetween the circles = Acircumscribed circle – Ainscribed circle
= R2 – r2
= (4ñ3)2 – (2ñ3)2
= 48 – 12
= 36 cm2.
Check Yourself
1. A circle has diameter 14 units. Find its area.
2. The circumference of a circle is 4 units. Find the area of the circle.
3. A circle is inscribed in a square with side length 8 units. Find the area of the region
between the square and the circle.
4. In the figure, ABCD is a rectangle whose shorter D C
side measures 10 cm. The two circles are
internally tangent to this rectangle and externally
10
tangent to each other. Find the area of the shaded
region.
A B
5. In the figure, ABC is a right triangle and the circle C
circumscribes the triangle. Given that the legs of
8
the triangle are 6 and 8 units long, find the area of
the shaded region. A
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles
239
6. The two circles in the figure have centers at
B and C. The circles are internally tangent to 12
each other at point A. Given that the radius B
of the circle with center B is 12 cm, find the
area of the shaded region. C
Answers
A
4
1. 49 2. 3. 64 – 16 4. (200 – 50) cm2 5. 25 – 24 6. 108cm2
B. AREA OF A SECTOR
Definition sector
A sector of a circular region is a region
bounded by two radii of the circle and the arc
between the endpoints of these radii.
In the figure, OA and OB are radii of the O
circle, is the angle between the radii, and a
r r
AïB is the minor arc between the endpoints of
A B
these radii. So the shaded area is a sector of
the circular region.
Note
In a circle with center P, if mAPB < 180° then the points
B
A and B together with the points on the circle that lie in the
C P
exterior of APB form a major arc of the circle, denoted by minor arc AïB
three letters such as AùCB. The points A and B together with
the points on the circle that lie in the interior of APB form A
a minor arc of the circle, denoted by AïB. major arc AùCB
Theorem area of a sector
The area of a sector is the product of the area of the circular region and the ratio of the angle
between the radii of the sector to a whole angle (360°):
.
Asector r 2
360°
Proof Let us divide a whole circle into 360 congruent slices from its center.
2
Then the area of one slice is area of the circle r .
360 360
If a sector has angle between its radii then we need slices to match its area. So the area
r 2
of the sector is r 2 .
360 360
Geometry 9
240
EXAMPLE 7 The shaded region in the figure is a sector of
the circle. Find the area of this sector.
A
8 cm
O
60°
Solution Given that the angle is 60° and the radius
of the circle is 8 cm, we have B
60 64 32
Asector r 2 82 cm 2 .
360° 360 6 3
EXAMPLE 8 In the figure, AOB is a sector. Given that the
A
length of the minor arc AïB is 4 cm, find the
9 cm
area of the sector.
O 4p
r
Solution We know that the length of an arc is . So
180° B
r
4 , which means 9 720°, = 80°. So
180°
80
Asector r 2 92 18 cm 2 .
360° 360
EXAMPLE 9 In the figure, ABCD is a square and A is the
D C
center of the quarter circle ABD. Given that
one side of the square measures 10 cm, find
the area of the shaded region.
Solution We can see that one side of the square is the
radius of the circle.
A 10 B
So r = 10 cm and m(DAB) = = 90°. So
90
Ashaded region = Asquare – Asector = 102 – ( 102)= (100 – 25) cm2.
360
EXAMPLE 10 In the figure, ABCD is a rectangle and the
D E C
sector is part of a circle with center at point
O which is tangent to the rectangle at point
4
E.
Given that AD = 4 cm, find the sum of the
areas of the shaded regions. A O B
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles
241
Solution Sector AEB is a semicircle and m(AOB) = = 180°. Since AD = OE = r = 4 cm, we have
AB = 2r = 8 cm. So
180
Ashaded region = Arectangle – Asemicircle = (4 8) – ( 42 ) = (32 – 8) cm2.
360
EXAMPLE 11 A circle with radius 6 cm is given. AB is a diameter of this circle and BC is a chord. Given that
m(ABC) = 45°, find the area of the region bounded by AB, BC and the minor arc AïC.
C
Solution Let us draw the figure and let O be the
center of the circle. Drawing OC gives us 45°
OB = OC = r. 45°
A B
Since m(OBC) = 45° and OBC is isosceles, O
m(OCB) = 45° and m(BOC) = = 90°.
A chord is a straight line
segment which connects AOC is a sector and OBC is a right triangle, so
two points on a circle.
90 6 6
Ashaded region = Asector + A(OBC) = 62 (9 18) cm 2 .
360 2
EXAMPLE 12 A man has a rectangular garden with
A3 A6 3
sides of length 4 m and 6 m surrounded by a
A2 A5
fence. The man attaches a sheep to a 4
ten-meter rope which he fixes to the middle 3 3 7
of a longer side of the garden. What is the A1 A4
10
total area of grass outside the garden that the
sheep can graze?
Solution Let us draw an appropriate figure (above right). In the figure, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6 are the
quarter circles that the sheep can graze. As we can see in the figure, A1 = A4, A2 = A5 and
A3 = A6. So
90
A1 A4 10 2 25
360
90 49
A2 A5 72
360 4
90 9
A3 A6 32
360 4
49 9
total area = 2A1 + 2A2 + 2A3 = 2 25 + 2 2
4 4
= 50 + 29 = 79 m2.
Geometry 9
242
EXAMPLE 13 In the figure, ABCD is a square with side D C
length 12 cm and A and C are the centers of
two quarter circles. Find the area of the
shaded region. 12
A B
Solution Let us draw the diagonal BD. We can easily D C
conclude that A1 = A4 and A2 = A3. Also, A4
A1 = Asquare – AsectorBCD A3
90 12 A2
= 122 – ( 12 2 )
360
= (144 – 36) cm2 A1
A B
A2 = A(ABD) – A1
12 12
= – (144 – 36) = (36 – 72) cm2.
2
So Ashaded region = 2A2 = 2 (36 – 72) = (72 – 144) cm2.
EXAMPLE 14 In the figure, ABC is a right triangle with
A
m(BAC) = 90°, and O1, O2, and O3 are the
centers of the three semicircles. Given that
O2
the area of the semicircle with center at O3 is O1
20 cm2, find the sum of the areas of the B C
O3
semicircles with centers at O1 and O2.
Solution Let the radii of the semicircles centered at O1, O2 and O3 be c, b and a respectively.
Then AB = 2c, AC = 2b and BC = 2a.
By the Pythagorean Theorem we have (2c)2 + (2b)2 = (2a)2, i.e. c2 + b2 = a2.
Given that the area of the semicircle with center at point O3 is 20, we have
a2
20 , i.e. a2 = 40 = c2 + b2.
2
c2 b2
The area of the semicircles with centers at O1 and O2 are and respectively.
2 2
c2 b2
So the sum of their areas is = ( c2 b2 ) = 40 20 cm 2.
2 2 2 2
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles
243
Note
More generally, it can be shown that the sum of the areas of the circles whose diameters are
the legs of a right triangle is equal to the area of the circle whose diameter is the hypotenuse.
Check Yourself
1. A sector of a circle with radius 12 units is given. The central angle of the sector is 120°.
Find the area of this sector.
2. An arc of a circle measures 24 cm. Given that the radius of the circle is 8 cm, find the
area of the sector created by this arc.
A central angle is an C
angle whose vertex lies
at the center of a circle. 3. In the figure, AB is a diameter of the circle. Given
that AB = 16 and m(ABC) = 30°, find the area A 30°
of the shaded region. O B
C
4. The figure shows a quarter circle with center at
point A. Given that AC = 8 and BD = 3, find
the area of the shaded region. 8
A D 3 B
D C
5. In the figure, ABCD is a square and points A, B,
C and D are the centers of four congruent
and tangent quarter circles. Given that AB = 6,
find the area of the shaded region.
A 6 B
D 6 C
6. In the figure, A and D are the centers of two
tangent quarter circles and ABCD is a rectangle
with shorter side length 6 units. BC is the
E F
diameter of the semicircle BFC. Find the area
of the shaded region.
A B
Geometry 9
244
7. In the figure, ABCD is a square with side length D C
12 units, and B and D are the centers of two
tangent quarter circles. Find the sum of the
areas of the shaded regions.
12
Answers A B
32
1. 48 2. 96 cm2 3. 16 3 4. 16 – 20 5. 36 – 9 6. 72 7. 144 – 144 + 72ñ2
3
C. AREA OF A SEGMENT
Definition segment
A segment is a part of a circular region which
is bounded by a chord AB and the arc AïB. A
In the figure, AB is a chord and AïB is an arc. O
a segment
The shaded area shows the segment of the
circle that they form.
B
Theorem area of a segment
The area of a segment created by a chord AB is the difference of the areas of the sector
including the arc AïB and the triangle whose vertices are A, B and the center of the circle:
1
Asegment r 2 – r 2 sin .
360° 2
Proof Look at the figure. A1 + A2 is the area of the
sector which is bounded by the minor arc A
AïB. Also, A1 is an area of an isosceles
O a
triangle with sides r and vertex angle . A1 A2
So the area of the segment is
B
A2 = A1 + A2 – A1, which is the difference of
the area of the sector and the area of the isosceles triangle:
1
Asegment r 2 – r 2 sin .
360° 2
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles
245
EXAMPLE 15 In the figure, O is the center of a circle with
radius 6 cm. Given that m(OAB) = 30°, A
find the area of the segment bounded by the 6
30°
chord AB and the minor arc AïB. O
Solution Let us draw OB. Then B
OA = OB = 6 cm and m(OBA) = m(OAB) = 30°, which means m(AOB) = 120°. So
1 120 1
Asegment = r 2 – r 2 sin = ( 6 2 ) ( 62 sin 120°) = 12 – (18 3 )
360° 2 360 2 2
= (12 – 9ñ3) cm2.
EXAMPLE 16 The figure shows a circle with radius 8 cm.
A
Given that m(ACB) = 30°, find the area of B
the shaded region.
O
30°
Solution First of all let us find the central angle for 8
the arc AB. ACB is an inscribed angle and C
m(ACB) = 30°, so
m(AOB) = = 2 30° = 60°. So
1
Asegment r 2 – r 2 sin
360 2
An angle ABC formed by
three points A, B and C 60 1
on the circumference of =( 8 2 ) ( 8 2 sin60°)
a circle is called an 360 2
inscribed angle.
32
( 16 3) cm 2.
3
EXAMPLE 17 A circle circumscribes a square with side
D C
length 8 cm. Find the area of the segment
created by one side of the square and its
corresponding minor arc.
O
A 8 B
Geometry 9
246
Solution 1 The diagonal of the square is equal to the diameter of the circle. So 2r = 8ñ2, i.e.
r = 4ñ2 cm. Since the sides of the square are the same length, the areas of the four segments
are all equal. So
Acircle Asquare (4 2 )2 8 2 32 64
Ashaded region (8 16) cm 2 .
4 4 4
Solution 2 r = 4ñ2 cm (from above) and the central angle BOC measures 90°. So
90 1
Asegment (4 2 )2 (4 2 ) 2 sin90° (8 16) cm
360 2
EXAMPLE 18 The figure shows a circle with center O and E
radius 6 cm. Given that AB DC and D C
m(BAC) = 30°, find the area of the shaded
region. A 30° B
O 6
Solution m(BAC) = 30° so the measure of the
central angle of arc BC is
m(BïC) = 2 m(BAC) = 2 30° = 60°
and m(AïD) = m(BïC) = 2 30° = 60°, so m(DïC) = 60°. So
r 2 60 1
Ashaded region Asemicircle Asegment DEC = ( r 2 r 2 sin60°)
2 360 2
62 60 1 3
= ( 62 62 ) 18 (6 9 3)
2 360 2 2
(12 9 3) cm 2.
Check Yourself
1. A circle has radius 16 cm. Find the area of a segment of the circle if its central angle
measures 30°.
2. The figure shows a semicircle with diameter AB. C
Given that m(ABC) = 45° and BC = 6ñ2, find the
area of the shaded region.
6ñ2
45°
A O B
3. A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle. Given that one side of the hexagon measures
12 units, find the area of the segment bounded by a side of the hexagon and its
corresponding minor arc.
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles
247
4. In the figure, ABC is an isosceles right triangle A
and BC is the diameter of the semicircle. Given
that AB = 8, find the sum of the areas of the
shaded regions. 8 D
Answers
B O C
64
1. ( 64) cm 2 2. 9 – 18 3. 24 – 36ñ3 4. 16
3
D. AREA OF A RING
Definition ring
The area between two concentric circles is called a ring.
Concentric circles
are circles which In the figure, O is the common center of the
have a common circles and r and R are the respective radii of
center.
the smaller and bigger circles. So the shaded
O r
region is a ring.
R
We can easily see that the area of a ring is the difference of the areas of the larger and
smaller circles:
Aring = R2 – r2 .
EXAMPLE 19 The figure shows two concentric circles
with common center at A. AB = 3 and
BC = 5 are given. Find the area of the
A 3 5 C
shaded region. B
Solution The shaded region is a ring.
We are given AB = r = 3 and
AC = R = 3 + 5 = 8.
So Aring = R2 – r2= ( 82) – ( 32) = 64 – 9 = 55.
Geometry 9
248
EXAMPLE 20 The figure shows two concentric circles
with center O. The difference between their
circumferences is 8 cm and the area of the
O R
shaded region is 48 cm2. Find the radius of r
each circle.
Solution The difference of the circumferences of the circles is 2R – 2r = 8, which gives us
R – r = 4. Also, the shaded area is R2 – r2 = 48, so R2 – r2 = 48.
Writing R2 – r2 = (R + r) (R – r) = 48 and using R – r = 4 gives us (R + r) 4 = 48, i.e.
R + r = 12.
Solving R – r = 4 and R + r = 12 simultaneously gives us R = 8 cm and r = 4 cm.
EXAMPLE 21 The figure shows two concentric circles. AB
is a chord of the larger circle and is tangent A
to the smaller circle at point C. Given that
O
AB = 12 cm, find the area of the shaded C
region.
Solution Let the radius of the larger circle be OB = R, B
and the radius of the smaller circle be OC = r.
Let us draw OC. By the properties of chords we have OC AB and AC = BC = 6 cm. So
OB2 = OC2 + BC2, i.e. BC2 = OB2 – OC2 = R2 – r2 = 62 = 36.
So the area of the shaded region is R2 – r2 = (R2 – r2) = 36 cm2.
