MODELING AND CONTROL OF HYBRID

AC/DC MICRO GRID

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of

Master of Technology
in
Power Control & Drives

by
Lipsa Priyadarshanee

Department of Electrical Engineering

National Institute of Technology
Rourkela-769008
MODELING AND CONTROL OF HYBRID
AC/DC MICROGRID
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of

Master of Technology
in
Power Control & Drives

by

Lipsa Priyadarshanee
(210EE2108)

Under the supervision

of
Prof. Anup Kumar Panda

Department of Electrical Engineering

National Institute of Technology
Rourkela-769008
Dedicated to my beloved parents & brother
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, ROURKELA

ODISHA, INDIA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Thesis Report entitled “MODELING AND CONTROL OF
HYBRID AC/DC MICROGRID”, submitted by Ms. LIPSA PRIYADARSHANEE bearing
roll no. 210EE2108 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master of
Technology in Electrical Engineering with specialization in “Power Control and Drives”
during session 2010-2012 at National Institute of Technology, Rourkela is an authentic work
carried out by him under our supervision and guidance.

To the best of our knowledge, the matter embodied in the thesis has not been submitted to
any other university/institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Date: Prof. A. K. Panda

Place: Rourkela Department of Electrical Engineering

National Institute of Technology

Rourkela – 769008

Email: [email protected]

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With deep regards and profound respect, I avail this opportunity to express my deep sense
of gratitude and indebtedness to my supervisor Professor Anup Kumar Panda, Electrical
Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela for his inspiring
guidance, constructive criticism and valuable suggestion throughout this work. It would have
not been possible for me to bring out this thesis without his help and constant encouragement.
I am also thankful to all faculty members and research students of Electrical
Department, NIT Rourkela. I am especially grateful to Power Electronics Laboratory
staff Mr. Rabindra Nayak without him the work would have not progressed.

Most important of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents, my brother and
best of friends for their constant love, affection, endless encouragement and noble devotion to
my education. I am enormously grateful to all my close friends of NIT Rourkela for
supporting me in all circumstances and making my stay here memorable. I am truly indebted
to all my friends and relatives for their kind support. I am also equally thankful to all those
who have contributed, directly or indirectly, to this present work. Last but not the least; I am
sure this section would not come to an end without remaining indebted to God Almighty, the
Guide of all guides who has dispelled the envelope of my ignorance with his radiance of
knowledge. I dedicate this thesis to my family, brother Pintu and best friends Tapu and Subh.

Lipsa Priyadarshanee

ii
 ABSTRACT
Renewable energy based distributed generators (DGs) play a dominant role in electricity
production, with the increase in the global warming. Distributed generation based on wind,
solar energy, biomass, mini-hydro along with use of fuel cells and microturbines will give
significant momentum in near future. Advantages like environmental friendliness,
expandability and flexibility have made distributed generation, powered by various
renewable and nonconventional microsources, an attractive option for configuring modern
electrical grids. A microgrid consists of cluster of loads and distributed generators that
operate as a single controllable system. As an integrated energy delivery system microgrid
can operate in parallel with or isolated from the main power grid. The microgrid concept
introduces the reduction of multiple reverse conversions in an individual AC or DC grid and
also facilitates connections to variable renewable AC and DC sources and loads to power
systems. The interconnection of DGs to the utility/grid through power electronic converters
has risen concerned about safe operation and protection of equipment’s. To the customer the
microgrid can be designed to meet their special requirements; such as, enhancement of local
reliability, reduction of feeder losses, local voltages support, increased efficiency through use
of waste heat, correction of voltage sag or uninterruptible power supply. In the present work
the performance of hybrid AC/DC microgrid system is analyzed in the grid tied mode. Here
photovoltaic system, wind turbine generator and battery are used for the development of
microgrid. Also control mechanisms are implemented for the converters to properly co-
ordinate the AC sub-grid to DC sub-grid. The results are obtained from the MATLAB/
SIMULINK environment.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certificate i

Acknowledgements ii

Abstract iii

List of figures vii

List of tables ix

Acronyms x

Chapter 1 Introduction to microgrid

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 General information regarding microgrid 1

1.1.2 Technical challenges in microgrid 3

1.2 Literature review 4

1.3 Motivation 8

1.4 Objective 9

1.5 Thesis organization 9

Chapter 2 Photovoltaic system and battery

2.1 Photovoltaic system 11

2.1.1 Photovoltaic arrangements 11

2.1.1.1 Photovoltaic cell 11

2.1.1.2 Photovoltaic module 12

2.1.1.3 Photovoltaic array 12

2.1.2 Working of PV cell 13

2.1.3 Modeling of PV panel 14

2.2 Maximum power point tracking 17

2.2.1 Necessity of maximum power point tracking 17

2.2.2 Algorithm for tracking of maximum power point 18

iv
 2.2.2.1 Perturb and observe 18

2.2.2.2 Incremental conductance 20

2.2.2.3 Parasitic capacitances 21

2.2.2.4 Voltage control maximum power point tracker 22

2.2.2.5 Current control maximum power tracker 22

2.3 Battery 22

2.3.1 Modeling of battery 23

2.4 Summary 24

Chapter 3 Doubly fed induction generator

3.1 Wind turbine 25

3.2 DFIG system 26

3.2.1 Mathematical modeling of induction generator 26

3.2.1.1 Modeling of DFIG in synchronously rotating frame 26

3.2.1.2 Dynamic modeling of DFIG in state space equations 28

3.3 Summary 32

Chapter 4 AC/DC Microgrid

4.1 Configuration of hybrid microgrid 33

4.2 Operation of grid 36

4.3 Modeling and control of converters 36

4.3.1 Modeling and control of boost converter 36

4.3.2 Modeling and control of main converter 37

4.3.3 Modeling and control of DFIG 38

4.3.3.1 Control of grid side converter 40

4.3.3.2 Control of machine side converter 42

4.3.4 Modeling and control of battery 45

4.4 Summary 45

v
Chapter 5 Results and discussions

5.1 Simulation of PV array 46

5.2 Simulation of doubly fed induction generator 48

5.3 Simulation results of hybrid grid 50

5.4 Summary 56

Chapter 6 Conclusion and suggestions for future work

6.1 Conclusions 57

6.2 Suggestions for future work 57

References 58

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1. Microgrid power system 1

Fig 2.1. Basic structure of PV cell 11

Fig 2.2. Photovoltaic system 13

Fig 2.3. Working of PV cell 13

Fig 2.4. Equivalent circuit of a solar cell 14

Fig 2.5. MPP characteristic 17

Fig 2.6. Perturb and observe algorithm 18

Fig 2.7. Flowchart Perturb and observe algorithm 19

Fig 2.8. Incremental conductance algorithm 20

Fig 2.9. Model of battery 23

Fig 3.1. Dynamic d-q equivalent circuit of DFIG (q-axis circuit) 26

Fig 3.2. Dynamic d-q equivalent circuit of DFIG (q-axis circuit) 27

Fig 4.1. A hybrid AC/DC microgrid system 33

Fig 4.2. Representation of hybrid microgrid 34

Fig 4.3. Control block diagram of boost converter 37

Fig 4.4. Control block diagram of main converter 38

Fig. 4.5. Overall DFIG system 39

Fig 4.6. Schematic diagram of grid side converter 40

Fig 4.7. Control block diagram of grid side converter 41

Fig 4.8. Control block diagram of machine side converter 43

Fig 4.9. Control block diagram of battery 45

Fig 5.1. I-V output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures 46

Fig 5.2. P-V output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures 47

Fig 5.3. P-I output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures 47

Fig 5.4. I-V characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels 47

vii
Fig 5.5. P-V characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels 48

Fig 5.6. P-I characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels 48

Fig 5.7. Response of wind speed 49

Fig 5.8. Three phase stator voltage of DFIG 49

Fig 5.9. Three phase rotor voltage of DFIG 49

Fig 5.10. Irradiation signal of the PV array 50

Fig 5.11. Output voltage of PV array 50

Fig 5.12. Output current of PV array 51

Fig 5.13. Output power of PV array 51

Fig 5.14. Generated PWM signal for the boost converter 51

Fig 5.15. Output voltage across DC load 52

Fig 5.16. State of charge of battery 52

Fig 5.17. Voltage of battery 52

Fig 5.18. Current of battery 53

Fig 5.19. Output voltage across AC load 53

Fig 5.20. Output current across AC load 53

Fig 5.21. AC side voltage of the main converter 54

Fig 5.22. AC side current of the main converter 54

Fig 5.23. Output power of DFIG 55

Fig 5.24. Three phase supply voltage of utility grid 55

Fig 5.25. Three phase PWM inverter voltage 55

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Parameters for photovoltaic panel 16

