Gravity:

Analysis and examples

Reading:
Today: p39-64
Next Lecture: p65-75

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Gravity Anomalies: 2D forward calculation

for rectangular parallelepipeds
Spreadsheet: with greater vertical extent than horizontal
Grav2Dcolumn
see Dobrin and Savit eq 12-34

Define density structure Calculated gravity anom aly

10.00
Adjust bold numbers… 9.00
coulum density
8.00
center contrast top bottom error
7.00
(km) (g/cm3) (km) (km) check
dgz (mGal)

6.00
0 0.5 0 0 OK 5.00
1 0.5 0 0 OK 4.00
2 0.5 7 9 OK 3.00
3 0.5 6 10 OK 2.00
4 0.5 5.5 9.5 OK
1.00
5 0.5 5 9 OK
0.00
6 0.5 4.7 8 OK
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
7 0.5 4.5 7 OK
distance (km )
8 0.5 4.4 6 OK
9 0.5 4.3 5.5 OK
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
10 0.5 0 0 OK
0
11 0.5 0 0 OK
12 0.5 0 0 OK 2
13 0.5 0 0 OK
14 0.5 0 0 OK 4
depth (km)

15 0.5 0 0 OK
16 0.5 0 0 OK 6
17 1 1 2 OK
18 0.5 0 0 OK 8
19 0.5 0 0 OK
20 0.5 0 0 OK 10

12

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

1
Ambiguity - I

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Ambiguity - II

4πGR 3 ∆ρ 1
∆g z =
3z 2 [ (
1+ x z2
2
)]
32

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

2
Gravity Anomalies: 2D forward calculation
for rectangular parallelepipeds with greater vertical extent than horizontal
Gravity anom aly
Spreadsheet:
see Dobrin and Grav2Dcolumn
Savit eq 12-34
2.50
Define density structure Pro file 1
2.00 Pro file 2

Profile 1 Profile2

dgz (mGal)
1.50
Adjust bold numbers… Adjust bold numbers…
coulum density density
1.00
center contrast top bottom error contrast bottom error
(km) (g/cm3) (km) (km) check (g/cm3) top (km) (km) check
0.50

0 0.3 0 0 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
0.00
1 0.3 4 4.4 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
2 0.3 4 4.4 OK 0.9 0 0 OK distance (km )
3 0.3 4 4.3 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
4 0.3 4 4.3 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
5 0.3 4 4.4 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 0
6 0.3 4 4.4 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
2
7 0.3 4 4.5 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
8 0.3 4 4.6 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 4

depth (km)
9 0.3 4 4.7 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 6
10 0.3 4 4.8 OK 0.9 8 12 OK
8
11 0.3 4 4.7 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
12 0.3 4 4.6 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 10
13 0.3 4 4.5 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 12 Profile 1
14 0.3 4 4.4 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
14
15 0.3 4 4.4 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
16 0.3 4 4.3 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0
17 0.3 4 4.3 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
18 0.3 4 4.4 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 2

19 0.3 4 4.4 OK 0.9 0 0 OK 4

20 0.3 0 0 OK 0.9 0 0 OK
6

10

12 Profile 2
14

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Isolating gravity anomalies

Enhance the
anomalies of interest

Gravity anomaly map.

Already applied
corrections: Latitude,
Free-air, Bouguer,
Terrain

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

3
Regional trend removal
Small geological features near the surface
cause small wavelength anomalies.
Large scale structures at greater depth cause
longer wavelength anomalies.

Î Regional trends appears as a uniform

variation of equally spaced contours.

Remove regional trends:

• graphical approach
• computer approach
Î High-pass filter

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Regional trend removal

survey ∆g minus regional trend

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

4
Regional trend removed

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Removing noise
Noise sources
• instrument inaccuracies
• drift corrections
• site surveying
(correction errors)

These random errors in ∆g

result in high frequency
scatter in the data

Î Low-pass filter

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

5
Removing noise

survey ∆g minus high frequency

- regional trend noise

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Noise removed

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

6
 Wavelength filtering
We have just applied two filters to our data:
1. Regional trend removal: high-pass filter
2. Noise filter: low-pass filter

i.e. we have band-passed our data to isolate/enhance gravity

anomalies with the wavelength of interest

Î
Band-pass
filter

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Wavelength filtering
Spatial domain

Subtracting averages
1. at each data point draw a circle
2. average the gravity observations
around circumference
3. subtract mean from value at center
point
Î Recovers anomalies with a
wavelength close to the diameter
of the circle

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

7
Wavelength filtering
Wave number domain
1. Fourier transform the data: f(x,y) Î F(kx,ky)
2. set high and low wavelengths to zero: F’(kx,ky)
3. Fourier transform back: F’(kx,ky) Î f’(x,y)

F’

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Continuation filters
This project the potential field to either higher or lower elevations
• Upward continuation – enhances deeper sources
• Downward continuation – enhances shallow sources

Derivative filters
• Enhance shallow anomalies
• Used to find edges of anomalies
For shallow bodies with vertical edges
the max horizontal gradient will occur
over the edge

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

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Methodology of interpretation
General approach
1. Compile data along profiles or as a map
This includes applying all corrections for surface variations
2. Apply isolation and enhancement techniques i.e. filters
Identify residuals of interest, source shape outlines
3. Apply approximate interpretation techniques
Use simple shape formula to estimate size and depth of sources
4. Use forward techniques to determine source parameters
Application of forward approaches ensures the postulated
structure makes geological sense
5. Apply inverse techniques to determine source parameters
Translate results into meaningful geologic model

