HOR 211 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF FRUITS, SPICES AND

PLANTATION CROPS (2+1)

Dr. N .SHOBA
Assistant Professor.
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore -3.

Classification of tropical, sub-tropical and acid zone fruit – area and production –
scope and importance.
Climate is of fundamental importance in the development of fruit cluster.
Fruit has been a major food for mankind from time immemorial. Primitive man,
the food habit was based mainly on fruits and also tubers which were found wild in the
forests. In fact Adam who is considered to be the progenitor of man was said to have
temptingly given the apple.
In Ramanaya and Mahabaratha the cultivation and consumption of fruits were
described.
Tamil literature - Mukkanigal
The importance of anola the nellikani
Tropical region refers to region between the tropic of cancer and capricorn. The
average temperature is about 27°C subtropic region summer-hotter and the winter cooler
than tropics. Humidity is generally lower.
Based on temperature requirement the fruits crops can be classified as temperate,
sub-tropical and tropical fruits.
Tropical fruits – mango, banana, sapota, guava, papaya
Sub tropical fruits – Mangosteen, litchi, acid lime
Temperate fruits – Apple, pear, plum. Based on the toleance to the relative
humidity of the atmosphere the fruit crops can be again classified as arid, semiarid zone
crops eg., Ber, anona, datepalm, phalsa.
Arid zone are characterized by sparse and highly variable precipitation, extreme
variation of diurnal and on annual temperature and high evaporation. The mean annual

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rural rainfall varies from 100 mm – 500 mm. Temperature will be as low as 4.4° C and
high as 50°C. Although rainfall is low but atmospheric humidity is fairly high.
Area and production of fruits in India during 1999-2000
S1.No. Crop Area (000 ha) Production (000 MT)
1. Apple 238.3 1047.4
2. Banana 490.7 16813.5
3. Citrus 526.9 4650.6
4. Grapes 44.3 1137.8
5. Guava 150.9 1710.5
6. Mango 1486.9 10503.5
7. Papaya 60.5 1666.2
8. Pineapple 75.5 1025.4
9. Sapota 64.4 800.3

Nutritive value of important fruits

S1.No. Name Edible portion (%) Moisture (g) Protein (g) Fat (g)
1. Mango 74 81 0.6 0.4
2. Banana 71 70.1 1.2 0.3
3. Grapes 95 82.2 0.6 0.3
4. Papaya 75 90.8 0.6 0.1
5. Guava 100 81.7 0.9 0.3
6. Jack 30 76.2 1.9 0.1
7. Orange 67 87.6 0.7 0.2

Minerals Fibre Carbohydrate Energy Ca P

(g) (g) (g) (K.cal) (mg) (mg)
0.4 0.7 16.9 74 14 16
0.3 - 17.0 74 4 9
0.7 5.2 11.2 51 10 28
0.5 0.8 7.2 32 17 13
0.7 5.2 11.2 51 10 28
0.9 1.1 19.8 88 20 41
0.3 0.3 10.9 48 26 20

Iron Carotene Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin Niacin (mg) Vitamin C

(mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)
1.3 2743 0.08 0.09 0.9 16
0.9 78 0.05 0.08 0.5 7
0.5 3 0.04 0.03 0.2 1
0.5 666 0.04 0.25 0.2 57
1.4 - 0.03 0.03 0.4 212
0.5 175 0.03 0.13 0.4 7
0.3 1104 - - - 30

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Scope and importance
In India, fruit crops are cultivated in an area of 3.2 million ha with on annual
production of 26 million tonnes. India contributes to 8 per cent of the total world
production. Although the per day requirement of fruits has been calculated as 230 gram
an individual gets only 160 gram. India is the second largest producer of fruits after
China. Although fruit is grown throughout the country, the major fruit growing states are
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, AP, Bihar, UP & Gujarat.
Fruit crops are capable of giving higher tonnage per unit area .
eg) Rice – 20-25 tonnes/ha
Banana -35-40 tonnes/ha
The average calorific value they produce per unit area two crops of wheat produce
52 lakh calories / ha banana – 370 lakh colorie /ha.
Fruits are rich source of minerals and vitamins.
Betacarotene – Vitamin A (Mango, Papaya)
Banana, Pine apple – Vitamin B, Since fruits are consumed without cooking the
Vitamins are readily available.
Vitamin C – Amla 600 mg/100g of pulp
West Indian Cherry – 1400 mg/100 g.
Fruit culture encourages horticultural based industries like fruit processing and
preserved product like jam, jelly, squash and canned fruits.
Mango – Alphanso, Raisin – export.

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MANGO : Mangifera indica Anacardiacea

Mango is one of the most important tropical fruits of the world and is called the
king of fruits. Indo Burma – Siam region and Philippines are considered to be the origin
of Mango. It is a leading fruit crop in India. The crop is under cultivation for more than
4000 years in India.
The fully ripe fruits are not only considered as a delicious table fruit but also used
for preparations like jam, jelly, squash, syrups etc. raw fruits – pickles, chutneys etc.
There are about 1000 varieties being grown in India. Each variety has its own
distinct taste, flavour, pulp consistency and yield potential.
Climate: Mango is essentially a tropical crop and it can also be grown in sub
tropical climate, from sea level upto on altitude of about 1400 metres. The crop cannot
withstand high humidity, rain and frost during the flowering period. The annual mean
temperature ranging from 21° to 27°C is ideal for successful crop, though it can tolerate
temperature range of 5 to 44°C. Higher temperature during the fruit development
enhances maturity and improves fruit size and quality.
Rainfall : average annual rainfall as low as 250 mm to as high as 2500 mm.
High rainfall prior to flowering induces excessive vegetative growth and arrest the
flowering. Frequent rains and high humidity will increase the incidence of pests and
diseases. Dry cool winter during flowering followed by hot summer and good rainfall
after harvest are highly ideal for better mango cultivation.

Soil
Red loamy soil with good drainage is preferable pH 6.5 to 8.

Season of planting: July to December

Planting material : Approach or soft wood grafts

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Field preparation
The field is ploughed twice before taking pits. Pits dug at 1x1x1m filled with top
soil mixed with 10 kg FYM and 100 g Lindane 1.3% dust per pit.
Spacing: 7-10 m either way
High density planting 10 x 5m for Alphonso, Banganapalli, Mallika etc. for higher
productivity.

