Communication Satellites

Fifth Edition

Donald H. Martin
Paul R. Anderson
Lucy Bartamian

The Aerospace Press • El Segundo, California

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. • Reston, Virginia

The Aerospace Press
2350 E. El Segundo Boulevard
El Segundo, California 90245-4691

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191-4344

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Martin, Donald H.
Communication satellites / Donald H. Martin, Paul R. Anderson, Lucy
Bartamian . -- 5th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-884989-19-5
1. Artificial satellites in telecommunication--History. I. Anderson, Paul
R. (Paul Robert), 1951- II. Bartamian, Lucy. III. Title.

TK5104.M3555 2006
384.5’1--dc22
2006026639

Copyright © 2007 by The Aerospace Corporation

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publishers.

Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. The
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or reliance, nor do the publishers or the author warrant that use or reliance will be free
from privately owned rights.

All trademarks, service marks, and trade names are the property of their respective
owners.
 Preface

C
ommunication satellites represent one of the most significant applications of space technology.
Almost every year since 1965 a new system has launched its first communication satellite. Today, the
applications of communication satellites reach approximately 200 countries, territories, and ocean
areas for communication services of all types to both large and small terminals on land, on ships, and on
aircraft. Furthermore, although some of these systems are government sponsored, most are commercial
ventures, of which many are in competition with the terrestrial communications industry.
This book describes and summarizes the technical details of communication satellites. It includes, revises,
and adds to the material in the first four editions: Communication Satellites 1958 to 1988, Communication
Satellites 1958 to 1992, Communication Satellites 1958 to 1995, and Communication Satellites fourth edi-
tion (2000).
The scope of the book extends from 1958 through satellites now being manufactured. Past studies and de-
velopments that did not result in a launch, and current proposals that have not yet committed to manufactur-
ing and launch, are generally not mentioned. Because some satellites can be developed, tested, and launched
within two to three years, systems that may not be launching their first satellite until after 2008 might not be
discussed.
The information in this book is derived from publicly available sources. Hence, variations in the quantity
of information given about each satellite are dependent on how much the owners, manufacturers, and others
have published. In general, more information is available for satellites that have been launched than for satel-
lites whose developments are yet to be completed. Information presented here is based on sources that were
available through August 2006, except that launch dates are included through mid-December 2006.
Following a brief historical survey, the 10 chapters of this book cover 10 categories of communication
satellites. These categories are based on similarity of application and geographic associations. Although the
distinctions between the categories are by no means “black and white,” each system together with its satellites
is placed in the chapter that best fits it.
Within each chapter, satellites of the same system are grouped together, and the systems are presented
chronologically according to their initial launch dates. The text emphasizes the satellite and its communica-
tion subsystem, but also touches some broader aspects of the system of which the satellite is a part. Major
business events are mentioned. Accompanying the satellite descriptions are drawings of the satellites, com-
munication subsystem block diagrams, and a list of details. The values given in the lists may differ from those
in other documents because of variations that are not always stated (for example, maximum versus nominal,
specification versus measured, beginning of life versus end of life). Where possible, these qualifying factors
are stated. Beginning with this edition, metric units are used with programs that date from the 1990s and for
many earlier programs.
Appendixes present information on the International Telecommunications Union and the World Trade
Agreements in relation to communication satellite systems, plus a brief discussion of satellite beacons used
for atmospheric research. A glossary contains symbols common to the communication subsystem block dia-
grams, a list of abbreviations and acronyms, and a table showing which frequency bands are used by each
satellite system. An extensive bibliography cites literature on communication satellite systems, their applica-
tions, ground terminals, transmission methods, spectrum use, network engineering, satellite hardware, and
social, economic, and legal issues. A detailed index includes names of satellites, systems, system owners,
satellite manufacturers, other organizations, and nations.