3.1 Parameters for DFIG System 32

4.1 Component parameters for hybrid grid 35

ix
 ACRONYMS
I Terminal voltage of PV module

V Output current of PV module

I Light generated current or photocurrent

I Module reverse saturated current

I Cell's short-circuit current

I Cell's reverse saturation current at reference temperature

V Open circuit voltage

q Electron charge

k Boltzmann’s constant

A Ideal factor

K cell’s short-circuit current temperature coefficient

E Energy of the band gap of the silicon

T Cell's working Temperature

T Cell's reference Temperature

λ Solar irradiation

R Series resistance of PV cell

R Parallel resistance of PV cell

N Number of cells in parallel

N Number of cells in series

P Maximum power

V Terminal voltage of PV cell at MPP

x
I Output current of PV cell at MPP

γ Cell fill factor of PV cell

V Terminal voltage of battery

V Open circuit voltage of battery

R Internal resistance of battery

i Battery charging current

K Polarization voltage

Q Battery capacity

A Exponential voltage

B Exponential capacity

SOC State of charge of battery

P $% Power contained in wind

ρ The air density

A The swept area

V∞ The wind velocity without rotor interference

C Power coefficient

λ Tip speed ratio

ω Rotational speed of rotor

R The radius of the swept area

v( d -axis stator voltage

v* q -axis stator voltage

v(% d% -axis rotor voltage

xi
v*% q% -axis rotor voltage

v( d-axis stator voltage

v* q-axis stator voltage

v(% d-axis rotor voltage

v*% q-axis rotor voltage

i( d -axis stator current

i* q -axis stator current

i(% d% -axis rotor current

i*% q% -axis rotor current

i( d-axis stator current

i* q-axis stator current

i(% d-axis rotor current

i*% q-axis rotor current

λ( d -axis stator flux linkage

λ* q -axis stator flux linkage

λ(% d% -axis rotor flux linkage

λ*% q% -axis rotor flux linkage

λ( d-axis stator flux linkage

λ* q-axis stator flux linkage

λ(% d-axis rotor flux linkage

λ*% q-axis rotor flux linkage

θ Angle of synchronously rotating frame

xii
θ Angle of stationary reference frame

R Stator resistance

R% Rotor resistance with respect to stator

ω Synchronous speed

ω% Rotor electrical speed

ω Rotor mechanical speed

ω Angular frequency

f Supply frequency

L/ Stator leakage inductance

L/% Rotor leakage inductance

L Stator inductance

L% Rotor inductance

L Magnetizing inductance

P Number of poles

T Electromagnetic torque

T0 Load torque

J Rotor inertia

B Damping constant

P Active power in the grid

Q Reactive power in the grid

v( d-axis grid voltage

v* q-axis grid voltage

xiii
 i( d-axis grid current

i* q-axis grid current

R Line resistance

L Line inductance

C DC-link capacitance

v(2 DC-link voltage

m/ Modulation index of supply side converter

m4 Modulation index of machine side converter

P25% Rotor copper loss

P25 Stator copper loss

X/ Stator leakage reactance

X/% Rotor leakage reactance

X Stator reactance

X% Rotor reactance

X Magnetizing reactance

C Capacitor across the solar panel

L/ Inductor for the boost converter

C( Capacitor across the DC-link

L4 Filtering inductor for the inverter

R4 Equivalent resistance of the inverter

C4 Filtering capacitor for the inverter

L7 Inductor for the battery converter

xiv
R7 Resistance of L7

f Frequency of the AC grid

f Switching frequency for the power converter

V( Rated DC bus voltage

xv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MICROGRID

1.1. Introduction

1.1.1. General information regarding microgrid

As electric distribution technology steps into the next century, many trends are becoming
noticeable that will change the requirements of energy delivery. These modifications are
being driven from both the demand side where higher energy availability and efficiency are
desired and from the supply side where the integration of distributed generation and peak-
shaving technologies must be accommodated [1].

Fig 1.1. Microgrid power system

1
 Power systems currently undergo considerable change in operating requirements mainly
as a result of deregulation and due to an increasing amount of distributed energy resources
(DER). In many cases DERs include different technologies that allow generation in small
scale (microsources) and some of them take advantage of renewable energy resources (RES)
such as solar, wind or hydro energy. Having microsources close to the load has the advantage
of reducing transmission losses as well as preventing network congestions. Moreover, the
possibility of having a power supply interruption of end-customers connected to a low
voltage (LV) distribution grid (in Europe 230 V and in the USA 110 V) is diminished since
adjacent microsources, controllable loads and energy storage systems can operate in the
islanded mode in case of severe system disturbances. This is identified nowadays as a
microgrid. Figure 1.1 depicts a typical microgrid. The distinctive microgrid has the similar
size as a low voltage distribution feeder and will rare exceed a capacity of 1 MVA and a
geographic span of 1 km. Generally more than 90% of low voltage domestic customers are
supplied by underground cable when the rest is supplied by overhead lines. The microgrid
often psupplies both electricity and heat to the customers by means of combined heat and
power plants (CHP), gas turbines, fuel cells, photovoltaic (PV) systems, wind turbines, etc.
The energy storage systems usually include batteries and flywheels [2].The storing device in
the microgrid is equivalent to the rotating reserve of large generators in the conventional grid
which ensures the balance between energy generation and consumption especially during
rapid changes in load or generation [3].

From the customer point of view, microgrids deliver both thermal and electricity
requirements and in addition improve local reliability, reduce emissions, improve power
excellence by supportive voltage and reducing voltage dips and potentially lower costs of
energy supply. From the utility viewpoint, application of distributed energy sources can
potentially reduce the demand for distribution and transmission facilities. Clearly, distributed
generation located close to loads will reduce flows in transmission and distribution circuits
with two important effects: loss reduction and ability to potentially substitute for network
assets. In addition, the presence of generation close to demand could increase service quality
seen by end customers. Microgrids can offer network support during the time of stress by
relieving congestions and aiding restoration after faults. The development of microgrids can
contribute to the reduction of emissions and the mitigation of climate changes. This is due to
the availability and developing technologies for distributed generation units are based on
renewable sources and micro sources that are characterized by very low emissions [4].

2
 There are various advantages offered by microgrids to end-consumers, utilities and
society, such as: improved energy efficiency, minimized overall energy consumption,
reduced greenhouse gases and pollutant emissions, improved service quality and reliability,
cost efficient electricity infrastructure replacement [2].

Technical challenges linked with the operation and controls of microgrids are immense.
Ensuring stable operation during network disturbances, maintaining stability and power
quality in the islanding mode of operation necessitates the improvement of sophisticated
control strategies for microgrid’s inverters in order to provide stable frequency and voltage in
the presence of arbitrarily varying loads [4]. In light of these, the microgrid concept has
stimulated many researchers and attracted the attention of governmental organizations in
Europe, USA and Japan. Nevertheless, there are various technical issues associated with the
integration and operation of microgrids.

1.1.2. Technical challenges in microgrid

Protection system is one of the major challenges for microgrid which must react to both
main grid and microgrid faults. The protection system should cut off the microgrid from the
main grid as rapidly as necessary to protect the microgrid loads for the first case and for the
second case the protection system should isolate the smallest part of the microgrid when
clears the fault [30]. A segmentation of microgrid, i.e. a design of multiple islands or sub-
microgrids must be supported by microsource and load controllers. In these conditions
problems related to selectivity (false, unnecessary tripping) and sensitivity (undetected faults
or delayed tripping) of protection system may arise. Mainly, there are two main issues
concerning the protection of microgrids, first is related to a number of installed DER units in
the microgrid and second is related to an availability of a sufficient level of short-circuit
current in the islanded operating mode of microgrid since this level may substantially drop
down after a disconnection from a stiff main grid. In [30] the authors have made short-circuit
current calculations for radial feeders with DER and studied that short-circuit currents which
are used in over-current (OC) protection relays depend on a connection point of and a feed-in
power from DER. The directions and amplitudes of short circuit currents will vary because of
these conditions. In reality the operating conditions of microgrid are persistently varying
because of the intermittent microsources (wind and solar) and periodic load variation. Also
the network topology can be changed frequently which aims to minimize loss or to achieve
other economic or operational targets. In addition controllable islands of different size and
content can be formed as a result of faults in the main grid or inside microgrid. In such

3
situations a loss of relay coordination may happen and generic OC protection with a single
setting group may become insufficient, i.e. it will not guarantee a selective operation for all
possible faults. Hence, it is vital to ensure that settings chosen for OC protection relays take
into account a grid topology and changes in location, type and amount of generation.
Otherwise, unwanted operation or failure may occur during necessary condition. To deal with
bi-directional power flows and low short-circuit current levels in microgrids dominated by
microsources with power electronic interfaces a new protection philosophy is essential, where
setting parameters of relays must be checked/updated periodically to make sure that they are
still appropriate.

1.2. Literature review

The popularity of distributed generation systems is growing faster from last few years
because of their higher operating efficiency and low emission levels. Distributed generators
make use of several microsources for their operation like photovoltaic cells, batteries, micro
turbines and fuel cells. During peak load hours DGs provide peak generation when the energy
cost is high and stand by generation during system outages. Microgrid is built up by
combining cluster of loads and parallel distributed generation systems in a certain local area.
Microgrids have large power capacity and more control flexibility which accomplishes the
reliability of the system as well as the requirement of power quality. Operation of microgrid
needs implementation of high performance power control and voltage regulation algorithm
[1]-[5].

To realize the emerging potential of distributed generation, a system approach i.e.

microgrid is proposed which considers generation and associated loads as a subsystem. This
approach involves local control of distributed generation and hence reduces the need for
central dispatch. During disturbances by islanding generation and loads, local reliability can
be higher in microgrid than the whole power system. This application makes the system
efficiency double. The current implementation of microgrid incorporates sources with loads,
permits for intentional islanding and use available waste heat of power generation systems
[6].

Microgrid operates as a single controllable system which offers both power and heat to its
local area. This concept offers a new prototype for the operation of distributed generation. To
the utility microgrid can be regarded as a controllable cell of power system. In case of faults
in microgrid, the main utility should be isolated from the distribution section as fast as

4
necessary to protect loads. The isolation depends on customer’s load on the microgrid. Sag
compensation can be used in some cases with isolation from the distribution system to protect
the critical loads [2].

The microgrid concept lowers the cost and improves the reliability of small scale
distributed generators. The main purpose of this concept is to accelerate the recognition of the
advantage offered by small scale distributed generators like ability to supply waste heat
during the time of need. From a grid point of view, microgrid is an attractive option as it
recognizes that the nation’s distribution system is extensive, old and will change very slowly.
This concept permits high penetration of distribution generation without requiring redesign of
the distribution system itself [7].

The microgrid concept acts as solution to the problem of integrating large amount of
micro generation without interrupting the utility network’s operation. The microgrid or
distribution network subsystem will create less trouble to the utility network than the
conventional micro generation if there is proper and intelligent coordination of micro
generation and loads. In case of disturbances on the main network, microgrid could
potentially disconnect and continue to operate individually, which helps in improving power
quality to the consumer [8].

With advancement in DGs and microgrids there is development of various essential

power conditioning interfaces and their associated control for tying multiple microsources to
the microgrid, and then tying the microgrids to the traditional power systems. Microgrid
operation becomes highly flexible, with such interconnection and can be operated freely in
the grid connected or islanded mode of operation. Each microsource can be operated like a
current source with maximum power transferred to the grid for the former case. The islanded
mode of operation with more balancing requirements of supply-demand would be triggered
when the main grid is not comparatively larger or is simply disconnected due to the
occurrence of a fault. Without a strong grid and a firm system voltage, each microsource
must now regulate its own terminal voltage within an allowed range, determined by its
internally generated reference. The microsource thus appears as a controlled voltage source,
whose output should rightfully share the load demand with the other sources. The sharing
should preferably be in proportion to their power ratings, so as not to overstress any
individual entity [9].