Irrigation: Regular watering till establishment. Once in 10 to 15 days interval for better
fruit development and yield. However for obtaining good flowering the irrigation must
be stopped at least 2 to 3 months before the flowering period.

Manures and fertilizers

Generally chemical fertilizer are applied one year after planting.
Manures and 1 Year old Annual in crease 6th year onwards
fertilizers (kg/tree)
FYM 10.00 10.00 50
N 0.20 0.20 1.0
P 0.20 0.20 1.0
K 0.30 0.30 1.5

Applied during September – October, 45-90 cm away from the trunk upto the
peripheral leaf drip and incorporated.

Intercropping
Inter crops can be grown in the initial years till the main crop establishes. Short
lived and quick growing fruit crops like papaya, phalsa and guava can be grown in the
inter space. Vegetables like onion, tomato, brinjal, chilli etc. can also be grown in mango
plantation.

Mango training pruning

Root stock sprouts and low lying branches have to be removed. Mango is a
terminal bearer in the past season growth normally does not require any pruning. But
when the trees become very old the bearing capacity decreases. This is due to imbalance
in carbohydrate – nitrogen ratio and imbalance in hormonal status which might be due to

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excessive vegetative growth and self shading of most of the lower branches. The
productivity of old trees can be revived by adopting.
1. Heading back
2. Thinning out

Priming is done during the month of August – September. In heading back process
the hefty criss-cross branches are headed so that the centre is opened up. All the dead and
dried branches should be completely removed. By this, there will be abundant penetration
of sunlight as well as aeration. The dormant buds in the old woods get activated.
In thinning out process the excessive terminal shoots all over the surface of the
canopy are thinned out by retaining only one to two shoots for each previous season
growth. By this the nutrient and hormonal flow is directed to restricted number of shoots
so that the terminal bud is converted into a reproductive bud. Thus the old unproductive
trees can be made to bear a good crop.

Growth regulators
Spray NAA @ 20 ppm at flowering to increase the fruit retention. During
February 0.5% urea (5 g/lit) or 1% KNO 3 (10g in /lit) may be sprayed to induce
flowering, if the trees do not flower by that time. Spray 2% KNO 3 at mustard size to
increase fruit set and retention of fruits.
Apply paclobutrazol @ 10 g a.i/full bearing tree during first fort night of
September to get maximum number of fruits and yield during off years.

Alternate / Irregular bearing

It is phenomenon of bearing heavily in one year followed by a lean crop or non
crop during next year which is specifically called as alternate bearing. To avoid alternate
bearing the following points should be borne in mind.
1. Selection of regular bearing varieties such as Neelum and Banglura – South
Indian Condi Rumai – regular under Gujarat
2. Regular ploughing the interspace, manuring and irrigation at appropriate times.
3. Regular plant protection – so no crop failure due to adverse pest incidence.

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 4. Preventive excessive production by proper thinning so as to prevent the tress from
exhaustion of nutrients and assimilates.
Plant protection
Plant hopper – spray two rounds of acephate 75 SP @ 1g/lit.
Stem borer: Padding with monocrotophos 10 ml in 25 cm 2/trel plug the hole with
carbofuran – 5 g/lit.

Mealy bug: Monocrotophos 1.5 ml/lit

Nut weevil: Fenthion – 1ml/lit during marble stage and second spray 15 days after first
spray.

Diseases
1. Powdery mildew : Sulphur dust in early morning
2. Anthracnose : Spray mancozeb – 2g / lit as pre harvest spray 3 times at 15 days
interval.
3. Sooty mould: Phosphomidon 40 SL @ 2 ml/lit + Maida 5% (1kg Maida or Starch
boiled with 1 lit of water and diluted to 20 lit, avoid, spraying in cloudy weather.

Harvest: March to June

Yield
8-10 t/ha upto 15 years
15-20 t/ha from 13-20 years.
Post harvest treatment: Dip the fruits in 52°±1°C hot water immediately after
harvest for 3 minutes followed by 8% plant wax (Fruitox or waxol) to reduce anthracnose
disease in mango during storage. Two pre harvest spray of 0.2% Mancozeb (2.0 g/lit)
will also reduce the incidence.

Physiological disorder
Mango malformation – converting inflorescence to vegetative shoot. This is
mainly due to bio-chemical called malformins 70 control antimalformins like glutathione
2200 ppm or ascorbic acid 2100 ppm sprayed 3 times at 10 days interval from the time of
panicle emergence.

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Black tip
Close to brick kiln small black discoloration appear near the tip of leaves and later
spreads to cover entire leaf. Isolated black spots appear in fruits and causes necrosis.

Phanerogamic parasite
Loranthus partial stem parasite. It is glabrous stout, normally grown in group on
the twigs of mango. Under ambient storage the fruits can be stored for 5-7 days. The
storage life can be extended to 4-7 weeks at 5.6°C to 7.2°C and 85 to 90% RH.

Banana : Musa sp Scitaminae Sub family: Musaceae

Banana is one of the oldest fruit known to mankind and also important food for
man.
Origin: South East Asia
‘Apple of paradise’
Rich source of energy (137 K. Ca/100g)
It is a good laxative.

Important status: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andrapradesh and Bihar.

Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of the two species.
M. acuminata, M. balbisiana. They set fruits by parthenocarpy.

Climate: Humid tropic plant. Temperature range of 10°C to 40°C with an average of
23°C.
Altitude: Upto 1500 mts from MSL.
Wind velocity more than 80 m/hr will damage the crop heavily.
Rainfall : 100 mm/ month is good.

Soil: Deep well – drained soil with abundant organic matter.

Depth – one mete
Soil pH: 5.5 – 8.0 found to be optimum.

