Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
March 2014
Shadi Najjar
American University of Beirut, [email protected]
Yassin Mostapha
American University of Beirut
Mostapha Mostapha
American University of Beirut
Recommended Citation
Sadek, Salah; Najjar, Shadi; Mostapha, Yassin; and Mostapha, Mostapha (2014) Assessment of the Potential for Earthquake-Induced
Liquefaction in Granular Soils, Spreadsheets in Education (eJSiE): Vol. 7: Iss. 2, Article 4.
Available at: http://epublications.bond.edu.au/ejsie/vol7/iss2/4
This Regular Article is brought to you by the Bond Business School at ePublications@bond. It has been accepted for inclusion in Spreadsheets in
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Assessment of the Potential for Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in
Granular Soils
Abstract
The assessment of the potential for an earthquake-induced loss of strength (liquefaction) of a granular deposit
involves methods which are based on empirical observations, field and lab characterization data and
associated analyses. These methods constitute an evolving state of knowledge/practice and involve systematic
yet tedious data interpretation, reduction, correction and analysis. For one time/one point calculations these
processes can be done by hand, yet they prove to be time consuming with the possibility of introducing
unwanted errors at one or more of the many steps involved. The idea of relying on spreadsheets to address
these shortcomings is not new. However, past efforts have included one method, with some cases ignoring
effects of some important parameters or new methodologies to avoid the added complexity. The approach/
tool developed and presented in this paper (LiqFactory 1.0) was motivated by, and developed and tested in the
context of, a course on geotechnical earthquake engineering with the objective of presenting students with a
platform for exploring and understanding the liquefaction phenomenon and the various state-of-the-practice
tools available to assess it. The tool relies on standard penetration test (SPT) or cone penetration test (CPT)
field test results, soil characteristic properties and earthquake data. Test specific corrections for various field
parameters are applied along with other adjustments associated with soil characteristics/composition. In this
paper, a concise technical background is presented followed by a thorough discussion of different methods
used in programming the spreadsheet and resolving the many problems faced in developing it. In addition, the
criteria used in programming the spreadsheets are presented, and finally an illustrative example application is
provided to showcase the different features of the tool developed.
Keywords
Earthquakes, Granular Soils, Liquefaction, Settlement, Spreadsheets
Distribution License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0
License.
Assessment of the Potential for Earthquake‐Induced
Liquefaction in Granular Soils
Abstract
The assessment of the potential for an earthquake‐induced loss of strength (liquefaction) of
a granular deposit involves methods which are based on empirical observations, field and lab
characterization data and associated analyses. These methods constitute an evolving state of
knowledge/practice and involve systematic yet tedious data interpretation, reduction, correction
and analysis. For one time/one point calculations these processes can be done by hand, yet they
prove to be time consuming with the possibility of introducing unwanted errors at one or more
of the many steps involved. The idea of relying on spreadsheets to address these shortcomings is
not new. However, past efforts have included one method, with some cases ignoring effects of
some important parameters or new methodologies to avoid the added complexity. The
approach/tool developed and presented in this paper (LiqFactory 1.0) was motivated by, and
developed and tested in the context of, a course on geotechnical earthquake engineering with the
objective of presenting students with a platform for exploring and understanding the
liquefaction phenomenon and the various state‐of‐the‐practice tools available to assess it. The
tool relies on standard penetration test (SPT) or cone penetration test (CPT) field test results, soil
characteristic properties and earthquake data. Test specific corrections for various field
parameters are applied along with other adjustments associated with soil
characteristics/composition. In this paper, a concise technical background is presented followed
by a thorough discussion of different methods used in programming the spreadsheet and
resolving the many problems faced in developing it. In addition, the criteria used in
programming the spreadsheets are presented, and finally an illustrative example application is
provided to showcase the different features of the tool developed.
Keywords: Earthquakes, Liquefaction, Granular Soils, Spreadsheets.
1. Introduction and Background
Soil liquefaction has been at the center of Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
research, education and practice for the last forty years or so. This phenomenon is
associated with the generation of large pore‐water pressures in granular soils during
seismic shaking, resulting in a reduction of effective particle to particle contact
(effective stress) and a consequent loss of strength. The interest in studying the
phenomenon of liquefaction was sparked by the devastating effects of the Alaska and
Niigata earthquakes (1964) which contributed to widespread “liquefaction‐induced”
damage (Kramer 1995). One of the first approaches suggested to evaluate liquefaction
potential was developed by Seed and Idriss (1971; 1982). Their “simplified
procedure” became the standard of practice throughout most of the world.
In 1996 a workshop was convened by Professors Youd and Idriss with 20 experts to
review the state of practice of liquefaction assessment and to develop consensus on
updates and revisions to the simplified procedure. The recommendations of the
workshop were published in Youd et al. (2001).
Liquefaction has been implicated in settlement and structural failure in several recent
events. In 1999, two major earthquakes hit the cities of Adapazari and Kocaeli in
Turkey causing widespread soil liquefaction. Also in 1999, widespread liquefaction‐
induced damages occurred in the cities of Wu Feng, Yuan Lin and Nantou during the
Chi‐Chi (Taiwan) Earthquake. In all four cities, significant liquefaction‐induced
settlements and bearing capacity failures of shallow‐founded structures were
documented. These new earthquakes among others provided additional data for
testing the effectiveness of the liquefaction assessment procedures and updating
them. A major effort in this direction was made by R. Seed et al. (2003) who analyzed
results from approximately 450 liquefaction (and “non‐liquefaction”) field case
histories and developed new correlations for the likelihood of initiation (or
“triggering”) of soil liquefaction. Further work was reported by Idriss and Boulanger
(2008) based on a comprehensive database of liquefaction‐related cases and presented
a modified method for assessing the initiation of liquefaction in granular soils.