5
 The installation of distributed generators involves technical studies of two major fields.
First one is the dealing with the influences induced by distributed generators without making
large modifications to the control strategy of conventional distribution system and the other
one is generating a new concept for utilization of distributed generators. The concept of the
microgrid follows the later approach. There includes several advantages with the installation
of microgrid. Efficiently microgrid can integrate distributed energy resources with loads.
Microgrid considered as a ‘grid friendly entity” and does not give undesirable influence to the
connecting distribution network i.e. operation policy of distribution grid does not have to be
modified. It can also operate independently in the occurrence of any fault. In case of large
disturbances there is possibility of imbalance of supply and demand as microgrid does not
have large central generator. Also microgrid involves different DERs. Even if energy balance
is being maintained there continues undesirable oscillation [10].

For each component of the microgrid, a peer-to-peer and plug-and-play model is used to
improve the reliability of the system. The concept of peer-to-peer guarantees that with loss of
any component or generator, microgrid can continue its operation. Plug-and-play feature
implies that without re-engineering the controls a unit can be placed at any point on the
electrical system thereby helps to reduce the possibilities of engineering errors [11].

The economy of a country mainly depends upon its electric energy supply which should
be secure and with high quality. The necessity of customer’s for power quality and energy
supply is fulfilled by distributed energy supply. The distribution system mainly includes
renewable energy resources, storage systems small size power generating systems and these
are normally installed close to the customer’s premises. The benefits of the DERs include
power quality with better supply, higher reliability and high efficiency of energy by
utilization of waste heat. It is an attractive option from the environmental considerations as
there is generation of little pollution. Also it helps the electric utility by reducing congestion
on the grid, reducing need for new generation and transmission and services like voltage
support and demand response. Microgrid is an integrated system. The integration of the
DERs connected to microgrid is critical. Also there is additional problem regarding the
control and grouping and control of DERs in an efficient and reliable manner [12].

Integration of wind turbines and photovoltaic systems with grid leads to grid instability.
One of the solutions to this problem can be achieved by the implementation of microgrid.
Even though there are several advantages associated with microgrid operation, there are high
transmission line losses. In a microgrid there are several units which can be utilized in a

6
house or country. In a house renewable energy resources and storage devices are connected to
DC bus with different converter topology from which DC loads can get power supply.
Inverters are implemented for power transfer between AC and DC buses. Common and
sensitive loads are connected to AC bus having different coupling points. During fault in the
utility grid microgrid operates in islanded mode. If in any case renewable source can’t supply
enough power and state of charge of storage devices are low microgrid disconnects common
loads and supply power to the sensitive loads [13].

Renewable energy resources are integrated with microgrid to reduce the emission of CO2
and consumption of fuel. The renewable resources are very fluctuant in nature, and also the
production and consumption of these sources are very difficult. Therefore new renewable
energy generators should be designed having more flexibility and controllability [14].

In conventional AC power systems AC voltage source is converted into DC power using

an AC/DC inverter to supply DC loads. AC/DC/AC converters are also used in industrial
drives to control motor speed. Because of the environmental issues associated with
conventional power plant renewable resources are connected as distributed generators or ac
microgrids. Also more and more DC loads like light emitting diode lights and electric
vehicles are connected to AC power systems to save energy and reduce carbon dioxide
(CO )emission. Long distance high voltage transmission is no longer necessary when power
can be supplied by local renewable power sources. AC sources in a DC grid have to be
converted into DC and AC loads connected into DC grid using DC/AC inverters [15].

DC systems use power electronic based converters to convert AC sources to DC and

distribute the power using DC lines. DC distribution becomes attractive for an industrial park
with heavy motor controlled loads and sensitive electronic loads. The fast response capability
of these power electronic converters help in providing highly reliable power supply and also
facilitate effective filtering against disturbances. The employment of power electronic based
converters help to suppress two main challenges associated with DC systems as reliable
conversion from AC/DC/AC and interruption of DC current under normal as well as fault
condition [16]. Over a conventional AC grid system, DC grid has the advantage that power
supply connected with the DC grid can be operated cooperatively because DC load voltage
are controlled. The DC grid system operates in stand-alone mode in the case of the abnormal
or fault situations of AC utility line, in which the generated power is supplied to the loads
connected with the DC grid. Changes in the generated power and the load consumed power

7
can be compensated as a lump of power in the DC gird. The system cost and loss reduce
because of the requirement of only one AC grid connected inverter [17].

Therefore the efficiency is reduced due to multistage conversions in an AC or a DC grid.

So to reduce the process of multiple DC/AC/DC or AC/DC/AC conversions in an individual
AC or DC grid, hybrid AC/DC microgrid is proposed, which also helps in reducing the
energy loss due to reverse conversion [15].

Mostly renewable power plants are implemented in rural areas which are far away from
the main grid network and there is possibility of weak transmission line connection. The
microgrid (MG) concept provides an effective solution for such weak systems. The operation
can be smoothened by the hybrid generation technologies while minimizing the disturbances
due to intermittent nature of energy from PV and wind generation. Also there is possibility of
power exchange with the main grid when excess/shortage occurs in the microgrid [18].

Distributed generation is gaining more popularity because of their advantages like

environmental friendliness, expandability and availability without making any alternation to
the existing transmission and distribution grid. Modern sources depend upon environmental
and climatic conditions hence make them uncontrollable. Because of this problem microgrid
concept comes into feature which cluster multiple distributed energy resources having
different operating principles. In grid tied mode distributed green sources operates like
controlled current source with surplus energy channeled by the mains to other distant loads.
There is need of continuous tuning of source outputs which can be achieved with or without
external communication links. In case of any malfunctions grid tied mode is proved less
reliable as this leads to instability [19].

1.3. Motivation of project work

The microgrid concept acts as a solution to the conundrum of integrating large amounts of
micro generation without disrupting the operation of the utility network. With intelligent
coordination of loads and micro-generation, the distribution network subsystem (or
'microgrid') would be less troublesome to the utility network, than conventional
microgeneration. The net microgrid could even provide ancillary services such as local
voltage control. In case of disturbances on the main network, microgrids could
potentially disconnect and continue to operate separately. This operation improves power
quality to the customer. From the grid’s perception, the benefit of a microgrid is that
it can be considered as a controlled entity within the power system that can be

8
functioned as a single aggregated load. Customers can get benefits from a microgrid
because it is designed and operated to meet their local needs for heat and power as
well as provide uninterruptible power, enhance local reliability, reduce feeder losses,
and support local voltages/correct voltage sag. In addition to generating technologies,
microgrid also includes storage, load control and heat recovery equipment. The ability of
the microgrid to operate when connected to the grid as well as smooth transition to and
from the island mode is another important function.

1.4. Objective of the thesis

The main objective of this thesis is the development of a hybrid microgrid which will
reduce the process of multiple reverse conversions associated with individual AC and DC
grid by the combination of

AC and DC sub-grid
Photovoltaic (PV) system and
Wind turbine generator

In order to analyze the operation of microgrid system both the modeling and controlling
of the system are important issues. Hence the control and modeling (to be discussed detail
in Chapter 4) are also the part of this thesis work. As a part of the thesis work the
overall system is simulated using MATLAB environment. In simulation work the system
is modeled using different state equations.

1.5. Thesis organization

The thesis has been organized into six chapters. Following the chapter on introduction,
the rest of the thesis is outlind as follows.

Chapter 2 explains detailed modeling of PV array with the implantation of maximum

power point tracking. Also the battery model is studied.

Chapter 3 represents explains the modeling of the overall DFIG system in detail. In this
chapter the detail explanation is made using block diagrams and different algebraic
equations.

In chapter 4 the overall configuration of the hybrid microgrid system was implemented.
Along with the operation of the grid and modeling and control of the used converters are
described.

9
 Chapter 5 presents all the simulation results which are found using MATLAB/
SIMULINK environment.

Chapter 6 provides comprehensive summary and conclusions of the work undertaken in

this thesis and also acknowledge about the future work. The references taken for the
purpose of research work are also the part of this chapter.

10
 CHAPTER 2
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM AND BATTERY

2.1. Photovoltaic system

The photoelectric effect was first noted by French physicist Edmund Becquerel in 1839.
He proposed that certain materials have property of producing small amounts of electric
current when exposed to sunlight. In 1905, Albert Einstein
Einstein explained the nature of light and
the photoelectric effect which has become the basic principle for photovoltaic technology. In
1954 the first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories.

A photovoltaic system makes use of one or more solar panels

panels to convert solar energy into
electricity. It consists of various components which include the photovoltaic modules,
mechanical and electrical connections and mountings and means of regulating and/or
modifying the electrical output.

2.1.1. Photovoltaic arrangements

rangements

2.1.1.1. Photovoltaic cell

Fig 2.1. Basic structure of PV cell

11
 The basic ingredients of PV cells are semiconductor materials, such as silicon. For solar
cells, a thin semiconductor wafer creates an electric field, on one side positive and
negative on the other. When light energy hits the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from
the atoms in the semiconductor material. When electrical conductors are connected to the
positive and negative sides an electrical circuit is formed and electrons are captured in the
form of an electric current that is, electricity. This electricity is used to power a load. A
PV cell can either be circular or square in construction.

2.1.1.2. Photovoltaic module

Because of the low voltage generation in a PV cell (around 0.5V), several PV cells are
connected in series (for high voltage) and in parallel (for high current) to form a PV module
for desired output. In case of partial or total shading, and at night there may be requirement of
separate diodes to avoid reverse currents The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells
may have adequate reverse current characteristics and these are not necessary. There is
wastage of power because of reverse currents which directs to overheating of shaded cells. At
higher temperatures solar cells provide less efficiency and installers aim to offer good
ventilation behind solar panel. Usually there are of 36 or 72 cells in general PV modules. The
modules consist of transparent front side, encapsulated PV cell and back side. The front side
is usually made up of low-iron and tempered glass material. The efficiency of a PV module is
less than a PV cell. This is because of some radiation is reflected by the glass cover and
frame shadowing etc.

2.1.1.3. Photovoltaic array

A photovoltaic array (PV system) is an interconnection of modules which in turn is made

up of many PV cells in series or parallel. The power produced by single module is not enough
to meet the requirements of commercial applications, so modules are connected to form array
to supply the load. In an array the connection of the modules is same as that of cells in a
module. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired
voltages; the individual modules are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce
more current. In urban uses, generally the arrays are mounted on a rooftop. PV array output
can directly feed to a DC motor in agricultural applications.

12
 Fig 2.2. Photovoltaic system

2.1.2. Working of PV cell

The basic principle behind the operation of a PV cell is photoelectric effect. In this effect
electron gets ejected from the conduction band as a result of the absorption of sunlight of a
certain wavelength by the matter (metallic or non-metallic solids, liquids or gases). So, in a
photovoltaic cell, when sunlight hits its surface, some portion of the solar energy is absorbed
in the semiconductor material.