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Season of planting
Wet land – Feb-April: Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan
April – May : Nendran, Robusta
Garden lands : January – February and November – December
Padugai lands : January – February and August – September
Hill banana : April – May (lower palani hills)
June – Aug (Sirumalai)

Propagation : Sucker
i. Sword sucker – suckers with a well – developed base and pointed tip
having narrow sword shaped leaf bladers in the early stage.
ii. Water sucker or broad leaved sucker – small, undersized suckers of
superficial origin bearing broad leaves.
Sword suckers – more vigorous, grows faster and comes to bearing early.
Average weight of the sucker – 1.5 to 2 kg.
Micropropagation through tissue culture – Rapid multiplication of banana
suckers.
Pretreatment of sucker : The roots and decayed portion of the corn are trimmed.
Pseudostem is cut leaving 20 cm from the corn.
To avoid wilt disease infected portion of the corn may be pared, dipped for 5 min
in carbendazion 0.1% (1 gm in 1 lit of water) for wilt susceptible varieties – Monthan,
Neyvannan, Virupahshi etc.

Pralinage – with 40 g of carbofuran 3 G granules per sucker.

(The corn is dipped in slurry solution of 4 parts of clay plus 5 parts water and
sprinkled with carbofuran to control nematodes).
Alternatively, dip the corn in 0.75% monocrotophas shade dried for atleast 24
hours and plant. Sow sunhemp on 45 th day incorporate it after about a month. This
operation reduce nematode build up.
TC banana – plants with 5-6 leaves planting – Pseudomonas fluorescence / plant
25 gm.

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Field preparation
The land is ploughed deeply and leveled. The pits of size 45 cm 3 is dug. The pits
are refilled with top soil, mixed with 10 kg of FYM, 250 g of neem cake and 50 g of
lindane 1.3%.

Spacing Plants / ha
Garden land 1.8 x 1.8 m 3086
1.5 x 1.5 m 4444
Wet land 2.1 x 2.1 m 2267
Hill 3.6 x 3.6 m 750

High density planting – 3 suckers / pit at a spacing of 1.8 x 3.6 m

(4600 plants / ha).

Irrigation
Irrigated immediately after planting, life irrigation – 4th day subsequent irrigation
once in a week for garden land 10-15 days in wetland after manuring.
Drip irrigation – 15 lit/ plant/ day from planting to 4th month.
20 lit/plant / day from 5th to shooting and 25 lit/plant/day from shooting till 15
days prior to harvest.

Application of fertilizers
N P K
Garden land (g/plant/year)
Other than Nendran 110 35 330
Nendran 150 90 300
Wet land
Nendran 210 35 450
Rasthali 210 50 390
Pooven and Robusta 160 50 390

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Hill banana
375 g of 40:30:40 NPK mixture and 130 g MOP/clump per application during
October, January and April. Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria – 20 g each at planting
and 5th month after planting preceding chemical fertilizer application.
Apply N as neem coated urea.
N & K in 3 splits 3rd, 5th and 7th month P at 3rd month of planting.
For tissue culture banana 50% extra fertilizer at 2nd, 4th and 6th and 8th month after
planting.
For maximing productivity – fertigation.
25 litres of water / day + 200:30:300 g N:P 2O5:K2O /plant using water soluble
fertilizer. For economizing the cost of fertilizers fertigate using normal fertilizers (urea
and MOP) with 30% of the recommended dose along with recommended dose of P as
basal at 2nd month of planting.

Fertigation schedule
Weeks after planting N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)
9-18 (10 weeks) 30 100 20
19-30 (12 weeks) 50 - 40
31-42 (12 weeks) 20 - 32
43-45 (3 weeks) - - 8
Total 100 100 100

Interculture
 Mammutti digging at bi-monthly interval and earth-up
 De sucker – prune the side suckers at monthly interval
 Dry and dead, leaves are removed and burnt.
 Male flower – removed a week after opening of last hand
 Bunch emergence – propping. The trees are supported with bamboos or casurina
poles to avoid damage by wind.

Growth regulator

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 Grade of bunch -2,4-D at 25 ppm (25 mg/lit) may be sprayed after the last hand
has opened. This also helps to remove the seediness in poovan variety. Spray CCC 1000
ppm of 4th and 6th month after planting. Spray plantozyme @ 2ml/lit at 6 th and 8th month
after planting to get higher yield.

Micronutrient
ZnSO4 (0.5%) FeSO4 (0.2%) CuSO4 (0.2%) ad H3BO3 (0.1%) at 3, 5 and 7 MAP
to increase yield and quality of banana.

Bunch cover
Use transparent polyethylene sleeves with 2% (during cool season)-4% (during
summer season) ventilation to cover the bunches immediately after opening of the last
hand.

Intercropping
Leguminous vegetables, beet root, elephant foot yam and sunhemp. Avoid
growing cucurbitaceous vegetables.

Pest
Banana aphid – vector for bunchy top virus
Systemic insecticide – monocrotophos 1 ml/lit
Spray directed towards crown and pseudostem base at 21 days interval thrice.
Injection of monocrotophos 1 ml/plant (1 ml diluted with 4 ml of water) at 45
days interval from the 3rd month till, flowering.

Nematode
Bunchy top virus – Pentalonia nigronervosa.
Crop duration : bunches will be ready for harvest after 12-15 months of planting.

Harvest
Bunches attain maturity from 100-150 days after flowering.

Yield (t/ha/year)

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Poovan – 40-50
Monthan – 30-40
Robusta – 50-60
Dwarf Cavendish -50-60
Harvested when the ridges on the skin changes from angular to round.
Ripened artificially by smoking in pits dug and covered by wooden plan form
bunches are arranged in air tight chamber ethrel – 5000 pppm and kept in petridish.
pellets of Na OH is added and closed ethylene is released.

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Grapes : Vitis vinifera Vitaceae
Grape is a subtropical fruit but adapted to tropical conditions. It is a vine
spreading on a support, native of Armenia, a district near the caspiansea in Russia. It was
introduced into India by the invalues of Iran and Afghanistan. It is one of the most
delicious refreshing and nourishing fruits. Fifty percent of the total production of fruits
in the world is contributed by grapes. Cultivation of grapes is called Viticulture. There
are about 10,000 varieties in the world.