The availability of a number of methods for assessing liquefaction potential in
granular soils, which in some cases yield contradictory outcomes, has led practicing
engineers to raise some questions regarding the reliability of the results and
associated design decisions. Since most of the available methods rely on empirical
graphs, using them typically favors a manual approach, where parameters are read
from the appropriate figures. This is time consuming, especially if a number of
parameters need to be varied in the liquefaction assessment.
The various methods and procedures presented in detail in section 2, were
programmed into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet that automates the liquefaction
analyses, in an attempt to clarify the relative importance of key elements and simplify
their use in engineering education and practice. The user is prompted to enter data
related to the soil profile and properties in a user‐friendly environment, and the
solution of the liquefaction analysis is presented for the different methods
programmed. This allows for a quick and visual assessment/comparison of the results
of different liquefaction analysis methods for large datasets with minimum effort and
potential for error.
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2. Methods for the Assessment of Liquefaction Potential
The evaluation of the liquefaction potential of soils necessitates the quantification of
the following two “parameters”: (1) the seismic “loading” imposed on a soil layer,
expressed in terms of the Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR); and (2) the capacity of the soil to
resist liquefaction, expressed in terms of the Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR). The factor
of safety (FS) against liquefaction could then be defined as the ratio of the CRR to the
CSR. The state‐of‐the‐practice methods for the assessment of liquefaction potential
relate in situ soil indices, such as the standard penetration test (SPT) or the cone
penetration test (CPT) or Shear wave velocity measurements, to observed liquefaction
occurrence or non‐occurrence during major earthquakes. The methods presented in the
sections below are restricted to SPT and CPT based approaches. The nomenclature
and parameter definitions are used are they appear in the original method/reference.
2.1. SPT‐Based Liquefaction Approaches
2.1.1. Youd et al. (2001) Method
In the method presented by Youd et al. (2001), the CSR is calculated according
to Equation‐1 as:
0.65 (1)
where amax is the peak horizontal acceleration generated by the earthquake at
the ground surface; g is the acceleration of gravity; σvo and σ’vo are the total and
effective vertical stresses respectively; and rd is a stress reduction coefficient
function of the depth below the ground surface, z, in meters:
1.000 0.4113 . 0.04052 0.001753 .
1.000 0.4177 . 0.05729 0.006205 . 0.001210
(2)
In the method, the Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR) for a reference earthquake of
magnitude Mw = 7.5 (CRR7.5) is obtained graphically from Figure‐1 as a
function of the corrected standard penetration number (N1)60, which is a
normalized value of penetration resistance to an effective stress of 1
atmosphere and 60% efficiency of the driving hammer. As shown in Figure‐1,
relationships between the CRR and (N1)60 (solid/dashed lines) are provided for
clean sands, sands with 15% fines, and sands with 35% fines. The lines
represent the boundaries between liquefaction occurrence and non‐occurrence.
Combinations of various applied CSRs and in‐situ resistances (SPT‐(N1)60, in
this case) would plot either on, above or below the respective curve indicating
potential behavior. For example, Figure‐1 indicates that soils with (N1)60 ≥ 30
are too dense to liquefy and are as such classified as “non‐liquefiable” in the
Youd et al. (2001) procedure.
The Factor of Safety against liquefaction is determined from Equation‐3 which
incorporates a magnitude scaling factor (MSF) that allows the application of
the procedure for earthquakes with magnitudes different than 7.5, and an
overburden pressure correction factor (Kσ):
.
(3)
Idriss (1995) and Andrus and Stokoe (1997) proposed sets of MSF values as
indicated in Table‐1. For earthquakes with magnitudes less than 7.5, Youd et
al. (2001) recommend that the MSF be taken as the average value from the two
references. Otherwise, the MSF is determined in accordance with the Idriss
(1995) recommendations.
Figure 1: SPT Clean‐Sand Base Curve and Curves for Fines Content = 15% and 35% for
Magnitude 7.5 Earthquakes with Data from Liquefaction Case Histories (from Youd et al. 2001)
Youd et al. (2001) recommend that the overburden pressure correction factor
(Kσ) be evaluated from Equation‐4 such that:
⁄
(4)
where σ’vo is the effective vertical stress; Pa is the atmospheric pressure (same
units as σ’vo) and f is an exponent that depends on the site conditions as
reflected by the relative density (ref. Table‐2). It should be noted that the
relative density is generally determined based on correlations with the
Standard Penetration N‐value N1,60 (ref. Table‐3).
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
Table 1: Magnitude scaling factors proposed by Idriss (1995 Seed Memorial Lecture) and
Andrus and Stokoe (1997)
MSF (Andrus and
Mw MSF (Idriss) Stokoe)
5.5 2.2 2.8
6 1.76 2.1
6.5 1.44 1.6
7 1.19 1.25
7.5 1 1
8 0.84 0.8
8.5 0.72 0.65
Table 2: f values as a function of the relative density
Dr (%) f
40 0.8
60 0.7
80 0.6
Table 3: Relationship between N1,60 and relative density Dr
2.1.2. Seed et al. (2003) Method
In the Seed et al. (2003) method, the Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR*) is given by
Equation‐5:
∗
1 1
0.65
(5)
where rd is defined as the nonlinear stress reduction coefficient and
determined from Figure‐2, DWFM is the magnitude‐correlated duration
weighting factor given by Figure‐3a, and Mw is the earthquake magnitude.