EXAMPLE 22 The figure shows two concentric circles
A
centered at point O. A sector AOB with a 60° 3
C
central angle is drawn in these circles. Given 3
60°
that OC = 3 cm and CA = 3 cm, find the area O
of the shaded region. D
B
Solution We have = 60°, r = 3 cm and R = 6 cm.
Combining the formulas for the area of a ring and the area of a sector gives us the answer:
60 9
Ashaded region ( R2 r 2 ) ( 62 32 ) cm 2 .
360 360 2
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles
249
Check Yourself
1. Two concentric circles have radii 12 cm and 9 cm. Find the area of the region between
these two circles.
2. The figure shows two concentric semicircles with
common center at the point O. Given that AB = 2 and
AD = 12, find the area of the shaded region.
A 2 B O C D
3. The figure shows three concentric circles centered at
A D
point O. The radii of the circles are 3 cm, 4 cm and
5 cm, m(DOC) = 80° and AC and BD are diameters O
80°
of the biggest circle. Find the sum of the areas of the
shaded regions.
B C
Answers
1. 63 cm2 2. 10 3. 8 cm2
E. RATIOS IN CIRCLES
We can easily see that all circles are similar to each other. Their ratio of similarity is the same
as the ratio of their radii.
Properties 12
Let r and R be the radii of two circles. Then
r
1. the ratio of similarity is k .
R
r
2. the ratio of their circumferences is k .
R
2
r
3. the ratio of their areas is k2 .
R
O
Furthermore, if AOB and COD are sectors of
R
two concentric circles as shown in the figure D
C
then
r A( COD ) r B
4a. CïD . 4b. ( )2 . A
AïB R A( AOB) R
Geometry 9
250
EXERCISES 6 .1
A. Area of a Circular Region 8. The area of a circle is twice the sum of the areas
of three circles with radii 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm.
1. A circle has radius ñ7 units. Find its area. Find the radius of this circle.
9. A man is connected to a boat with a rope which is
2. A circle has area 1 square unit. Find its radius.
10 m long. The water is 6 m deep. What is the
area of the region that the man can walk in?
3. A circle has circumference 20. Find its area.
10. In the figure, ABCD is a D C
rectangle and the three
12
circles are tangent to each
4. Find the area of a circle whose diameter is 5.2 units. O
other. The two small
circles are also congruent A B
to each other. Given that
5. A circle has circumference 10. Find its area. the radius of the largest circle is 12 units, find the
sum of the areas of the shaded regions.
6. In the figure, ABCD D C 11. From one point on a circle we draw two chords
is a rectangle and
with lengths 14 units and 48 units. The length of
the two circles are the line segment that connects the midpoints of
tangent to the sides these chords is 25 units. Find the area of the
of the rectangle. circle.
A B
Given that the
circles are tangent to each other and both have
radius 6 units, find the sum of the areas of the B. Area of a Sector
shaded regions.
12. A circle has radius 12 units. Find the area of the
sector of this circle which is bounded by an arc
with central angle 120°.
7. Two circles are internally tangent to each other.
The distance between their centers is 12 units
and the diameter of the larger circle is 34 units. 13 . A circle has radius 6 units. Find the area of the
Find the difference beween the areas of these two sector of this circle which is bounded by an arc
circles. with a central angle of 1.5 radians.
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles 251
14. The figure shows, C. Area of a Segment
three central angles 30° 18 . A regular octagon is inscribed in a circle with
with measures 36°,
O radius 8 units. Find the area of the segment
24° and 30°. Given 36°
bounded by one side of the octagon and the arc
that the radius of the 8
24° corresponding to this side.
circle is 8 units, find
the sum of the areas
of the shaded regions. 19 . An equilateral triangle ABC has side length
8 units. Vertex A is at the center of a circle and
vertices B and C are on the circle. Find the area
of the segment which is between side BC and the
15 . The figure shows a circle D
minor arc BïC.
and four semicircles.
The radius of the 8
20 . In the figure, ABCD is D C
larger circle is 8 cm.
A B a square with side
Find the sum of the O
length 6. Given that
areas of the shaded
O is the center of the
regions. E A O B F
semicircle and
C
AO = OB, find the sum of the areas of the
shaded regions.
16 . In the figure, ABC is an
21 . In the figure, O is the
equilateral triangle with A
side length 8. Given that center of the given
A
the three congruent circle. Given that O
circles have centers at m(ABC) = 15° and B 15°
C
points A, B and C, find B C the radius of the
the area of the shaded circle is 12 units, find
region. the area of the shaded region.
22 . In the figure, O is the G F
17 .The figure shows a quarter B center of a circle with
circle centered at O with radius 8 units. Given 30° 8
H E
radius 12 units. The circle that the measures of
30° 30°
with center at point C is C AOH, BOC, DOE O
A D
tangent to OA, OB and the and FOG are all 30°, 30°
arc AïB. Find the sum of find the sum of the
the areas of the shaded O 12 A areas of the shaded B C
regions. regions.
252 Geometry 9
23 . In the figure, ABCD is a D C 28 . A regular hexagon with side length 8 units is
square with side length given. Find the area of the region between its
12 units. Given that AB inscribed and circumscribed circles.
and BC are the diameters
of the two semicircles, find
the area of the shaded
region. A B
12
29 . In the figure, O is the A
center of both of the C
24 . In the figure, ABCD is a D C given circles. Given that
60° B
square with side length OD = 9, DB = 3 and D 3
O 9
8 units. Given that B is m(AOB) = 60°, find the
the center of the quarter area of the shaded region.
circle and AB and BC are
the diameters of the two
semicircles, find the sum A B
of the areas of the shaded
regions.
D. Area of a Ring
25 . Two concentric circles have radii 3 cm and 9 cm.
Find the area of the region between these two
circles.
26 . In the figure, O is the
common center of two
R
circles with radii R and r.
O r
Given that R + r = 10 and
R – r = m, find the area of
the shaded region in terms
of m.
27 . Two concentric circles have radii R and r. Given
that the sum of the circumferences of these
circles is 18 and the area of the region between
them is 9, find the radii of these circles.
Areas of Regular Polygons and Cýrcles 253
The geometry you have studied thus far has been largely plane geometry. In plane geometry
you have learned definitions and properties of the figures in plane.
However we live in three dimensional world. Therefore it is necessary to extend your study
of geometry to include figures having three dimensions, that is, figures having thickness as
well as length and width.
The geometry of three dimensional figures is called Three-dimensional geometry or Space
geometry.
In this chapter we will study lines and planes in space. We will state axioms, definitions, the-
orems about them. In proofs of theorems sometimes we will use theorems from plane geom-
etry and we will not prove them.
Axioms of Space Geometry
In plane geometry you learned that two points determine a line. In space two points deter-
mine a line, too. That means, there can be drawn one and only one line passing through two
points. The points which are on the same line are called as collinear points and the points
which are not on the same line are called as non-collinear points. Now let us state three basic
axioms of space geometry which will be helpful to prove theorems.
1. Axioms
Three non-collinear points determine a plane.
That means if we have three non-collinear points there can be drawn one and only one plane
containing these points. Note that the points need to be non-collinear. If the points are
collinear there can be drawn infinitely many planes containing these points.
2. Axioms
A plane having two points in common with a line contains this line.
If two points of a line belong to a plane, every point on this line is in the plane. So, to show
that a line lies in a plane it is enough to find two points on the line belonging to the given
plane.
254 Geometry 9
3. Axioms
The intersection of two intersecting planes is a line.
Therefore if two planes have one point in common then they have a line in common and any
point belonging to both planes is on this line.
EXAMPLE 1 ABCD is a trapezoid so that AB // CD, E is a point on the line segment DC, and P is a point
not in plane ABC. Q is the intersection point of line AE and plane PBC. If ÐCBA = 90°,
AB = 9 cm, EC = 3 cm, and BC = 8 cm, find EQ.
Solution Since points A and E are in plane ABCD, all points on line AE are
P
in that plane. Since the intersection of planes ABC and PCB is line
Q
BC, intersection of line AE and plane PCB is on BC. Since both AE
D
and BC are in plane ABCD, they intersect. This intersection is E C
given as Q. (Figure 1.1) From plane geometry we know that DQEC
and DQAB are similar.
So QC = EC QC = 3 QC = 1 QC = 4 cm. A B
QB AB QC+BC 9 QC+ 8 3
ÐECQ = ÐCBA =90° .
(Figure 1.1)
Hence, by applying the Pythagorean theorem in DECQ, we get EQ = 5 cm.
A. Lines and Planes in Space
1. Determination of a Plane
In Axiom 1.1 we stated that three non-collinear points determine a plane. We have other pos-
sibilities to determine a plane.
a. Parallel Lines
From the definition of parallel lines we know that parallel lines lie in a plane. So two paral-
lel lines are coplanar.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 255
Theorem There can be drawn only one plane containing two parallel lines.
Proof Let m and d be two parallel lines in space. Let a and b be two different planes containing
both m and d. Since a and b have common points, which are the points on m and d, they are
intersecting planes. By Axiom 1.3 this intersection must be a line. But here the intersection
is the union of two lines m and n. There is a contradiction. So a and b are coincident
b. A Line and a Point
Theorem A line and a point not on this line determine a plane.
Proof Let d be a line and A be a point not on line d. Let us take
points B and C on d. (Figure 1.2) Since points A, B, C are
A
three non-collinear points they determine a plane l. Then l
contains two points of line d. So d lies in l. Therefore line d B C d
and point A determine plane l . l
Namely, there is only one plane, which is l, containing both
point A and line d
c. Two Intersecting Lines
Theorem Two intersecting lines determine a plane.
Proof Let d and m be two intersecting lines and A be their intersection point. (Figure 1.3) Besides
A, let us take two points B and C, on lines d and m, respectively. Since A, B, C are three non-
collinear points, they determine a plane l. Then l will contain both lines since it has two
points in common with each of the lines.
256 Geometry 9
Proof Let d and m be two intersecting lines and A be a point on m but not on d. (Figure 1.4) By
the previous theorem d and A determine a plane. Since d lies in this plane, the plane con-
tains the intersection point of the lines. So line m lies in the plane, because the plane con-
tains two points of m
B
A m
A
l C l
d
m
EXAMPLE 2 Show that all sides of a triangle are in the same plane.
Solution Let ABC be a triangle. Since AB and AC are intersecting
lines they determine a plane a. Since two points of line seg- A a
ment BC are in a, a contains all points on BC. So, all sides
of a triangle are in the same plane.
B C
EXAMPLE 3 A, B, C, D are four non-coplanar points. Can three of these points be on the same line?
Solution No. Because if three of these points are on a line then for the fourth point we have two cases:
a) It can be on this line. Then there can be drawn infinitely many planes containing these
four points.
b) If it is not on this line then the line and the point not on this line determine a plane, and
this plane contains all the given points.
In both cases the points will be coplanar. However it is given that points are non-coplanar. So
three of them can not be collinear.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 257
2. Mutual Positions of Two Lines in Space
In space two lines may have infinitely many common points, one common point or no com-
mon point.
a. Infinitely Many Common Points
Two lines have infinitely many common points if they are coincident. In this case all of the
points of one line will be on the other line. So their intersection is the set of the points on
any of these lines. Actually, if two lines have two common points, they are coincident.
b. One Common Point
From plane geometry we know that if two lines are intersecting and not coincident then they
intersect each other at a unique point. That means they have only one point in common. By
intersecting lines we mean the lines having one common point.
We proved that two intersecting lines determine a plane. So intersecting lines are always
coplanar lines.
c. No Common Point
i. Parallel Lines
Parallel lines are defined as coplanar lines having no points in common. So, by the definition,
parallel lines have no common point.
From plane geometry we know that in a plane through a point not on a line there can be
drawn one and only one line parallel to the given line. We proved that a line and a point not
on this line determine a plane. Since this plane is unique and in this plane, through the given
point, there can be drawn one and only one line parallel to the given line it can be conclud-
ed that:
In space, through a point not on a line, a line parallel to the given line can be drawn and this
line is unique.
ii. Skew Lines
Two lines are skew to each other if there is not any plane containing both lines. So, these lines
can not have any intersection. As it is proven, intersecting lines are always coplanar. By def-
inition skew lines cannot be coplanar. So, skew lines have no common point.
Skew Quadrilateral
Let A, B, C be three non-collinear points. Then they determine a plane a. Let D be a point
not in a. (Figure 1.6) Then we have four non-coplanar points. When we take the union of
line segments AB, BD, CD and CA we get a quadrilateral called as a skew quadrilateral. Here
is its formal definition.
258 Geometry 9
Definition A skew quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose vertices are
D
four non-coplanar points.
A
B
3. Mutual Positions of a Plane and a Line
There are three possible cases for mutual positions of a line and a plane.
a. Line Lying in the Plane
As mentioned in Axiom 1.2 if two points of a line belong to a plane, then the line lies in the
plane. So, in order to show that a line lies in a plane we must find two points on the line
belonging to the plane. For this case, the intersection of line and plane is the line itself. In
other words, the set of the points on the line is a subset of the set of the points in the plane.
b. Line Intersecting the Plane
In this case they have one common point and their intersection is this point.
c. Line Parallel to the Plane
A line and a plane are said to be parallel if they have no point in common. After this defini-
tion let us state and prove some theorems about parallelity of a plane and a line.
Theorem If a line is parallel to another line lying in a plane, the line will be parallel to the plane.
Proof Let d be a line parallel to another line m lying in plane a.
Since d and m are parallel lines they lie in a plane l. l
d
a and l are intersecting planes along line m. So, if d and a
intersect each other, the intersection point must be on m. m
This contradicts with the parallelity of m and d. So d and a a
have no common point, in other words they are parallel
Introductýon to Space Geometry 259
Theorem If a line is parallel to a plane, in this plane there are lines parallel to the given line.
Proof Let d be a line parallel to a given plane a and A be any point in a (Figure 1.8). Then d and A
determine a plane b. b and a have a common point, that is A. So, they have a common line.
Let us name this line as m. Both d and m are in b. Since d has no common point with a, it
can not intersect m. So, d and m are parallel lines.
b
d
A
m
a
Therefore, a line is parallel to a plane if and only if it does not lie in the plane and it is par-
allel to a line lying in that plane.
Let d be a line parallel to a plane a and A1 be a point in a Then d and A1 determine a plane
b1. Let m1 be the intersection of a and b1. We proved that m1 // d. Let A2 be a point in a
but not on m1. Line d and A2 determine another plane b2. Let m2 be the intersection of a
and b2. Then m2 // d. Now let us think about m1 and m2. They are both in a. If they have
a common point, this point will be a common point of planes b1 and b2. Since d is the inter-
section of b1 and b2 this common point must be on d. This is impossible. Because d // m1
and d // m2. So m1 and m2 can not have any common point. Therefore, they are paral-
lel.
b1
b2
m1
a A1
A2
m2
As a conclusion, if a line is parallel to a plane then in this plane there are infinitely many lines
parallel to the given line and these lines are parallel to each other
260 Geometry 9
Theorem Two lines parallel to the same line are parallel.