Fig 2.3. Working of PV cell

The electron from valence band jumps to the conduction band when absorbed energy is
greater than the band gap energy of the semiconductor. By these hole-electrons pairs are
created in the illuminated region of the semiconductor. The electrons created in the
conduction band are now free to move. These free electrons are enforced to move in a
particular direction by the action of electric field present in the PV cells. These electrons

13
flowing comprise current and can be drawn for external use by connecting a metal plate on
top and bottom of PV cell. This current and the voltage produces required power.

2.1.3. Modeling of PV panel

The photovoltaic system can generate direct current electricity without environmental
impact when is exposed to sunlight. The basic building block of PV arrays is the solar cell,
which is basically a p-n junction that directly converts light energy into electricity. The
output characteristic of PV module depends on the cell temperature, solar irradiation, and
output voltage of the module. The figure shows the equivalent circuit of a PV array with a
load [20].

Rs I pv

I ph V pv
Rp

Fig 2.4. Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

Usually the equivalent circuit of a general PV model consists of a photocurrent, a diode, a

parallel resistor which expresses a leakage current, and a series resistor which describes an
internal resistance to the current flow. The voltage current characteristic equation of a solar
cell is given as

I =I − I [exp (q(V + I R )/kT A) − 1] − (V + I R )/R (2.1)

The photocurrent mainly depends on the cell’s working temperature and solar irradiation,
which is explained as

I = [I + K (T − T !" )]λ/1000 (2.2)

The saturation current of the cell varies with the cell temperature, which is represented as

I = I (T /T !" )
%
exp [qE' (1/T !" − 1/T )/kA] (2.3)

The shunt resistance R of the cell is inversely related with shunt leakage current to the
ground. Usually efficiency of PV array is insensitive to variation in R and the shunt-leakage
resistance can be assumed to approach infinity without leakage current to ground.

14
Alternatively a small variation in series resistance R will significantly affect output power of
the PV cell. The appropriate model of PV solar cell with suitable complexity is shown in
Fig.2.4. Equation (2.1) can be modified to be

I =I − I [exp (q(V + I R )/kT A) − 1] (2.4)

There is no series loss and no leakage to ground for an ideal PV cell, i.e., R = 0 and RP = ∞.
So equation (2.1) can be rewritten as

I =I − I [exp (qV /kT A) − 1] (2.5)

A PV array is a group of several PV modules which are electrically connected in series

and parallel circuits to generate the required current and voltage. So the current and voltage
equation of the array with N parallel and N series cells can be represented as

I =N I − N I [exp (q(V /N + I /N )/kT A) − 1] − (N V /N + I )/R (2.6)

The efficiency of a PV cell is sensitive to small change in series resistance but insensitive
to variation in shunt resistance. The role of series resistance is very important for a PV
module and the shunt resistance is approached to be infinity which can also be assumed as
open. The mathematical equation of the model can be described by considering series and
parallel resistance as

I =N I − N I [exp (q(V /N + I R /N )/kT A) − 1] (2.7)

The equation (2.7) can be simplified as

I =N I − N I [exp (qV /N kT A) − 1] (2.8)

The open-circuit voltage V+ and short-circuit current I are the two most important
parameters used which describes the cell electrical performance. The above mentioned
equations are implicit and nonlinear; hence, it is not easy to arrive at an analytical solution for
the specific temperature and irradiance. Normally I ≫ I , so by neglecting the small diode
and ground-leakage currents under zero-terminal voltage, the short-circuit current is
approximately equal to the photocurrent, i.e.

I =I (2.9)

The open-circuit voltage parameter is obtained by assuming the zero output current. With
the given open-circuit voltage at reference temperature and ignoring the shunt-leakage
current, the reverse saturation current can be acquired as

15
I = I /[exp (qV+ /N kAT ) − 1] (2.10)

Additionally, the maximum power can be stated as

P-./ = V-./ I-./ = γV+ I (2.11)

The parameters used for the modeling of photovoltaic panel are shown in the table 2.1 [16].

Symbol Value

V+ 403 V

q 1.602 × 10567C

k 1.38 × 105 %
K

A 1.50

I 3.27 A

K 1.7 × 105%

T !" 301.18 K

I 2.0793 × 105< A

T 350 K

λ 0-1500 W/m

N 40

N? 900

E' 1.1 eV

Table 2.1. Parameters for photovoltaic panel

16
2.2. Maximum power point tracking

As an electronic system maximum power point tracker (MPPT) functions the

photovoltaic (PV) modules in a way that allows the PV modules to produce all the power
they are capable of. It is not a mechanical tracking system which moves physically the
modules to make them point more directly at the sun. Since MPPT is a fully electronic
system, it varies the module’s operating point so that the modules will be able to deliver
maximum available power. As the outputs of PV system are dependent on the temperature,
irradiation, and the load characteristic MPPT cannot deliver the output voltage perfectly. For
this reason MPPT is required to be implementing in the PV system to maximize the PV array
output voltage.

2.2.1. Necessity of maximum power point tracking

Fig 2.5. MPP characteristic

In the power versus voltage curve of a PV module there exists a single maxima of power,
i.e. there exists a peak power corresponding to a particular voltage and current. The
efficiency of the solar PV module is low about 13%. Since the module efficiency is low it is
desirable to operate the module at the peak power point so that the maximum power can
be delivered to the load under varying temperature and irradiation conditions. This
maximized power helps to improve the use of the solar PV module. A maximum power
point tracker (MPPT) extracts maximum power from the PV module and transfers that
power to the load. As an interfacing device DC/DC converter transfers this maximum

17
power from the solar PV module to the load. By changing the duty cycle, the load impedance
is varied and matched at the point of the peak power with the source so as to
transfer the maximum power.

2.2.2. Algorithms for tracking of maximum power point

There are different algorithms which help to track the peak power point of the solar PV
module automatically. The algorithms can be written as

a. Perturb and observe

b. Incremental conductance

c. Parasitic capacitance

d. Voltage based peak power tracking

e. Current Based peak power tracking

2.2.2.1. Perturb and observe

In this algorithm a slight perturbation is introduced in the system. The power of the
module changes due to this perturbation. If the power increases due to the perturbation then
the perturbation is continued in that direction. When power attains its peak point, the next
instant power decreases and so also the perturbation reverses. During the steady state
condition the algorithm oscillates around the peak point. The perturbation size is kept very
small to keep the power variation small. It is examined that there is some power loss
because of this perturbation and also it fails to track the power under fast varying
atmospheric conditions. But still this algorithm is very popular and simple [22], [23].

200

150
Power (W)

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Voltage(V)

Fig 2.6. Perturb and observe algorithm

18
 In the present work this algorithm is chosen. Figure 2.7 represents the flow chart of the
algorithm. The algorithm observes output power of the array and perturbs the power based on
increment of the array voltage. The algorithm continuously increments or decrements the
reference voltage based on the value of the previous power sample.

∆P = P(k ) − P(k − 1)
∆V = V(k) − V(k − 1)

∆P > 0

∆V > 0 ∆V < 0

Vref = Vref + ∆V Vref = Vref − ∆V Vref = Vref − ∆V Vref = Vref + ∆V

k = k +1

Fig 2.7. Flowchart Perturb and observe algorithm

Here a reference voltage V@!" is set corresponding to the peak power point of the module.
The value of current and voltage can be obtained from the solar PV module. From the
measured voltage and current power is calculated. The value of voltage and power at k AB
instant are stored. Then values at (k + 1)AB instant are measured again and power is
calculated from the measured values. The power and voltage at (k + 1)AB instant are
subtracted with the values from k AB instant. If we observe the power voltage curve of the
solar PV module we see that in the right hand side curve where the voltage is almost constant

19
the slope of power voltage is negative CdPEdV < 0G where as in the left hand side the slope is

positive CdPEdV > 0G. Depending on the sign of dP[P(k + 1) − P(k)] and dV[V(k + 1) −

V(k)] after subtraction the algorithm decides whether to increase or to reduce the reference
voltage.

The P&O method is claimed to have slow dynamic response and high steady state error.
In fact, the dynamic response is low when a small increment value and a low sampling rate
are employed. To decrease the steady state error low increments are essential because the
P&O always makes the operating point oscillate near the MPP, but never at the MPP exactly.
When the increment is lower, the system will be closer to the array MPP. In case of greater
increment, the algorithm will work faster, but the steady state error will be increased. The
small increments tend to make the algorithm more stable and accurate when the operating
conditions of the PV array change. In case of large increments the algorithm becomes
confused since the response of the converter to large voltage or current variations will cause
oscillations, overshoot and the settling time of the converter itself confuse the algorithm [24].

2.2.2.2. Incremental conductance

The incremental conductance method can overwhelm the problems of tracking peak
power under fast varying atmospheric condition [22], [23].

200
JKE = −KE
JL L
JKE < KE
150 JL L
Power (W)

JKE > KE
100 JL L

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Voltage(V)

Fig 2.8. Incremental conductance algorithm

The algorithm uses the equation

P=V∗I (2.12)

(Where P=power of the module, V= voltage of the module, I= current of the module);

20
Differentiating with respect to dV

dPE = I + dIE
dV dV (2.13)

The algorithm works depending on this equation.

At peak power point

dPE = 0
dV (2.14)

dIE = −IE
dV V (2.15)

If the operating point is to the right of the power curve then we have

dPE < 0
dV (2.16)

dIE < IE
dV V (2.17)

If operating point is to the left of the power curve then we have

dPE > 0
dV (2.18)

dIE > IE
dV V (2.19)

The algorithm works using equations (2.15), (2.17), & (2.18).

When the incremental conductance decides that the MPPT has reached the MPP, it stops
perturbing the operating point. If this condition is not achieved, MPPT operating point
direction can be computed using dIEdV and −I/V relation. This relationship is derived from

the fact that when the MPPT is to the right of the MPP dPEdV is negative and positive when
it is to the left of the MPP. This algorithm has benefits over perturb and observe in that it can
determine when the MPPT has reached the MPP, where perturb and observe oscillates around
the MPP. Also, this algorithm can track rapidly increasing and decreasing irradiance
conditions with higher accuracy than perturb and observe. The drawback of this algorithm is
that there is increased complexity when compared to perturb and observe.