Climate and soil requirement

It is a fruit of semi arid subtropical regions requiring warm dry summer and a cool
rainy winter. During winter the grapes shed off their leaves and take rest. During spring
they put forth new leaves and flowers. The fruits mature during summer when there is no
rains. A long, warm to hot dry summer is needed for proper maturity and ripening.
Grapes do not thrive in the region of humid summer as it causes fungal diseases. The
distribution of rains in more important than the total amount of rainfall.
In North India heavy rains during July – September hence low production. The
plant takes rest during winter since the winter is very severe and put forth new growth in
summer. When the crop reach as ripening stage during june there is heavy rain resulting
in poor production.
In Western India grapes do not takes rest because of warm winter. Hence the
grape put forth new growth twice a year. In Bombay – Deccan region and in Hyderabad
the crop produced by the new lush in April maturing during rainy season (July –August)
has lower market value due to less sugar content.
The climate in South India such as Bangalore in Karnataka, Dharmapuri and
Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu is slightly humid and tropical. Here the maximum
temperature goes upto 35°C and the minimum temperature does not fall below 12°C due
to warm winter condition there is practically no rest period. Almost rainless period
during November – June favours heavy as well as sweet crop. Here the vines are pruned
twice. Early December pruning yields a sweet crop during April and summer pruning
(May) yields a slightly sour crop during September. The climatic conditions are

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favourable is parts of Tamil Nadu so that 5 crops are taken in 2 years by staggered
pruning techniques.

Soil
Well – drained rich loamy soil with pH of 6.5-7.0. Soil depth should be almost
1 m.

Propagation
Propagated by hard wood cuttings prepared from matured canes (one year old
shoot) of healthy, moderately vigorous, virus tree vines. Cuttings of 25-30 cm length are
prepared by making the lower cut just below a bud and upper cut slightly above the bud.
Cuttings should be tied and stored in moist sand for a month for callusing. The callused
cuttings start well in the nursery. While planting only one bud in left above the ground
level and remaining portion buried in soil. At the end of winter the sprouted and rooted
cuttings can be lifted and planted in the main yield. Grafting and budding is practiced
with a particular root stock for specific requirement.
a. Phylloxera resistant root stock
Vitis riparia, V. rupestris
b. Nematode resistant root stock
Dogridge, Salt creek
c. Saline tolerant : Solanis, 1616

Preparation of main field and planting

Trenched of 0.6 m width and 0.6 m depth are dug at a distance of 3 m apart for
Muscat. Other varieties 1 m3 pits are drug. Well decomposed FYM or compost or green
leaf manure has to be applied in the trenches or pit and then covered with soil. The
rooted cuttings are planted during June – July.

Spacing: 3 x 2 m for Muscat

4 x 3 m for other Varieties

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Irrigation
Immediately after planting 3rd day and once in a week. Irrigation with held 15
days before pruning and also 15 days before harvest.

Manuring and fertilizer (kg pervine)

FYM Green leaves N P K
Variety
I II III I II III I II III I II III I II III
Muscat 50 50 100 50 50 100 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.08 0.16 0.16 0.30 0.4 0.60
Thom
-pron 50 50 100 50 50 100 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.40 0.80 0.120
seedless

The manures should be applied twice after pruning. Apply half the dose of K
immediately after pruning and the other half after 60 days of pruning. Foliary spray of
0.1% boric acid + 0.2 % ZnSO 4 + 1.0% urea twice before flowering and 10 days after
first spray to overcome nutrient deficiency.

Special practices
Tipping of shoots and tying of clusters in the pandal after the fruit set. Remove
tendrils. Nipping the growing shoots of axillary buds and terminal buds at 12 to 15 buds.
Thinning the compact bunches by removing 20% of the berries at pea stage.
The clusters are dipped in a solution containing Brassinosteriod 0.5 ppm and GA3
25 ppm at 10-12 days after fruit set to maintain vigour, yield and quality parameters.

Pests
Nematode
Carbofuran – 60 g/vine a week before pruning and irrigated profusely. The soil
should not be disturbed to atleast 15 days. Application of neem cake 200 g/vine also
controls nematode. We can afforded for application of P. fluorescens.

Flea beetles
Phosalone – 2ml/lit after pruning and followed with 2 or 3 sprayings.

Thrips: Dimethoate – 2 ml/lit

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Mealy bug: Monocrotophus – 2 ml/lit

Diseases
Powdery mildew: Sulphur dusting @ 6-12 kg/ha
Downy mildew: Spray 1% BM

Ripening
To get uniform ripening bunches are sprayed with 0.2% K chloride at 20 th and 40th
day after berry set and clusters of seedless varieties are diped in 25 ppm GA (25 mg/lit) at
calyptra fall stage and repeated again at pepper stage to increase the size of berries.

Yield
Seed less : 15 t/ha/yr
Muscat : 30 t/ha/yr
Pachadroksha: 40 t/ha/yr
Anab-e-shahi
and Arka hybrids : 20 t/ha/yr
Grapes should be harvested only after ripening. The heat requirement of most of
varieties ranges from 2900 to 3600 units.
The grape berries can be kept without spoilage for 7 days at room temperature.
Grapes can economically be stored upto 40-45 days in cold storage. The optimum
storage temperature recommended is -2 to -1.5°C.
Raisins from grapes form an important by product industry in several grape
growing countries in the world. Grapes of 17° brix and above are used for raisin making
while 20-23° brix is the standard.

Acid lime: C. aurantifolia

It is also called or sour lime. The fruit juice is rich in citric acid and ascorbic acid.

Climate and soil requirement

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 Tropical and subtropical. Can be grown upto 1000 m above MSL. Deep well
drained loamy soils are the best. They are sensitive to frost. The optimum temperature is
20 to 30°C. Soil pH should be 6.5 to 7.0.

Season : December – February and June – September

Planting: Healthy seedlings may be planted during June to December at 5 to 6 m

spacing in 75 cm3 pits.

Irrigation: Irrigated copiously after planting. After establishment, irrigation may be

given at 7-10 days interval. Avoid water stagnation.

Manures and fertilizers per plant

N to be applied in two doses during March and October. FYM, P 2O5 and K2O are
to be applied in October.
Manures and 1 year (kg) Annual income (kg) From 6th year (kg)
fertilizers
FYM 10.00 5.00 30.00
N 0.200 0.100 0.600
P 0.100 0.025 0.200
K 0.100 0.040 0.300

Spray zinc sulphate at the rate of 0.5% (500 g/ 100 lit of water) thrice in a year
(March, July and October) after the emergence of new flushes.