The factor Kσ is referred to as the overburden correction factor which could be
evaluated from Figure‐3b as a function of the vertical effective stress σ’v.
The Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR) for the Seed et al. (2003) method is
determined based on a probabilistic approach, where the relationships
between CRR and N1,60,cs for different probabilities of liquefaction are
presented in Equation‐6. The parameter N1,60,cs is calculated according to
Equations 7 to 10 as a function of the fines content (FC) and N1,60 such that:
(6)
. , ,
(7)
Seed et al. (2003) recommend the use of a probability of liquefaction of 15% in
the determination of the CRR to evaluate a factor of safety against liquefaction
FSliq=CRR/CSR* that is considered equivalent to conventional deterministic
approaches for liquefaction assessment.
Figure 2: Mean and 1 Standard Deviation rd Values for Response Analyses for 2,153
Combinations of Site Conditions and Ground Motions (Seed et al. 2003).
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
(a) (b)
Figure 3: (a) Recommended magnitude‐correlated duration weighting factor as a function of
N1,60 and (b)Values of K as a function of σ’v (Seed et al. 2003)
2.1.3. Idriss and Boulanger (2008) Method
In the Idriss and Boulanger (2008) liquefaction approach, the cyclic stress ratio
(CSR*) that is corrected for Mw = 7.5 and σ’v = 1 atm is given by Equation‐11 as:
1 1
. , 0.65
(11)
where rd is calculated using equations 12 to 14 as a function of z and the
earthquake magnitude as:
(12)
1
0.3 (17)
18.9 2.55
The Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR) in the Idriss and Boulanger (2008) approach
is calculated according to Equation‐18 as a function of (N1)60cs which includes a
correction for fines content FC as indicated in Equation‐19.
. , exp 2.8
14.1 126 23.6 25.4
(18)
9.7 15.7
exp 1.63
0.01 0.01
(19)
The Factor of Safety against liquefaction is then determined as:
. ,
(20)
. ,
2.2. Comparison of SPT‐blow Corrections between the Three Methods
The correction factors of the field SPT N‐value as recommended by each of the
three methods are presented in Table 4. CN is the correction factor for overburden
pressure, CR is the correction factor for rod length, CS is the correction factor for
the sampler, CE is the correction factor for the hammer efficiency and CB is the
correction factor for the borehole diameter.
2.3. CPT‐Based Liquefaction Approaches
2.3.1. Youd et al. (2001) Method
Youd et al. (2001) presented a CPT‐based liquefaction procedure that is
founded on the Robertson and Wride (1998) method for direct determination
of CRR for clean sands (FC< 5%) from CPT data (Figure‐5). They also included
a correction factor for “grain characteristics” for sands with fines. Adjustments
for fines are based on combinations of sleeve friction ratios and tip resistances
in such a manner that the “clean sand” boundary curve of Figure‐5 is adjusted
based on a composite parameter IC (Youd et al. 2001). The recommended
“fines” correction is a nonlinear function of IC, and ranges from a factor KC =
1.0 at IC = 1.64, to a maximum value of KC = 3.5 at IC = 2.60.
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Table 4: Correction factors of SPT‐blow recommended by each of the three methods
, 1.7
1.7
1.7
CR 0.75 Rod length < 3 m 0.75 Rod length < 3 m
CE
60% 60% 60%
CB 1.00 65mm B 115mm 1.00 65mm B 115mm 1.00 65mm B 115mm
Figure 5: Curve Recommended for Calculation of CRR from CPT Data along with Empirical
Liquefaction Data from Compiled Case Histories (Youd et al. 2001, Reproduced from Robertson
and Wride 1998)
Seed et al. (2003) state that the CPT‐based correlation of Robertson and Wride
is slightly unconservative for clean sands, especially at high CSR, and that it is
very unconservative for soils of increasing fines content and plasticity. This
was verified by comparison with newer CPT‐based correlations that are
presented and described in the sections that follow and which were based on
more recent liquefaction case histories where liquefaction was observed in
sites with CPT soundings.
As a result of the above shortcomings, a decision was made not to include the
CPT‐based liquefaction procedure presented in Youd et al. (2001) in this
paper.
2.3.2. Seed et al. (2003) Method
In the CPT‐based liquefaction method proposed by Seed et al. (2003), the
Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR) is determined based on a probabilistic approach
as a function of a modified normalized CPT tip resistance qc,1,mod, as presented
in Figure‐6. The normalized CPT tip resistance qc,1,mod is calculated using
Equation‐21 which includes a correction for fines content reflected in the CPT
friction ratio Rf such that:
, , , Δ (21)
where qc,1=Cq.qc is the normalized tip resistance and qc is a correction factor
for the presence of fines. The factor Cq is calculated as Cq=(Pa/’v)c, where Pa is
the atmospheric pressure and c is an exponent that is calculated from Figure‐
7a as a function of Rf and qc,1. The fines correction factor qc is given in Figure‐
7b, also as a function of Rf and qc,1. It should be noted that the friction ratio to
be used in Figure‐7 is defined as Rf=100x(fs,1/qc,1). The normalized sleeve
friction is calculated as fs,1=Cf fs , where Cf is a correction factor that is
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
determined as Cf=(Pa/’v)s , where s is an exponent that is determined from
Figure‐7a.