2.2.2.3. Parasitic capacitances

The improvement of the incremental conductance leads to the method of parasitic

capacitance which considers the parasitic capacitances of the solar cells. This method makes
use of the switching ripple of the MPPT which helps to perturb the array. The average ripple
in the PV array voltage and power, generated by the switching frequency are measured

21
using a series of filters and multipliers and then used to calculate the array
conductance. Then the algorithm decides the direction of movement of MPPT operating
point. There is one disadvantage in this algorithm that the parasitic capacitance in each
module is very small, and can perform well in large PV arrays where several PV modules are
connected in parallel. There is sizable input capacitor in the DC-DC converter which filters
out small ripple in the array power. This capacitor may cover the overall effects of the
parasitic capacitance of the PV array [23].

2.2.2.4. Voltage control maximum power point tracker

The maximum power point (MPP) of a PV module is assumed to lie about 0.75 times the
open circuit voltage of the module. Hence a reference voltage can be generated by calculating
the open circuit voltage and then the feed forward voltage control scheme can be
implemented to bring the solar PV module voltage to the point of maximum power. The
difficulty associated with this technique is that there is variation of open circuit voltage with
the temperature. As there is increase in temperature because of the change in open circuit
voltage of the module, module’s open circuit is needed to be calculated frequently. In this
process the load must be disconnected from the module to measure open circuit voltage. So
the power during that instant cannot be utilized [25].

2.2.2.5. Current control maximum power point tracker

The module’s peak power lies at the point which is about 0.9 times the short circuit
current of the module. The module has to be short-circuited to measure this point. After that
module current is adjusted to the value by using the current mode control which is
approximately 0.9 times the short circuit current. In this case a high power resistor is required
which can sustain the short-circuit current. This is the problem with this algorithm. The
module has to be short circuited to measure the short circuit current as it goes on varying with
the changes in irradiation level [25].

2.3. Battery

In our modern society the role of batteries is important as energy carriers, because of its
presence in devices for everyday use. At the end of the 20th century the demand for batteries
rapidly increased due to the large interest in wireless devices. Today, the battery industry
comes under the category of large-scale industry which produces several million batteries per
month. Improving the energy capacity is one major development issue, however, for
consumer products, safety is probably considered equally important today. With the

22
introduction of hybrid electric vehicles into the market there is technological development in
the battery field which leads to reduction of fuel consumption and gas emissions. Battery
development is a major task for both industry and academic research.

2.3.1. Modeling of battery

The battery is modeled as a nonlinear voltage source whose output voltage depends not
only on the current but also on the battery state of charge (SOC), which is a nonlinear
function of the current and time [26]. Fig 2.9 represents a basic model of battery.

Two parameters to represent state of a battery i.e. terminal voltage and state of charge can
be written as:
P
VM = VN + R M iM − K P5Q R + A ∗ exp (B Q iM dt)
S TA
(2.20)

Q RS TA
SOC = 100(1 + )
P
(2.21)

I batt

Vb
Vbatt

t
V =V − k Q .it + A.exp( − B.it )
b 0 Q − ∫ i dt it ∫
b 0

Fig 2.9. Model of battery

P
The original Shepherd model has a non-linear term equal to K P5Q R
S TA
. This term

represents a non-linear voltage that changes with the amplitude of the current and the actual
charge of the battery. So when there is complete discharge of battery and no flow of current,
the voltage of the battery will be nearly zero. As soon as a current circulates again, the
voltage falls abruptly. This model yields accurate results and also represents the behaviour of
the battery.

23
2.4. Summary

This chapter summarizes the modeling of solar panel with the implementation of
maximum power point tracking algorithm. Various MPPT algorithms are introduced for the
study of PV array to track maximum power under various solar irradiation and temperature
conditions. Also the model of battery is explained in detail for the modeling of microgrid.

24
 CHAPTER 3

DOUBLY FED INDUCTION GENERATOR

3.1. Wind turbines

With the use of power of the wind, wind turbines produce electricity to drive an electrical
generator. Usually wind passes over the blades, generating lift and exerting a turning force.
Inside the nacelle the rotating blades turn a shaft then goes into a gearbox. The gearbox helps
in increasing the rotational speed for the operation of the generator and utilizes magnetic
fields to convert the rotational energy into electrical energy. Then the output electrical power
goes to a transformer, which converts the electricity to the appropriate voltage for the power
collection system. A wind turbine extracts kinetic energy from the swept area of the blades.

The power contained in the wind is given by the kinetic energy of the flowing air mass
per unit time [28]. The equation for the power contained in the wind can then be written as
6
P.R@ = (air mass per unit time)(V∞ )

6
= (ρAV^ )(V^ )

6
= ρAV^ % (3.1)

Although Eq. (3.1) describes the availability of power in the wind, power transferred to
the wind turbine rotor is reduced by the power coefficient C .

C = _`ab cdeS`af
(3.2)
g`e

A maximum value of C is defined by the Betz limit, which states that a turbine can never
extract more than 59.3% of the power from an air stream. In reality, wind turbine rotors have
maximum C values in the range 25-45%.

PhRiT Aj@MRi! = C × P.R@ (3.3)

It is also conventional to define a tip speed ratio λ as

k
λ=
l∞
(3.4)

25
3.2. DFIG system

The doubly fed induction machine is the most widely machine in these days. The
induction machine can be used as a generator or motor. Though demand in the direction of
motor is less because of its mechanical wear at the slip rings but they have gained their
prominence for generator application in wind and water power plant because of its obvious
adoptability capacity and nature of tractability. This section describes the detail analysis of
overall DFIG system along with back to back PWM voltage source converters.

3.2.1. Mathematical modeling of induction generator

DFIG is a wound rotor type induction machine, its stator consists of stator frame, stator
core, poly phase (3-phase) distributed winding, two end covers, bearing etc. The stator core is
stack of cylindrical steel laminations which are slotted along their inner periphery for housing
the 3-phase winding. Its rotor consists of slots in the outer periphery to house the windings
like stator. The machine works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction and the energy
transfer takes place by means of transfer action. So the machine can represent as a
transformer which is rotatory in action not stationary. This section explains the basic
mathematical modeling of DFIG. In this section the machine modeling is explained by taking
two phase parameters into consideration.

3.2.1.1. Modeling of DFIG in synchronously rotating frame

Fig 3.1 and 3.2 demonstrates the equivalent circuit diagram of an induction machine. The
machine is signified as a two phase machine in this figure.

Fig 3.1. Dynamic d-q equivalent circuit of DFIG (q-axis circuit)

26
 Fig 3.2. Dynamic d-q equivalent circuit of DFIG (d-axis circuit)

Equations for the stator circuit can be written as

T
vn?
?
= R ? i?n? + TA λ?n? (3.5)

T
vT?
?
= R ? i?T? + TA λ?T? (3.6)

In d-q frame Eq. (3.5) and (3.6) can be written [29] as

T
vn? = R ? in? + TA λn? + (ω! λT? ) (3.7)

T
vT? = R ? iT? + λT? − (ω! λn? )
TA
(3.8)

Where all the variables are in synchronously rotating frame. The bracketed terms indicate
the back emf or speed emf or counter emf due to the rotation of axes as in the case of DC
machines. When the angular speed ω! is zero, the speed e.m.f due to d and q axis is zero
and the equations changes to stationary form. If the rotor is blocked or not moving, i.e.
ω@ = 0, the machine equations can be written as
T
vn@ = R @ in@ + TA λn@ + (ω! λT@ ) (3.9)

T
vT@ = R @ iT@ + TA λT@ − (ω! λn@ ) (3.10)

Let the rotor rotates at an angular speed ω@ , then the d-q axes fixed on the rotor
fictitiously will move at a relative speed (ω! − ω@ ) to the synchronously rotating frame.

By replacing (ω! − ω@ ) in place of ω! the d-q frame rotor equations can be written as
T
vn@ = R @ in@ + TA λn@ + (ω! −ω@ ) λT@ (3.11)

27
 T
vT@ = R @ iT@ + λT@ − (ω! −ω@ )λn@
TA
(3.12)

The flux linkage expressions in terms of current can be written from Fig 3.1 and 3.2 as
follows:

λn? = L6? in? + L- (in? + in@ )

= L- in? + L- in@ (3.13)

λT? = L6? iT? + L- (iT? + iT@ )

= L- iT? + L- iT@ (3.14)

λn@ = L6@ in@ + L- (in? + in@ )

= L@ in@ + L- in? (3.15)

λT@ = L6@ iT@ + L- (iT? + iT@ )

= L@ iT@ + L- iT? (3.16)

λn- = L- (in? + in@ ) (3.17)

λT- = L- (iT? + iT@ ) (3.18)

Eq. (3.5) to (3.18) describes the complete electrical modeling of DFIG. Whereas Eq. (3.19)
express the relations of mechanical parameters which are essential part of the modeling.

The electrical speed ω@ cannot be treated as constant in the above equations. It can be
connected to the torque as
Tks Tke
T! = Tq + J TA
+ Bω- = Tq + J TA
+ Bω@ (3.19)

3.2.1.2. Dynamic modeling of DFIG in state space equations

The dynamic modeling in state space form is necessary to carried out simulation using
different tools such as MATLAB. The basic sate space form helps to analyze the system in
transient condition.

In the DFIG system the state variables are normally currents, fluxes etc. In the following
section the state space equations for the DFIG in synchronously rotating frame has been
derived with flux linkages as the state variables. As the machine and power system parameters
are nearly always given in ohms or percent or per unit of base impedance, it is appropriate to

28
express the voltage and flux linkage equations in terms of reactances rather than inductances.
The above stated voltage and flux equations can be reworked as follows:
6 T
vn? = R ? in? + ψn? +
ωf
ψn?
ωS TA
(3.20)
ωS

6 T
vT? = R ? iT? + ψT? −
ωf
ψT?
ωS TA
(3.21)
ωS

6 T (ωf 5ωe )
vn@ = R @ in@ + ψn@ + ψT@
ωS TA
(3.22)
ωS

6 T (ωf 5ωe )
vT@ = R @ iT@ + ψT@ − ψn@
ωS TA
(3.23)
ωS

Equations related to flux linkage i.e. Eq. (3.13)-(3.18) can be written in terms of reactances as
follows:

ψn? = Xv? in? + X- (in? + in@ ) (3.24)

ψT? = Xv? iT? + X- (iT? + iT@ ) (3.25)

ψn@ = Xv@ in@ + X- (in? + in@ ) (3.26)

ψT@ = Xv@ iT@ + X- (iT? + iT@ ) (3.27)

ψn- = X- (in? + in@ ) (3.28)

ψT- = X- (iT? + iT@ ) (3.29)

Where reactances (Xv? , Xv@, X- ) are found by multiplying base frequency ωM with inductances
(L6? , L6@ , L- ).

