UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI – COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION using C++

CHAPTER 1: An Overview of Computers and Logic

In this chapter you will:

(a) Understand computer components and operations
(b) Learn about the steps involved in the programming process
(c) Learn about the data hierarchy and file input
(d) Use flowchart symbols and pseudo code statements
(e) Use and name variables

UNDERSTANDING COMPUTER COMPONENTS AND OPERATIONS

Hardware and Software are the two major components of any computer
system. Hardware is the equipment, or the devices, associated with a computer.
For a computer to be useful, however, it needs more than equipment; a
computer needs to be given instructions. The instructions that tell the computer
what to do are called software, or programs, and are written by programmers.

Together, computer hardware and software accomplish four major operations:

1. Input
2. Processing
3. Output
4. Storage

You write computer instructions in a computer programming language, such as

Visual Basic, C#, C++, Java, COBOL, etc.

No matter which programming language a computer programmer uses, the

language has rules governing its word usage and punctuation. These rules are
called the language’s syntax.

Every computer operates on circuitry that consists of millions of on/off switches.

Each programming language uses a piece of software to translate the specific
programming language into the computers on/off circuitry language, or
machine language. Machine language is represented as a series of 0s and 1s,
also called binary form. The language translation software that converts a
programmer’s statements to binary form is called a compiler or interpreter, and
it tells you if you have used a programming language incorrectly.

NOTE: Although there are differences in how compilers and interpreters work, their basic
function is the same – to translate your programming statements into code the computer can
use. When you use a compiler, an entire program is translated before it can execute; when
you use interpreter, each instruction just prior to execution.

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 UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI – COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION using C++

Suppose you instruct someone to make a cake as follows:

Stir
Add two eggs
Add a gallon of gasoline – Don’t do it!
Bake at 350 degrees fro 45 minutes
Add three cups of flour

NOTE: Programmers call some code errors semantic errors. For example, if you misspell a
programming language word, you commit a syntax error, but if you use an otherwise
correct word that does not make any sense in the current context, you commit semantic
errors.

Once instructions have been inputted to the computer and translated into
machine language, a program can be run, or executed.

Computer storage comes in two broad categories. All computers have internal
storage, often referred to as memory, main memory, primary memory, or
random access memory (RAM).

NOTE: Even though hard disk drive is located inside your computer, the hard disk is not
main, internal memory. Internal memory is temporary and volatile; a hard drive is
permanent, nonvolatile storage.

UNDERSTANDING THE PROGRAMMING PROCESS

The programmer’s job can be broken down into six programming steps:
1. Understanding the problem
2. Planning the logic
3. Coding the program
4. Using software to translate the program into machine language
5. Testing the program
6. Putting the program into production

1-Understanding the Problem

A good programmer is often part counselor, part detective!

2-Planning the Logic

The heart of the programming process lies in planning the program’s logic.
You may hear programmers refer to planning a program as “developing
an algorithm.” An algorithm is the sequence of steps necessary to solve
any problem.

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 UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI – COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION using C++

The process of walking through a program’s logic on paper before you

actually write the program is called desk-checking.

3-Coding the Program

Programmers choose a particular language because some languages
have built-in capabilities that make them more efficient than others at
handling certain types of operations.

4- Using Software to translate the Program into Machine Language

Data that the

program uses

If there are no
Write and correct Compile the syntax errors Compile the
the program code program program

If there are
syntax errors

List of Program
syntax output
error
messages

5-Testing the Program

A program that is free of syntax errors is not necessarily free of logical
errors.

6-Putting the Program into Production

UNDERSTANDING THE DATA AND HEIRARCHY AND FILE INPUT

When data items are stored for use on computer systems, they are often stored
in what is known as a data hierarchy, which describes the relationships between
data components.

In the data hierarchy, the smallest usable unit of data is the character.
Characters are letters, numbers, and special symbols. It also includes space and
tab. Characters are made up of smaller elements called bits.

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 UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI – COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION using C++

Characters are grouped together form a field. Field is a single data item, such as
lastName, streetAddress.

Related fields are often grouped together to form a record. Records are groups
of fields that go together for some logical reason. E.g. individual student record

Related records, in turn, are grouped together to form a file. File are groups of
records that go together for some logical reason. E.g. Student File
Finally, many organizations use database software to organize many files. A
database holds groups of files, often called tables that together serve the
information needs of an organization.

Database
File
Record
Field
Character

A database contains many files. A file contains many records. Each record in a
file has the same fields. Each record’s fields contain different data items that
consist of one or more stored characters in each field.

Name: Emily Sicat

Address: Hagonoy, Taguig
Salary: 375.00

Name: Alexander Pahayahay

Address: West Rembo, Makati
Salary: 536.77

Name: Era Gannaban

Address: McKinley, Taguig
Salary: 890.00

Name: Abel Bucad

Address: Greenwoods, Pasig
Salary: 722.23

Whether the data has been stored in a flat file or database, when a program
needs all the fields in a record, you can write programming statements to get or
input each field in one of several ways.