Figure 6: Contours of 5%, 20%, 50%, 80% and 95% Probability of Liquefaction as a Function of
Equivalent Uniform Cyclic Stress Ratio and Fines‐Modified CPT Tip Resistance (Mw=7.5,
ʹv=1atm.)
(a) (b)
Figure. 7: (a) Recommended CPT tip and sleeve normalization exponents, and (b)
Recommended CPT tip resistance modification for “fines content and character” as a function of
qc,1 and Rf.
As with their SPT‐based approach, Seed et al. (2003) recommend the use of a
probability of liquefaction of 15% in the determination of the CRR to evaluate
a factor of safety against liquefaction FSliq=CRR/CSR* that is equivalent to
conventional deterministic approaches for liquefaction assessment.
2.3.3. Idriss and Boulanger (2008) Method
In the CPT‐based Idriss and Boulanger (2008) liquefaction approach, the cyclic
resistance ratio (CRR) is calculated according to the following equation:
(22)
. , exp 3
540 67 80 114
where qc1Ncs is given as a function of qc1N = CNqc/Pa and the fines content FC:
9.7 15.7
5.4 . exp 1.63
16 0.01 0.01
(23)
where the normalization constant CN is calculated as:
. . .
1.7 (24)
The factor of safety against liquefaction is then calculated according to:
. ,
(25)
. ,
3. Methods for the Assessment of Liquefaction‐Induced Settlements
Liquefaction is typically associated with considerable settlements which may cause
significant damage to structures and infra‐structure. As such, and in order to
complete the assessment of the response of a given site to seismic shaking, an
estimation of the liquefaction‐induced settlements is typically required. Calculation
methods for liquefaction‐induced settlements in sands generally utilize SPT data as a
basis for settlement prediction. Commonly used SPT‐based settlement prediction
methods are presented in sections 3.1 and 3.2 below for cases involving dry (sands
above the water table) and wet sands (sands below the water table), respectively. For
cases where the data available is limited to CPT soundings, the correlation presented
in Figure‐8 could be utilized to estimate the SPT N‐value from the CPT tip resistance
qc as a function of the mean grain size D50.
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
Figure 8: Correlation between the mean grain size and the ratio of the CPT tip resistance to the
SPT N‐value (after Robertson et al. 1983 and Ismael and Jeragh 1986).
3.1. Settlement Calculations for Dry Sand
The settlement estimates for dry granular materials are obtained from the
procedure presented in Tokimatsu and Seed (1987). In this procedure, the Cyclic
Shear Stress (τav) is initially calculated as:
0.65 (26)
where rd is the stress reduction coefficient that is calculated from Equation‐2. The
Shear Modulus (Gmax) is then calculated as a function of the normalized SPT value
N1 such that:
/
447 (27)
where po is the reference atmospheric pressure taken as 95.76 KPa and p is the
effective stress calculated as p=0.67z, where is the soil’s unit weight and z is the
depth at which p is estimated. The Cyclic Shear Strain () is then calculated from
Equation‐28 calculated as follows:
1
(28)
1
where a = 0.0389(p/po)+0.124 and b = (6400p/po)‐0.6.
The Volumetric Strain (εNc) is then calculated according to Equation‐29 as a
function of Nc = (M‐4)2.17 and ε15 = (N1/20)‐1.2 such that:
.
(29)
15
Eventually, the dry settlement (ΔS) is calculated as a function of the thickness of
the layer Δh as:
Δ 2Δ (30)
3.2. Settlement Calculations for Wet Sand
The calculation of the settlement in “wet sands” is done in accordance with the
method proposed by Ishihara and Yoshimi (1992). First, the normalized SPT (N1)60
is converted into relative density Dr using Table‐3. Second, the Maximum Cyclic
Shear Strain (γmax) is calculated from Figure‐9a (Zhang et al., 2004) as a function of
the factor of safety against liquefaction. Then the Volumetric Strain (εv) is
calculated from Figure‐9b (Ishihara & Yoshimi 1992) as a function of the
maximum shear strain. Finally, the settlement is calculated according to Equation‐
31:
(31)
100
where εv is the volumetric strain and dz is the thickness of the layer.
(a) (b)
Figure 9: (a) Relationship between cyclic shear strain and factor of safety and (b) relationship
between volumetric strain and cyclic shear strain value.
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4. LiqFactory v1.0 Spreadsheet
As was evident from the previous sections, the methods available for liquefaction
assessment are quite complex and tedious to implement. We recognized the need to
provide students with an accessible platform for using, testing and practice‐driven
understanding of these methods. The main objective was to provide a state of the
practice platform for teaching and real‐world applications. The tool would allow a
quick solution of any liquefaction related problem using various reputed and
acknowledged methods, and for an easy and point by point comparison of the results
they yield. A spreadsheet‐based approach was selected as the most accessible and
effective solution. The information provided and the format it is presented in should
allow for a clearer understanding of the “hazard” and a more reliable and
comprehensive decision making process in reference to the need for, and extent of,
mitigation measures.
It is important to note here that the developed spreadsheet was done in the context of
an educational activity. It came as a result of discussions and feedback with students
at the completion of a course on geotechnical earthquake engineering, where the
methods for evaluating liquefaction potential were introduced. The intricacies and
complexities of implementation of these methods on multiple points/depths within a
soil profile were highlighted in the student feedback. The use of “black‐box”
commercial software, which cover some but not all the methods presented, was seen
by some students as effective, but did not allow them to appreciate/understand the
various input variables, assumptions and procedures involved. The tool described
herein has since been used to support that same course with very positive reactions
from the students.