After cultivation
Remove branches of main stem upto 45 cm from ground level. Application of
green leaves 30 kg per tree once in 3 months.

Intercropping
Legumes and vegetable crops can be raised during prebearing age.
Growth regulator

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 To increase fruit set spraying 2,4-D-20 ppm during flowering. Fruit retention
spraying-2,4-D@ 20 ppm or NAA 30 ppm after fruit set (marble size).

Plant protection
Leaf mine
2 ml/l dimethoate + neem oil 3%

Leaf caterpillar
Endosulfan – 2 ml/l when infestation is moderate to severe.

Sucking pest
White fly : Spray quinalphos – 2 ml/lit
Nematodes : Carbofuran – 75 g/tree
P. fluroscens – 20 g

Diseases
Twig blight: Dried twigs are pruned and sprayed with 0.3% Cu oxy chloride.

Scab: Spray 1% BM

Tristeza virus : Remove the infected trees and destroy. Spray monocrotophos - @ 1ml/lit
to control the aphids which spread the disease. Use pre immunized acid lime seedling for
planting.

Harvest: Starts bearing from 3rd year after planting.

Though harvested throughout the year, the main crop is harvested during different
periods in different parts of the country. The average yield is 20-25 kg/tree/year.

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Post harvest treatment
Treating the fruits with 4% wax emulsion followed by pre-packing in 200 guage
polythene bags with 1% ventilation improves the shelf life for more than 10 days. Limes
can be stored at 18°C. At HC & RI, PKM a low cost storage tank has been developed
with double layer brickwork, the interspace filled with sand which is kept wet by
periodical watering.

Mandarinorange: C. reticulata
The group of orange is otherwise called Kamala orange. Nagpur santra of
Maharashtra, Coorg of Karnataka and Kodai orange of Tamil Nadu. This group is
characterized by the loose skin of fruits.

Soil and climate

Subtropical 500-1500 m MSL elevation. A rainfall of about 150 cm to 250 cm is
required. The winter should be mild and there should be no strong or hot wind during
summer. A medium or light loam with a pH 5.5 to 6.5 would be ideal to grow.

Season : November – December

Planting: Seedligns and budded plants

Spacing: 6 x 6 m pit size 75 cm3 planting during May-June and September – October.

Though the crop is grown as rainfed one, the young plants should be irrigated
whenever there is failure of monsoon as well as during summer season.

Manure and fertilizers

Applied twice in a year during June and October.
For Palani hills

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 Manures 1year II year III year IV year V year VI year on
& wards
Fertilizers
FYM 10 15 20 25 25 30
N 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600
P 0.040 0.80 0.120 0.160 0.160 0.200
K 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.300 0.400

For shervaroyan hills (for trees above 6 years old)

700: 375:600 g/tree NPK along with VAM (Glomus fasiculatus) @ 1 kg/tree.
Manures are applied in the basin 70 cm away from the trunk and incorporated.
Application of lime or dolomite at 4 kg/tree during January – February once in 2-3 years
(not mixed with chemical fertilizer).

Micronutrient
ZnSO4 – 600 g
In 450 lit of water applied
MnSO4 – 600 g during new flush
MgSO4 – 600 g
FeSO4 – 600 g

After cultivation
Removal of water shoots
Rootstock sprouts
Dead and diseased shoots
Removal of laterals of the main stem upto 45 m from ground level
Basins should be provided for each tree with gradient slope.

Growth regulators
To increase the fruit retention spraying the trees at flowering and again at marble
stage with 2,4-D at 20 ppm or NAA 30 ppm.

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Harvest: Starts bearing from 3-5 year after planting in budded plants. Incase of
seedlings 5-7 years.

Yield: 15-20 t/ha/yr.

A small crop can be obtained from 4 year old tree and the yield will be higher
from 7th year. From flowering to maturity it takes 9 months.

Papaya : Carica papaya Caricaceae

Papaya is a native to tropical America and grown in almost all tropical and
subtropical regions of the world and mainly in India, Australia, Hawaii, Srilanka, Malaya,
Mianmar, Taiwan Puerto Rico, Peru, Florida, Texas, California and South Africa. It is
belived to have been introduced into India by Portuguese in the middle of 16th century.
Papaya, a very whole some fruit with high nutritive and medicinal value is rich in
vitamin A (880 μg/100g) unripe fruits are used as vegetable and ripe fruits is used as jam,
jelly, nectar, ice cream flavours, tuffy-fruity, crystallized fruits etc. Papaya also yields a
valuable proteolytic enzyme papain used in meat tenderization. Manufacturing of
chewing gums and cosmetics for degumming natural silk, clarifying beer and in
medicine, for digestive ailments, ulcer and diphtheria.

Climate and soil requirement

Papaya thrives well in warm and humid tropical climate from sea level upto 1000
Maltitude. It grows and yields well in regions where summer temperature ranges from
38° to 42°C and winter temperature does not fall below 10°C. It cannot withstand low
temperature or frost or strong winds beyond 80 km per hour boar and very heavy rainfall.
Low temperature and heavy rainfall reduce fruit quality.
Though papaya prefers a rich fertile soil it can be grown one wide range of soils
provided they are well drained, with proper manuring and watering. Papaya can not
thrive well in calcareous black and heavy soils. It cannot withstand water logging even
for a few hours. Soil pH between 6.5 and 7.0 is ideal for papaya growing.

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Propagation
Papaya is mainly propagated by seeds. Since it is a highly cross-pollinated crop.
The plants raised from seeds have a mixed inheritance which makes them highly variable
in performance. Therefore it is important that genetically pure seeds should be collected
from the side-mated or selfed fruits.
About 500 g seed is required for raising crop in one hectare. Seedlings, can be
raised in the nursery beds, in germination trays and in polythene bags. Before seeds are
treated with captan @ 2g/kg of seeds. Four seeds are dibbled in polythene bags in depth
not exceeding 1 cm. Partial shade is provided. The bags are watered with rose can seeds
start germination within 15-20 days.
Seedlings will be ready in about 60 days.
Best season for planting is June-September. Planting during rainy season should
be avoided.

