ee ee APN RK) D.N. Bose . LM et ay aa ams aePhotovoltaic Science and Technology J.N. Roy D.N. Bose AMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 885, United Kingdom (One Liberty Plaza, 20h Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vie 3207, Australia 314 10221, Sxl Flor, Plot No, Spiender Forum, Jasola District Cente, New Delhi 110025, india 79 Ansan Road, 406-0406, Singapore 079906 Cambrilge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge: Ii furthers the University's mission by disseminating knowlege inthe pursuit of ‘education, learning and research atthe highest intemational levels of excellence, wow. combridgesorg Information on this ti + wee w cambridge org 7811084 15248 ©1.N.Reyand D, N. Bos: 2018 This publication isin copyright, Subject statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agicements, no reprodutction of any part may take place withous the written permission of Cambridge University Press, First published 2018 Printed in Inia A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library ISBN 8-1-1081 Hardback Aclitional resources for this publication at www.cambridge. 781108415248 ‘Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for extemal or third-party internat websites referred to in tis publication, tnd does not puarantes that any eonient on such websites is, oF will remain, securate or appropriateContents Figures Tables Preface Acknowledgments ws Introduction to Solar Energy and Solar Photovoltaics 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Solar Energy Conversion 13 Principle 1.4 Optical Properties of Semiconductors 15 Direct vs Indirect Gap Semiconductors 1.6 Electrical Properties of p-n junctions 17 C-YRelation 1.8 Schottky Barrier Cells 19 I-Insulaor-Semiconductor Solar Cells 1.10 Vertical Junction Cells 1.11 Heterojunctions 1.12__ Efficiency Limitations 1.13 Shockley-Queisser Theory 114 Cd8/p-Cu,S Thin Film Cells Summary Problems References Crystalline silicon Cells 21 Polysilicon Production 22 Crystal Growth 23 Heat ZoneSilicon 24 Directional Solidification 25 Growth of Ribbon Silicon 2.6 Properties of Silicon xi xulii xxvit 130 1 5 7 u " 14 7 18 20 a 22 24 25 a7 28 29 29 3165 31viii Contents 27 Temperature Dependence 42 28 Recombination 46 2.9 Surface Recombination 48 2.10 Si Multi-Crystalline Cells 49 2.11 Spectral Response 51 2.12 Cell Performance at Different Insolations 53 2.13 Improved Silicon Cell Structures 54 2.414 Thin Si Cells 55 2.15 Plasmonic Solar Cells 57 2.16 Luminescent Solar Concentrators (LSC) 60 2.17 Ditectionally Selective Filter 60 21s High Efficiency Cells ol Summary oe Problems 63 References 64 Thin Film Solar Cells 66-96 3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Amorphous Silicon Cells 66 3.3 ‘landem Cells 2B 34 HIT Cells 74 (CIS and CIGS Thin Film Cells 5 6 Cale Cell z 37 CZTSSe Solar Cells 80 3.8 Perovskite Solar Cells 83 Stanmeary 92 bles 9 References 93 ILY Compound, Concentrator and Photoclectrochemical Cells 97-133, 41 TIEV Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells 97 42 Heterostructures 99 43 Metalorganic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) 100 44 Strained Layers 103 45 Concentrator Solar Cells 104 4.6 Multi-junction Cells 110 47 Nitride Family 116 48 Laboratory vs Panel efficiencies of solar cells u7 49 Solar Cells in Space Application u7 4.10 Photoeleetrochemical Devices 21 Summary 130 Problems 130 References BIimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableFigures Fig. 2. Fig, Fig, Fig Fig. Fig. Fig Fig. Fig.. Fig, Fig, Fig Fig. Fig Fig Fig Fig Fig 29 2.10 241 212 213 ig. 214 1g. 215 ig 2.16 247 2.20 221 2.02 223 2.24 2.25 2.26 227 2.28 2.29 230 231 34 32 33 Czochralski single crystal growth system Float zone silicon. Ingot casting technique using cold crucible (after Bhattacharya [7)). HEM growth furnace for directional solidification of silicon Schematic diagram of growth of silicon ribbon. Variation of electron and hole mobilities of silicon and GaAs with impurity concentration [2] Temperature dependence of the band gaps of Ge, Si and GaAs [2]. Variation of intrinsic carrier concentration ni vs 1000/T for silicon and Gas [2] Variation of carrier concentration n vs 1000/T Variation in electron and hole mobilities in silicon with temperature [2] IY characteristics of a silicon p-n junction solar cell at (°C, 25°C and 60°C (after Bhatlacharya (7) Impurity levels in Si and GaAs. Recombination mechanisms in semiconductors. Effect of metal impurities in the degradation of n Si and p-Sicell efficiencies (Davis et al. [10)) Schematic of silicon surface showing dangling bonds on (111) surface. Grain boundaries in multi-crystalline silicon. Energy band diagram of a grain boundary in 0-Si showing barrier height 6. Variation of cell efficiency vs grain size in multi-crystalline silicon (after Socolof and Tles [14] and Card and Yang [15)). Schematic of optical absorption ina solar cell [2] Spectral response of ‘normal’ and ‘violet’ cells, Schematic of a back-surface field solar cell [17] Solar cell with Lambertian back reflector. Close-up of Black silicon cones prepared by RIE (from LP 3 - CNRS). Bulk and Surface Plasmons. Size-and shape-dependent plasmon resonance of silver nanoparticles. Metal nanoparticles on dielectric in a plasmonic solar cell [30]. Luminescent solar concentrator (Wikipedia [33)) Passivated emitter solar cell (after Martin Green [37]). Point contact solar cell (after Swanson [39]). Density of states in an amorphous semiconductor showing ‘mobility gap’ [2] Optical absorption of a-Si vs c-Si (Lecomber and Speer, [4]). Density of states in band gap of a-Si prepared by evaporation (dotted line —) and by glow discharge (full line ) (Orton, [2). Different structures of a-Si solar cells: (a) p-i-n (b) p-im/p-i-n and (c) band diagram of p-in/p-i-n cells showing tunnel junction. 38 48 49 50 51 52 54 55 56 57 38 59 59 60 6 62 o7 68 69 70image not availableimage not availableimage not availablexvi Figures Fig. 64 Typical base line c-Si cell fabrication flow: 163 Fig.65 Schematic of photoconductive decay measurement set up. 164 Fig. 66 Photoconductive decay characteristics with pulsed illumination. Lifetime (2,: Surface and t,: Bulk) can be determined, 164 Fig. 6.7 Representative view of c-Sisurface: (a) plane polished surface and (b) texturized surface. Reflection loss can be reduced by 20% to 30% by texturization 166 Fig. 6.8 Scanning electron microscope of a texturized surface. 166 Fig.69 Textured surface combined with reflecting back surface to provide optical confinement (light trapping) 166 Fig. 6.10 Measurement o/ reflection coefficient using integrating sphere. 168 Fig. 6.11 Reflection coefficient of various silicon surfaces showing effect of anti-reflection coating. 168 Fig. 612 Concentration vs depth profile for limited source diffusion 169 Fig. 6.13 Schematic of a phosphorous doping furnace using POCL. 170 Fig. 6.14 Concentration vs depth profile for constant source diffu 71 Fig, 6.15 Sheet resistivity mapping equipment, 71 Fig. 6.16 A.schematicdiagram of a plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition system. 173 Fig. 6.17 Ellipsometry equipment for measurement of thin film thickness and refractive index. 174 Fig. 6.18 A typical metallization process. 175 Fig, 6.19 Energy band diagram of n’ (emitter), p (bulk), p*(back surface) showing the back surface field. 176 Fig. 620 Front side metallization: (a) Ag + PbO meal paste (b) PbO is reduced by silicon present in SiN, (c) Ag + Pb alloy formation and (a) phase separation and crystallization of silver on cooling, Ww Fig. 621 (a) Microscopic image of a finger and (b) measurement of height by detecting the change of focal length: f, at bottom and f, at top of the finger. 178 Fig. 6.22 Measurement of electrical resistance of fingers. 179 Fig.623. Aset-up for laser-based back side edlge isolation, 180 Fig, 624 Cell tester test chucks and probe heads of two popular cell testers: (a) no cell on the chuck and (b) cell on the chuck during actual test condition. 181 Fig. 625 Power distribution of 21,000 cells manufactured at the same lime using the same process 182 Fig. 626 (a) Conventional printing (single prin) and (b) double printing technologies. 184 Fig. 627 Cross section showing a cell with selective emitter. 185 Fig, 6.28 Cross sectional diagram showing the buried contact proce: 186 Fig, 629 Cross section showing metal wrap through contact. 187 Fig, 630 Cross section showing emitter wrap through process. 188image not availableimage not availableimage not availableFigures Fig Fig Fig. Fig. Fig, Fig, Fig, Fig Fig Fig. Fig. Fig. 840 Bal 842 B44 8.45 846 847 848 851 85. 853 854 855 856 ig. B57 ig. 9d ig 92 ig 93. 