4.1. Graphical User Interface (GUI) Forms
The procedures presented in the previous sections for the assessment of
liquefaction potential and liquefaction‐based settlements were programmed into a
spreadsheet that was equipped with a user‐friendly graphical user interface. The
different components of the interface are presented in the sections below.
4.1.1. Soil Profile
The user is first asked to fill the “Edit Soil Profile” form. It allows the input of
the subsurface profile for the case to be analyzed. A capture of this form is
presented in Figure‐10. The user inputs the number of soil layers within the
profile. The number of layers is entered using the “Update” button. If the user
wants to edit the number of soil layers at a later stage, he/she can do that
using the “Edit” button. Information about the water table is entered next. The
depth of the water table is taken from the level of the ground surface.
The next step involves entering the properties of the different layers. For each
layer, the user enters all the parameters as shown in Figure‐10. The “Layer #”
drop box allows the user to select the layer. The box directly next to the drop
box is the color used by the sheet to represent the selected layer. The color
assigned to any layer can be changed by scrolling and selecting.
Figure 10: Screen shot of the “Edit Soil Profile” form.
In addition to the color, the user has to enter four parameters for each layer.
These are: the depth to the bottom of the layer measured from the ground
surface, the unit weights above and below the water table, and the average
fines content. Note that the last layer is considered to have infinite depth
although the form asks for a value in order to represent it in the “User
Interface” Sheet. To update the values to the selected layer, the user should
press “Update Layer”. Eventually, when the user enters the values for the last
layer, the “Generate Profile” button becomes activated. This button draws the
user’s soil profile on which the analyses will be based. The form tests for odd
values like negative numbers, letters and the like. The “Reset All” button
deletes all the values in the form and the spreadsheet’s memory.
4.1.2. Earthquake Data
The form in which the user inputs the earthquake data is presented in Figure‐
11. Two parameters are of interest when it comes to studying liquefaction.
These are the earthquake magnitude and the peak horizontal ground surface
acceleration. The latter should be input as a multiple of the gravitational
acceleration “g”.
Figure 11: Screen shot of the “Edit Earthquake Data” form.
4.1.3. SPT Data
The “Add SPT Data” form is shown in Figure‐12. The SPT data is input in
columns. The first column includes the depth while the second includes the
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
corresponding field (uncorrected N) or corrected (N1,60) SPT number. A third
column should include the fines content associated with each depth.
Figure 12: Screen shot of the “Add SPT Data” form.
The “data sheet” drop box allows users to select the sheet in which the data
are found. Once the sheet is selected, it will automatically be activated. Once
the sheet is activated, the users can select the depth range, the associated SPT
N‐values, and the associated fines content using the typical Excel range
selection method. Note that users have the option of entering either field or
corrected SPT number of blows. In case the field SPT values are entered, then
they should also enter the borehole diameter, rod length and efficiency ratio in
the corresponding text boxes as shown in Figure‐12 to allow for the
computation of the appropriate correction factors. Moreover, the user needs to
determine whether the sampler is standard or not using the check box. The
form checks if the number of data in each range is the same once the “OK”
button is pressed.
4.1.4. CPT Data
The procedure for adding CPT data is similar to that of the SPT. The user
selects the sheet in which the relevant data is found. Then, they need to select
the ranges of the depth, cone penetration tip resistance, and sleeve friction
(Figure‐13).
Figure 13: Screen shot of the “Add CPT Data” form.
4.1.5. Draw Graphs
Figure‐14 shows the “Draw Graphs” form that allows the user to plot the
results of the liquefaction assessment based on both SPT and CPT data. The
users have two options in which they would either plot a default layout for
the graphs (as arranged in the “Available graphs” list) or change this layout
using the arrow buttons between the two lists (i.e. “Available graphs” and
“Graphs to be drawn” lists). Note that users can only select the graphs that are
of interest to them when choosing the “Choose the graphs and their order”
option. After deciding on a certain option, the users can draw the graphs
using the “Draw SPT Graphs” button. Similarly, users can plot the graphs
related to CPT data by selecting the “CPT” tab. The users can also delete the
existing graphs by selecting the option button “Choose the graphs and their
order:” and pressing directly on “Draw SPT/CPT Graphs” button while
leaving the “Graphs to be drawn” list empty.
Figure 14: Screen shot of the “Draw Graphs” form.
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4.1.6. Compute Settlements
Figure‐15 shows the “Compute Settlements” form. The users select to
compute settlements based on either SPT or CPT data. If CPT data is used, the
user should enter the mean grain size D50 to be used in the correlation
presented in Figure‐8 to convert the CPT tip resistance into an equivalent SPT
N‐value.
Figure 15: Screen shot of the “Compute Settlements” form
4.2. Programming Challenges and Assumptions
To limit the length of this paper, the discussion related to the programming effort
that was associated with designing the spreadsheet from a computational
perspective will be restricted to the challenges and assumptions that were
faced/made. Where relevant, the code that was developed to solve the challenges
is presented.
4.2.1. SPT‐Based Methods
A common challenge that was faced in almost all the methods was the need
for finding mathematical expressions that would represent some of the
graphical solutions that required programming. In general, the solution to this
challenge was through digitization of empirical relationships and using
numerical fitting schemes. Examples of relationships which required
digitization in the SPT‐based methods are the relationships required to
estimate rd, DWF, Ksigma, and CRR. In what follows is a brief presentation of
some useful expressions that resulted from that effort.
rd‐mean (Seed et al. 2003)
The curve of rd(mean) was digitized from Figure‐2 and a 5th order polynomial
was used to determine a relationship between the depth z and the reduction
factor rd (Equation‐32). The expression which provides z as a function of rd
was found to provide a better fit to the graphical relationship as opposed to
the more conventional approach in which rd is established as a function of z.