From eq. (3.24)-(3.29) we can find the expressions for currents in terms of flux linkages and
also the mutual flux linkages (ψn- , ψT- ) are found using current expressions.

The equations are given as follows [29].

xyz 5xys
in? =
{|z
(3.30)

xye 5xys
in@ = {|e
(3.31)

xbz 5xbs
iT? =
{|z
(3.32)

xbe 5xbs
iT@ =
{|e
(3.33)

29
Substituting equations (3.30)-(3.33) in (3.28)-(3.29) we get
ψyz 5ψys ψye 5ψys
ψn- = X- { + }
{|z {|e

{s {s {s {s
⟹ ψn- = ψn? − ψn- + ψn@ − ψn-
{|z {|z {|e {|e

{s {s {s {s
⟹ ψn- + ψn- + ψn- = ψn? + ψn@
{|z {|e {|z {|z

{s {s {s {s
⟹ ψn- C1 + + G= ψn? + ψn@
{|z {|e {|z {|e

{|z {e €{s {|e €{s {|z { {

⟹ ψn- C G = { s ψn? + { s ψn@
{|z {|e |z |e

{|z {e €{s {|e €{s {|z { {

⟹ ψn- X- C G = { s ψn? + { s ψn@
{|z {|e {s |z |e

{ { {
⟹ ψn- { s = { s ψn? + { s ψn@
fy |z |e

{fy {fy
⟹ ψn- = ψn? + ψn@
{|z {|e

{fy {fy
ψn- = { ψn? + { ψn@ (3.34)
|z |e

Similarly we can find the value of ψT- as follows

{fy {fy
ψT- = ψT? + ψT@
{|z {|e
(3.35)

Substituting the current equations from (3.30)-(3.33) in voltage equations (3.20)-(3.23) we

will get,

6 Tψyz
vn? = z
Cψn? − ψn- G + ω +
ωf
ψT?
{|z TA
(3.36)
S ωS

6 Txbz k
vT? = { z (ψT? − ψT- ) + k − kf ψn?
S TA
(3.37)
|z S

6 Tψye (ωf 5ωe)

vn@ = { z Cψn@ − ψn- G + ω + ψT@
S TA
(3.38)
|e ωS

6 Tψbe (ωf 5ωe )

vT@ = { z •ψT@ − ψT- ‚ + ω − ψn@
S TA
(3.39)
|e ωS

The state variables can be expressed using the above equations as follows
Tψyz
= ωM ƒvn? − ωf ψT? − { z Cψn? − ψn- G„
ω
TA
(3.40)
S |z

30
Tψbz
= ωM ƒvn? + ψn? − •ψT? − ψT- ‚„
ωf z
TA {|z
(3.41)
ωS

Tψye (ωf 5ωe )

= ωM ƒvn@ − ψT@ − e
Cψn@ − ψn- G„
TA {|e
(3.42)
ωS

Tψbe (ωf 5ωe )

= ωM ƒvT@ + ψn@ − e
•ψT@ − ψT- ‚„
TA {|e
ωS
(3.43)

The state space matrix can be written as follows

 Rs ωe   Rs 
− − 0 0 0 
 •
  X1s ωb  X
ψ
 qs   ω  ψ  1 0 0 0  v qs  
1s

R Rs 
 •  − e − s   qs    0
0  v ds  
0 0
ψ ds  =  ωb X1s  ψ ds  0
+
1 0
  + X1s  ψ qm 
 •   Rr ωe − ωr  ψ qr  0 0  v qr   R r  ψ 
ψ qr   0 0 − − 
0 1
   0   dm 
 •   X1r ωb  ψ dr  0 0 0 1  v dr   X1r 
ψ dr   0 ωe − ω r R   Rr 
 0 − r   0
 ωb X1r   X1r 

(3.44)

The electromotive torque is developed by the interaction of air-gap flux and the rotor
mmf. At synchronous speed the rotor cannot move and as a result there is no question of
induced emf as well as the current, hence there is zero torque, but at any speed other than
synchronous speed the machine will experience torque which is the case of motor, where as
in case of generator electrical torque in terms of mechanical is provided by means of prime
mover which is wind in this case.

The torque can be represented in terms of flux linkages and currents as

%
T! = •λT? in? − λn? iT? ‚

%
= L- •in? iT@ − iT? in@ ‚

%
= •λT@ in@ − λn@ iT@ ‚ (3.45)

Equation (3.45) can be written in terms of state variables as follows

% 6
T! = •ψT? in? − ψn? iT? ‚
kS

% 6
= •ψT@ in@ − ψn@ iT@ ‚
kS
(3.46)

Equation (3.40)-(3.46) describe the complete DFIG model in state space form,
where ψn? , ψT? , ψn@ , ψT@ are the state variables.

31
 Symbol Value

Pi…- 50 kW

Vi…- 400 V

R‡ 0.00706 pu

L‡ 0.171 pu

Rˆ 0.005 pu

Lˆ 0.156 pu

L‰ 2.9 pu

J 3.1 s

n 6

VTŠ_i…- 800 V

P- 45 kW

Table 3.1. Parameters for DFIG

The parameters used for the modeling of induction generator are shown in the table 3.1 [16].

3.3. Summary

This chapter explains the basic introduction of wind turbine. Also the detailed modeling
of the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) system is analyzed which plays a vital role in
the modeling and control structure of hybrid microgrid.

32
 CHAPTER 4

AC/DC MICROGRID

The concept of microgrid is considered as a collection of loads and microsources which

functions as a single controllable system that provides both power and heat to its local area.
This idea offers a new paradigm for the definition of the distributed generation operation. To
the utility the microgrid can be thought of as a controlled cell of the power system. For
example this cell could be measured as a single dispatch able load, which can reply in
seconds to meet the requirements of the transmission system. To the customer the microgrid
can be planned to meet their special requirements; such as, enhancement of local reliability,
reduction of feeder losses, local voltages support, increased efficiency through use waste
heat, voltage sag correction [3]. The main purpose of this concept is to accelerate the
recognition of the advantage offered by small scale distributed generators like ability to
supply waste heat during the time of need [4]. The microgrid or distribution network
subsystem will create less trouble to the utility network than the conventional
microgeneration if there is proper and intelligent coordination of micro generation and loads
[5]. Microgrid considered as a ‘grid friendly entity” and does not give undesirable influences
to the connecting distribution network i.e. operation policy of distribution grid does not have
to be modified [7].

4.1.Configuration of the hybrid microgrid

Fig 4.1. A hybrid AC/DC microgrid system

33
 The configuration of the hybrid system is shown in Figure 1 where various AC and DC
sources and loads are connected to the corresponding AC and DC networks. The AC and DC
links are linked together through two transformers and two four quadrant operating three-
phase converters. The AC bus of the hybrid grid is tied to the utility grid.
Figure 4.2 describes the hybrid system configuration which consists of AC and DC grid.
The AC and DC grids have their corresponding sources, loads and energy storage elements,
and are interconnected by a three phase converter. The AC bus is connected to the utility grid
through a transformer and circuit breaker.

Fig 4.2. Representation of hybrid microgrid

In the proposed system, PV arrays are connected to the DC bus through boost converter to
simulate DC sources. A DFIG wind generation system is connected to AC bus to simulate
AC sources. A battery with bidirectional DC/DC converter is connected to DC bus as energy
storage. A variable DC and AC load are connected to their DC and AC buses to simulate
various loads.
PV modules are connected in series and parallel. As solar radiation level and ambient
temperature changes the output power of the solar panel alters. A capacitor C is added to
the PV terminal in order to suppress high frequency ripples of the PV output voltage. The
bidirectional DC/DC converter is designed to maintain the stable DC bus voltage through
charging or discharging the battery when the system operates in the autonomous operation
mode. The three converters (boost converter, main converter, and bidirectional converter)
share a common DC bus. A wind generation system consists of doubly fed induction

34
generator (DFIG) with back to back AC/DC/AC PWM converter connected between the rotor
through slip rings and AC bus. The AC and DC buses are coupled through a three phase
transformer and a main bidirectional power flow converter to exchange power between DC
and AC sides. The transformer helps to step up the AC voltage of the main converter to utility
voltage level and to isolate AC and DC grids.

Symbol Value

C 110 μF

L6 2.5 mH

CT 4700 μF

L 0.43 mH

R 0.3 ohm

C 60 μF

L% 3 mH

R% 0.1 ohm

f 50 Hz

f? 10 kHz

VT 400 V

V‘ _@-? 400 V

Table 4.1. Component parameters for the hybrid grid

The parameters used for the modeling of hybrid grid are show in the table 4.1 [16].

35
4.2.Operation of grid

The hybrid grid performs its operation in two modes.

4.2.1. Grid tied mode

In this mode the main converter is to provide stable DC bus voltage, and required reactive
power to exchange power between AC and DC buses. Maximum power can be obtained by
controlling the boost converter and wind turbine generators. When output power of DC
sources is greater than DC loads the converter acts as inverter and in this situation power
flows from DC to AC side. When generation of total power is less than the total load at DC
side, the converter injects power from AC to DC side. The converter helps to inject power to
the utility grid in case the total power generation is greater than the total load in the hybrid
grid,. Otherwise hybrid receives power from the utility grid. The role of battery converter is
not important in system operation as power is balanced by utility grid.

4.2.2. Autonomous mode

The battery plays very important role for both power balance and voltage stability. DC
bus voltage is maintained stable by battery converter or boost converter. The main converter
is controlled to provide stable and high quality AC bus voltage.

4.3.Modeling and control of converters

In the present work five types of converters are used for the proper coordination with
utility grid which will be helpful for uninterrupted and high quality power to AC and DC
loads under variable solar radiation and wind speed when grid operates in grid tied mode. The
control algorithms are described in the following section.
4.3.1. Modeling and control of boost converter
The main objective of the boost converter is to track the maximum power point of the PV
array by regulating the solar panel terminal voltage using the power voltage characteristic
curve.
For the boost converter the input output equations can be written as
TR|
V − V’ = L6 + R6 i6
TA
(4.1)
Tl“”
I − i6 = C
TA
(4.2)

V’ = VT (1 − d6 ) (4.3)

36
 Ipv

*
Vpv

i1* i1 Vpv
1/(sL 3 + R3 ) 1/(sC pv )

Vd'

Fig 4.3. Control block diagram of boost converter

With the implementation of P&O algorithm a reference value i.e. V ∗ is calculated which
mainly depends upon solar irradiation and temperature of PV array [32]. Here for the boost
converter dual loop control is proposed [33]. Here the control objective is to provide a high
quality DC voltage with good dynamic response. The outer voltage loop helps in tracking of
reference voltage with zero steady state error and inner current loop help in improvisation of
dynamic response.

