Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy

Lecture 1
Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy
 Comparison of similarities and differences of
Introduction to representative organisms.
 Study of animals with vertebral column
 Study of parts (structures)

JOHN DONNIE A. RAMOS, Ph.D.

Department of Biological Sciences
College of Science
University of Santo Tomas
P. Belon,1555

Why compare? Adaptations in the absence of Swim Bladder

 It is a tool that will help us analyze and formulate  Heterocercal tail (hydrofoil)
hypothesis about the basis of animal design
 Hypothesis is the usual start of scientific method prior to experimentation  Large liver (with abundant liver oil – lighter that water)
 Example: Tails of Fishes:
 Homocercal tail – exhibited by teleosts (with swim bladder)  Cartilage as skeletons (lighter than bones)
 Heterocercal tail – exhibited by chondrichthyes (without swim bladder)

 Differences in structure are related

to differences in function!

The Need to Compare: Structure vs Function Why compare?

 A way to study the history (evolution) of
vertebrates
 A means to construct classification
 A method used for extrapolation

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CVA encompasses other fields of biology Anatomy is the oldest branch of science
 Morphology – study of external forms  Cavemen started to draw anatomical structure (external and
 Descriptive Morphology – characteristics of structures internal organs)
 Functional morphology – significance and function of structures
 Evolution – history of organisms
 Ontogeny – development of an individual
 Phylogeny – development of group of organisms
 Taxonomy – naming and classification

Anatomy is the oldest branch of science Anatomy is the oldest branch of science
 Babylonians and Egyptians – practiced surgery and embalming  Galen – Greek
around 3000 BC philosopher and physician
 Egyptian Medical Papyrus – oldest written document on anatomy (165-200 AD)
 Descriptions of human
anatomy based on apes
 Wrote more than 100
treatises on medicine and
human anatomy

 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-

1519) – draw hundreds of
illustration on human
anatomy
 Vitruvian Man (also called
Canon of Proportions or
Proportions of Man)

Anatomy is the oldest branch of science Anatomy is the oldest branch of science
 Carl von Linne – Sweddish naturalist
 Vesalius (1533) – pioneered  Father of taxonomy and nomenclature (Binomial Nomenclature)
descriptive human anatomy  Systema Naturae (1758)
 Published a book entitled “
 Georges Leopold Chretien Frederick Dagobert
On the structure of the
human body” (based on the
Cuvier (1769-1832)
works of Galen and dog  Father of comparative vertebrate anatomy
anatomy).  French naturalist
 Authority in natural history and paleontology
 Published books on comparative anatomy of quadrupeds, fishes,
 Pierre Belon (1517-1564) – and other animals
French naturalist and  Classified animals (fossils and living organisms) in 4 taxa
physician (radiates, articulates, mollusks, and vertebrates)
 Studied cetaceans, fishes,  Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829)
birds and other animals  Theory of organic evolution
 First to use the term “basic  Characteristics acquired thru use and disuse. Unused parts
architectural plan” – become vestigial
architype (structures  Geoffrey Saint-Hillarie (1772-1844) – mutability of species
inherited from ancestors)
 Charles Darwin (1809-1882) – Theory of Natural Selection

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 Darwin’s Process Behind Change Where are the vertebrates located in the
animal classification?
High reproductive potential of species
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Competition for declining resources Subphylum: Urochordata
Subphylum: Cephalochordata
Subphylum: Craniata
Survival of the few
* Hagfishes
(craniates without vertebrae)

* Vertebrata
Natural Selection
(craniates with vertebrae)

Vertebrate Evolution The BIG 4 chordate characteristics

 Notochord
 Dorsal hollow central nervous system
 Postanal tail
 Endostyle (pharynx with pouches and clefts
– gill slits)

“First to appear in the embryonic

development of chordates”

Notochord Notochord
 Location: Ventral to CNS and dorsal to digestive tract  Retained in agnathans (jawless fishes)
 Absence of vertebral column but with lateral neural cartilages
 Enclosed by notochord sheath made of outer elastic connective
tissue and inner fibrous connective tissue

 Embryonic body framework (main support)

 Becomes vestigial (replaced by bone tissues) – found in the
centrum of a vertebrae
 Vestige is called pulpy nucleus

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 Dorsal Hollow CNS Vertebrate vs Invertebrate CNS
 Presence of cavity called neurocoel (central canal)

 Filled with
cerebrospinal Annelid Basic chordate
fluid body plan

Postanal Tail Endostyle

 Glandular groove at the floor of the pharynx
 Presence of tail (at least during embryonic  Pharynx
 chamber common to both digestive and respiratory tracts
stage) posterior to the anal opening
 Produces the…
 gill slits of fishes
 Lungs of tetrapods
 Skeleton and muscles of the jaws
 Endocrine glands (regulates metabolic rates and maintain Ca
levels)
 Middle ear cavity of tetrapods
 Initial cells of the immune system