Proof Let m, n and d be three lines in space so that m // d and n // d
Since m and d are parallel they determine a plane a, and since n and d are parallel they
determine another plane b. Let A be a point on n. Line m and point A determine a plane l.
Since b and l have a common point A they have a common line k. We know that m // d. So,
m is parallel to b. Then lines d and k are two lines in plane b parallel to line m. So, k and d
are parallel. Through point A there can be drawn only one line parallel to d. So, n and k
should be coincident lines. Therefore, m and n are parallel lines
a
m
l
d
k
n
b A
Conclusion
If one of two parallel lines is parallel to a plane the other is in the plane or parallel to the
plane..
Theorem Two angles with respectively parallel arms in the same direction are congruent.
Proof Let ÐABC and ÐA1B1C1 be two angles with respectively parallel arms in the same direction.
Let M and N be any two points on arms BA and BC respectively. On B1A1 and B1C1 take two
points M1 and N1 so that M1B1 = MB and N1B1 = NB.
A
M
B
N C
A1
M1
B1 N1 C1
Introductýon to Space Geometry 261
Since BA // B1A1, BMM1B1 is a parallelogram.
So BB1 // MM1 and BB1 = MM1 . (1)
Similarly BC // B1C1 and BNN1B1 is a parallelogram.
So BB1 // NN1 and BB1 = NN1 . (2)
From (1) and (2) we get NN1 // MM1 and NN1 = MM1 .
So MNN1M1 is a parallelogram and MN = M1N1 .
Then by S.S.S, DMBN and DM1B1N1 are congruent. That means MBN = M1B1N1
Conclusion
1. If the corresponding arms of two angles are parallel and are in opposite directions, the
angles are equal.
2. If the corresponding arms of two angles are parallel and if one of corresponding arms is
in the same direction while the other is in opposite then the sum of the angles is 180°.
A A
B C B C
C1
B1
A1
C1
A1 B1
ÐABC = ÐA1B1C1 ÐABC + ÐA1B1C1 = 180°
Theorem If one of two parallel lines intersects a plane, the other intersects too.
262 Geometry 9
Proof Let a be a plane and d, mbe two parallel lines Let d inter
sect plane a at a point A. We need to show that m also d m
intersects a.
Since d and m are parallel they determine a plane b. k A
Planes a and b have a common point. So they have a
a
common line k.
b
Lines k, d and m are in the same plane, d // m and k inter-
sects d. So k intersects m too. Since m intersects k and k
is in a, m intersects a.
Proof Let a be a plane, d and m be two parallel lines and d intersect a. For m there are three posi-
tions:
It lies in a or it is parallel to a or it intersects a.
If m is in a then d will be parallel to a line in a. So d is parallel to a. This is a contradiction.
If m is parallel to a then in a there will be a line (for example n) parallel to m. Since d // m
and m // n, it can be concluded that d // n. For this case again d will be parallel to a.
Hence m intersects a
EXAMPLE 4 Show that if one of two lines lies in a plane and the other intersects this plane at a point not
on the first line then these lines are skew to each other.
Solution Let d be a line in a plane l and m intersect l at a point A.
m
Assume that there is a plane b containing both m and d.
Then d and A will be in b. So b and l will be coincident. A d
However l does not contain m. So b can not contain m
either. Hence there is no plane containing both d and m.
l
It means that they are skew.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 263
EXAMPLE 5 A is not in (BCD), B1C1 // BC, A
and C1D1 // CD.
D1
AB1 1 B1 C1
If = and the perimeter of DBCD is 24 cm, find the
B1B 2
D
perimeter of DB1C1D1
B C
Solution Since B1C1 // BC, triangles AB1C1 and ABC are similar.
B1C1 AC1 AB1
So = = .
BC AC AB
AB1 1 AB1 1
Since = , = .
B1B 2 AB 3
B1C1 AC1 1
So = = , BC = 3B1C1
BC AC 3
Moreover, since C1D1 // CD, DAC1D1~ DACD .
C1D1 AD1 AC1 1
So = = = , CD = 3C1D1 .
CD AD AC 3
AB1 AD1 1
Since = = ,
AB AD 3
DAB1D1 ~ DABD .
B1D1 AB1 1
Therefore, = = , BD = 3B1D1 .
BD AB 3
PBCD = 24 cm , BC + BD + CD = 24 cm,
3(B1C1 + B1D1 + C1D1) = 24 cm, PB1C1D1 = 8 cm.
Hence the perimeter of DB1C1D1 is 8 cm.
264 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 6 Show that the midpoints of the sides of a skew quadrilateral are the vertices of a parallelo-
gram.
Solution Let ABCD be a skew quadrilateral and M, N, P, Q be the mid
D
points ofsides AB, BC, CD, DA, respectively.
AC
In DDAC and DBAC, QP // AC, MN // AC, QP = 2 , and
P
Q
MN = AC
2 .
C
So QP // MN and QP = MN. A
N
If we use the same logic in DABD and DBCD we will obtain that M
B
QM // PN and
QM = PN = BD . Hence QMNP is a parallelogram.
2
EXAMPLE 7 A1C1 // AC,
C1
C1B1 // CB, and A1B1 // AB.
A1
B1
If A1C1 = 5 cm,
A1B1 = ò39 cm and C
D
B1C1 = 7 cm, find the
A B
measure of angle DCB.
Solution Since ÐA1C1B1 and ÐACB are two angles with respectively parallel arms in the same
direction, they are equal. In DA1B1C1 by cosine theorem we get
A1B12 = A1C12 + B1C12 – 2A1C1 × B1C1 × cos ÐC1 ,
39 = 25 + 49 – 2 × 5 × 7 cos ÐC1 , cos ÐC1 = 1 .
2
So ÐA1C1B1 = 60°. Then ÐACB = 60° and ÐDCB = 120°.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 265
EXAMPLE 8 One side of a rhombus ABCD is 4 cm. Sides AB and AD intersect a plane a at points P and
Q respectively. AP = 1 cm and AQ = 3 cm are given.
a) Show that lines CB and CD intersect a.
b) If CB and CD intersect a at P1 and Q1, respectively, find the lengths of CP1 and CQ1
Solution a) In a rhombus opposite sides are parallel. So AB // CD and AD // BC (Figure 1.18). If one
of two parallel lines intersects a plane, the other intersects too.
It is given that AB and AD intersect plane a. Hence CD and CB intersect a too.
b) Points P1, Q1, P and Q are all intersections of planes a and ABC. So they are collinear.
Since AQ // P1B, triangles APQ and BPP1 are similar.
BP1 AQ BP1 3 , BP1 = 9 cm.
= , =
BP AP 3 1
So CP1 = CB + BP1 =13 cm.
On the other hand, since AP // DQ1, we obtain
DAPQ ~ DDQ1Q. Then
DQ1 AP DQ1 1 , DQ1 = 1
= , = cm.
DQ AQ 1 3 3
So CQ1 = CD + DQ1 = 4 + 1 = 13 cm.
3 3
P1 P Q Q1
D a
266 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 9 Show that when two parallel lines are intersected by a line, all these three lines lie in the
same plane.
Solution Two parallel lines determine a plane. The line intersecting these parallel lines have two
points in common with this plane which are the intersection points. So, it lies in this plane
too.
EXAMPLE 10 Show that through one of two skew lines, there can be drawn a plane parallel to the other.
Solution Let m and d be two skew lines and A be a point on d. Through A let us draw line m' parallel
to m. d and m' determine a plane a. Since m // m' and m' is in a, m // a
m'
d
A
4. Mutual Positions Of Two Planes
Two planes can be coincident, intersecting or parallel.
a. Coincident Planes
If two planes have three non-collinear common points then these two planes are coincident.
So all points of these two planes are common.
b. Intersecting Planes
Two planes may intersect each other. According to Axiom 1.3 the intersection of two inter-
secting planes is a line.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 267
Theorem If a plane passes through a line parallel to another plane and intersects that plane then the
line of intersection of two planes is parallel to the given line.
Proof Let d be a line parallel to a plane a, and b be a plane con
taining d and intersecting a along line m b
d
Then, d and m lie in b. Since m is in a and d // a, d and m
can not intersect each other. Therefore they are parallel m
Theorem If two parallel lines lie in two intersecting planes, the intersection of the planes is parallel to
the given lines.
Proof Let d and k be two parallel lines lying in two intersecting
planes a and b, respectively. Let m be the intersection of a a
d
and b. Lines d and m are in the same plane. Since d is par-
allel to one line lying in b (line k) it is parallel to plane b. m
Since m is in b, d can not intersect m. So d and m are par-
allel. By analogy, k and m are parallel too
b k
Theorem If a line is parallel to two intersecting planes, it is parallel to the intersection of these planes.
268 Geometry 9
Proof Let a and b be two planes intersecting along line d and
m be a line parallel to both a and b. a
n
Since m is parallel to a and b, in a and b there can be m
found lines n and k parallel to m. d
Since n // m and k // m, n // k .
Then by the previous theorem, d // n and d // k . b k
Since d // n and n // m, d // m
c. Parallel Planes
If two planes have no common point, they are called as parallel planes.
Theorem If two intersecting lines in a plane are respectively parallel to two intersecting lines in anoth-
er plane, the planes are parallel.
Proof Let a and b be two planes. Let m, n be two intersecting
lines in a and let m1, n1 be two intersecting lines in b m n
a
so that m // m1 and n // n1
We need to prove that a and b are parallel, namely
they do not have any common point.
n1 b
m1
Assume that they have a common point. Then they
will have a common line. Let d be this line. Since m
and n are parallel to m1 and n1 respectively both m
and n are parallel to b. So none of m and n can inter-
sect line d.
Since m, n and d are in the same plane, m // d and n // d. But in this case, m and n must
be coincident or parallel lines. However it is given that they are intersecting lines. So there
is a contradiction.
Hence a and b can not have any common point. That means they are parallel planes
Introductýon to Space Geometry 269
Theorem Through a point not in a plane there can be drawn one and only one plane parallel to the
given plane.
Proof Let a be a plane and A be a point not in a. We need to prove that
a. Through A, there can be drawn a plane parallel to a.
b. This plane is unique.
d1 b
A
m1
a
d
a. The plane exists
Let d and m be two intersecting lines in a. Through A there can be drawn a line parallel to d
and another line parallel to m. Let us name these lines as d1 and m1. Lines d1 and m1 are
intersecting lines. So they determine a plane b. By previous theorem a and b are parallel.
b. The plane is unique
Assume that there is another plane b', containing A and parallel to a. b' can not contain both
d1 and m1. So at least one of d1 and m1 intersects b'.
Let d1 be this line. Since d and d1 are parallel, d also intersects plane b'.
This contradicts with the parallelity of b' and a. So plane b is unique
Conclusion
1. The lines parallel to a given plane and passing through a given point not in the given plane
lie in the plane parallel to the given plane, and containing the given point.
2. Through a line parallel to a given plane there can be drawn a unique plane parallel to the
given plane.
3. Any line in any of two parallel planes is parallel to the other plane.
270 Geometry 9
Theorem If a line intersects one of two parallel planes, it intersects the other too.
Proof Let a and b be two parallelplanes and d be a line intersecting a
d
at a point A). We need to prove that d intersects b. Line d can
not lie in b, because d intersects a, and a // b. Any line drawn A
through A and parallel to b must lie in a. So if d is parallel to b a
it lies in a. However we know that d is not in a.
Hence there is only one possibility: Line d intersects b
b
Conclusion
If a line is parallel to one of two parallel planes it is whether in the second plane or parallel
to the second plane.
5. Mutual Positions of Three Planes
Three planes may have no common point, one common point or one common line.
a. No Common Point
Three planes have no common point in three cases:
i. If three planes are parallel, they have no common point.
Theorem The planes parallel to the same plane are parallel.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 271
Proof Let a, b, and g be three planes such that a // g and b // g. We
need to prove that a // b.
Assume that a and b are not parallel. Then they have a com-
a
mon line. Let m be this line. Through m we can draw only
one plane parallel to g. This is a contradiction.
Hence a // b
b
Conclusion
If a plane intersects one of two parallel planes, it intersects the other too.
ii. When two planes are parallel and the third plane intersects these planes, the
planes will have no common point.
Theorem If two parallel planes are intersected by a third plane, the lines of intersection are parallel.
Proof Let a and b be two parallel planes and g be a plane intersec
g
ting both a and b. Let m and d be the intersections of a and
g, and b and g, respectively .
Lines m and d are in the same plane. If m and d have a com-
mon point, this point will be a common point of a and b. a
However a and b are given as parallel planes. That means m
they can not have a common point. So, m and d can not
have a common point. Hence, they are parallel
b
272 Geometry 9
Theorem The parallel line segments whose end points are on two parallel planes are equal.
Proof Let a and b be two parallel planes. Let AB and A1B1 be two para
llel line segments, such that points A, A1 in a and B, B1 are in l
b.
A
Since AB and A1B1 are parallel lines, they determine a plane l.
A1
A and A1 are two common points of l and a. So the line passing a
through A and A1 is the intersection of l and a.
By the same logic the intersection of l and b is the line passing B
b
through B and B1. B1
Since a // b, AA1 // BB1 .
Additionally, it is given that AB // A1B1. Therefore, AA1B1B is
a parallelogram and AB = A1B1 n
iii. If three planes intersect each other two by two and the lines of intersection are
all parallel then the planes will have no common point.
Theorem When three planes intersect each other if two of intersection lines are parallel then the third
intersection line is parallel to these two lines.
Proof Let a, b and l be three planes, and m, n and d be the intersections of
n
a – b, a – l and b – l, respectively. Assume that m and n are parallel m d
lines. Let us prove that d // m. a
Lines d and m are in the same plane. If d intersects m at a point A b
then A will be a common point of planes l and a. Because m is in a
and d is in l.
So, A must be on line n. Then m and n will have a common point. l
However m and n are given as parallel lines. So there cannot be such
a point.
Therefore m // d n
b. One Common Point
Three planes may intersect each other in such a way that their intersection lines are con-
current.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 273
Theorem If two of intersection lines formed by three intersecting planes intersect each other, the third
intersects these lines at the same point.