…don’t fall into the blind inversion trap

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Methodology of interpretation
Forward modeling
1. Make a skilled guess of the structure (the model)
2. Calculate the anomaly this would produce
3. Compare to the observations (the data)
4. Adjust the model and recalculate etc…
Each iteration could be done by hand, automated, or a combination (best)

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

9
Gravity Anomalies: 2D forward calculation
for rectangular parallelepipeds with greater vertical extent than horizontal
Gravity anom aly
Spreadsheet:
see Dobrin and Grav2Dcolumn
Savit eq 12-34
0.00
Define density structure 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Profile 1
-0.50 Profile 2

Profile 1 Profile2

dgz (mGal)
Adjust bold numbers… Adjust bold numbers… -1.00
coulum density density
center contrast top bottom error contrast bottom error -1.50
(km) (g/cm3) (km) (km) check (g/cm3) top (km) (km) check
-2.00
0 -0.3 0 0 OK 0 0 0 OK
1 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
-2.50
2 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK distance (km )
3 -0.3 4 4.3 OK 0 0 0 OK
4 -0.3 4 4.3 OK 0 0 0 OK 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
5 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK 0
6 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
2
7 -0.3 4 4.5 OK 0 0 0 OK
8 -0.3 4 4.6 OK 0 0 0 OK 4

depth (km)
9 -0.3 4 4.7 OK 0 0 0 OK 6
10 -0.3 4 4.8 OK -0.9 8 12 OK
8
11 -0.3 4 4.7 OK 0 0 0 OK
12 -0.3 4 4.6 OK 0 0 0 OK 10
13 -0.3 4 4.5 OK 0 0 0 OK 12 Profile 1
14 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
14
15 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
16 -0.3 4 4.3 OK 0 0 0 OK
17 -0.3 4 4.3 OK 0 0 0 OK
18 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
19 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
20 -0.3 0 0 OK 0 0 0 OK

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

…remember the ambiguity

Gravity Anomalies: 2D forward calculation
for rectangular parallelepipeds with greater vertical extent than horizontal
Gravity anom aly
Spreadsheet:
see Dobrin and Grav2Dcolumn
Savit eq 12-34
0.00
Define density structure 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Profile 1
20
-0.50 Profile 2

Profile 1 Profile2
dgz (mGal)

Adjust bold numbers… Adjust bold numbers… -1.00

coulum density density
center contrast top bottom error contrast bottom error -1.50
(km) (g/cm3) (km) (km) check (g/cm3) top (km) (km) check
-2.00
0 -0.3 0 0 OK 0 0 0 OK
1 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
-2.50
2 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK distance (km )
3 -0.3 4 4.3 OK 0 0 0 OK
4 -0.3 4 4.3 OK 0 0 0 OK 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
5 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK 0
6 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
2
7 -0.3 4 4.5 OK 0 0 0 OK
8 -0.3 4 4.6 OK 0 0 0 OK 4
depth (km)

9 -0.3 4 4.7 OK 0 0 0 OK 6
10 -0.3 4 4.8 OK -0.9 8 12 OK
8
11 -0.3 4 4.7 OK 0 0 0 OK
12 -0.3 4 4.6 OK 0 0 0 OK 10
13 -0.3 4 4.5 OK 0 0 0 OK 12 Profile 1
14 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
14
15 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK
16 -0.3 4 4.3 OK 0 0 0 OK 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0
17 -0.3 4 4.3 OK 0 0 0 OK
18 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK 2

19 -0.3 4 4.4 OK 0 0 0 OK 4
20 -0.3 0 0 OK 0 0 0 OK
depth (km)

10

12 Profile 2
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Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

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Methodology of interpretation
Inverse modeling
Forward modeling:
• Make a skilled guess of the structure (the model)
• Calculate the anomaly this would produce
• Compare to the observations (the data)
• Adjust the model and recalculate etc…

Inverse modeling essentially replaces step 4

with a mathematically determined model ∂g
adjustment ∆g = ∆γ
∂γ
Usually we fix certain parameters such as source geometry or
depth, and invert for remaining parameters e.g. density
contrast

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Examples
Salt dome

Anomaly:
• Near circular
• ∆gmax ~ 16 mGal
• x1/2 ~ 3700 m

Assume spherical salt body:

• Depth to center ~ 4800 m

Assume ∆ρ -250 kg/m3:

• Radius ~ 3800 m

Depth to top of salt:

• 4800-3800 = 1000 m

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

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Examples
Salt dome – seismic line
From gravity, assuming spherical salt body:
• Depth to center ~ 4800 m
• Radius ~ 3800 m
• Top of salt at ~ 1000 m

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Examples
Salt dome – density contrasts

Given the geometry,

can estimate density
contrasts

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

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Examples
Fault location
Gravity is very sensitive to vertical geologic contacts

The vertical
gradient is
particularly
sensitive to
“edges”

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Examples
Fault location
Identifying fault locations is the
first step in hazard mitigation.

Faults generate strong

gradients.

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

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Examples
Mapping basin depth

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

Examples
Mapping basin depth

Thicker sediments:
More susceptible to
subsidence with the
removal of water

Applied Geophysics – Analysis and examples

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