Biopsychology

Nervous System & Brain

Endocrine System
 Nervous System
• Divisions of the Nervous System
• Types of Nerves
• Reflexes
Divisions of the Nervous System
• Central NS: coordinates activity of all parts
of the body
– Brain and Spinal Cord
• Peripheral NS: carries sensory and motor
info to and away from the CNS
– Somatic: stimulate skeletal muscle (voluntary)
– Autonomic: stimulate smooth and heart
muscles (involuntary)
• Sympathetic: pumps you up; “flight or flight”
• Parasympathetic: calms you down; “rest & digest”
 Types of Nerves
• Afferent Neurons/Sensory Nerves
– Take info from the sensory receptors to CNS
• Efferent Neurons/Motor Nerves
– Take info from CNS to muscles and glands
• Interneurons/Association Neurons
– Neurons within the CNS
– Middlemen between Afferent & Efferent
• Remember “SAME”
 Types of Nerves
• Neurons vs. Glial Cells
– Neurons send electrochemical messages
– Glial cells support and nourish neurons
 Reflexes
• Normal nervous system transmissions
– Afferent  Spinal Cord  Brain  Spinal
Cord  Efferent
• Reflexes
– Afferent  Interneurons in Spinal Cord 
Efferent
– Brain gets message after spinal cord acts
 The Neuron
• Structure of the Neuron
• Neurotransmitters
• Synaptic Transmission
Structure of the Neuron
 Structure of the Neuron
• Dendrites
– Contain receptor sites which receive
neurotransmitters from the presynaptic
neuron
 Structure of the Neuron
• Soma
– aka cell body; contains cytoplasm; nucleus
 Structure of the Neuron
• Nucleus
– directs production of neurotransmitters;
contains DNA
 Structure of the Neuron
• Axon
– what the neuron impulse travels down once
threshold has been reached
 Structure of the Neuron
• Myelin Sheath
– fatty tissue which insulates the axon; speeds
up the neural impulse; made by glial cells
 Structure of the Neuron
• Nodes of Ranvier
– the spaces on the axon which are not covered
by myelin; where ion flow occurs for
depolarization
 Structure of the Neuron
• Axon Terminal/Terminal Button
– contains neurotransmitters which are released
after depolarization and neural impulse
 Structure of the Neuron
• Vesicles
– contained within the axon terminals, these
contain neurotransmitters, they surface and
release neurotransmitters after depolarization
 Structure of the Neuron
• Neurotransmitters
– contained in the vesicles, and are released into
the synapse to stimulate their respective
receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron
 Structure of the Neuron
• Synapse
– fluid-filled gap between terminal buttons of
the presynaptic neuron and the dendrites of
the postsynaptic neuron
 Neurotransmitters
• Excitatory vs. Inhibitory
– Excitatory: makes receiving neuron MORE
likely to meet threshold and have an action
potential
– Inhibitory: makes receiving
neuron LESS likely to meet
threshold and have an
action potential
 Neurotransmitters
• Serotonin
– Sleep and dreaming
– Mood
– Appetite
– Sexual behavior
– Related to Depression
(too little)
 Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine (ACh)
– Learning
– Memory
– Voluntary motor activity
– Related to Alzheimer’s
Disease (too little)
 Neurotransmitters
• Dopamine
– Involuntary motor activity
– Reward pathway
– Motivation
– Cognition
– Related to Schizophrenia
(too much) and Parkinson’s
Disease (too little)
 Neurotransmitters
• Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
– The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in
the body
– Related to anxiety and mood disorders (to
little)
 Neurotransmitters
• Endorphins
– Body’s natural painkiller
– Pleasure
– Lowered levels result
from opiate use
 Neurotransmitters
• Glutamate
– The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in
the body
– Learning
– Memory
 Neurotransmitters
• Noradrenaline
– Aka: Norepinephrine
– Stress Response
– Blood pressure
– Heart rate
– Also a hormone
 Synaptic Transmission
• Resting Potential
– possible for the neuron to fire; axon has
negative charge inside and outside is more
positive; K+ are on the inside of the axon, Na+
is on the outside
 Synaptic Transmission
• Action Potential
– change in potential across the neuron’s
membrane; the electrical impulse;
depolarization of ions down the axon
 Synaptic Transmission
• Threshold
– minimum stimulation required to trigger a
neural impulse
 Synaptic Transmission
• Depolarization
– Na+ ions rush into the cell, changing the