Proof Let a, b and l be three planes intersecting each other. Let m be the intersection of a and b,
n be the intersection of a and l, d be the intersection of b and l. Let m and n intersect each
other at a point A. We need to prove that d passes through A
Since m is the intersection of a and b, A is in b, and since n is the intersection of a and l, A
is also in l. So A is on d which is the intersection of b and l. So d intersects m and n at A n
b
l
n
A
a
m
c. One Common Line
Three or more planes can intersect eachother along a common line. Then these planes have
a common line. Then such a figure is called as bunch of planes.
6. The Thales Theorem in Space
In plane geometry, the Thales theorem is stated with parallel lines and lines intersecting
them. Now, we will write the same theorem with parallel planes and lines intersecting them.
274 Geometry 9
Theorem If two lines are intersected by parallel planes, the line segments between the planes are pro-
portional.
Proof Let a, b, g be three planes. Let d be a line intersecting a at
A, b at B and g at C, and m be another line intersecting a, b, d m
l
d'
g at points D, E and F respectively. We need to prove,
D
A
AB = DE . a
BC EF
Through point D there can be drawn line d' parallel to line d. B' E
B
Since d intersects b and g, d' also intersects these planes. Let b
B' and C' be the intersection points. Since a, b and g are par-
allel, and d and d' are parallel, AB = DB', BC = B'C'. (I)
C' F
C
Lines m and d' are intersecting lines. So they determine a g
plane l. Since b and g are parallel planes, the intersection of
l and b is parallel to the intersection of l and g. So B'E // C'F,
and DDB'E and DDC'F are similar triangles.
DB = DE .
So (II)
BC EF
From (I) and (II),
EXAMPLE 11 Show that if two intersecting lines in a plane a are parallel to a plane b then a and b are par-
allel planes.
Solution Let m and d be two intersecting lines in a parallel to plane b. Then in b there can be found
two lines m' and d' parallel to m and d, respectively.
d' and m' can not be coincident lines. Because in this case m and d will be parallel to the
same line which implies their parallelity.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 275
If d' // m' then since d // d', d and m' will be parallel. Then d and m will be parallel to a
common line, that is m'. So d // m. However we know that they are intersecting lines. So d'
and m' are not parallel.
Hence d' and m' are intersecting lines in b. Therefore a // b.
d a
m
m' d' b
EXAMPLE 12 ABC is a triangle and a is a plane. Show that if sides AB and BC are parallel to a then AC is
also parallel to a.
Solution AB and BC are two intersecting lines in plane ABC. Since they are parallel to a, planes ABC
and a are parallel. So AC is parallel to a.
EXAMPLE 13 In planes DEF and ABC are parallel. P
If PF = 2 cm,
FC = 4 cm, and
D
SDEF = 3 cm2 , F
E
find the area of DABC.
A
C
276 Geometry 9
Solution Lines PB and PC are intersecting lines. So they determine a plane. Since DEF and ABC are
parallel planes which are intersected by plane BPC, the intersections will be parallel. So
EF // BC, and DPEF and DPBC are similar.
So EF = PF = 2 = 1 . (I)
BC PC 6 3
Similarly it can be obtained that DPDF ~ DPAC and
DPDE ~ DPAB.
So DF = PD = PF = 1 (II) and DE = PD = 1 . (III)
AC PA PC 3 AB PA 3
From (I), (II), and (III), EF = DF = DE = 1
BC AC AB 3,
S
12 1
DDEF and DABC are similar triangles. Hence S DEF = ( 3 ) = 9 . SDEF is given as 3 cm2. So,
ABC
SABC = 27 cm2 .
EXAMPLE 14 In, a and b areparallel planes. A plane parallel to a is inter
secting AB at P and CD at Q. If AP = 2 cm, a
A C
AB = 8 cm, and
QD = 9 cm, find CQ. P Q
B b
D
Solution By the Thales theorem, AP = CQ , 2 = CQ , so CQ = 3 cm.
PB QD 6 9
Introductýon to Space Geometry 277
EXAMPLE 15 In, a and b areparallel planes. A plane parallel to a is inter
secting AB at P and CD at Q. If AP = 2 cm, a
A C
AB = 8 cm, and
QD = 9 cm, find CQ. P Q
B b
D
Solution By the Thales theorem, AP = CQ , 2 = CQ , so CQ = 3 cm.
PB QD 6 9
278 Geometry 9
EXERCISES 7 .1
A. Axioms of Space Geometry 7. How many planes can be determined by three
intersecting lines? (Write all possible cases)
1. State the followings as true or false
a) Three points determine a plane
8. In figure, AB // CD, points A, D C
b) If the endpoints of a line segment are in a plane B and E are collinear. Show
its midsegment is in the same plane that all points in the figure are
c) There can be drawn two planes whose intersec- coplanar. A B E
tion is a unique point
9. m, n and d are three lines in space such that m and
n are intersecting at point A, and n and d are inter-
2. There are n non-coplanar points (n ³ 4). Show that secting at point B. Do m, n, d always lie in the same
n – 1 of them can not be collinear. plane?
C. Mutual Positions of Two Lines in
3. In figure, A, B, C are non D
Space
collinear points, E and F are
E
10. In the adjacent figure, m d
on DA and DC respectively. F
lies in a and d intersects a at C
Can EF intersect DB? a B
point P which is not on m. a
A Show that BC and m are P
B C
D m
skew lines.
4. a and b are two intersecting planes. In a there is a
11. State the followings as true or false.
line m intersecting b at point A and in b there is a line
a) If lines m and n pass through points M and N,
n intersecting a at point B where A and B are distinct
then m and n are coincident.
points. Show that a and b intersect along line AB.
b) If two lines have no common point, they are par-
allel.
5. Given that points A1, A2, A3..., A25 determine only c) Skew lines can be coplanar or non-coplanar lines.
one plane. At most how many of these points can be
collinear? D. Mutual Positions of A Line and A
Plane
11. ABC is a triangle and P is a point not in (ABC).
B. Determination of a Plane
Show that the line joining the midpoints of PC and AB
6. How many planes can be determined by three par- and the line joining the midpoints of PA and CB are
allel lines? (Write all possible cases) intersecting lines.
Introductýon to Space Geometry 279
13. In the adjacent figure, F 19. a and b are two intersecting planes and m is a line
ABCD and AEFD are intersecting a and b at distinct points.
parallelograms. Show that D a) Show that through m there can be drawn a plane
DEAB and DFDC are l whose intersections with planes a and b are parallel.
E
congruent triangles.
b) Show that l is unique.
A B
20. Line m is parallel to a and intersects plane b.
14. ABCD is a trapezoid (AB // CD). AB is in a plane
Show that a and b are intersecting planes.
a and CD is in a plane b. a and b are intersecting along
the line m. Show that MN // m where M and N are
the midpoints of AD and BC respectively.
21. In the adjacent figure, C a
15. In the adjacent figure, M DABC lies in a and DA1B1C1
A B
ABCD is a parallelogram. M is lies in b. If AC // A1C1, AB //
not in (ABC). Show that AD A1B1 and
D C1 b
// (MBC). AC = AB
A1C1 A 1B1 then show that
A1 B1
a) DABC and DA1B1C1 are similar.
A B
b) BC // B1C1.
16. State the followings as true or false
a) Two lines parallel to the same plane are
always parallel. 22. m and n are skew lines. Show that there can be
b) If two lines m and n are parallel to a given line drawn two parallel planes a and b such that a contains
d then m // n m and b contains n, and show that these a and b are
unique.
17. m and n are two parallel lines not lying in a plane
a. Show that if m // a, line n is parallel to a, too.
23. In the adjacent figure, D
D is not in (ABC). K
E. Mutual Positions of Two Planes AC = AB, DC = DB, and
18. a and b are two intersecting planes and A is a BK ^ DA . If KD = 3 cm
C
point not in a or b. Show that through A there can be and DB = 6 cm, find KC.
drawn one and only one line parallel to both a and b. A
280 Geometry 9
24. In the adjacent figure, DABC A
and DBCD are equilateral.
If ACD = 20° find BDA. B
25. a and b are two parallel planes. Plane l intersects
a and b along lines m and n, and plane g intersects
planes a and b along lines m and d, respectively. Show
that n // d.
26. DABC and DA1B1C1 are two triangles in two par-
allel planes. If AA1 // BB1 // CC1 then show that
DABC and DA1B1C1 are congruent triangles.
27. In the adjacent figure, a
A
a // b // l. Moreover C
AB // A1B1, BC // B1C1, B
AC // A1C1. Find the
b
perimeter of DA2B2C2 if A1
C1
perimeters of DABC and
B1
DA1B1C1 are 6 cm and
9 cm, respectively, and A2
l
3 .
C2
BB1
=
B1B2 5
B2
Introductýon to Space Geometry 281
A. Perpendicular Lines
Definition Two lines a and b are perpendicular to each other if the angle between them is 90°.
If the lines are intersecting, it is very easy to determine whether they are perpendicular or
not. If they are skew to each other, we take any point on one of the lines, and through this
point, we draw a line parallel to the other one. If the angle between these two intersecting
lines is 90° then the given skew lines are said to be perpendicular.
Theorem If one of two parallel lines is perpendicular to a third line, the other is perpendicular too.
Proof Let m and b be two parallel lines and m be perpendicular to c (Figure 1.36). Through any
point A, let us draw lines m1 and c1 so that m1 // m and c1 // c. Since m ^ c, the angle
between m1 and c1 is 90°. On the other hand, since m1 // m and m // b, we get m1 // b. So
the angle between b and c is also 90°. That means b and c are perpendicular lines
m b
c
m1
c1
A
282 Geometry 9
B. Line Perpendicular to a Plane
Definition A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to every line in this plane.
If a line m is perpendicular to every line in a plane a then m is perpendicular to a and it is
shown by m a. So if it is given that m a then m is perpendicular to any line in a.
If m a then m intersects a. To prove this statement let us assume that m does not inter-
sect a. In this case there are two possibilities for m and a :
1. m is in a. Then since it is not perpendicular to a line in a, that is itself, m is not perpen-
dicular to a.
2. m is parallel to a. In this case in a there can be found a line parallel to m. So m can not
be perpendicular to a. In both possibilities m is not perpendicular to a. Therefore, m inter-
sects a.
Definition If a line intersects a plane but not perpendicular to the plane it is called an inclined line.
Theorem If a line is perpendicular to two intersecting lines lying in a plane then it is perpendicular to
the plane.
Perpendýcularýty 283
Proof d
x
m
A
n
a
c m
x
C
A
D
n
E
a
B'
We need to prove that if a line is perpendicular to two intersecting lines in a plane it is per-
pendicular to any line in this plane. Let d be a line perpendicular to two lines m and n lying
in a. Let A be the intersection point of m and n. It is obvious that d is perpendicular to every
line in a which is parallel to either one of m or n.
So we should check for the lines which are not parallel to neither m nor n.
Let x be any line intersecting both m and n. We have to prove that d is perpendicular to x
too. Let us shift lines d and x so that A is on d and x. Let c be any line in a intersecting m,
n, x at points C, D, E respectively.
On line d let us take two points B and B' so that BA = B'A. Then triangles BAC and B'AC are
congruent, similarly triangles BAD and B'AD are congruent (S.A.S.) . So BD = B'D and
BC = B'C. Then triangles BDC and B'DC are congruent (S.S.S.). That means ÐBDC =
ÐB'DC. Then triangles BDE and B'DE are congruent triangles (S.A.S.). So BE = B'E and tri-
angles BAE and B'AE are congruent (S.S.S.).
Hence ÐBAE = ÐB'AE = 90°. So d is perpendicular to x. Therefore d is perpendicular to any
line in a. So d ^ a
284 Geometry 9
Theorem Through any given point in space, there can be drawn one and only one plane perpendicu-
lar to a given line.
Proof We have two cases:
1. The point is on the line.
d
Let d be a line and A be a point on d. Let us take two distinct
planes a and b containing d.
A
Let m be the line lying in a and perpendicular to d at A and n be
the line lying in b and perpendicular to d at A. Then m and n deter- l
m n
mine a unique plane l perpendicular to d.
a b
2. The point is not on the line.
Let d be a line and A be a point in space not on d. Line d and
point A determine a plane a. In a there can be drawn a line m pass-
ing through A and perpendicular to d at a point B. Let b be another plane containing line d.
In b, through point B, let us draw a line n perpendicular to d. Since m and n are intersect-
ing lines, they determine a plane l. Since d is perpendicular to two intersecting lines in l
(those are m and n), d is perpendicular to l.
Now let us prove that this plane is unique.Let d
b
be a line and A be a point not on d. Assume that
through A there can be drawn more than one plane n
perpendicular to d.
l a
B
A
m
d
Let a and b be two ofthese planes. Let B be the intersection
d
of d and a, and C be the intersection of d and b. Then d ^
AB and d ^ AC which is impossible a
A B
Perpendýcularýty 285
Theorem If one of two parallel lines is perpendicular to a plane then the other line is also perpendi-
cular to the same plane.
Proof Let m and d be two parallel lines and a be a plane
m d
such that m ^ a. We need to show that d ^ a.
Since m ^ a, m is perpendicular to every line in a.
It is proven that if one of twoparallel lines is per-
pendicular to a third line then the other one is per-
a
pendicular to the same line. So d is perpendicular
to every line in a too. Therefore d ^ a
Theorem Two lines perpendicular to the same plane are parallel.
Proof Let lines d and b be perpendicular to a plane a. On b,
d b
take a point B which is not in a and through B, draw
a line b1 parallel to d. If b and b1 are not coincident
they determine a plane b. Let m be the intersection of B
m
b and a. Since b1 // d and d ^ a, b1 ^ a. So b1 ^
a
m. Since b is perpendicular to a, b is also perpendi-
cular to m. However through B there can be drawn
only one line perpendicular to a. Hence b1 and b are
b1
coincident. That means lines d and b are parallel
286 Geometry 9
Theorem A line drawn in a plane through the foot of an inclined line is perpendicular to the projec-
tion of the inclined line if and only if it is perpendicular to the inclined line itself.
Proof In this theorem we need to prove that
1. If a line drawn in a plane through the foot of an inclined line is perpendicular to the pro-
jection of the inclined line, it is perpendicular to the inclined line.
2. If a line drawn in a plane through the foot of an inclined line is perpendicular to the
inclined line, it is perpendicular to the projection of the inclined line.
d
A
b
C B
m
a
1. Let m be the line lying in a plane a perpendicular to the projection of an inclined line d
onto a at point B which is the intersection of d and a. Let A be any point on d and let the per-
pendicular drawn through A intersect a at C.