Preparation of field and planting

The field should be well prepared through repeated ploughing and harrowing.
After leveling 45x45x45 m size pits are dug at a spacing of 1.8 m x 1.8 m.
Pits are filled with top soil and FYM in 3:1 ratio.
Seedlings are planted in pits taken along with polythene bag by tearing the bottom
of the bag. Not less than 4 seedlings should he maintained per pit till the identification of
male and female progenies. Finally only one female plant per pit and one male plant for
every 20 female should be retained in dioecious types. In gynodioecious type one
hermaphrodite type is kept/pit and the female trees are removed. Normally mole trees
flower earlier than female and have pendulous hanging inflorescence with branched stalk.

Application of fertilizers
Apply FM – 10 kg/plant as basal.
50 g in each N, P and K has to be applied at bi-monthly intervals from 3 rd month
of planting. 20 gm of Azospirillum and phosphobacteria at planting, again six months
after planting.

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Irrigation
Papaya needs regular water for its rapid fruit development and yield. Irrigation
should be given at weekly interval and water logging should be avoided.

Micronutrients
ZnSO4 0.5% H3BO3 0/1% spraying during 4th and 8th month to get more yield and
growth is recommended.

Interculture
Intercrops like onion, tomato, cowpea can be grown during the per-bearing
period.

Plant protection
Nematode
To control carbofuran 1 g/polybag is applied in the nursery after germination.

Diseases
Root rot or wilt
Pruning with BM 1% 2-4 times at 15 days interval is recommended.

Crop duration : 24-30 months

Harvest: Fruits should be picked of colour break stage.

Yield: The average yield

CO2 : 200 -250 t/ha
CO3 : 100-120 t/ha
CO5: 200-250 t/ha
CO6 : 120-160 t/ha
CO7 : 200-225 t/ha

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Papain extraction
Papain has several industrial uses the important is one being in brewing
industries.
It is used as meat tenderizer
In textile and leather industries and durgs.
The latex should be tapped from immature papaya fruits. 75-90 days old fruits
incision are made by stainless steel knife. The cut is given from stalk to tip of the fruit.
The depth of the cut should not be morethan 0.3 cm. Four such cuts are given spaced
equally on the fruit surface. Tap the latex early in the morning and complete the tapping
before 100 am. The tapping is repeated four times on the same fruit at an interval of 3
days. The cut should be given on the fruit surface in places not covered by previous cuts.
The latex collected from all the trees in a day should be pooled, shade dried in an
aluminium pan or tray and passed through a 50 mesh sieve to remove all foreign matter.
To this potassium meta-bisulphite at 0.5% is added for better colour and keeping quality.
The latex should be dried very rapidly at temperature of 50 to 55°C. Drying
should be stopped when the dried product comes off as flakes having a porous texture.
The dried papain is powdered with wooden mallets.
The green fruits after papain extraction can be used for pectin manufacture and
tuffy – fruity or they can be allowed to ripen and made into other products. CO 2, CO5
varieties are ideal for papain production.

Papain yield
CO2 : 600 kg / ha
CO5 : 800 kg/ha

Sapota: Manilkhara achras

Sapotaceae
Sapota is a delicious fruit introduced from tropical America. It is also known as
sapodilla or chiku in India. Sapota fruits are recommended to adult patients ailing from
tuber culosis and children from primary complex. This offers a high economic returns
even under marginal land and low input management.

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Climate and soil requirement
Sapota being a tropical fruit crop can be grown from sea level upto 1200 M. It
prefers a warm and moist weather and grows in both dry and humid areas. Coastal
climate is the best suited. Areas with an annual rainfall of 1250-2500 mm are highly
suitable. The optimum temperature is between 11°C and 34°C.
Sapota being a hardy tree can be grown on a wide range of soils. Soil should be
well drained without any hard pan. Deep and porous soils are preferred. The most ideal
soils are deep alluvium, sandy loams, red laterites and medium black soil. It can rolerate
the presence of salts in the soil and irrigation water to certain extent.

Propagation
Grafted plants on Manilkhara hexandra (Pala) root stock.
Season of planting-June to December.

Spacing: 8 x 8 m. High density planting 8 x 4 m.

Planting
Pits of 1m3 in drug. Filled with top soil mixed with 10 kg of FYM, 1 kg of neem
cake and 100 g of lindane 1.3%.Grafts are planted in the centre of the pit with ball of
earth intact. The graft joint must be alteast 15 cm above the ground level. The plants are
staked to avoid bending or damage of graft joint.

Irrigation
Irrigated copiously immediately after planting and on the third day and once in 10
days after words till the graft establishes.

Manures and fertilizes (kg/tree)

M&F 1 year old Annual increase 6th year onwards
FYM 10 10 50
N 0.200 0.200 1.000
P 0.200 0.200 1.000
K 0.300 0.300 1.500

26
 Manures and fertilizers may be applied in September – October, 45 cm away
from the trunk upto the leaf drip and incorporated.

After cultivation
Removal of the root stock sprouts, water shoots criss cross and lower branches.

Intercropping: Legumes and short duration vegetable crops may be raised as intercrop
during pre bearing stage.

Plant protection
Leaf webber: Spraying of phosalone – 2ml / lit
Hairy caterpillars : Spraying of endosulfan – 2 ml/lit of water
Budworm : Spray phosalone – 2ml/lit

Diseases
Sooty mould : 1 kg maida or starch is boiled with 5 lit of water, cooled and diluted to 20
lit (5%) and sprayed.

Harvest: Mature fruits are dull brown in colour. When scratched the colour immediately
below the skin will of lighter shade if matured while in the immature fruits it is green.
The mature fruits are harvested by hand picking.
Fruits at full maturity develop a dull orange or potato colour.

Season: February – June and September – October. The fruits are ripen by keeping the
fruits in a air tight chamber with. 5000 ppm Ethrel + 10 g NaOH pellets.

Yield: 20-25 t/ha/year

Brown scaly materials disappear from the fruit surface as the fruit approaches full
maturity. As the fruit matures, the milky latex content is reduced.
The dried spine like stigma at the tip of the fruit falls or drops of easily when
touched.
Yield start from 3rd year of planting.