polarity on each side of the membrane, occurs
on Nodes of Ranvier
 Synaptic Transmission
• Repolarization
– after Na+ ions have rushed into the cell, K+
ions rush out of the cell to restore the balance
and the original polarity
 Synaptic Transmission
• Refractory Period
– period in which the cell cannot fire while the
Na+ ions and the K+ ions return to their
original locations via Na+/K+ pumps
 Synaptic Transmission
• Hyperpolarization
– when axon is repolarizing, more K+ ions leave
the cell, causing the cell to become MORE
negative than before it started
 Synaptic Transmission
• All-or-None Principle
– a neuron will fire with its full intensity or not
at all
 Synaptic Transmission
• Electrochemical Reaction
– Electrical within the neuron (impulse)
– Chemical between the neurons
(neurotransmitters)
 The Brain
• Examining the Brain
• Structures of the Brain
• Hemispheric Specialization
 Studying the Brain
• Accidents & Case Studies
– When people acquire some sort of brain
damage, psychologists learn about the
functions of the brain
– Famous Example: Phineas Gage
• Tamping rod flew through his frontal lobe
• Frontal lobe research was furthered
because of this new information
 Studying the Brain
• Lesions
– Destruction of brain tissue lets us know the
function of that part of the brain
– Accidental or purposeful
 Studying the Brain
• Electroencephalography (EEG)
– creates image of brain wave activity by
eliciting evoked potentials
– Function only
 Studying the Brain
• Positron Emission Tomography
(PET)
– creates image which looks at glucose usage in
the brain after injection of radioactive form of
glucose
– Function only
 Studying the Brain
• Computerized Axial Tomography
(CAT/ CT)
– provides image of brain structure including soft
tissue and bones; specialized type of x-ray
– Structure only
 Examining the Brain
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
– uses magnetic fields in order to examine
structure of brain tissues
– Structure only
 Examining the Brain
• Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI)
– brain imaging technique which provides
information about both structure and function
 Examining the Brain
• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
(TMS)
– Stimulation of areas of the brain using
magnetic field to influence activity of neurons
(to depolarize or hyperpolarize)
 Structures of the Brain
• Hindbrain
– Brainstem
• Medulla
– in charge of respiration,
blood pressure, heart
rate
• Pons
– helps relay sensory info.,
has a role in controlling
arousal and dreaming
• Reticular Formation
– controls awareness and
arousal
 Structures of the Brain
• Hindbrain
– Cerebellum
• coordinates motor control and maintains balance
and posture
 Structures of the Brain
• Forebrain
– Thalamus
• sensory switchboard of the brain for all senses
except olfaction
 Structures of the Brain
• Forebrain
– Limbic System
• Hippocampus
– converts info from STM
to LTM
• Hypothalamus
– homeostasis, regulates
hunger and thirst, and
sexual behavior,
controls pituitary gland
• Amygdala
– role in emotions,
especially anger and fear
 Structures of the Brain
• Forebrain
– Cerebral Cortex - Association Areas
• Frontal Lobe
– personality, problem-solving, initiation, judgment,
impulse & emotion control, speech (L)
• Temporal Lobe
– auditory perception, memory, facial recognition (R),
language comprehension (L)
• Parietal Lobe
– spatial processing (R), math (L), sensory organization
• Occipital Lobe
– visual perception
 Structures of the Brain
• Forebrain
– Cerebral Cortex - Association Areas
 Structures of the Brain
• Forebrain
– Cerebral Cortex - Sensorimotor Areas
• Motor Cortex
– controls voluntary movement (frontal)
• Somatosensory Cortex
– skin sense, tactile sensation (parietal)
• Visual Cortex
– visual processing (occipital)
• Auditory Cortex
– Auditory processing (temporal)
 Structures of the Brain
• Forebrain
– Cerebral Cortex - Sensorimotor Areas
Structures of the Brain
 Structures of the Brain
• Forebrain
– Cerebral Cortex – Language Areas
• Broca’s Area
– part of the frontal lobe on left side; controls the ability to
form words
• Wernicke’s Area
– part of the temporal lobe on left side; controls the ability
to comprehend language
• Angular Gyrus
– related to reading, turns visual symbols to auditory code
– Aphasia
• damage to area responsible for language