The challenge in solving for rd using Equation‐32 was solved by writing a code
that iterates for rd in the range of 0.2 and 1.1 until the calculated depth from
Equation‐32 is equal to the desired depth z at which rd is required. Note that a
traditional relationship that would result in a value of rd as a function of depth
could have been used; however, the accuracy of the results in this case was
found to be smaller than the procedure implemented in the spreadsheet.
DWF and Ksigma (Seed et al. 2003)
A similar procedure was followed in digitizing the curves which relate the
duration weighting factor DWFM with the earthquake magnitude in Figure‐3a
and the overburden correction factor Ksigma to the vertical effective stress ’v (in
psf) in Figure‐3b. Power functions were used to fit the curves once digitized.
This resulted in the relationships presented in Equations 33 and 34:
DWFM 92.487M w
2.251
(33)
K sigma 7.69 20885 .46 v'
0.268
(34)
CRR Curve (Seed et al. 2003)
The solution of Seed et al. (2003) for determining a relationship between the
CRR and N1,60,CS is probabilistic in nature and was presented for probabilities
of liquefaction of 5%, 20%, 50%, 80%, and 95%. However, Seed et al. (2003)
recommend a probability of liquefaction of 15% to be equivalent to the
deterministic approaches. To estimate the curve that corresponds to the 15th
percentile liquefaction potential, a manual curve was interpolated and drawn
between the 5th and 20th percentile curves and the image with the new
interpolated curve was scanned and saved. The scanned image was then used
to digitize the 15th percentile liquefaction curve and a 6th order polynomial
(Equation‐35) was used to provide a best fit for the relationship between CRR
and the corrected SPT blow count N1,60,CS:
CRR 2e 10 N 1, 60 ,CS 2e 8 N 1, 60 ,CS 1e 6 N 1, 60 ,CS 2e 5 N 1, 60 ,CS 4e 4 N 1, 60 ,CS 9e 4 N 1, 60 ,CS
6 5 4 3 2
(35)
CRR curve (Youd et al. 2001)
The solution of the SPT‐based Youd et al. (2001) method as reflected in Figure‐
1 includes curves for clean sands, sands with a fines content of 15% and sands
with a fines content of 35%. To program the graphical solution into the
spreadsheet, mathematical relationships were derived for cases with
intermediate fines content (at intervals of 2.5% for FC between 5% and 15%
and at intervals of 5% for FC between 15% and 35%) as illustrated in
Equations 36 to 45. The curves for intermediate fines content were drawn by
hand, digitized, and fitted with 2nd degree polynomials. Since, the upper
bound of these relationships includes the case with N1,60 of 30, it was assumed
in the spreadsheet that the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) is equal to 0.6
whenever N1,60 was greater than 30. On the other hand, when N1,60 is less than
30, Equations 36 to 45 are used to relate between CRR and N1,60 for different
fines contents. The code takes FC = 5% as a lower bound and FC = 35% as an
upper bound. It is worth noting that Equations 36 to 45 present N1,60 as a
function of the CRR. This decision was made to produce better fits for the
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
curves in Figure‐1 and the solution of these equations could be obtained using
the procedure presented to solve for rd,mean in the section above.
4.2.3. Settlement Calculations
Conversion from CPT to SPT (wet settlement)
Equation‐46 shows the mathematical expression that was used to fit the
correlation between CPT and SPT as presented in Figure‐8. It should be noted
that the lower bound for the ratio qc/100N was taken as 1 while the upper
bound was taken as 8.
qc
7.6508D50
0.2801
(46)
100 N
Maximum Cyclic Shear Strain (γmax, wet settlement)
The relationship between the maximum shear strain max and the factor of
safety FS is presented in Figure‐9a with different relationships shown for
different relative densities. To model the graphical solution using
mathematical equations, the relationship for each relative density was divided
into three different parts: the first part represents the low values of the factor
of safety where max is assumed to be a constant. For this part, the value of max
is interpolated between the given curves according to the relative density (Dr).
The second part is for intermediate factors of safety with an upper bound of 1.
In this part, the relationship between FS and max is assumed to be linear and
accordingly the curves were digitized and fitted with linear functions that
were used as a basis of the interpolation according to the value of Dr. The last
and third part is for FS greater than 1. The relationship between FS and max
was considered to be linear and independent of Dr. As a result, only one curve
was digitized and fitted with a linear function to represent the relationship
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
between FS and max. The upper bound for the relative density was taken as Dr
= 90% whereas the lower bound was taken as Dr = 40%.
Volumetric Strain (εv , wet settlement)
A similar approach was used to represent the graphical solution of the
volumetric strain (Figure‐9b) using mathematical expressions. In the process,
the curves were divided into two linear segments. The first linear part
represents maximum cyclic shear strain max less than 8% where linear
interpolation was used to obtain results for different relative densities. The
second segment is for max greater than 8%, where for a specific value of Dr, εv
is constant regardless of the value of max. In the formulation, the upper bound
is taken as Dr = 90% whereas the lower bound is taken as Dr = 40%.