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Guava: Psidium guajava L. ; Myrtaceae

Varieties : Allahabad, Lucknow 49, Arka Amulya, Arka Mridula, and Banaras.

Soil and climate: Guava grows well both in wet and dry regions but it does better under
irrigation in the dry tracts. It can be grown upto 1000 m altitude. Well drained soils are
the best. Tolerates salinity and alkalinity. In saline soils add 3 kg gypsum/plant during
planting and once in three years after planting.

Planting material: Layers

Season of planting: June – December

Spacing: 5-6 m either way

Planting: Plants the layers with the ball of earth in the centre of pit of 45 cm x 45 cm x
45 cm size filled with FYM 10 kg, neem cake 1 kg and top soil + 50 g Lindane 1.3%.

Irrigation: Irrigate copiously immediately after planting, again on third day and
afterwads once in 10 days or as and when necessary.

Manures and fertilizes: FYM 50 kg and one Kg in each of N, P and K per tree in two
split doses during March and October. To increase the yield spray urea 1% + Zinc
sulphate 0.5% twice a year during March and October. To correct the boron deficiency
(reduction in size of leaves and fruit cracking and hardening) spray 0.3% borax during
flowering and fruit set stage.

Micronutrients spray for controlling bronzing of leaves

Spraying of a combination spray containing ZnSO 4, MgSO4 and MnSO4 @ 0.5%
and CuSO4 and FeSO4 @ 0.25% plus Teepol @ 1ml per 5 lit of solution on various
stages.

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1. New flush 2. One month after first spray
3. Flowering 4. Fruit set.

Intercropping: Legumes and short duration vegetable crops may be raised during pre-
bearing stage.

After cultivation: Pruning of past season’s terminal growth to a length of 10-15 cm is to

be done during September – October and February – Mach to encourage more laterals.
The erect growing branches are to be bent by tying on to pegs driven on the ground. Old
unproductive but healthy trees may be either pollarded or cut the trunks at 75 cm from
ground level or dehorned by cutting the secondary branches at a distance of 75 cm from
their origin.

Plant protection: Pests

Tea mosquito bug: Spray endosulfan 35 EC at the rate of 2 ml/lit or fenthion 100 EC @
1 ml/lit or malathion 50 EC at the rate of 1 ml/lit or monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 2 ml/lit
or neem oil 3%. Spraying should be done in early mornings or late evenings, at least four
times at 21 days interval during fruiting season.

Aphids: Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1ml/lit or dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit.

Mealy bug: Triazophos @ 2 ml/lit + neem oil 5 ml or phosalone 0.05 % + neem oil 5 ml.
Release of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri beetles (Coccinellid beetles) @ 10 beetles / tree.

Fruit fly: Remove the fallen fruits and bury them deeply with lindane 1.3% dusted over
them. Spray endosulfan 35 EC or malathion 50 EC @ 1ml/lit of four times at 15 days
interval. Stir the soil around the tree during pest incidence and dust Lindane 1.3%. Use
polythene bags fish meal trap with 5 gm of wet fish meal + 1 ml. dichlorvos in cotton.
50 traps are required / ha, fish meal + dichlorvos soaked cotton are to be renewed once in
20 and 7 days respectively.

29
Safe waiting period: Monocrotophos 36 WSC-10 days and malathion 50 EC-9 days.

Diseases
Red rust: Spray copper oxy chloride 2.5 g/ lit or Bordeaux mixture 0.5% or Wettable
sulphur 2 g per litre.

Harvest: Layers come to bearing in 2- 3 years

First crop : February – July
Second crop : September – January.

Yield : 25 t/ha.

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Pineapple: Ananas sativus; Bromeliaceae

Varieties : Kew, Mauritius and Queen

Soil and Climate: Mild tropical climate as found in the humid hill slopes is best suited.
Can be grown in plains under shade. Elevation from 500 m to 700 m is ideal. A light
well drained soil with pH 5.5 to 7.0 is preferable. Heavy soils can also be used if
drainage facilities are available.

Spacing: Plant in double rows either in beds or in trenches with the plants into the second
rows set in the middle of the plants in the first row.
The spacing between two trenches will be 90 cm. Row to row spacing in the
same bed per trench will be 60 cm and plant spacing within the row is 30 cm.

Planting: Use suckers and slips of 300-350 g weight for planting. Give a slanting cut to
the suckers before planting and dip in Mancozeb 0.3% or Carbendazim 0.1%.

Season: July – September

Manures and Fertilizers: FYM 40-50 t/ha. N 16 g, P 4 g and K 12 g/plant in two equal
splits at 6th and 12th month after planting. Apply as foliar spray 0.5%-1.0% sulphate of
Zinc and Ferrous solutions at 15 days interval to overcome the deficiencies in the early
crop phase.

Aftercultivation: To have uniform flowering apply the following when the crop attains
35-40 leaf stage. NAA 10 ppm + 2% urea (20 g in 1 lit of water) @ 50 ml / plant poured
into crown or 2% urea + 0.04% Sodium carbonate + 20 ppm Ethephon (ethrel) @ 50 ml/
plant poured into the crown. To increase the size of the fruit, 200-300 ppm NAA should
be sprayed after fruit formation. To avoid calcium induced Iron chlorosis adequate shade
should be given.

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Plant protection
Mealy bug: Spray methyl demeton 2 ml/lit or monocrotophos 36 WSC 2 ml/lit

Crop duration: 18-24 months

Harvest: Fruits can be harvested from 18 to 24 months. Slight colour change at the base
of the fruit indicates maturity.

Yield: 50 t/ha
A plant crop and two ratoon crops are normally taken and in Mauritius variety
upto five crops can be taken.

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Amla: Phyllanthus emblica; Euphorbiaceae

Varieties: Banarasi, NA 7, Krishna, Kanchan, Chakaiya, BSR 1

Soil and climate: Amla is a subtropical plant and prefers dry climate. Hardy plant it can
be grown in variable soil conditions. Tolerates salinity and alkalinity.

Planting material: Seedlings, Grafts, Buddings

Planting: Plant during July-August with a spacing of 6 x 6 m in pits of 1 x 1m or 1.25 x

1.25 m.