Point C is on the projection of d. CB and d determine a plane b. Since AC ^ a, AC ^ m.
Given that m ^ CB, so m ^ b and m ^ d.
2. Referring to the same figure, we need to prove that if m ^ d then m ^ CB. Since m is
perpendicular to two intersecting lines in b which are d and AC, it is perpendicular to b. So
it is perpendicular to CB
Perpendýcularýty 287
Theorem Through a point in space, there can be drawn a line perpendicular to a given plane.
Proof Let a be a plane and A be a point. In a take a line m (if A is in a take m in such a way that
A is not on m). Through A there can be drawn a plane b perpendicular to m. a and b are inter-
secting planes because m intersects b at a point B and m is in a. So a and b have a common
line b. In b through A there can be drawn line c perpendicular to b. Then since c ^ b and c
^ m, it can be concluded that c ^ a.
C
b
A
b
B
m
Now let us prove that this line is unique.
Let a be a plane and A be a point not in a. Assume that through A there can be drawn more
than one line perpendicular to a. Let c and c' be two of these lines. Since c and c' perpendi-
cular to a, they intersect a. Let B and C be the intersection points. B and C determine a line
n.
Since c ^ a, c ^ n and since c' ^ a, c' ^ n. Then DABC is a triangle with two right
angles which is impossible. So through A we can draw only one line perpendicular to a n
c c'
B C
n
288 Geometry 9
Theorem If a line is perpendicular to one of two parallel planes, it is perpendicular to the other.
Proof Let a and b be two parallel planes and m be a line per
m
pendicular to a.
Since m is perpendicular to a, it intersects a at a point A. A
d
If a line intersects one of two parallel planes, it intersects a b
the other too. So m intersects b at a point B.
In a, let us take two lines d and b intersecting at A. Let d' d'
B
be the intersection of b and the plane determined by d
b b'
and m, and let b' be the intersection of b and the plane
determined by m and b. When two parallel planes are
intersected by a plane the intersections are parallel. d' //
d and b' // b. Since m ^ a, m ^ d and m ^ b. So m
^ d' and m ^ b'. Since m is perpendicular to two intersecting lines in b, m is perpendicu-
lar to b
EXAMPLE 16 DABC is an isosceles right triangle such that AB = BC = 4 cm. P is a point not in plane ACB
and M is the midpoint of AC. If PB ^ AB, PB ^ BC and PB = 2ñ2 cm, find PM.
Solution AC is the hypotenuse of P
DABC, AC = 4ñ2 cm. Since BM is the median of the hypotenuse,
A
BM = 2ñ2 cm. Since PB ^ BC and PB ^ AB , PB ^ (ABC).
So PB ^ BM. Then
M
PM2 = PB2 + BM2 = 8 + 8 = 16,
B
PM = 4 cm.
Perpendýcularýty 289
EXAMPLE 17 Show that if two planes a and b are perpendicular to a line m then they are parallel.
Solution Since m is perpendicular to a and b, it intersects both planes. Let A and B be the intersec-
tions.
Assume that a and b are not parallel. Then they will have a common point P. Since AP is in
a, m ^ AP and since BP is in b, m ^ BP. So DAPM is a triangle with two right angles which
is impossible. Therefore a and b can not have any common point which means a // b.
C. Perpendicular Planes
If a plane contains a line perpendicular to another plane then it is perpendicular to that
plane. Every line on any of two parallel planes is parallel to the other plane. So, if a plane is
perpendicular to another plane, it intersects the plane.
Let a and b be two planes so that a ^ b. Then in a there can be found a line m perpendicu-
lar to b. Then line m is perpendicular to the intersection of a and b because this line lies in
b. Moreover in a through every point there can be drawn a line parallel to m. Since m is per-
pendicular to b all these lines are perpendicular to b. Therefore, it can be concluded that in
a through every point there can be drawn a line perpendicular to b.
Theorem If one of two planes is perpendicular to the other then the other is perpendicular to the first
one too.
Proof Let a be a plane perpendicular to a plane b. Then in a there
is a line m so that m ^ b
a
Let d be the intersection of a and b. Since m ^ b, m inter-
d
sects b. Since m is in a, m intersects b at a point which is on m
d. So m and d are two intersecting lines.Let n be any line in
b
b which is perpendicular to d. n
Since m ^ b, m ^ n. So n is perpendicular to two inter-
secting lines in b which are m and d. So n ^ a.
Hence b ^ a
290 Geometry 9
Theorem Any plane perpendicular to one of two parallel planes is perpendicular to the other.
Proof Let a and b be two parallel planes and l be a plane perpendicular to a. Then in l there is a
line perpendicular to a. This line will be also perpendicular to b . So l ^ b
Theorem If a line is perpendicular to a plane and parallel to another plane, these planes are perpen-
dicular.
Proof In the plane parallel to the line, there will be a line parallel to the given line and this line will
be perpendicular to the other plane. So the planes are perpendicular
D. Distance
1. Distance Between a Point and a Plane
Let A be a point and a be a plane. Through A let us draw line d perpendicular to a. Let d
intersect plane a at point H. Then the length of line segment AH will be the distance between
A and a. Let us show that the length of AH is indeed the shortest distance between A and a.
Let B be another point in a. Then B and H determine a line in a (Figure 1.49). Since d ^
a, d ^ BH. So triangle AHB is a right triangle with hypotenuse AB. So AH < AB.
H
B
a
If point A is in a, the distance between A and a is zero.
Perpendýcularýty 291
2. Distance Between a Plane and a Line Parallel to the
Plane
Let d be a line parallel to a plane a. Let A and B be two distinct points on d, and m and n be
the lines perpendicular to plane a drawn through A and B. Let m and n intersect plane a at
points H and C. So the lengths of line segments AH and BC are the distances from points A
and B to a.
Since m and n are parallel, they are coplanar. So A, B, C, H are coplanar points and quadri-
lateral ABCH is a rectangle. Therefore AH = BC.
m n
A B d
H C
a
So the distance from every point on line d to plane a is constant.
Hence to find the distance between a plane and a line parallel to the plane, we simply find
the distance between any point on the line and the plane.
3. Distance Between Two Parallel Planes
Let a and b be two parallel planes. Let A and B be two points in a, and A1 and B1 be two
points in b so that AA1 ^ b and BB1 ^ b. Since AA1 and BB1 are perpendicular to the same
plane they are parallel and determine a plane. When two parallel planes are intersected by a
plane the intersections are parallel. So ABB1A1 is a rectangle and
AA1 = BB1. In other words the distance from any point in one of a or b to the other plane is
constant.
To find the distance between two parallel planes, we simply find the distance from any point
in any plane to the other plane.
292 Geometry 9
a
B
b
B1
A1
4. Distance Between Skew Lines
To find the distance between two skew lines, we find the distance from one of these lines to
the plane containing the other and parallel to the first line. This distance is equal to the
length of the line segment perpendicular to both lines. Now let us show this.
Let m and n be two skew lines. We proved that we can draw a unique plane parallel to m and
containing n. Let a be this plane. Through any point P on m, there can be drawn a unique
line perpendicular to a and let Q be the intersection of this line and a.
Through Q let us draw line m' parallel to m. m' is in a.
Since m // m', they determine a plane b. Let A be the intersection of m' and n. Through A
there can be drawn a unique line parallel to PQ. This line will be in plane b. So it intersects
line m at a point B.
Since PQ ^ a, PQ ^ m'. Since m // m' , PQ ^ m. So BA ^ m. Since PQ ^ a and BA
// PQ, BA ^ a. So BA ^ n. Therefore, BA is perpendicular to both m and n.
Hence BA is called as common perpendicular of m and n.
m
P
B b
a
m'
Q
A
n
Perpendýcularýty 293
Definition The line segment perpendicular to two given skew lines is called as the common perpendi-
cular of the given skew lines.
Theorem The common perpendicular of two skew lines is unique.
Proof Let m and n be two skew lines and AB be their com m
mon perpendicular. Let C be a point on.
A
Since ÐABC = 90°, AC can not be perpendicular to n.
So there can not be drawn any other common perpen-
dicular containing A or B.
Now let us show that there is not any other common
n
perpendicu lar except AB. Assume B C
that CD is a line segment perpendicular to both m and C m
n. Let m' be the line parallel to m and passing through A
B. Since n and m' are intersecting lines, they determine
a plane a. So AB ^ a . Since CD ^ m, CD ^ m' . So
CD ^ a too. Since AB ^ a and CD ^ a, AB // CD . a m'
Then points A, B, C, D will be coplanar which is impos-
B
sible. D n
Hence the common perpendicular is unique
Now, let us show that the length of the common perpendicular is the smallest distance
between two skew lines.
m
P
a
m'
n
B R
294 Geometry 9
Let m, n be two skew lines and a be the plane containing n and parallel to m. Let AB be the
common perpendicular of m and n, and m' be the line passing through B and parallel to m.
Let P and R be any two other points on m and n.
Through P let us draw a line parallel to AB and let Q be the intersection of a and this line.
Since AB ^ a and PQ // AB, PQ ^ a.
So, we have that PQBA is a rectangle and AB = PQ .
Since PQ ^ a, PQ ^ QR. Therefore PR > PQ and since PQ = AB, PR > AB.
So we can conclude that any line segment drawn between two skew lines is longer than their
common perpendicular.
(To summarize: the length between two skew lines is the length of the common perpendicu-
lar of these lines. This length is equal to the distance from one of them to the plane con-
taining the other and parallel to the first line.)
EXAMPLE 18 From a point P to a plane a , perpendicular 0PA and two P
inclined line segments PB and PC are drawn.
If PB = PC ,
ÐBPA = 45°,
A C
ÐBPC = 60°, and
B
PA = 2ñ2 cm, find BC.
a
Solution Since PA ^ a, PA ^ AB, and since ÐBPA = 45° , P
PB = PA × ñ2 = 2ñ2 × ñ2 PB = 4 cm.
Since PB = PC and ÐBPC = 60°,
DPBC is an equilateral triangle. a A
So BC = PB = 4 cm.
B C
Perpendýcularýty 295
EXAMPLE 19 A line segment AB intersects a plane a at a point C. If AC = 5 and the distance between B
AB 6
and a is 2 cm, find the distance between A and a
Solution Let BP ^ a and AQ ^ a where P, Q are in a. Then BP // AQ. They determine a plane b
and the intersection of this plane and a is line PQ.
Since A and B are in plane b, line AB is in b. So AB and PQ intersect and this intersection
is in a. Since AB intersects a at C, the intersection point is C. So P, C and Q are collinear.
Since PB // AQ, DBPC ~ DAQC.
So we have BP = BC = 1 .
AQ AC 5
AQ = 5 × BP = 5 . 2 = 10 cm.
a P
C Q
EXAMPLE 20 From a point A to a plane a, perpendicular AB is drawn. If the distance from B to m is 6 cm
and AB = 8 cm, find the distance from A to m. (m is a line in a)
296 Geometry 9
Solution Let BP ^ m (Figure 1.59). Then BP = 6 cm. Since AB ^ a and BP ^ m, by the three per-
pendiculars theorem, AP ^ m. So the distance from A to m is AP. Since AB ^ a, AB ^ BP.
2 2 2 2
So AP = AB +BP = 8 + 6 = 10 cm.
P
a
Perpendýcularýty 297
EXERCISES 7 .2
A. Line Perpendicular to a Plane 5. In the adjacent figure,
P
PG is perpendicular to
1. In the adjacent figure, P
the plane of equilateral
PA ^ a , A
triangle ABC at its cen-
ÐBPA = 20°, troid G. G
a E F
ÐCPA = 10°, and If ÐAFP = 45°, what is
ÐAPD = 30° . B A
B
D S ABC
=?
Write PB, PC, PD in C SPBC
ascending order.
2. In the adjacent figure, M is the P 6. In the adjacent figure, P
midpoint of CB and PM ^ (ABC). PA ^ (ABC).
If MC = CA and PA = PB = PC, C If ÐAPB = ÐAPC = 45° and
find ÐABC. ÐBPC = 60°, find ÐBAC.
M A
A
B
B
3. P
7. Triangle ABC, right angled at A, lies in a plane a
and PA ^ a where P is a point not in a. If A is equi-
distant from points B, C and P, find ÐBPC .
a
m
A
T 8. Show that if two planes are perpendicular to the
same line then these planes are parallel.
In the adjacent figure, in plane a there is a circle and
a line m tangent to the circle at a point T. A is a point
on circle such that PA ^ a where P is not in a. If PT 9. State the followings as true or false
^ m, PT = 10 cm, and PA = 8 cm, find the radius of
a) If two lines are perpendicular to the same line,
the circle.
they are parallel.
b) If two lines are perpendicular to the same
4. Lines m, b, c are coplanar and line d is not in the
plane, they are parallel.
plane containing m, b, c. It is given that d is perpen-
dicular to m and b but it is not perpendicular to c. c) If a line is perpendicular to two lines lying in a
What can be concluded about m and b? plane, it is perpendicular to the plane.
298 Geometry 9
B. Perpendicular Planes 15. DABC is a triangle on C
B
10. Show that through a given point A, there can be one side of a plane a. If the
drawn infinitely many planes perpendicular to a given distances from vertices A,
plane a. B, and C to a are 6 cm, A
8 cm, and 10 cm respec-
tively, find the distance
from the centroid of DABC
to plane a. a
11. Line m is parallel to plane a. Show that there can
be drawn one and only one plane containing m and
perpendicular to a.
16. ABCD is a rhombus and PA ^(ABC). If
12. In the adjacent figure, DABC is A ÐBAD = 60° and AC = 2ñ3, find the distance
an equilateral triangle and DBDC is between lines PA and BC.
C
an isosceles triangle.
AB = 6 cm and BD = DC = 5 cm
are given. Find AD, if (ABC) ^
B D
(BDC).
17. m and n are two lines parallel to a plane a and
they are on the same side of a. If the distances from m
and n to a are equal, can m and n be skew lines?
C. Distance
13. A and B are two points equidistant from a plane a
and they are on the same side of a. Show that AB // a.
14. In the adjacent figure, Q
PQ is a line segment on one
P
side of a. If the distances
from P and Q to a are 4 cm
and 6 cm respectively, find
the distance from the mid-
point of PQ to a. a
Perpendýcularýty 299
A. Some Important Polyhedrons
1. Prisms
Definition A prism is a polyhedron formed by a closed prismatic surface and two parallel planes cutting
all its elements.