Pharynx Pharyngeal Arches

 originate as pharyngeal pouches (endoderm of foregut)
extending outwards forming pharyngeal slits  Mandibular arch (first gill arch) – upper and lower jaw
 Blastemas of the pharyngeal pouches develop into:  Hyoid arch – second arch
 Skeleton (visceral skeleton – hyoid apparatus)  Branchial arches – third to last
 Muscles (constrictor muscles, branchiomeric muscles)
 Cranial nerves (5th, 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th )
 Aortic arches (blood vessels)- connect dorsal and ventral
aortas

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 Pharyngeal (Gill) Slits Other Characteristics of Vertebrates
 Temporary for terrestrial organisms  Generalized pattern of anatomic structure
 Similar embryonic development

Common ancestry
Von Baer’s Law – characteristics
that are similar to a group of
organisms developed first during
embryonic development as
 Cervical fistula – result of the failure compared to characteristics that
of the cervical sinus to close (housing
the 3rd and 4th gill slits) are unique to the organism.

Generalized Vertebrate Body Regional Differentiation of Body Parts

 Head - CEPHALIZATION
 Trunk region – presence of BODY CAVITIES (Coelom)
 Surrounded by body wall – characteristics of
triploblastic organisms
 ectoderm
 mesoderm
 endoderm
 Tail region
 Paired appendages
 Pectoral and pelvic appendages

Vertebrate Embryo

Bilateral Symmetry Axes (Planes) and Sections

 Axes (Planes)
 Symmetry – arrangement of body parts in  Longitudinal axis (anteroposterior axis) Posterior
reference to different planes and axes.  Dorsoventral axis –extends from dorsal to
ventral regions Dorsal
 Spherical  Right-Left Axis – extends from right to left
 Radial regions Left
Right Anterior
 Biradial  Sections
 Cross section – cut on dorsoventral axis
 Bilateral (separates anterior from posterior)
 Sagittal section –cut along anteroposterior Ventral
axis (separates left and right regions)
 Frontal section – cut along left-right axis
(separates dorsal and ventral regions)

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 Metamerism Protostomes vs Deuterostomes
 Repetition of parts along the anteroposterior axis
 A segment (somite or metamere) is marked by
constriction of the body wall
 May be external or internal
 First observed among annelids
 Highest degree of expression among
cephalochordates but retrogressed among
chordates
 Types:
 Homonomous metamerism
 majority of somites are similar
 Somites carry all the need3ed organs in order to function
(independent somites)
 Ex. Earthworm, flatworms
 Heteronomous metamerism
 majority of somites are dissimilar
 Ex. Vertebrates, amphioxus

Other vertebrate characteristics

Vertebrates are Deuterostomes
 Initial opening of the embryonic gut (blastopore) becomes the anus.
Integument
Protostomes Deuterostomes
• Blastopore • Blastopore  Skin made up of epidermis and dermis
(mouth) (anus)
• Spiral • Radial  The skin secretes variety of products
cleavage cleavage
 Oils
• Schizocoelic • Enterocoelic
coelom coelom  Sweat
• Ectodermal • Mesodermal  Pheromones
skeleton skeleton
 Hairs
 Spines
 Feathers
 scales
 claw / nail / hoof

Other vertebrate characteristics Other vertebrate characteristics

Respiration  Lower vertebrates

Coelom
 Pericardial cavity - heart Separated by
 External respiration through:  Pleuroperitoneal cavity – internal transverse septum
organs and lungs
 Lungs  Higher vertebrates
 Gills  Pleural cavity – lungs
 Presence of oblique septum and
 Skin diaphragm
 Extraembryonic membrane  Pericardial cavity - heart
 Peritoneal cavity – Internal organs
 Scrotal cavity – testis
 Peritoneal Membranes
 Parietal peritoneum – lines the b ody wall
 Visceral Peritoneum – lines the viscera
*Most organs are located inside the parietal
peritoneum except kidney (retroperitoneal)

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Other vertebrate characteristics Other vertebrate characteristics

Digestive Organs Urogenital Organs

 Complete digestive tract (mouth to
anus)
 Kidneys and gonads share
 Terminal openings: common ducts
 Anus – exclusive for digestive
tract  Complex kidney tubules
 Vent – common opening of collecting waste products
digestive and urogenital tracts
directly from capillaries
Cloaca – common chamber for
digestive, urinary and
reproductive ducts  All vertebrate embryos are
 Presence of diverticula bisexual (but one sex soon
 Pancreas degenerates)
 Liver
 Appendix  Sex is genetically
 Caecum, etc. determined