Irrigation: Irrigate the plants initially for establishment. No irrigation is required during
rainy and winter season. Drip irrigation is appropriate with a water saving of 40-45%.

Manures and fertilizers (per plant/year)

Manures and fertilizers Bearing tree
FYM 10 kg
N 200 g
P 500 g
K 200 g

Manuring to be given immediately after pruning.

Training and pruning: The main branches should be allowed to appear at a height of
0.75 – 1m above the ground level. Plants should be trained to modified central leader
system. Two to four branches with wide crotch angle, appearing in the opposite
directions should be encouraged in early years.
During March – April prune and thin the crowded branches to provide maximum
fruit bearing area in the tree.

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Plant protection: Pest

Gall caterpillar: Young caterpillars bore into the apical portion of the shoot during rainy
season and make tunnel. Due to this, apical regrowth is checked, side shoots develop
below the gall and subsequent growth in following season is greatly hampered. Cut the
infected apices and spray systemic insecticide like dimethoate 0.03% prophylatically.

Bark eating caterpillar

Damage the stem and branches of grown up trees by eating bark. Affected portion
should be cleared and a few drops of kerosene should be applied in holes to keep this in
control.

Disease
Rust: Rust appear as circular reddish solitary or gregarious pustules on leaves and also
on fruits. Spray 0.2 per cent mancozeb at an interval of 7 to 28 days during July to
September.

Yield: 100 kg/tree annually.

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Pear: Pyrus communis L; Rosaceae

Varieties: Common pear, Kieffer, New Pear, William and Jargonelle.

Soil and climate: Red laterite soil with good drainage and high organic matter content.
Can be grown at an elevation of above 1200 m. pH 5.8 to 6.2.

Planting material: Plant one year old grafts/rooted cuttings.

Planting season: June to December

Spacing: 5 x 5 m or 6 x 6m in pits of 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm size.

Application of fertilizers: Apply FYM 25 kg, N 500 g and 1 kg in each of P ad K per

bearing tree / year.

Training and pruning: Remove stock sprouts regularly. Train the plants to open centre
system and prune every year during November – December. Top working on country
pear with choice varieties can be done during December – January with cleft grafting.

Plant protection: No serious pest and disease are noticed. Prophylactic spray with a
copper fungicides and methyl demeton after pruning can be given.

Harvest: Early varieties will come to harvest in May – June and late varieties in July –
October.

Yield: 100 to 120 kg per tree per year in common pear.

70 to 80 kg per tree per year in Kieffer and New Pear.
30 to 40 kg per tree per year in William and Jargonelle.

35
 AREA, PRODUCTION, PRODUCTIVITY OF SPICES AND PLANTATION
CROPS

Spices and plantation crops

Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuvant to add
aroma and flavour (Eg. Pepper, cardamom, clove and nutmeg).
Condiments are also plants, products of which are used as food adjuvant to add ‘taste’
only (Eg. Coriander, Cumin etc.)
Plantation crops are plants which are grown in extensive scale like coconut, arecanut,
tea, coffee, cocoa and rubber etc., are known as plantation crops.

Spices and condiments

S.No. Particulars Area (ha) Production (t) Productivity (M.t/ha)
1. Chillies 80,240 56,168 0.70
2. Coriander 38,850 15,540 0.40
3. Tamarind 18,900 66,150 3.50
4. Turmeric 16,850 1,01,100 6.00
5. Cardamom 5,520 519 0.09
6. Pepper 3,550 1,065 0.30
7. Garlic 1,260 7,560 6.00
8. Clove 700 700 1.00
9. Ginger 600 15,000 25.00
10. Other spices 1,350 2,700 2.00
Total 1,67,820 2,66,502 1.59

Plantation crops
S.No. Particulars Area (ha) Production (t) Productivity (M.t/ha)
1. Cashew 84,200 37,890 0.45
2. Tea 63,400 5,07,200 8.00
3. Coffee 32,400 19,440 0.60
4. Betelvine 3,380 76,050 22.50
5. Arecanut 2,650 4,505 1.70
Total 1,86,030 6,45,085 3.67

INTRODUCTION TO SPICES CROPS, CLASSIFICATION AND THEIR

IMPORTANCE

36
 Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use as food adjuncts to
add aroma and flavour. Condiments are also spices, products of which are used as food
adjuncts to add taste only. Both spices and condiments contain essential oils, which
provide the flavour and taste. They also stimulate digestion on account of there
carminative properties. They are of little nutritive value. They are used whole, ground,
paste or liquid form, mainly for flavouring and seasoning food. Most spices increase the
shelf life of food, especially the dry varieties. Some are added to improve texture and
some to introduce a palatable colour or odour.

Classification of spices
There are about 35 spices and condiments which can be broadly classified into 6
groups, based upon the parts of the plants from which they are obtained:

a. Rhizomes and root spices: Ginger, Turmeric, and Garlic.

b. Seed spices: Nutmeg, Coriander, Fennel, Cumin, Fenugreek, Dill, Aniseed, Celery and
Bishopweed.
c. Bark spices: Cinnamom
d. Fruit spices: Cardamom, Black pepper, Vanilla, All spice, Cassia, Tamarind, etc.
e. Leaf spices: Bay leaf, Curry leaf, etc.
f. Flower spices: Clove, Saffron, Asafoetida, etc.

Importance of spices in India

Most of the spices are native of our country and hence India is known as the Land
of Spices.
1. India produces spices on 2.0 million ha with an annual production of about 2.3
million tones, contributing nearly 20% of world’s production
2. Nearly 90-95% of the total production is consumed locally and the rest exported
3. India is the biggest exporter of spices
4. They are indispensable part of our culinary preparation especially used for
flavouring and seasoning of food

37
5. Most of the spices have potential medicinal values. Besides, the spices and spice
products are also indirectly used as flavouring or colouring agents or as
preservatives in many pharmaceutical preparations.
6. Spices have been used in cosmetic and perfumery industries. Spices oils are used
in the manufacture of soaps, tooth pates, talcum powder, aftershave lotions,
vanishing creams, mouth freshners and room fresheners etc.

38