The various parts of a prism have names consistent with the general meanings of the words.
• The polygons made by two parallel planes are the bases.
• The faces of a prism are the portions of planes which are enclosed by the polygons which
form the prism. Two of the faces of a prism are enclosed by the bases. The remaining faces
of the prism are called lateral faces.
• Intersections of the lateral faces are called the lateral edges.
• The sides of the polygons which form the bases are called the basal edges.
• An altitude of a prism is a line segment joining the two base planes and perpendicular to
both. The length of an altitude is called the height of the prism.
• A line segment which joins two vertices not in the same face is called a diagonal of the
prism.
upper base
E1 D1
A1
C1
B1 lateral
lateral face
edge
diagonal altitude
E D
H
A
basal
C edge
B
lower
base
300 Geometry 9
— ABCDE and A1B1C1D1E1 are the bases of the prism.
— ABB1A1 and BCC1B1 are some of the lateral faces.
— AA1, BB1, and CC1 are some of the lateral edges.
— AB, BC, A1B1, and E1D1 are some of the basal edges.
— D1H is an altitude of the prism.
— AD1 is a diagonal of the prism.
Upper and lower bases correspond to each other.
— A and A1 , B and B1 are some of the corresponding vertices.
— AB and A1B1, BC and B1C1 are some of the corresponding basal edges.
• We can represent a prism by using the end points of its any diagonal or the vertices of its
lower and upper bases. For example, the prism in Figure 3.30 is represented as prism AD1 or
prism ABCDEA1B1C1D1E1 .
Conclusion
1. The bases of a prism are congruent polygons.
2. Every section of a prism made by a plane parallel to the bases is congruent to the bases.
3. All right sections of a prism are congruent.
4. Lateral faces of a prism are all parallelograms.
a. Classification of Prisms
A prism is either a right prism or an oblique prism.
Definition A prism whose lateral edges are perpendicular to its bases is called a right prism, otherwise
it is an oblique prism.
a) b)
In, the prism in part (a) is a right prism and that in part (b) is an oblique prism.
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 301
Conclusion
1. The lateral faces of a right prism are rectangles.
2. The lateral edges of a right prism are altitudes.
Prisms are also classified by the shapes of their bases. They are said to be triangular, quad-
rangular and so on, according to their bases which are triangles, quadrilaterals and so on.
Definition A right prism whose bases are regular polygons is called a regular prism.
If a plane not parallel to the bases of a prism and not intersecting the bases cuts all the lat-
eral edges, it divides the given prism into two solids, either of which is called a truncated
prism.
Right Oblique Regular Truncated
hexagonal pentagonal triangular triangular
prism prism prism prism
In, you may see how some of the prisms are named.
Here is another important definition that will be used in proving some theorems.
b. Some Special Prisms
i. Parallelepiped
Definition A prism whose bases are parallelograms is called a parallelepiped. If the lateral edges are per-
pendicular to the bases then the parallelepiped is called a right parallelepiped.
302 Geometry 9
b
q a
s
¡
a) b)
As can be seen in a, the face angles at a vertex of a parallelepiped may be all different. On
the other hand, even though the lateral edges of a right parallelepiped are perpendicular to
its bases, the face angles on the bases may not be right angles as in part b) .
Theorem The opposite faces of a parallelepiped are congruent and parallel.
Proof Refer to the parallelepiped in D1 C1
Since the bases are parallelograms, we can write
A1
B1
AB // DC , AB = DC and
A1B1 // D1C1 , A1B1 = D1C1 ...(1) D C
By the definition of a prism,
A B
AA1 // BB1 // CC1 // DD1 and
AA1 = BB1 = CC1 = DD1 ...(2)
By (1) and (2), ABB1A1, BCC1B1, CDD1C1, and DAA1D1 are all parallelograms. (Why?)
Moreover, if two angles not in the same plane have their sides respectively parallel and lying
on the same side of the straight line joining their vertices, the angles are equal, and their
planes are parallel. Therefore,
BAA1 CDD1 and ABB1A1 // DCC1D1 ,
CBB1 DAA1 and BCC1B1 // ADD1A1 .
Since two parallelograms are said to be congruent if two sides and the included angle of the
one are respectively equal to two sides and the included angle of the other, we can conclude
that
ABB1A1 DCC1D1 and BCC1B1 ADD1A1 n
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 303
Conclusion
1. All faces of a parallelepiped are parallelograms.
2. Any two opposite faces of a parallelepiped can be taken as bases..
Definition A right parallelepiped whose bases are rectangles is called a rectangular parallelepiped or mo-
re commonly a rectangular solid.
It can be asserted from the definition that a rectangular solid is a special parallelepiped. So,
all properties of a parallelepiped hold for a rectangular solid.
All faces of a rectangular solid are rectangles. Additionally, its diagonals are equal in length
and bisect each other at the center of the solid.
• The lengths of the three edges of a rectangular parallelepiped (solid) which meet at a com-
mon vertex are called its dimensions.
Theorem If the length of a diagonal of a rectangular solid is d and its dimen
H G
sions are a, b, c then
F
E
d= a 2 +b2 + c 2 c
D C
b
A a B
Proof Let us draw AC as in.Since AC is the hypotenuse of right triangle
H G
ABC, we obtain
F
E
AB2 + BC2 = AC2 AC2 = a2 + b2. c
On the other hand, GC is perpendicular to AC, because of the fact c
that if a line is perpendicular to a plane then it is perpendicular to
D C
any line on that plane. Therefore, AG2 = AC2 + GC2 a
b
A B
d2 = AC2 + c2
d2 = a2 + b2 + c2 (AC2 = a2 + b2)
d= a 2 +b2 + c 2
304 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 21 In the rectangular solid in the adjacent figure, AB = 12 cm, BF = 4 H G
cm, and BC = 5 cm.
E F
Accordingly,
a) find AG .
C
b) find the area of section ACGE . D
A B
Solution a) In right triangle ABC,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 AC2 = 122 + 52
AC2 = 169
AC = 13 cm .
AG2 = AC2 + GC2 AG2 = 132 + 42 (GC = BF = 4 cm)
AG2 = 185
AG = ó185 cm
b) As can be seen in, ACGE is a rectangle. So, its area is equal to
SACGE = AC × CG
= 13 × 4 = 52 cm2 .
iii. Cube
Definition A parallelepiped whose six faces are all squares is called a cube.
Since a cube is a rectangular solid whose edges are all equal in length, the following conclu-
sion can be written.
Conclusion
If the length of one edge of a cube is a then the length of its diago D1 C1
nal is d = BD1 =ñ3 × a
B1
A1
a
D C
a
A a B
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 305
Square prism Cube
b a
a a
a
a
Do not confuse a square prism whose bases are squares but lateral faces are any parallelo-
grams with a cube whose six faces are squares.
EXAMPLE 22 The length of the diagonal of a face of a cube is equal to 5ñ2 cm Accordingly, find the length
of a diagonal of the cube.
Solution Suppose that the length of one edge of the cube is a. So, the length of the diagonal of a face
is a × ñ2 . Thus,
a × ñ2 = 5ñ2 a = 5 cm .
By the conclusion above, we get the length of a diagonal of the cube as d = ñ3 × 5 d
= 5ñ3 cm
c. Areas of Prisms
In order to describe the measure of a polygonal region, we have used the term area. Similarly,
we will use the same term to describe the measure of the surface of a prism (any polyhe-
dron).
The area of a prism is the sum of the areas of its faces. The lateral area (SL) of a prism is the
sum of the areas of its lateral faces and the total area (ST) of a prism is the sum of its later-
al area and the areas of its two bases. Namely, if the area of a base of the prism is SB then its
total area is
ST = SL + 2 SB
Because upper and lower bases of the prism are congruent.
306 Geometry 9
Conclusion
The lateral area of a right prism is equal to the product of its height by
E1
the perimeter of its base. D1
For such a right prism in, if the perimeter of the base is p then A1
C1
SL = h p B1
h
E D
A
C
EXAMPLE 23 The length of each edge of a regular hexagonal prism is 6 cm. Accordingly find the total area
of the prism.
Solution As stated in the previous conclusion, the lateral area of a right F1 E1
prism can be found by multiplying the perimeter of the base
A1 D1
with the height of the prism. Therefore, the lateral area of the
B1 C1
regular hexagonal prism in is equal to
L = PABCDEF × DD1 6
F E
= 6 × BC × 6
A D
= 36 × 6 6 6
B 6 C
= 216 cm2.
On the other hand, the area of the base is
2
B = SABCDEF = 3 BC 3
2
62 3
= 3
2
= 54 3 cm 2.
Thus, the total area of the prism can be found as
T = L + 2 × B
T = 216 + 2 × 54ñ3
T = (216 + 108ñ3) cm2
T = 108 × (2 + ñ3) cm2 .
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 307
Conclusion
If the dimensions of a rectangular solid are a, b and c then the total
area of the prism equals
ST = 2 × (a × b + b × c + a × c)
a
EXAMPLE 24 If the total area of a cube is 18 cm2, find the length of a diagonal of the cube.
Solution Let the length of one edge of the cube be a and the length of a diagonal d.
By the conclusion above,
ST = 6 × a2 18 = 6 × a2
a2 = 3
a =ñ3 cm.
Since the length of a diagonal of a cube is equal to ñ3 times the length of an edge of the cube,
we can find d as
d = a × ñ3 d = ñ3 × ñ3
d = 3 cm.
Definition A pyramid is a solid formed by one nappe of a pyramidal surface and a plane cutting all its
elements.
• The section of the pyramidal surface made by the plane is the base of the pyramid.
• The triangular faces having a common vertex are called the lateral faces.
• The intersections of the lateral faces are called the lateral edges.
• The sides of the polygon which forms the base are called the basal edges.
• The common vertex is called the vertex of the pyramid. It is also named as apex.
• The segment drawn from the vertex and perpendicular to the base is the altitude of the
pyramid. The length of the altitude is the height of the pyramid.
• Vertex angle at each face is called a plane angle at the vertex.
308 Geometry 9
•The dihedral angles between adjacent lateral faces are called dihedral angles at the lateral
edges.
•The dihedral angles between the lateral faces and the base are called the dihedral angles at
the base.
As shown in, the parts of the pyramid are
Vertex : point V
Base : polygon ABCDE
Lateral faces : triangles VAB, VBC, etc.
Altitude: perpendicular VH
Basal edges : AB , BC , CD , etc.
Lateral edges : VA , VB , VC , etc.
Plane angles at the vertex: AVB, BVC, CVD, etc.
We can represent a pyramid by using its vertex and the vertices of its base. For example, the
pyramid in is represented as VABCDE.
V
vertex
altitude
lateral
lateral face
edge
D
E C
H
basal
A B edge
base
Theorem If a plane parallel to the base of a pyramid cuts all the lateral edges,
1. this plane divides the altitude and the lateral edges proportionally.
2. the section formed is similar to the base of the pyramid.
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 309
a. Classification of Pyramids
Pyramids are classified as totheir bases. Namely, pyramids are
V
said to be triangular, quadrangular, pentagonal, etc. , according
to their bases that are triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc.
•A triangular pyramid has four triangular faces and is often
called a tetrahedron. Any face of a tetrahedron may be used as
the base.
A C
i. Regular Pyramids
Definition If the base of a pyramid is a regular polygon and if the projection of its vertex on its base is
positioned at the center of the base then the pyramid is called as a regular pyramid.
regular regular
regular square hexagonal
tetrahedron pyramid pyramid
In Figure 3.62, some types of regular pyramids are shown. As can be seen, if the base is an
equilateral triangle then its center is the intersection point of its medians or if it is a square
then the center is the intersection of its diagonals. Moreover, if the base is a regular hexagon
then the center of the base is the center of its circumscribed circle.
•It can be generalized that center of the base of a regular pyramid is either the center of its
circumscribed or inscribed circle.
310 Geometry 9
Properties of a Regular Pyramid
1. The lateral edges of a regular pyramid are equal.
Explanation The pyramid in Figure 3.63 is a regular hexagonal pyramid. Since
V
the base is a regular hexagon, it can be divided into six congruent
equilateral triangles. So, in triangle ABH,
AB = AH = BH .
On the other hand, since VH is the altitude of the pyramid,
E D
VHA = VHB = 90° .
By SAS congruence postulate, we can write F
H
C
DVHA DVHB . A B
Therefore,
VA = VB
and by analogy, we can
VA = VB = VC = VD = VE = VF
2. The lateral faces of a regular pyramid are enclosed by congruent isosceles triangles.
Explanation By Figure 3.63, this property claims that lateral faces DVAB, DVBC, DVCD, DVDE, DVEF,
and DVFA are all congruent isosceles triangles.
In the previous property, we have obtained that
VA = VB = VC and AB = BC .
Therefore, by SSS congruence theorem,
DVAB DVBC .
Similarly, we can conclude that
DVAB DVBC DVCD DVDE DVEF DVFA .
3. The altitudes of the triangular faces of a regular pyramid are equal.
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 311
Explanation In the previous property, we have obtained that the lateral
V
faces of a regular pyramid are all congruent isosceles trian-
gles. So, their altitudes must be equal. slant
height
height
•The altitude of any of the lateral faces drawn from the ver-
tex of a regular pyramid is called the slant height of the
regular pyramid. D C
In, VN is theslant height of the regular square pyramid N H
while VH is the height of the pyramid. A B
Note
Only a regular pyramid can have a slant height.
EXAMPLE 25 If the length of a basal edge of a regular hexagonal pyramid is
V
10 cm and the height of the pyramid is 69 cm then find the
slant height of the pyramid.
F E
A D
H
N
B C
Solution Let us construct regular hexagonal pyramid VABCDEF, its altitude VH and its slant height
VN as in
Given that
AB = BC = 10 cm and VH = ò69 cm .
Since triangle ABH is an equilateral triangle,
AB = AH = BH = 10 cm .
Therefore, in right triangle VHB,
VB2 = VH2 + BH2 VB2 = (ò69)2 + (10)2
VB2 = 169
VB = 13 cm .
312 Geometry 9
On the other hand, in isosceles triangle VAB, the slant height VN is also a median of the tri-
angle. So,
AN = BN = AB = 10 = 5 cm.
2 2
In right triangle VNB, we obtain
VB2 = VN2 + BN2 132 = VN2 + 52 VN2 = 144 VN = 12 cm .
EXAMPLE 26 VABCD is a regular pyramid whose base is square ABCD with a side length of 2. If the dis-
tance between AC and BV is 1 then find
a) the measures of angles AVB and AVC.
b) the dihedral angle formed by two adjacent lateral faces.
c) the dihedral angle formed by two opposite lateral faces.