94 Fig, 99 9.10 9a 912 913 914 Yellowing of the EVA due to UV exposure. Temperature profile for typical thermal cycle test. An environmental chamber loaded with seven modules. A total of 10 modules can be loaded at a time. EL picture of a 72-cell module after TC200 test. Several shunts, are seen. The biggest one is circled. Bubble on the back sheet due to damp heat test. Cell shrinkage due to prolonged damp heat test (DH 3000). Progressive cell shrinkage as damp heat test progresses: (a) DH1000: no shrinkage (>) DH3000: shrinkage initiated from the periphery (c) DH3500: shrinkage starts encroaching and (a) DH4000: severe shrinkage due to encroachment. Crack on the back sheet due to damp heat test. ‘Temperature profile for typical humidity freeze test, Bubble on the back sheet resulting from humidity freeze test Bubble on the back sheet due to bad cells during humidity freeze test. This 60-cell module is made using 30 bad cells (left half) and 30 good cells (right half). ‘Torn junction box cover during humidity freeze (HF30) test Back sheet wear out due to humidity freeze (HF40) tes Mechanical load test using sand bags. ‘Ice Gun’ hail test set up. Qualification /certification test plan for a new module type. Cross section ofa typical module showing various current paths under high voltage stress. PID test set up. Solar PV-value chain. SPV system classification. Representative characteristics of solar irradiance during a day for a fixed system, Representative characteristics of solar irradiance during a day for a tracking system Various radiation components due to greenhouse effect Block diagram of a solar inverter. Block diagram of a power conditioning unit. A typical SPV system with 10 modules Atypical LV characteristic of a string with five modules. A typical I-V characteristic of two strings connected in parallel. Fach string has five modules. Configuration of a DC coupled stand-alone system. Configuration of a DC coupled grid interactive system with back-up. Configuration of AC coupled grid interactive system without back-up. Configuration of AC coupled grid interactive system with back-up. 298 29 299 300 201 201 302 302 303 303 04 305 305 306 07 309 324 225 27 229 329 331 31 331 387 338 339 339image not availableimage not availableimage not availablexxiv ¢ Tables Table7.7 Gain with Outdoor Testing of ARC Cover Glass 27 Table 7.8 Gain with Outdoor Testing of ARC Cover Glass During Early Morning 227 Table7.9 Average Gain with Outdoor Testing Daring 10AM to 2PM 27 Table 7.10 Simplistic View of Installation and Finance Cost Estimate of a 100 MW, SPV Plant 25 Table7.11 Simplistic View of Installation and Finance Cost Estimate of a 100 MW) SPV Plant for Different Equity to Loan Ratio 246 Table 7.12 Typical BOM and Cost for 60-cell and 72-cell ¢ $i Module Manufacturing 248 Table7.13 BOM Cost for 60-Cell Module with 17%, 18% and 19% Cell Eificiencies Assuming Same US$/W,, Price of Cells for all Efficiencies and Zero CTM Loss 29 Table 7.14 BOM Cost for 60-Cells Module with 17%, 18% and 19% Cell Efficiencies when US$/W,, Changes with Efficiency; CTM Loss is Zero 250 Table7.18 BOM Cost for 60-Cell Module with 17%, 18% and 19% Cell Fficiencies Assuming Same US$/W, Price of Cells for all Efficiencies (CTM Loss is not Zero and Changes with Efficiency) 21 Table 7.16 BOM Cost for 60-Cells Module with 17%, 18% and 19% Cell Efficiency Assuming Same US$/W, Changes with Efficiency (CTM Loss is not Zero and also Changes with Efficiency) 251 Table 7.17 Wattage Gain and Cost Impact of ARC-Coated Glass giving Different Gain (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0%) 252 Table 8.1 Summary of Characterization used for a Typical ¢ SI SPV Module Manufacturing 261 Table8.2__ Dry Insulation Test Results (Module Size: 14 m’) 270 Table 8.3 Wet Insulation Test Results when the Backside of the Module is not in Water (Module Size: 1.4 m°) 270 Table 84 Wet Insulation Test Results when the Backside of the Module is in Water (Module Size: 1.4 m’) 270 Table8.5 Values of I, and E, of Equation (8.3) m1 Table 8.6 Infrared Image Information Extracted from Figures 8:18-8.19 276 Table 8.7 Classification of Solar Simulator 279 Table8.8 Total Irradiance in Different Spectral Range for AM1.5G 279 Table8.9 Lot Size, Sample Size and Allowed Number of Failure as per Acceptable Quality Levels 293 Table 8.10 List of Major Accelerated Life Test for Qualification 296 