4.3.2. Modeling and control of main converter

The role of the main converter is to exchange power between AC and DC bus. The key
purpose of main converter is to maintain a stable DC-link voltage in grid tied mode. When
the converter operates in grid tied mode, it has to supply a given active and reactive power.
Here PQ control scheme is used for the control of main converter. The PQ control is achieved
using a current controlled voltage source. Two PI controllers are used for real and reactive
power control. When resource conditions or load capacities change, the DC bus voltage is
setteled to constant through PI regulation. The PI controller is set as the instantaneous active
current iT- reference and the instantaneous reactive current in- reference is determined by
reactive power compensation command.

The model of the converter can be represented in ABC coordinate as

i‘ i‘ v‘ v ‘
T
v v
L TA •i– — + R •i– — = • – — − • – —
v v
(4.4)
i i

The above equation can be written in the d-q coordinate as

T iT- −R ωL iT- v?T vŠT

L ˜
TA in-
™=˜ ™ ˜ i ™ + Cv G − Cv G
−ωL −R ?n Šn
(4.5)
n-

37
Where (i‘ , i– , i ) and (v ‘ , v – , v ) are three phase current and voltages of the main
converter. Three phase voltage of AC bus voltage are represented by the notations
as (v ‘ , v – , v ). The variables (iT- , in- ), •vŠT , vŠn ‚, •v?T , v?n ‚ are d-q coordinates of three
phase currents, voltages of main converter and voltage of AC bus respectively.

usd

Vd* i*dm v cd
PI PI
Vd idm

ωL 2

ωL 2
iqm
i*qm v cq
PI

Fig 4.4. Control block diagram of main converter

In case of sudden DC load drop, there is power surplus at DC side and the main converter
is controlled to transfer power from DC to AC side. The active power absorbed by the
capacitor CT leads to rising of DC-link voltage VT . The negative error caused by the increase
of VT produces a higher active current reference i∗T- through PI control. A higher positive
reference i∗T- will force active current reference iT- to increase through the inner current
control loop. Therefore the power surplus of the DC grid can be transferred to the AC side.

Also a sudden increase of DC load causes the power shortage and VT drop at the DC grid.
The main converter is controlled to supply power from the AC to DC side. The positive
voltage error caused by VT drop makes the magnitude of i∗T- increase through the PI control.
Since iT- and i∗T- are both negative, the magnitude of iT- is increased through the inner
current control loop. Hence power is transferred from AC grid to the DC side.

4.3.3. Modeling and control of DFIG

The section 3.2.1 explains the detailed modeling of DFIG. The state space equations are
considered for induction machine modeling. The parameters and specifications of the DFIG
are given in table 3.1. Flux linkages are used as the state variables in the model. Here two
back to back converters are used in the rotor circuit. The main purpose of the machine-side

38
converter is to control the active and reactive power by controlling the d-q components of
rotor current, while the grid-side converter controls the dc-link voltage and ensures the
operation at unity power factor by making the reactive power drawn by the system from the
utility grid to zero.

Two back to back converters are connected to the rotor circuit is shown in Fig 4.5. The
firing pulses are given to the devices (IGBTs) using PWM techniques. Two converters are
linked to each other by means of dc-link capacitor.

Fig. 4.5. Overall DFIG system

Basically converter 1 controls the grid parameters whereas the converter 2 serves for
machine. The converters use six IGBTs (for three phase bridge type) as the controlled device.
The PWM technique uses the controlled voltage va*, vb*, vc*.The triangular career waves are
being compared with sinusoidal reference waves to ensure pulses for the devices. The
modulation indices are different for the both converters which are determined by the equation
(4.6) & (4.7).

lbš √%
V? = m6
√
(4.6)

lz lbš i-•
V@ = ±s i
=m ⟹ s = ±-
√ | √%
(4.7)

39
4.3.3.1. Modeling and control of grid side converter

When the voltages in the grid changes due to different unbalance conditions, it makes an
effect on the dc link voltage. The relation between stator voltage and the DC link voltage is
represented by the equation (4.6) & (4.7).

Fig 4.6. Schematic diagram of grid side converter

Since the machine is grid connected the grid voltage as well as the stator voltage is same,
there exists a relation between the grid voltage and DC link voltage. The main objective of
the grid side converter is to maintain DC link voltage constant for the necessary action. The
voltage oriented vector control method is approached to solve this problem.

The detail mathematical modeling of grid side converter is given below. The control
strategies are made following the mathematical modeling and it is shown in Fig. 4.7. The
PWM converter is current regulated with the direct axis current is used to regulate the DC
link voltage whereas the quadrature axis current component is used to regulate the reactive
power. The reactive power demand is set to zero to ensure the unit power factor operation
[35]. Fig. 4.6 shows the schematic diagram of the grid side converter.

The voltage balance across the line is given by Eq. (4.8), where R and L are the line
resistance and reactance respectively. With the use of d-q theory the three phase quantities
are transferred to the two phase quantities.

v. i. i. v.
žvM Ÿ = R žiM Ÿ + L TA žiM Ÿ + žvM Ÿ
T

vŠ vŠ
(4.8)
iŠ iŠ

For the grid side converter the mathematical modeling can be represented as
TRb
vT = RiT + L TA
− ω! Lin + vTv (4.9)

TRy
vn = Rin + L − ω! LiT + vnv
TA
(4.10)

40
 Where vT6 and vn6 are the two phase voltages found from v. , vM , vŠ using d-q
theory. Since the DC link voltage needs to be constant and the power factor of the
overall system sets to be unity, the reference values are to be set consequently.

The d and q reference voltages are found from the Eq. (4.11) and (4.12).

vT∗ = vT − i∗T R + i∗n ω! L − vT (4.11)

vn∗ = vn − i∗n R + i∗¡ ω! L − vn¢ (4.12)

Vdc
*
Vdc i *d v 'd v*d

v d1

i*q v 'q v*q

v q1 id
Iabc
iq θe

i*qLω e
θe
vd
Vabc
i*dR
vq

i*qR

i*dLωe

Fig 4.7. Control block diagram of grid side converter

The control scheme utilizes current control loops for iT and in with the iT demand being
derived from the dc-link voltage error through a standard PI controller. The in demand
determines the displacement factor on the grid side of the choke. The in demand is set to zero
to guarantee unit power factor. There are two loops for the control design, i.e. inner current
loop and outer voltage loop to provide necessary control action. Line resistance and
reactance decide the plant for the current loop, whereas DC link capacitor is taken as the
plant for the voltage loop. The plants for the current loop and the voltage loop are given in
Eq. (4.13) and (4.14) respectively.

Rb (?) Ry (?) 6
F(s) = = = q?€
(?) y (?)
(4.13)
b

41
 bš (?) %-|
G(s) = =
Rb (?) √ ?
(4.14)

The active and reactive power is controlled independently using the vector control
strategy. Aligning the d-axis of the reference frame along the stator voltage position
is found by Eq. (4.15), vn = 0, since the amplitude of supply voltage is constant the
active power and reactive power are controlled independently by means of iT and in
respectively following Eq. (4.16) and (4.17).
z
tan θ! =
y
z (4.15)
b

%
P? = •vT iT + vn in ‚ (4.16)

%
Q? = •vT in + vn iT ‚ (4.17)

4.3.3.2. Modeling and control of machine side converter

The control strategy made for the machine side converter is shown in Fig.4.8. The main
purpose of the machine side converter is to maintain the rotor speed constant irrespective of
the wind speed and also the control strategy has been implemented to control the
active power and reactive power flow of the machine using the rotor current
components. The active power flow is controlled through iT@ and the reactive power flow is
controlled through in@ . To ensure unit power factor operation like grid side converter the
reactive power demand is also set to zero here. The mathematical modeling of the machine
side converter is given in the following equations [35].

Since the stator is connected to the utility grid and the influence of stator resistance is
small, the stator magnetizing current i- can be considered as constant. Under voltage
orientation the relationship between the torque and the d-q axis voltages, currents and fluxes
can be written as follows. Neglecting leakage inductances the stator flux Equations can be
written as

λT? = 0 (4.18)

λn? = L? in? + L- in@

= (L6? + L- )in? + L- in@

= L6? in? + •in? + in@ ‚L- ≈ L- i- (4.19)

42
 Q* (ωe − ωr )[Lmids + Lridr ] (θe − θr )

Q i*qr v'qr
v*qr
iqr iqr Rr
ωr
idrRr
i*dr v 'dr v*dr
ω*r
idr
(ω e − ωr )[Lmiqs + L r iqr ]
idr
Ls iabcr
ϕs × Lm iqr
Te*
(ωe − ωr )
(θe − θr )

θr

Vabcs
θe

ids
iabcs
iqs

Fig 4.8. Control block diagram of machine side converter

The rotor voltage equations can be written from the equations (4.20) and (4.21).

T q•
vn@ = R @ in@ + TA C qs i- + σL@ in@ G + (ω! − ω@ )σL@ iT@
z

T
= R @ in@ + TA •0 + σL@ in@ ‚ + (ω! − ω@ )σL@ iT@ = R @

T
= R @ in@ + σL@ TA in@ + (ω! − ω@ )σL@ iT@ (4.22)

TRbe q•
vT@ = R @ iT@ + σL@ TA
− (ω! − ω@ ) C qs i- + σL@ in@ G (4.23)
z

The reference value VT@

∗
and Vn@
∗
are given in Eq. (4.24) and (4.25) which are being found
from Eq. (4.22) and (4.23).

vT@
∗
= vT@
¢
+ iT@ R @ − (ω − ω@ )¨in@ L@ + L- in? © (4.24)

43
vn@
∗
= vn@
¢
+ in@ R @ − (ω − ω@ )[iT@ L@ + L- iT? ] (4.25)

Where vT@
¢
and vn@
¢
are found from the current errors processing through standard PI
controllers. The reference current i∗T@ can be found either from the reference torque
given by Eq. (4.27) or form the speed errors (for the purpose of speed control) through
standard PI controllers. Similarly i∗n@ is found from the reactive power errors. The speed and
reactive power is controlled using the current control loops.