Solution a) If we draw altitude VHand diagonals AC and BD of the
V
base, we have VH AC, VH BD, and AC BD.
Since AC is perpendicular to two intersecting lines VH and
E
BD, it is perpendicular to all lines lying on (VBD). In right tri- 1
D C
angle VHB, if we draw altitude HE to VB then AC will be per-
2 H
pendicular to HE and HE will be the common perpendicular
A 2 B
of skew lines AC and VB (HE AC and HE VB). So the dis-
tance between AC and VB is the length of common perpen-
dicular HE. Therefore, we have
AB 2 2 2
HE = 1, DH = HB = AH = HC = = = 2.
2 2
If we apply the Pythagorean theorem in right triangle EHB, we
V
obtain EB = 1. Then, it can be concluded that
VB = VA = VC = VD = 2. So, the lateral faces are all equilat-
eral triangles which means that AVB = 60° . On the other hand, 2 2
triangle AVC will be an isosceles triangle as in Figure 3.67.
Since VA2 + VC2 = AC2, we can conclude that AVC = 90 A H C
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 313
b)In order to find the di-hedral angle between adjacent later V
al faces, let us construct altitudes AE and CE on faces VAB
and VBC, respectively (DVAB and DVBC are equilateral tri-
angles, and E is the midpoint of VB). Angle AEC will be the E
D
plane angle of the dihedral angle between (VAB) and (VBC) C
and we need to find its measure.
A B
Since DVAB and DVBC are equilateral, we have
AB 3 2 3
AE = CE = = = 3.
2 2
In triangle AEC, if we apply the Cosine theorem,
AC2 = AE2 + CE2 – 2 × AE × CE × cosAEC
(2ñ2)2 = (ñ3)2 + (ñ3)2 – 2 × ñ3 × ñ3 × cosAEC
8 = 6 – 6 × cosAEC
–1
cosAEC = 3
–1
AEC = Arc cos( 3 ) 110°
c)If we draw a planethrough vertex V which is perpendicular
V
to both faces (VAD) and (VBC), it will contain altitude VH
of the pyramid and altitudes VK and VL of faces VAD and
VBC respectively. So, we have
VA 3 = 2 3 = 3 . D
KL = AB = 2 and VK = VL = 2 2 C
K H L
In triangle VKL, we may apply the Cosine theorem:
A B
KL2 = VK2 + VL2 – 2 × VK × VL × cosKVL
22 = (ñ3)2 + (ñ3)2 – 2 × ñ3 × ñ3 × cosKVL
4 = 6 – 6 × cosKVL
1
1
cosKVL = 3 KVL = Arc cos( 3 ) » 70°.
Since angle KVL is the plane angle of the dihedral angle between faces VAD and VBC, we
can conclude that the measure of the dihedral angle between opposite faces is approximate-
ly equal to 70°.
314 Geometry 9
ii. Regular Tetrahedron
Definition A triangular pyramid whose all edges are equal is called a regular tetrahedron.
As in, all four faces of a regular tetrahedron are equilateral triangles.
The altitudes drawn to the faces of the regular tetrahedron are all
equal and they are called as medians of the tetrahedron.
a a
a
a a
Note
A regular tetrahedron is a special regular triangular pyramid such that basal and lateral edges
have the same length.
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 315
EXERCISES 7 .3
A. Some Important Polyhedrons 9. A right parallelepiped ABCDA1B1C1D1 has par-
allelogram ABCD as its base. If AB = a, BC = b,
Prism AA1 = c and the distance between lines AB1 and
1. A prism has 53 faces. Find the number of vertices CD1 is d, calculate:
and the number of edges.
a) the surface area of the parallelepiped
b) the lengths of the diagonals of the paral-
2. A prism has 69 edges. Find the number of ver- lelepiped.
tices and the number of faces.
3. The sum of the lengths of all edges of a rectangu- 10. ABCDA1B1C1D1 is a cube with an edge of a. If
lar parallelepiped is 28 cm and a diagonal is 6 cm. M and N are the midpoints of CD and C1D1,
Calculate the surface area. respectively, find the distance between line seg-
ments
a) AC and B1D1 b) MN and D1A c) MN and AC
4. The length of diagonal of a cube is 1 greater than
the length of diagonal of a face. Calculate the
total area of the cube.
11. ABCDA1B1C1D1 is a cube with an edge of a in
length. We denote the midpoints of edges CD
5. The sum of the dimensions of a rectangular par- and C1D1 by M and N, respectively. Find the dis-
allelepiped is 9 cm and the surface area is 45 cm. tance between lines:
Calculate the length of its diagonal.
a) AC and DD1 b) MN and BD c) MN and BC1
6. A rectangular parallelepiped has a diagonal equal
to 4ñ3 cm and the surface area equal to 96 cm2.
Prove that this parallelepiped is a cube.
12. ABCDA1B1C1D1 is a parallelepiped such that
each face is a rhombus of edge length a,
ÐBCD = 60°, and BCC1 = DCC1 = 120°.
7. ABCA1B1C1 is a regular triangular prism. What a) Prove that planes ACC1A1 and ABCD are per-
is the distance from C1 to the center of base ABC,
pendicular.
if A1B1 = 6 cm and B1B = 4 cm.
b) Calculate the area of quadrilateral BB1D1D.
c) Prove that the projection of point A1 on plane
8. ABCDA1B1C1D1 is a parallelepiped. Prove that ABCD is the center of the circumscribed circle
the midpoints of edges AB, BC, CC1, C1D1, of DABD.
D1A1, and AA1 are coplanar. d) Calculate the area of the parallelepiped.
316 Geometry 9
Pyramid 17.Prove that if a pyramid has congruent lateral edges
then around the polygon which forms the pyra-
13. A pyramid has 7 vertices. Find the number of mid’s base, a circle can be circumscribed.
faces and the number of edges of the pyramid.
14. A pyramid has 100 edges. Find the number of ver-
tices and the number of faces of the pyramid. 18. SABCD is a pyramid having parallelogram ABCD
as its base. Prove that ABCD is a rectangle if and
only if SA2 + SC2 = SB2 + SD2.
15. ABCD is a regular tetrahedron of edge a.
Calculate:
a) the angle formed by edge AD and plane ABC.
b) the angle formed by planes ABC and ABD.
19. ABCD is a tetrahedron with BC = CD. The bisec-
c) the distance between two opposite edges.
tors of angles ACB, ACD, BCD intersect AB, AD
and BD in M, N and P, respectively. Prove that
CP MN.
16. A quadrangular regular pyramid has equilateral
triangles of side 2 cm for lateral faces. Calculate
a) the surface area of the pyramid.
b) the angle between a lateral edge and the base
plane. 20. SABCD is a regular pyramid with square ABCD of
c) the angle formed by two opposite lateral edge 2 cm as its base. The distance between lines
edges. AC and BS is 1 cm. Find:
d) the dihedral angle formed by a lateral face a) the lateral area.
and the base plane. b) the measures of angles ASB and ASC.
e) the dihedral angle formed by two adjacent lat- c) the cosine of the dihedral angle formed by
eral faces. faces ASB and DSC.
Solýds Wýth Curved Surfaces 317
21. VABCD is a regular pyramid with base ABCD. F r ustum of Pyramid
a) Prove that the lateral faces are acute triangles.
26. ABCDA1B1C1D1 is a frustum of a regular quad-
b) If we denote the projection of B on VA by M
rangular pyramid. Prove that diagonals
and the projection of C on VD by N, prove that
AC1, BD1, CA1, and DB1 are concurrent.
lines BM and CN are concurrent.
c) If P is the intersection point of BM and CN,
prove that PV // (ABCD).
27. A frustum of a regular quadrangular pyramid
22. A regular pyramid has its base area equal to S and ABCDA1B1C1D1 has the base edges equal to 5
the lateral faces forms 60° angles with the base. cm and 3 cm, respectively. Lateral edge of frustum
Calculate the surface area. is 2ñ2 cm. Find:
a) the distance between lines AD and MN where
M and N are the midpoints of edges BC and
B1C1;
23. ABCD is a tetrahedron. The bisectors of angles b) the distance from M to plane ADD1.
BAC, CAD and DAB intersect edges BC, CD and
DB in M, N and P, respectively. Prove that planes
ANB, ACP and ADM share a common line.
28. Areas of bases of a frustum of a regular hexagonal
24. VABCD is a pyramid whose base is parallelogram
pyramid are 54ñ3 cm2 and 24ñ3 cm2, and the
ABCD. We denote the midpoints of edges VA, VB,
height is ò22 cm. What is the lateral area of this
VC and VD by Q, M, N, P. Prove that:
frustum?
a) AP and BN are concurrent.
b) CM and DQ are concurrent.
25. VA1A2...An is a regular pyramid having the poly- 29. ABCA1B1C1 is a frustum of a regular triangular
pyramid with bases DABC and DA1B1C1. What is
gon A1A2...An as its base.
the distance between AB and B1C1 if AC = 6 cm,
Prove that A1VA2 < 2n A1B1 = 4 cm and slant height of the frustum is
. 2ñ2 cm?
318 Geometry 9
A. Circular Cylinder
Definition A circular cylinder is a cylinder whose bases are circles.
• Since the circle is the only plane curve studied in former Geometry courses, most of the
postulates, theorems, and exercises which follow will refer only to circular cylinders and
hereafter, unless otherwise indicated, the word “cylinder” will be used to mean “right cir-
cular cylinder”.
• The line segment joining the centers of the bases is the axis of the cylinder.
• An axial section of a circular cylinder is a plane section which contains the axis.
• The radius of a cylinder is the radius of any base. Some parts of aright circular cylinder can
be seen in
base
O'
lateral
surface
axis
base radius
O
Theorem
The axis of any cylinder is equal and parallel to its elements.
320 Geometry 9
Proof Let A be any point on the circumference and K be the center of the
C
base of the cylinder in . L
D
If we draw, through A and K, the diameter AB of the lower base then
there exists only one element BC containing B.
If we pass a plane through AB and BC, the formed section ABCD is
a parallelogram by. Therefore,
AB = CD .
B
This implies that CD is a diameter of the upper base and passes K
through the center L . A
Hence, AK = DL and therefore AKLD is a parallelogram. So,
KL // AD and KL = AD
Conclusion
1. The axis of a cylinder passing through the centers of all sections parallel to its bases,
2. A cylinder may be generated by the revolution of a rectangle about
one of its sides as an axis. D A
For this reason, a cylinder is also called a cylinder of revolution.
In, ABCD is given as a rectangle.
If AD , DC and BC are permitted to revolve about AB as an axis then C B
AD and BC will generate parallel circular bases and CD will generate a
cylindrical surface.
Conclusion
If the radius of a cylinder is r and its height is h then
1. its lateral area is equal to SL = 2pr × h
2. its total area is equal to ST = 2pr × h + 2pr2
Volumes of Solýds 321
Explanation The cylinder and its unfolded form can be seen in
pr 2
h
2pr.h h
r
2pr
pr 2
The width of the rectangular region is equal to the circumference of the base of the cylinder
and its height is equal to that of the cylinder.
At this point, it is easy to derive the given formulas for the lateral area and the total area of
the cylinder.
EXAMPLE 27 The radius of a cylinder is 8 cm and its height is 5 cm. Accordingly, find the lateral area and
the total area of the cylinder.
Solution By the given conclusion, the lateral area of the cylinder is
equal to
SL = 2pr × h SL = 2p × 8 × 5
SL = 80p cm2 h = 5cm
and its total area is equal to r= 8cm
ST = SL + 2pr2
ST = 80p + 2p × (82)
ST = 80p + 128p
ST = 208p cm2 .
322 Geometry 9
Definition A solid formed by one nappe of a conical surface and a plane cutting all the elements is called
a cone.
• The base of the cone is the section of the conical surface made by the plane.
• The lateral surface is the curved part of the surface.
• The vertex of the conical surface is called the vertex of the cone.
• The altitude of a cone is the perpendicular from the vertex to the plane of the base. The
length of the altitude is the height of the cone.
• An element of a cone is a line segment connecting the
V
vertex
vertex with a point in the circumference of the base.
As can be seen in Figure 3.113, the parts of the cone are; element lateral
surface
Vertex : point V altitude
Base : section B
Lateral surface : the curved surface base
Altitude : perpendicular VH H B
A
An element : VA .
Every point of the lateral surface of a cone except the vertex is contained in exactly one ele-
ment.
B. Areas of Cones
Theorem
The lateral area of a right cone is equal to half of the product of the slant height and the cir-
cumference of the base.
Proof
hs hs
Let the lateral area of the cone be SL , the circumference of its base C and its slant height
hs .
Volumes of Solýds 323
Suppose a regular pyramid to be inscribed in the cone, the perimeter of its base being P and
its lateral area SL'. Then, we can write
1
SL' = × hs × P .
2
If the number of lateral faces of the inscribed pyramid becomes infinite,
SL' SL and P C .
Since hs remains constant, we can write
1 1
PC × hs × P × hs × C .
2 2
SL'
But, SL' SL . Hence, the right side of the above limit expression is equal to SL . Namely,
1
SL = hs C
2
Explanation Examine and try to get the above conclusion on your own.
V
hs
1 .(2pr).h
s
2
pr2 2pr
EXAMPLE 28 Find the lateral area of a right cone with radius 6 cm and height 8 cm.
324 Geometry 9
Solution In the right cone in Figure 3.134, VO = h = 8 cm,
V
OA = r = 6 cm and VA = hs .
In right triangle VOA , by the Pythagorean theorem, we obtain
VA2 = VO2 + OA2 hs
hs2 = h2 + r2 hs2= 82 + 62 h= 8cm
hs = 10 cm . r= 6cm A
O
By the previous conclusion, the lateral area of the cone is equal to
SL = p × r × hs SL = p × 6 × 10 SL = 60p cm2 .
C. Spheres
1. Fundamental Definitions
In this part, we will see that many properties of a sphere are similar to the ones of a circle.
When we are defining the terms used for spheres, you may change the definition of the cor-
responding terms of circles, just by replacing the word circle by the word sphere and omitting
the restriction in a plane.
Definition The set of all points in space which are equidistant from a fixed point is called a spherical
surface. The fixed point is called the center and the fixed distance is called the radius.
In, O is the centerand r is the radius of the spherical surface.
A spherical surface can be obtained by rotating a circle (or a semi-
circle) about one of its diameters.
r O
A spherical surface separates the whole space into three subsets;
an exterior region, the spherical surface itself and an interior
region.