 Structures of the Brain
• Forebrain
– Cerebral Cortex – Language Areas
 Structures of the Brain
• Gyri vs. Sulci
– Gyrus
• peak in cerebral
cortex
– Sulcus
• valley of cerebral
cortex
– Wrinkles provide
more surface area
for cerebral cortex
 Structures of the Brain
• White vs. Grey Matter
– White Matter
• neural tissue containing
mostly myelinated axons
• relays info. to cerebral cortex
– Grey Matter
• closely packed neuron cell
bodies on the surface of the
brain
 The Brain
• Corpus Callosum
– White matter structure which connects left
and right hemispheres
– Allows communication between hemispheres
 Hemispheric Specialization
• Longitudinal Fissure
– separates left and right hemispheres
• Contralaterality
– one side of brain controls the other side of the
brain
 Hemispheric Specialization
• Left vs. Right Brain
– Left
• analytical, speech (frontal), language
comprehension (temporal), sequential, logical,
interprets what is in right visual field (occipital),
controls right side of body
– Right
• intuitive, holistic, language emphasis, facial
recognition (temporal), spatial interpretation
(Parietal), creativity, art, music appreciation,
interprets what is in left visual field (occipital),
controls left side of body
 Hemispheric Specialization
• Split Brain Research
– Michael Gazzaniga &
Roger Sperry’s Research
 The Brain
• Brain Plasticity
– Ability for brain to make up for damage by
having neurons of brain take on functions of
damaged areas
– Age-dependent (doesn’t occur as well in older
brains)
 Endocrine System
• Glands
• Hormones
 Glands
• Pineal Gland
– Produces melatonin (according to lightness or
darkness of environment)
– Helps modulate
sleep/wake cycle
 Glands
• Pituitary Gland
– Produces Human Growth Hormone (HGH)
– Regulates homeostasis
– Regulates sexual
development &
functioning
– Contributes to
physical growth
– Regulates water
in the body
 Glands
• Thyroid Gland
– Produces Thyroxine
– Controls metabolism
 Glands
• Parathyroid Glands
– Regulate calcium levels in the body
(remember, calcium is necessary for neurons
to fire)
 Glands
• Adrenal Glands
– Produce noradrenaline, adrenaline and
cortisol
– Regulate responses to stress and “fight or
flight”
 Glands
• Pancreas
– Produces insulin and glucagon
– Regulates blood glucose level
– Aids in digestion
 Glands
• Ovaries
– Produce estrogen and progesterone
– Produce ova (eggs) for reproduction
– In charge of the production of secondary sex
characteristics (i.e. breasts, hips)
– The female counterpart of the testes (male
gonads)
 Glands
• Testes
– Produce testosterone
– Produce sperm for reproduction
– In charge of the production of secondary sex
characteristics (i.e. facial hair, deep voice)
– The male counterpart of the ovaries (female
gonads)
 Glands
• Hypothalamus
– Controls pituitary gland
– Secretes hormones related to hunger
– Link between the endocrine & nervous
systems
 Hormones
• Melatonin
– Produced by the pineal gland
– Helps control sleep/wake cycle
– Production is inhibited by light and facilitated
by dark
 Hormones
• Human Growth Hormone (HGH)
– Produced by the pituitary gland
– Stimulates growth and cell reproduction
 Hormones
• Adrenaline
– Aka epinephrine
– Produced by the adrenal glands
– Plays role in stress reactions & “fight or flight”
– Pumps body up (Sympathetic NS activity)
 Hormones
• Noradrenaline
– Aka norepinephrine
– Produced by the adrenal glands
– Plays role in stress reactions & “fight or flight”
– Pumps body up (Sympathetic NS activity)
– Also a neurotransmitter
 Hormones
• Cortisol
– Produced by the adrenals
– Released in stressful situations
– Involved in “fight or flight” response
 Hormones
• Insulin
– Produced in the pancreas
– Regulates glucose metabolism and blood
glucose levels
– Released when blood glucose is elevated,
decreases glucose level
 Hormones
• Glucagon
– Produced in the pancreas
– Released when blood glucose is low, increases
glucose level
 Hormones
• Estrogen
– Produced by ovaries
– Primary female sex hormone
– Aids in sexual development
and functioning
 Hormones
• Progesterone
– Produced by ovaries
– Involved with menstrual cycle and pregnancy
 Hormones
• Testosterone
– Produced by the testes
– Primary male sex hormone
– Aids in sexual development
and functioning
– Linked to aggression
 Hormones
• Thyroxine
– Produced in thyroid
– Controls rate of bodily metabolic processes