The electromagnetic torque can be represented as

%
T! = •λT? in? − λn? iT? ‚

%
= − •λT? in? ‚

% qs
= − λn? C− i G
qz T@

% qs
= qz
λn? iT@ (4.26)

The value of i∗T@ is found using Eq. (4.26)

’∗f ×qz
i∗T@ = ª
yz ×qs
(4.27)

sfš« 5 ¬-zz
Where T!∗ =
ke

Pv…?? = mechanical losses + electrical losses(P j? +P j@ )

Mechanical losses include friction and windage losses whereas electrical losses
include stator copper loss and rotor copper losses. The maximum mechanical power can be
extracted from the wind is proportional to the cube of the rotor speed. The plant for the
current loop is decided by the line resistance and reactance, whereas dc link capacitor is taken
as the plant for the voltage loop. The plants for the current loop and the voltage loop are
given in Eq. (4.28) and (4.29) respectively.

Rbe ( ) Rye ( ) 6
F(S) = ( )
= ( )
= ³q@€ (4.28)
b² y² e

% qs ¶
G(S) = − ´q = (µ?€–)
z ªyz (µ?€–)
(4.29)

44
4.3.4. Modeling and control of battery

The battery converter is a bidirectional DC/DC converter and the main purpose of the
battery converter is to give assurance of stable DC link voltage.

Vb Iin
i*b VD
Vd* ib
1 /(sC d )
1/(sL 3 + R3 )
Vd

Vd

Fig 4.9. Control block diagram of battery

The boost converter injects current i6 (1 − d6 ) to the DC link. The inverter and the DC
loads draw current i.Š and iTŠ from the DC link respectively.

The battery converter can be modeled as

TRS
V· − VM = L% + R % iM
TA
(4.30)

V· = VT ∙ d% (4.31)
Tlb
i6 (1 − d6 ) − i.Š − iTŠ − iM d% = CT
TA
(4.32)

4.4. Summary

This chapter explains the configuration of the hybrid microgrid. Two modes of operation
for the function of microgrid are also discussed. Also the modeling and control schemes for
the used converters are analyzed in the above section.

45
 CHAPTER 5

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A hybrid microgrid whose parameters are given in table 4.1 is simulated using
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The operation is carried out for the grid connected
mode. Along with the hybrid microgrid, the performance of the doubly fed induction
generator, photovoltaic system is analyzed. The solar irradiation, cell temperature and wind
speed are also taken into consideration for the study of hybrid microgrid. The performance
analysis is done using simulated results which are found using MATLAB.

5.1. Simulation of PV array

Figure (5.1)-(5.6) represents I-V, P-V, P-I characteristics with variation in temperature
and solar irradiation. The nonlinear nature of PV cell is noticeable as shown in the figures,
i.e., the output current and power of PV cell depend on the cell’s terminal operating voltage
and temperature, and solar irradiation as well.

Figures (5.1) and (5.2) verify that with increase of cell’s working temperature, the current
output of PV module increases, whereas the maximum power output reduces. Since the
increase in the output current is much less than the decrease in the voltage, the total power
decreases at high temperatures.

T=55degC
150 T=60degC
T=70degC
T=80degC
Current (Amp)

T=90degC
100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Voltage (Volt)
Fig 5.1. I-V output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures

46
 30
T=55 degC
T=60 degC
25
T=70 degC
T=80 degC

Power (kW)
20
T=90 degC

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Voltage (Volt)
Fig 5.2. P-V output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures

30
T=55 degC
T=60 degC
T=70 degC
T=80 degC
Power (kW)

20 T=90 degC

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Current (Amp)
Fig 5.3. P-I output characteristics of PV array for different temperatures

200
S=1200 mW/sq.cm
S=1100 mW/sq.cm
S=1000 mW/sq.cm
150
Current (Amp)

S=900 mW/sq.cm
S=800 mW/sq.cm

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Voltage (Volt)
Fig 5.4. I-V output characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels

47
 30 S=1200 mW/sq.cm.
S=1100 mW/sq.cm.
25 S=1000 mW/sq.cm.
S=900 mW/sq.cm.

Power (kW)
20 S=800 mW/sq.cm.

30

20

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Voltage (Volt)
Fig 5.5. P-V characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels

35 S=1200 mW/sq.cm.
S=1100 mW/sq.cm.
30
S=1000 mW/sq.cm.
Power (kW)

25 S=900 mW/sq.cm.
S=800 mW/sq.cm.
20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200
Current (Amp)
Fig 5.6. P-I characteristics of PV array for different irradiance levels

Figures (5.4) and (5.5) show that with increase of solar irradiation, the current output of
PV module increases and also the maximum output power. The reason behind it is the open-
circuit voltage is logarithmically dependent on the solar irradiance, however the short-circuit
current is directly proportional to the radiant intensity.

5.2. Simulation of doubly fed induction generator

The response of wind speed, three phase stator voltage and three phase rotor voltage are
shown in the figures (5.7) - (5.9). Here the value of wind speed varies between 1.0 to 1.05 pu
which is necessary for the study of the performance of doubly fed induction generator. The
phase to phase stator voltage is set to 300V whereas the rotor voltage value is 150V.

48
 1.1

1.05

Wind speed pu 1

0.95

0.9

0.85
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.7. Response of wind speed

Three phase stator voltage (Volt)

500 Va
Vb
Vc
250

-250

-500

0.9 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1
Time (sec)
Fig 5.8. Three phase stator voltage of DFIG
Three phase rotor voltage (Volt)

va
300
vb
225 vc
150
75
0
-75
-150
-225
-300

0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Time (sec)
Fig 5.9. Three phase rotor voltage of DFIG

49
5.3. Simulation results of hybrid grid

The various characteristics of the hybrid microgrid are represented by the figures (5.10) –
(5.25). Here the microgrid operates in the grid tied mode. In this mode, the main converter
operates in the PQ mode and power is balanced by the utility grid. The battery is fully
charged. AC bus voltage is maintained by the utility grid and DC bus voltage is maintained
by the main converter.

Figure (5.10) shows the curve of solar irradiation level which value is set as 950 W/sq.m
from 0.0s to 0.1s, increases linearly to 1300 W/sq.m from 0.1s to 0.2s, remains constant
from 0.3s to 0.4s, decreases to 950 W/sq.m and keeps that value until 1s. Figures (5.11) –
(5.13) signify output voltage, current and power with respect to the solar irradiation signal.
The output power of PV panel varies 11.25 kW to 13 kW, which closely follows the solar
irradiation when the ambient temperature is fixed.
Irradiation signal (kW/sq.m.)

1.3

1.2

1.1

0.9
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.10. Irradiation signal of the PV array

420
PV array output voltage (Volt)

410

450

440

430

420

410
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.11. Output voltage of PV array

50
 30

PV array output current (Amp) 29

28

27
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.12. Output current of PV array

13
PV array output power (kW)

12.5

12

11.5

11
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.13. Output power of PV array

1.5

1
Gate pulse

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (sec) x 10
-3

Fig 5.14. Generated PWM signal for the boost converter

51
 Output voltage across DC load (Volt)
1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.15. Output voltage across DC load

Figure (5.14) shows the gate pulse signal which is fed to the switch of boost converter.
The output voltage across DC load is represented by figure (5.15) which is settled to around
820V.

85.05
SOC(%)

85

84.95

84.9

84.85
0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.16. State of charge of battery

165.5

165
Battery voltage (Volt)

164.5

164

163.5

163

162.5

162

161.5
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.17. Voltage of battery

52
 100

Battery current (Amp)

50

-50

-100

-150

-200
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Time (sec)
Fig 5.18. Current of battery

500 Va
Vb
AC load voltage (Volt)

Vc
250

-250

-500

0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Time (sec)
Fig 5.19. Output voltage across AC load

150
ia
ib
AC load current (Amp)

100
ic

50

-50

-100

-150
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Time (sec)
Fig 5.20. Output current across AC load

53
 Voltage of main converter (Volt)
300
Va
Vb
Vc

-300
0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.21. AC side voltage of the main converter

Current of main converter (Amp)

40
ia
30 ib
ic
20

10

-10

-20

-30

-40
0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.22. AC side current of the main converter

The battery characteristics are shown in the figures (5.16) - (5.18). The state of charge of
battery is set at 85% whereas the battery current varies between -50 to 50A and the value of
battery voltage is nearly 163.5. The output characteristics of AC load voltage and current are
represented by the figures (5.19) and (5.20). Phase to phase voltage value of AC load is 300V
and current value is 50A.Figure (5.21) and (5.22) shows the voltage and current responses at
the AC side of the main converter when the solar radiation value varies between 950-1300
W/sq.m with a fixed DC load of 25 kW.

54
 35

Output power of DFIG (kW)

30

25

20

15

10
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.23. Output power of DFIG

Supply voltage of utility grid (Volt)

500
Va
Vb
Vc

-500
0.980 0.982 0.984 0.986 0.988 0.990 0.992 0.994 0.996 0.998 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.24. Three phase supply voltage of utility grid

500
Va
Vb
Inverter voltage (Volt)

Vc

-500
0.98 0.982 0.984 0.986 0.988 0.99 0.992 0.994 0.996 0.998 1
Time (sec)

Fig 5.25. Three phase PWM inverter voltage

55
 Figure (5.23) shows the response of the DFIG power output which becomes a stable value
32kW due to mechanical inertia. Figure (5.24) and (5.25) represents the three phase supply
voltage to the utility grid and three phase PWM inverter output voltage respectively.

5.4. Summary

In this chapter simulation results are discussed briefly. Also various characteristics of PV
array, doubly fed induction generator, battery and converters are studied in this chapter and
the waveforms are traced.

56
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK

6.1. Conclusion
The modeling of hybrid microgrid for power system configuration is done in
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The present work mainly includes the grid tied mode of
operation of hybrid grid. The models are developed for all the converters to maintain stable
system under various loads and resource conditions and also the control mechanism are
studied. MPPT algorithm is used to harness maximum power from DC sources and to
coordinate the power exchange between DC and AC grid. Although the hybrid grid can
diminish the processes of DC/AC and AC/DC conversions in an individual AC or DC grid,
there are many practical problems for the implementation of the hybrid grid based on the
current AC dominated infrastructure. The efficiency of the total system depends on the
diminution of conversion losses and the increase for an extra DC link. The hybrid grid can
provide a reliable, high quality and more efficient power to consumer. The hybrid grid may
be feasible for small isolated industrial plants with both PV systems and wind turbine
generator as the major power supply.
6.2. Scope of future work
a. The modeling and control can be done for the islanded mode of operation.
b. The control mechanism can be developed for a microgrid containing unbalanced and
nonlinear loads.

57
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