Other vertebrate characteristics Other vertebrate characteristics

Circulatory System Skeletal and Muscular System

 Vertebrates exhibit closed-type Skeletal System
of blood circulation  Presence of exoskeleton and / or endoskeleton
 Presence of a highly-  Skeletal system divided into:
differentiated pumping organ  Axial skeleton
(heart)  Pharyngeal skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton
 Single circuit heart
 Double circuit heart Muscular System
 presence of partition between  Presence of 3 types of muscles
right and left chambers of the  Skeletal – striated voluntary
heart  Cardiac – striated involuntary
 Smooth – non-striated involuntary
 separation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood

Other vertebrate characteristics

Similarity of Anatomical Parts
Sense Organs  Three criteria: Origin (Ancestry), Function and
Appearance
 Exterorepceptors – monitor the external environment
 Holomogy – features that share common
 Mechanoreceptors – detects pressure thru skin ancestry (origin)
 Chemoreceptors – detects chemicals (tongue)  Example: wings of birds and arms of man
 Electroreceptors – detects changes in voltage (common reptilian origin)
 Serial homology – similarity between
 Thermoreceptors – detects heat
succesive parts of the same organism (ex.
 Radiation receptors – detects visible and infrared spectrum Segmentation)
of light  Analogy – features with similar function but
 Interoreceptors – minitor internal environment may or may not of similar origin
 Propioreceptors – monitor the activity of muscles, joints  Example: wings of bats and wings of birds
and tendons  Homoplasy – features that simple look alike
 Visceral receptors – monitor the activity of internal organs  Example: forelimbs of turtle and dolphin
 Homoplastic structures

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 Convergence of Design Anatomical Concepts and Premises
 Convergence (convergent evolution)
 condition when two unrelated species occupying similar
environment mutate their anatomical parts in order to survive
 Results to analogous structures
 Examples:
 development of streamlined body with dorsal fins, bilobed tail and
paddle-like anterior limbs of ichthyosaurs (reptiles) and dolphins
 Wings of bats and birds (homologous and analogous structures
resulting from convergent evolution)

 Parallel evolution
 Development of similar structures but organisms are found in
separate environments
 Examples: tasmanian wolf (marsupial) and wolves and foxes
To meet common environmental demands helps (placental mammals) – same body structure
account for likenesses of some locomotor features

Anatomical Concepts and Premises Anatomical Concepts and Premises

 Evolution  Paedogenesis
 change in anatomical parts (and/or function) over time  Reproduction of larvae having sexually mature gonads
 Result of adaptation (survival of the fittest)  Example: larvaceans (protochordates)
 Mutation of a part to fit into a present environmental conditions  Neoteny
in order to survive  Retention of larval traits in adults
 Could result to the process of SPECIATION (formation of new  Example: necturus (amphibian) – adults with larval gills and gill slits
species)
 Migration of species  Paedomorphosis
 Geographical isolation  Larval or juvenile features of ancestors become adult
 Genetic mutation characteristics in the descendants
 Reproduction within the new group  Heterochrony
 Organic Evolution  Change in relative rates of development of characters during
phylogeny
 Organisms undergo process of change
 A way of evolution
 Present forms of organisms of descendants of earlier forms

Anatomical Concepts and Premises Take Home Task 2

 Primitive structure  Search and read about the topic assign to you
 Structure that appeared in ancestors (ex. Notochord is a
primitive structure) 1. Homology
 Generalized structure
 Structures that adapted to a variety of conditions (ex.
2. Analogy
Insectivorous hands is a generalized mammalian hand)
3. Convergent Evolution
 Specialized structure
 Adaptive modification for a specific function (ex. Types of 4. Parallel evolution
teeth or beaks)
5. Specialized structure
 Derived (modified) structure
 A mutated state; change from a previous condition. (ex.
Cartilages of sharks are modified skeletons)
 Give an example of the assign topic and write a
 Vestigial structure
short description in not more than 300 words.
 Structures that are better developed in ancestors (ex.
Pelvic girdle of whales)
 Submit in a short bond paper, 1.5 spacing, Font 12 –
 Rudimentary structure Arial, Justified
 Structures that are underdeveloped or not fully functional
(ex. Muellerian ducts of males)  Include pictures if available

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 Haeckel’s Phylogeny: Dendograms: Bean Stalks and Bushes
The Pedigree of Man
Ernst Haeckel’s
The Evolution of
Man (1896)

Dendogram
summarizes “Wrong view that species Explains the diversity of
Phylogeny evolved in linear sequence” unfolding evolution

Vertebrate Evolution in Dendograms Dendograms: Abundance and Diversity

Relationships of
hemichordate,
cephalochordate,
urochordate larva,
lamprey,and Modified descendants of
extinct ancestors
salamander

Dendograms and Evolutionary Process Dendograms and Classification

Cladogram depicts
genealogy (a hypothesis
about the lineages and
their evolutionary
relationships

Rapid evolutionary Gradual process

process of evolution

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 Cladogram depicts Taxa

Monophyletic, Paraphyletic and Polyphyletic Taxa

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