Table 8.11 Impact Locations for Hail Test, 308 Table 8.12 Re-test Guidelines for BOM 310 Table 8.13 Hlectrical Parameters of Modules, made with Cells Obtained from Three Different Vendors, Before and After PID Test 312 Table9.1 Broad Technology Options 321 Table9.2. Typical Temperature Velues for Different Technologies 227 Table9.3_ Possible String Design Options fora 30kW, SPV System 333 Table9.4 ‘Typical Parameters of Modules made with Different Technologies 334image not availableimage not availableimage not availablexavil Preface Chapter 2 deals with the dominant type of PV cells viz. c-Si and me-Si that presently have 85% of market share, Starting with the often ed subject of the production of semiconductor-grade polysilicon, this chapter discusses single crystal growth, directional solidification and properties of single crystal vs multi-crystalline silicon materials and solar cells. These growth techniques were perfected in the laboratory of one of the authors (D.N. Bose). Progress in thin film siticon cells and structure and performance of a few high-efficiency Si cells are also discussed. In Chapter 3, thin film solar cells, alternatives to cells based on bulk Si, are compared with reference to their advantages and disadvantages. The principal types are amorphous Si (a-Si), CuS- CIGS and CdS-CaTe, whose operation and performance are described. New emerging types i Earth-abundant CZTE and newly discovered perovskite cells. Stability is a major concern especially for a-Si and for perovskite cells. The physics and operating principles of these materials have novel, features, not incorporated so far in textbooks, Jude Chapter4 deals with special type of thin film cells based on HIL-V compounds GaAs, InP and their alloys, capable of highest efficiencies. These cells are grown epitaxially on single crystal substrates, by MOVPE, a technique employed in the laboratory of one of the authors (D. N. Bose). When used in tandem, these cells for and require Sun tra Bose) are another type that use semiconductor materials as photoelectrodes i electrolyte, An example is dye-sensitized TiO, cells called Griitzel cells. Though simple in concept, these cells still have stability problems, the basis of concentrator solar cells that operate at higher temperatures cking. The PEC cells developed in the laboratory of one of the authors (D. N ymersed in a suitable Chapter 5 describes the operation of novel solar cells based on polymers and organic materials ‘whose principles of operation are presented. Illumination resultsin the generation of bound excitons, in these materials that decay into free carriers, The cells may be classified into bulk andheterojunction types and ean consist of organie/inorganic composites and nanocrystals. These cells are projected to have advantages of low-cost methods of preparation over large areas. Their laboratory efficien are rising rapidly, but environmental stability remains a challenge. Chapter 6 covers the manufacturing details of important types of solar cells. One of the authors GI.N. Roy) has experience of setting up and running a cell manufacturing plant. Characterization techniques, which are an integral part of the manufacturing, have also been discussed in some detail Apart from ¢-Si, high efficieney multi-junetion (MJ) cell manuté Chapter 7 deals with module manufacturing starting with c-Si, Other thin film SPV manufacturing processes, including those for «-Si, CIGS and CdTe, have also been described in this chapter. Some of the detailed modelling, such as high voltage insula ell-to-module (CTM) conversion Toss, are based on one of the author's (J. N. Roy) experience during his tenure in a reputed SPV company ‘The cost structure and selling price have been explained so that these important aspects are kept in mind during technology development and manufacturing, ing has also been addressed. ion, Chapter 8 discusses, in detail, characterization techn manufacturing, Electrical testing, which is the most important aspect of SPV characterization, has, been discussed separately, giving details of some of the popalar testers, known as ‘Sun Simulators’ used for R&D and high volume manufacturing. ‘The reliability and certification standards have also been discussed in this chapter. Reliability prediction through modelling and reliability tests, ques employed during SPV module