5. Illustrative Example
This section is dedicated to demonstrate the use of the Software through an
illustrative example. The example is based on a real‐world project where a
liquefaction assessment was required, and which is used as a hands‐on application
exercise in the geotechnical earthquake engineering course.
5.1. Soil Profile and Properties
The case study under investigation involves a site located along the Lebanon
coast. The top 5 to 6 meters of the site are reclaimed from the sea and consist of fill
that could be characterized as a medium dense to dense silty sand with gravels
and cobbles. The fill is underlain by natural soils that consist of very loose to
dense silty and clayey sands up to depths of about 17 to 18m. A relatively hard
marl/limestone layer exists under the silty/clayey sands. A representative soil
profile is shown in Figure‐17. Note that the water table is taken to be at ground
level. Standard penetration test and cone penetration test data were available for
the site. The available data is presented in Figure‐18 and Figure‐19 for SPT and
CPT tests, respectively. Information about fines content and unit weight is
presented in Figure‐17.
Figure 17: Soil profile of the illustrative example
The first step consists of inputting the general soil properties and the earthquake
data into the spreadsheet. This step is completed following the instructions
indicated in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. The second step is to enter the SPT and CPT
data as indicated in Sections 4.1.3 and 4.1.4. The software automatically performs
the necessary computations and a summary of the results of the liquefaction
assessment is obtained for the SPT and the CPT‐based methods, respectively. The
user is then prompted to select corresponding graphs for the SPT and CPT‐based
results and to obtain the vertical settlement based on either the SPT or CPT data.
5.2. SPT‐based Methods
The output of the liquefaction assessment is presented in Figure‐18 for the three
SPT‐based liquefaction methods. The output consists of two sets of graphs: the
first set summarizes the input properties including the soil profile in addition to
graphs showing the variation of field SPTs, corrected SPTs, and fines content with
depth. The second set includes the variation of the CSR and the CRR with depth
for the different methods in addition to the variation of the resulting factor of
safety with depth. For the example considered, the earthquake magnitude Mw was
taken to be equal to 7.5 and the Peak Ground Acceleration was taken as 0.25g as
indicated in the applicable local codes of practice.
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
6 6 6 6
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
7 Dense Light Brown Silty SAND
7 7 7
8 8 8 8
Figure 17: Soil profile of the illustrative example
9 V. Loose to loose Light Brown Clayey SAND 9 9 9
10 10 10 10
11 11 11 11
12 Medium Dense Light Brown to Reddish 12 12 12
13 Brown Clayey SAND 13 13 13
14 14 14 14
15 15 15 15
16 Dense Light Brown Clayey SAND 16 16 16
17 17 17 17
Factor of Safety against
CSR* or CRR CSR* or CRR CSR* or CRR Liquefaction
(Seed et al. 2003) (Idriss & Boulanger 2008) (Youd et al. 2001)) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0
0 0 0 1 Seed et al. (2003)
1 CSR* 1 CSR* 1 CSR* 2 Idriss & Boulanger (2008)
2 2 2 3 Youd and Seed (1997)
CRR CRR CRR
3 3 3 4
4 4 4 5
5 5 5 6
6 6 6 7
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
7 7 7 8
8 8 8 9
9 9 9 10
10 10 10 11
11 11 11 12
12 12 12 13
13 13 13 14
14 14 14 15
15 15 15 16
16 16 16 17
17 17 17
Figure 18: Results of Liquefaction Analysis using SPT‐based Methods
Results shown in Figure‐18 indicate factors of safety against liquefaction that are
less than 1.0 at a depth of 5.0m and at depths between 8.0 and 13.0m. These
depths were characterized by relatively low SPT values (generally less than 15).
For this particular site, the risk of liquefaction as reflected in the factor of safety
was similar for the three SPT‐based methods, despite slight variations in the
magnitudes of the computed factors of safety at different depths. It should be
noted that whenever the computed factor of safety was greater than 2, it was
plotted as 2 in the output graphs so as not to disrupt the scale of the x‐axis in the
figure.
In general, results indicate that the method of Seed et al. (2003) results in factors of
safety that are generally smaller than those calculated by the other two methods.
The difference however is generally in the range of 10% to 20%. The largest
difference in the calculated factors of safety between the three methods was
observed for a depth of 14.5m, where the factor of safety was calculated as 1.47 for
the Seed et al. (2003) method, 1.75 for the Idriss and Boulanger (2008) method, and
about 2.0 for the Youd et al. (2001) method.
Despite some differences in the calculated factors of safety, all SPT‐based methods
predicted the depths at which liquefaction is probable.
5.3. CPT‐based Methods
The CPT sounding presented in Figure‐19 was used to predict the liquefaction
potential at the site using the CPT‐based methods of Seed et al. (2003) and Idriss
and Boulanger (2008). The variations of the cone penetration resistance qc and the
friction ratio fs with depth are also presented in Figure‐19, which constitutes the
output graph for the CPT‐based analysis. As with the SPT‐based methods, the
output also includes the variation of the CSR and the CRR with depth for the
different methods in addition to the variation of the resulting factor of safety with
depth.
The results of the CPT‐based liquefaction analysis indicate the potential
occurrence of liquefaction between depths of 5m and 6m and at depths below
9.0m, where relatively low cone trip resistance values qc were measured. Both
methods predicted liquefaction at the above‐mentioned depths, with the
calculated factors of safety at all depths being relatively similar indicating
consistency in the results of the two CPT‐based methods for this particular
example.