Volumes of Solýds 325
Definition A sphere is a solid formed by a spherical surface and its interior.
Exterior region
Spherical surface
Interior region
• A line which is intersecting the sphere is a secant of the sphere.
• A line segment whose endpoints are on the surface of a sphere is a chord of the sphere.
• Any chord which contains the center of a sphere is adiameter of the sphere.
326 Geometry 9
EXERCISES 7 .4
A. Cylinder B. Cone and Frustum of Cone
1. Through an element of a cylinder drawn two 5. An element of a right cone is 10 cm and forms 60°
cross - sections. One of them is axial cross - sec- with the base of the cone. Find total area of the
tion with area S. Two cross - sections make an cone.
angel of 45°. Find the area of second cross - sec-
tion.
6. A right cone is cut through an element and
2. Diagonal of open form of lateral face of a cylinder opened. The central angle of this sector is 60° and
makes an angle of a degrees with the base of this
surface area of cone is 3 cm2. Find the area of
open form. Find the tangent of the angle between 2
the diagonal of axial cross - section of the cylinder axial cross section of cone.
and the base of the cylinder.
7. Given a frustum of a right cone with circumfer-
3. Diagonal of axial cross section of a cylinder is 20 ences of the bases 4p cm and 16p cm. Height of
cm and makes 60° with the base of the cylinder. the frustum of the cone is 8 cm. Find its total sur-
Find total surface area of the cylinder. face area.
4. The lateral surface area of a cylinder is half of its
total surface area. Find the cosine of the angle 8. Find the radii of bases of a frustum of a right
between the diagonal of an axial section and the cone if its lateral area is 323p cm2, its element is
base of the cylinder. 17 cm, and its height is 8 cm.
Volumes of Solýds 327
9. A right triangle with legs 6 cm and 8 cm is rotat- 13. A sphere is intersected by two parallel planes.
ed 360° about its hypotenuse. Find the surface Areas of the formed small circles are 25p cm2 and
area of the formed solid. 144p cm2. Center of the sphere lies between
these two parallel planes. If the radius of the
sphere is 13 cm, find the distance between the
planes.
14. A, B, C are three points on a great circle of a
sphere, and is another point on the surface of
10. ABCD is a right trapezoid (AD // BC and BAD = the sphere which is not in (ABC). What is the
90°). maximum distance from to (ABC) if AB = 16
AB = 5 cm, BC = 9 cm, and CDA = 135°. cm, AC = 30 cm, and BC = 34 cm?
The trapezoid is rotated about AD. What will the
surface area of the formed solid be?
15. The area of a wedge of a sphere with an angle of
45° is 18p cm2. Find the area of a spherical cone
of this sphere if the angle of this cone is 120°.
C. Sphere
16. A sphere is cut by a plane. The distance from the
11. A sphere is cut by a plane and the distance from
center of the sphere to the plane is half of radius
the center of the sphere to this plane is 8 cm. The
of the sphere. Find the surface area of the sphere
area of the formed small circle is 36p cm2. Find
if the area of the formed spherical cap (small one)
the surface area of the sphere.
is 75p cm2.
17. O is the center of a sphere and A is a point on its
surface. Planes a and b are perpendicular to line
segment OA at B and C such that OB = OC = 1
BA OA 3 .
12. Circumference of the intersection of a sphere What is the ratio of the surface area of the seg-
with a plane is 16p cm and this plane is 7 cm ment of two bases whose bases are in a and b to
away from the center of the sphere. Find the sur- the surface area of the segment of one base whose
face area of the sphere. base is in b?
328 Geometry 9
Theorem
The volume of a rectangular solid is the product of the area of its
base by its height or the product of its three dimensions.
c
V = abc
b
a
Conclusion
The volume of a cube is equal to the cube of the length of one edge.
V = a3
a
EXAMPLE 29 If the total area of a cube is 24 cm , find the volume of the cube.
2
Solution Let the length of an edge of the cube be a. So, the total area of the cube is equal to
ST = 6 a2 24 = 6 a2 a2 = 4 a = 2 cm .
Therefore, by the conclusion above, the volume of the cube is obtained as
V = a3 V = 23 V = 8 cm3 .
1. Volume of a Right Prism
Theorem
The volume of a right prism is the product of the area of its base and its height.
330 Geometry 9
2. Volume of a Pyramid
You learned that the volume of a prism is equal to the product of the area of its base and its
height.
EXAMPLE 30 Find the volume of a square pyramid if its height is 9 cm and each basal edge is 8 cm.
Solution The volume of the pyramid is
1 1 2
V= Sh = 8 9 = 192 cm3 .
3 3
EXAMPLE 31 Find the ratio of the volumes of a regular quadrangular pyramid and a regular triangular
pyramid if the lengths of their all edges are equal to a .
Solution First of all, let us try to get the height of each pyramid.
The height of regular tetrahedron VABC is VH= a 6
3 .
V W
a a
a
a
N M
C
A
a a P
D H
B K a L
Let P be the midpoint of KM which is a diagonal of square KLMN. Then,
a 2
KM = a × ñ2 and KP = PM = KM =
2 2
In right triangle WPK, by the Pythagorean theorem,
Sectýons and Combýnatýons of Solýds 331
WK 2 = WP 2 +KP 2 ,
a 2 2
a 2 = WP 2 +( ) ,
2
a2
WP 2 = ,
2
a 2
WP = .
2
Then, the ratio of the volumes of the pyramids is
1 a2 3 a 6
VVABC S ABC VH
= 3 = 4 3 =1.
VWKLMN 1 a 2 2
S WP a2
3 KLMN 2
Conclusion
If the length of each edge is a then
1. the volume of a regular tetrahedron is equal to a
3
a 2
V=
12 a a
2. the volume of a regular quadrangular pyramid is equal to
a
a3 2
V=
6
a
3. the volume of a regular octahedron is equal to
a
a3 2
V=
3 a
a
a
a
EXAMPLE 32 Find the volume of a regular octahedron if the length of one edge is a = 6 cm.
332 Geometry 9
Solution By the above conclusion, the volume of the regular octahedron
is equal to a3 2 63 2
V= = = 72 2 cm 3 .
3 3
Theorem
The volume of a cylinder is equal to the product of its base area and its height.
Conclusion
The volume of a cylinder with radius r and height h is equal to
V = r2 h
r
EXAMPLE 33 Find the volume of thecylinder according to the given values in.
r= 7 cm
h= 5 cm
Solution By the figure, r = 7 cm and h = 5 cm. Therefore, the volume of the cylinder is
V = p × r2 × h = p × (7)2 × 5 = 245 p cm3
Sectýons and Combýnatýons of Solýds 333
EXAMPLE 34 The altitude of a cylinder equals its diameter. If its volume is 128 p cm3, find the height
and the lateral area of the cylinder.
Solution Let h be the height, r the radius and V the volume of the cylinder. So,
h=2×r (height equals diameter)
V = p × r2 × h ,
128 p= p × r2 × 2r ,
64 = r3 , r = 4 cm .
Hence, the height is
h = 2 × r , h = 2 × 4 = 8 cm 2r
and the lateral area is equal to
SL = 2pr × h , r
SL = 2p × 4 × 8 ,
SL = 64 p cm2 .
EXAMPLE 35 A food-processing company is trying to test customer reaction to two new sizes of can. The
first is half the radius and twice the height of the current can. The second is twice the radius
and half the height of the current can.
a) If each can sells for the same price, which is better to buy? Explain.
b) If we are asked to design a can that has half the radius of the current can and has the same
volume, how tall should the can be?
c) We are asked to design a jumbo-sized can that has twice the radius and twice the height
of the current can. If the current can sells for 5 $, what would be reasonable price for the
jumbo-sized can?
Solution a) If the radius of the current can is r = 2a and the height is h = 2b then the corresponding
measures of the new cans are r1 = a, h1 = 4b, r2 = 4a, and h2 = b.
334 Geometry 9
4b
2b
b
2a a 4a
current can new cans
If we say V1 and V2 to the volumes of new cans, we get that
V1 = p r12 h1 = p a2 × 4b = 4 p a2 × b and
V2 = p r22 × h2 = p × ( 4a )2 × b = 16 p a2 × b .
Therefore, the volume of the second can is four times the volume of the first one. It is rea-
sonable to buy the second one.
b) and c) are left to the student as an exercise.
Conclusion
V1 r13 h13
If the radii and heights of two similar cylinders are r1, r2, h1, h2 then = 3 = 3
V2 r2 h2 .
r1
r2
h1
h2
V1 V2
Sectýons and Combýnatýons of Solýds 335
Volumes of Cones
Theorem
The volume of a cone is equal to one third the product of its base area and its height.
Proof
V V
h h
In other words, the volume of the cone is
1
V = h S
3
Conclusion
If the radius of a cone is r and its height is h then its volume is
1
V = r2 h
3
EXAMPLE 36 Find the volume of a cone if its height is h = 10 cm and its base is a circular region with
radius r = 3 cm .
Solution By the above conclusion, the volume of the cone is equal to
1 1
V = r 2 h = (3)2 10 = 30 cm 3 .
3 3
336 Geometry 9
EXAMPLE 37 Find the volume of a right cone if its height is 9 cm and its slant height (the length of an ele-
ment) is 15 cm .
Solution Let triangle VOA be the generator of the cone in.
V
In right triangle VOA,
OA = 12 cm .
Hence, the volume of the cone is equal to 9 15
1
V = OA 2 VO,
3 O A
1
V = 12 2 9 ,
3
V = 432 cm 3 .
Sectýons and Combýnatýons of Solýds 337
EXERCISES 7 .5
A. Volume of Rectangular Solid and Right B. Volume of an Oblique Prism
1. Dimensions of a rectangular solid are in the ratio 6. In an oblique triangular prism ABCA1B1C1, lat-
of 3 : 4 : 5. A diagonal of the solid is ò50 cm. Find eral edge is 12 cm, distances from lateral edge
its volume. AA1 to edges CC1 and BB1 are 13 cm, distance
from AA1 to opposite lateral face is 12 cm. Find
the volume of the prism.
2. Base of a rectangular solid is a square. A diagonal
7. Base of an oblique prism ABCA1B1C1 is an equi-
of the rectangular solid is d units and makes 60°
lateral triangle ABC with one side 4 cm. A1AC
with a lateral edge. Find its volume.
= A1AB = 60°. One lateral edge is 5 cm. Find
the volume of the prism.
8. In an oblique triangular prism, the height is 5ñ2
3. Base of a right prism is an isosceles right triangle. cm and one lateral edge makes 45° with the plane
A diagonal of the greatest face is 8 cm and makes of the base. Areas of two lateral faces are 50 cm2
45° with the plane of base. Find the volume of the and 100 cm2 and the angle between them is 120°.
prism. Find the volume of the prism.
C. Volume of a Cylinder
4. Base of a right prism ABCA1B1C1 is a right trian-
gle ABC with C = 90°. AC = 10 cm. Plane 9. Diagonal of an axial cross section of a cylinder is
AB1C makes 45° with the plane of base. Distance 20 cm and makes 60° angle with the plane of the
from point B to plane AB1C is 2ñ2 cm. Find the base of the cylinder. Find the volume of cylinder.
volume of the prism.
10. Given a cylinder and one of its cross - sections
parallel to the axis of cylinder. Distance between
5. In a regular hexagonal prism the cross - section and the axis of cylinder is 15
ABCDEFA1B1C1D1E1F1, diagonals B1F and cm, a diagonal of the cross - section is 2ò89 cm.
B1E are 12 cm and 13 cm, respectively. Find the Radius of the base is 17 cm. Find the volume of
volume of the prism. the cylinder.
338 Geometry 9
11. Cross section which is parallel to the axis of a 15. ABCD is a tetrahedron and O is a point inside it.
cylinder forms an arc of 120° in the base of the We denote the heights of the tetrahedron which
cylinder. Find the ratio of the volumes of parts of pass through A, B, C and D by h1, h2, h3, h4 and
the cylinder divided by the cross - section. the distances from O to planes BCD, ACD, ABD
and ABC by d1, d2, d3, d4. AO, BO, CO, DO inter-
sect planes BCD, ACD, ABD and ABC at points
A1, B1, C1, D1 . Prove that:
d1 d2 d3 d4
a) + + + =1
h1 h2 h3 h4
OA 1 OB1 OC1 OD1
b) + + + =1
AA 1 BB1 CC 1 DD1
D. Volume of a Pyramid
12. In a regular triangular pyramid, the height of the
base is 3 cm and lateral edge makes 45° with the
base of the pyramid. Find the volume of the pyra-
mid.
E. Volume of a Cone
18. One element of a right cone is 6 cm and makes
60° angle with the base. Find the volume of the
cone.
13. In a regular quadrangular pyramid, a diagonal of
the base is a units. Lateral face of the pyramid
makes a degrees angle with the base of the pyra-
19. When a right cone is cut through an element and
mid. Find the volume of the pyramid.
opened, the central angle of the formed sector is
3
60° and surface area of the cone is cm2. Find
2
the volume of the cone.
14. Base of a pyramid is an isosceles trapezoid with
acute angle 30°. Lateral faces of the pyramid
20. Height of a right cone is twice that of another
make 60° angle with the base of the pyramid.
cone and radius of the base of the first cone is
Height of the pyramid is 6ñ3 cm. Find the volume
half of that of the second cone. What is the ratio
of the pyramid.
of their volumes?
Sectýons and Combýnatýons of Solýds 339
F. Volume of a Frustum of a Cone 25. AB is a diameter of a sphere. Two planes a and b
are perpendicular to line segment AB at C and D
21. Radii of the bases of a frustum of a right cone are
in the ratio of 1 : 3. An element of the frustum is such that AC = BD = 1 . What is the ratio of the
AB AB 3
8 cm and makes 60° with the base of the cone.
Find the volume of the frustum. volume of the formed spherical segment of two
bases to the volume of the sphere?
22. Height of a frustum of a right cone is 12 cm and 26. The volume of a spherical wedge with 60° angle of
a diagonal of its axial section is 15 cm. Radii of a sphere is 48p cm3. Then, what is the volume of
the bases of this frustum are in the ratio of 1 : 2. a spherical cone of this sphere if the axial section
Find the volume of the frustum. of this cone is a circular sector with an angle of
90°?
G. Volume of Sphere
23. Surface area of a hemisphere is 75p cm2. Find its
volume.
24. Volume of a sphere is 36p cm3 . Find the surface
area of the hemisphere.
340 Geometry 9