Get name
Get address
Get salary

Most languages also allow you write a single statement in the following format:

Get name, address, salary

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 UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI – COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION using C++

USING FLOWCHART SYMBOLS AND PSEUDOCODE STATEMENTS

When programmers plan the logic for a solution to a programming problem,

they often use one of two tools, flowcharts or pseudo code. A flowchart is a
pictorial representation of the logical steps it takes to solve a problem.
Pseudocode is an English-like representation of the same thing. Pseudo is a prefix
that means “false”, and to code a program means to put it in a programming
language; therefore, pseudocode simply means “false code”.

The following five statements constitute a pseudocode representation of a

number-doubling problem:
start
get inputNumber
compute calculatedAnswer as inputNumber times 2
print calculatedAnswer
stop

Flowcharts are the most widely used general method for describing infromation
and data processing systems.

Any information or data processing system has been defined as consisting of

three phases – input, processing and output. In other words, data inputs are
transformed in processing phase into desired outputs.

Definition of Terms:

Data are raw facts from which information is derived or created.

Information is communicated knowledge expressed in a form that makes
it immediatley useful for decision making.

Three Phases of Data Processing System

INPUT
PROCESSING
(Phase 1) (Phase 2) OUTPUT

(Phase 3)
Phase 1: Input → Recording or Capturing
Phase 2: Processing → Classification and sorting, Storage and Retrieval,
Summarization, Analysis, Communication (reporting),
Calculation
Phase 3: Output → Displaying of Results, Printing Results

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 UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI – COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION using C++

FLOWCHARTING SYMBOLS

The American National Standard Institute (ANSI) has adopted a standard set of
symbols to be used in flowcharting. The most commonly used symbols are
presented below.

SYMBOLS USED IN FLOWCHARTING

SYMBOL NAME FUNCTION

Represents the beginning and the end
of the program of the program. It
Terminal
contains the words “Begin” or “Start”
and “End” or “Stop
Represents a step or an instruction
such as arithmetic operations and
Process or
comparisons.
Action
Ex. Gather all materials in a box; Add 5
and 7
Represent the step wherein
information such as letters and
Input or
numbers are entered by the users or
Output
produced by the process.
Ex. Input 3 numbers; Get A, B, C; Print A

Arrow or Flow Indicates the flow or direction or the

Direction next activity to be done.
Indicator

Denotes a decision to be done. It

involves 2 courses of action that is
answerable by either yes/true or
Decision
no/false wherein one has to be
chosen. The symbol represents the
If…Then and For…Next Statements.
Represents the process that will
change the direction of initialization of
Preparation
any value or the execution of a
variable.

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 UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI – COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION using C++

Indicates that the process is continued

where the matching off-page
connector is placed on the same
On-Page page.
Connectors Example:

A A

Indicates that the process is continued

where the matching on-page
connector is placed on the different
Off-Page page.
Connectors Example:

A A

ADVANTAGES OF FLOWCHART

1. The flow of the program is easily understood.

2. It determines the validity of the processes involved in the program.
3. Debugging or correcting of errors is less complicated.
4. It produces effective program documentation.

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING A FLOWCHART

1. Determine the following:

a. Data to be entered
b. Information to produced
c. The way the data will be entered
d. The point when data will be given
e. The point when information must produced
2. There should only be one Start/Begin and Stop/End processes.
3. Concentrate in the logic of the program.
4. Choose only the important steps, No need to represent all the steps in
the flowchart.
5. Another programmer should easily understand your flowchart.

In programming, storing of data is very important and this becomes possible with
the use of variables and constants.

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 UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI – COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION using C++

USING AND NAMING VARIABLES

Programmers commonly refer to the location in memory called inputNumber and

calculatedAnswer as variables. Variables are named memory locations, whose
contents can vary or differ over time.

A variable name is also called an identifier.

The variable names used in our discussion follow only three rules:

1. Variable names must be one word. The name can contain letter, digits,
hyphens, underscores, or any other characters you choose, with the
exception of spaces.
2. Variable names should have some appropriate meaning.
3. Variable names may not begin with a digit, although usually they may
contain digits.

Note: As a convention, the variable names are in lowercase.

Suggested Variable Names for

Comments
Employee’s Last Name
Best suggestions
employeeLastName Good-descriptive identifier
Good-most people would interpret Last as
employeeLast
meaning Last Name
empLast Good
Inferior and Illegal suggestions
emlstnam Legal-but cryptic
lastNameOfTheEmployee Legal-but awkward
last name Not legal – embedded space
employeelastname Legal-but hard to read without camel
casing

Camel casing – is the format for naming variables in which the initial letter is
lowercase, multiple-word variable names are run together, and each new word
within the variable name begins with an uppercase letter.

-End of Chapter 1-

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