A thorough examination of the results on Figure‐19 indicate that the Seed et al. (2003)
method resulted in slightly lower factors of safety at relatively shallow depths in
comparison to the Idriss and Boulanger (2008) method, while the latter resulted in
slightly lower factors of safety at relatively larger depths.
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
Friction Ratio, Rf(%)
Cone Resistance, qc (MPa)
Soil Profile 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0 0
1
1 1
2
2
Dense Grey Silty SAND w. Gravels and Cobbles 2
(FILL) 3
3 3
4
4 Medium Dense Grey Silty SAND w. Gravels (FILL)
4
5
5 5
Grey Silty/Clayey Sand 6
6 6
Depth (m)
7
Depth (m)
CSR* or CRR
CSR* or CRR
CSR* or CRR
CSR* or CRR
CSR* or CRR CSR* or CRR Factor of Safety Against
Factor of Safety Against
(Idriss & Boulanger 2008)
(Idriss & Boulanger 2008)
(Idriss & Boulanger 2008)
(Idriss & Boulanger 2008)
(Seed et al. 2003) (Idriss & Boulanger 2008) Liquefaction
Liquefaction
0 0 0 00.1
0.1 0.20.10.2
0.30.20.3
0.1 0.2
0.40.30.4
0.2 0.3
0.50.40.5
0.3 0.4
0.60.50.60.6
0.4 0.5
0.5 0.6
0 0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.50 0.60 00 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
0
0 1 1 11 0 0
1
1 2 2 22 1 1 Seed et al. (2003)
Seed et al. (2003)
2
2 3 3 33 2 2
3 Idriss & Boulanger (2008)
Idriss & Boulanger (2008)
3 4 4 44 3 3
4
4 5 5 55 4 4
5
5 6 6 66 5 5
6
6 6
(m)
Depth (m)
6
Depth (m)
7 7 77
Depth (m)
Depth(m)
7
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
7 8 8 88 7 7
8
8 8
Depth
8 9 9 99
9
9 10 10 1010 9 9
10
10 11 11 1111 10 10
11
11 12 12 1212 11 11
12
12
13 13 1313 12 12
13
13 14 14 14 13 13
1414 CSR*CSR* CSR*
CSR*14 14
14 15 15 15 CSR*
CSR* 1515
15 16 16 16 CRR CRR CRR
CRR 15 15
1616 CRR
16 CRR
17 17 17 16 16
1717
17 17 17
Figure 19: Results of Liquefaction Analysis using CPT‐based Methods
5.4. Settlement Computation
The excel‐based tool documented in this paper can calculate the vertical
settlement based on SPT data. This can be done through using the SPT data (Youd
et al. 2001) directly or by converting the CPT data to SPT data. The software
detects the position of the water table and calculates the dry settlement above it
and the wet settlement below it. In this example the water table is at the ground
level so only the wet settlement is calculated for the different layers. Table 5
shows the output of the vertical settlement that is calculated using the SPT data
directly. The total settlement is around 16.4 cm.
Table 5: Settlement computation based on SPT
Settlement in Wet Soil Total Settlement
Depth (m) N1,60 FS Dr γmax (%) εv Δs (m) Σ Δs (m)
3 64.22 3.06 90 0 0 0.000 0.000
4 40.92 2.75 90 0 0 0.000 0.000
5 16.11 1.10 63.4 2.3 0.71 0.007 0.007
6 19.24 1.37 69.1 1.2 0.32 0.003 0.010
7 57.43 2.24 90 0 0 0.000 0.010
8 2.33 0.27 30 51.3 4.42 0.044 0.055
8.5 11.42 0.63 53.8 31.2 3.15 0.016 0.070
11 16.61 0.90 64.3 5.4 1.64 0.041 0.111
13 14.46 0.83 60.2 8 2.66 0.053 0.164
14.5 24.71 2.03 79 0 0 0.000 0.164
15.5 29.22 2.07 88.1 0 0 0.000 0.164
16.5 85.48 2.11 90 0 0 0.000 0.164
6. Conclusions
In this paper, a spreadsheet that is equipped with a user‐friendly graphical user
interface was developed to provide an efficient tool for analyzing liquefaction
problems using state‐of‐the‐knowledge methods that are available in the literature for
assessing the liquefaction potential of granular soils. The technical background
associated with the spreadsheet was presented and the challenges associated with the
development of the spreadsheet were discussed. A step‐by‐step procedure for using
the spreadsheet is presented to facilitate the use of the software by engineers or
engineering students. Finally, a real‐world practical example was introduced to
illustrate the added value brought by the spreadsheet and to provide users with an
idea of the results that could be obtained from the spreadsheet.
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Sadek et al.: Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction in Granular Soils
7. References
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Wave Velocity”, Proceedings, NCEER Workshop on Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance
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New York at Buffalo, 89–128.
Cetin, K.O., Seed, R.B., Kiureghian, A.D., Tokimatsu, K., Harder, L.F., Kayen, R.E.,
and Moss, R.E.S. (2004). “Standard Penetration Test‐Based Probabilistic and
Deterministic Assessment of Seismic Soil Liquefaction Potential”, Journal of
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Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI), Oakland, California.
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Youd, T.L., Idriaa, I.M., Andrus, R.D., Argano, I., Castro, G., Christian, J.T., Dobry, R.,
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Marcuson, W.F. III., Martin G.R., Mitchell, J.K., Moriwaki, Y., Power, M.S., Robertson,
P.K., Seed R.B., and Stokoe, K.H. II. (2001). “Liquefaction Resistance of Soils:
Summary Report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF Workshops on
Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils”, Journal of Geotechnical and
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