ix
 Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................... ix
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................ xi
Historical Background...................................................................................................................................1
1. Experimental Satellites ..............................................................................................................................3
SCORE .....................................................................................................................................................3
Echo ..........................................................................................................................................................4
Courier ......................................................................................................................................................5
West Ford..................................................................................................................................................6
Telstar .......................................................................................................................................................7
Relay.........................................................................................................................................................8
Syncom 1 to 3 .........................................................................................................................................10
Lincoln Experimental Satellites .............................................................................................................12
Applications Technology Satellites ........................................................................................................18
Communications Technology Satellite ...................................................................................................27
Sirio ........................................................................................................................................................30
Japanese Satellites ..................................................................................................................................32
Advanced Communications Technology Satellite..................................................................................49
Stentor ....................................................................................................................................................54
2. Global Systems Satellites .........................................................................................................................57
Intelsat ....................................................................................................................................................57
PanAmSat .............................................................................................................................................101
Columbia Communications ..................................................................................................................112
Rimsat...................................................................................................................................................114
Loral Skynet .........................................................................................................................................114
New Skies Satellites .............................................................................................................................119
Lockheed Martin Intersputnik ..............................................................................................................126
Worldsat................................................................................................................................................128
3. Mobile Services Satellites ......................................................................................................................133
Marisat ..................................................................................................................................................133
Marecs ..................................................................................................................................................137
Inmarsat ................................................................................................................................................139
MSat .....................................................................................................................................................149
ASEAN Cellular Satellite System (ACeS) ...........................................................................................155
Thuraya.................................................................................................................................................157
TerreStar ...............................................................................................................................................159
Other Geosynchronous Orbit Mobile Services Satellites .....................................................................160
Peole and Eole ......................................................................................................................................160
Argos ....................................................................................................................................................161
Sarsat-Cospas .......................................................................................................................................162
VITA .....................................................................................................................................................164
Orbcomm ..............................................................................................................................................164
Tubsat ...................................................................................................................................................167
Gonets and Other Soviet and Russian LEOs ........................................................................................168
S80 ........................................................................................................................................................169
Satelites de Coleta de Dados ................................................................................................................170
Temisat .................................................................................................................................................171
Eyesat ...................................................................................................................................................172
SAFIR, IRIS, and Rubin ......................................................................................................................173
Faisat ....................................................................................................................................................174
CTA (GEMstar) ....................................................................................................................................175
v
Contents

Aprize Satellite, LatinSat .....................................................................................................................175

Other Little LEO Satellites ...................................................................................................................176
Iridium ..................................................................................................................................................177
Globalstar .............................................................................................................................................180
ICO .......................................................................................................................................................183
Other Big LEO Satellites......................................................................................................................185
4. Military Satellites ...................................................................................................................................187
IDCSP...................................................................................................................................................187
Tacsat ....................................................................................................................................................189
Skynet I and NATO II ...........................................................................................................................191
DSCS II ................................................................................................................................................193
Skynet II ...............................................................................................................................................195
Gapfiller/Gapsat....................................................................................................................................197
NATO III ..............................................................................................................................................198
FLTSATCOM and AFSATCOM ..........................................................................................................200
DSCS III ...............................................................................................................................................204
Leasat....................................................................................................................................................207
DOD Lightsats......................................................................................................................................210
Skynet 4 ................................................................................................................................................213
NATO IV ..............................................................................................................................................215
UHF Follow-On....................................................................................................................................215
Milstar ..................................................................................................................................................220
Polar Program .......................................................................................................................................225
SICRAL ................................................................................................................................................225
XTAR, SpainSat ...................................................................................................................................226
Syracuse 3.............................................................................................................................................228
Wideband Gapfiller System ..................................................................................................................228
Skynet 5 ................................................................................................................................................231
NATO 5 ................................................................................................................................................232
Advanced EHF .....................................................................................................................................232
Mobile User Objective System .............................................................................................................233
Germany ...............................................................................................................................................234
Transformational Satellite Communications System (TSAT) ..............................................................235
Defense Satellite Communications System..........................................................................................235
5. Russian Satellites....................................................................................................................................237
Molniya ................................................................................................................................................237
Raduga ..................................................................................................................................................241
Ekran ....................................................................................................................................................242
Gorizont ................................................................................................................................................244
Gals (Military Communications) .........................................................................................................246
Volna .....................................................................................................................................................246
Potok.....................................................................................................................................................247
Luch ......................................................................................................................................................248
Gals (Satellite Broadcasting) ................................................................................................................249
Express .................................................................................................................................................250
Kupon ...................................................................................................................................................254
Bonum-1 ...............................................................................................................................................255
Yamal ....................................................................................................................................................256
Possible Future Russian Satellites ........................................................................................................259
The Intersputnik System.......................................................................................................................259

vi
 Contents

6. North American Satellites .....................................................................................................................261

Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites..................................................................261
U.S. Communication Satellites ............................................................................................................284
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System ...........................................................................................334
North American Ka-Band Systems ......................................................................................................342
North American Q/V-Band Systems ....................................................................................................346
U.S. Direct Broadcast Satellites ...........................................................................................................346
U.S. Digital Audio Broadcast Satellites ...............................................................................................360
Mexican Communication Satellites......................................................................................................366
7. European Satellites ................................................................................................................................375
European Space Agency .......................................................................................................................375
Eutelsat .................................................................................................................................................391
France and Germany ............................................................................................................................411
Luxembourg .........................................................................................................................................426
Scandinavia ..........................................................................................................................................436
United Kingdom ...................................................................................................................................442
Italy.......................................................................................................................................................443
Spain .....................................................................................................................................................448
Portugal ................................................................................................................................................452
Turkey ...................................................................................................................................................453
Greece...................................................................................................................................................455
Seychelles .............................................................................................................................................457
8. Asian Satellites........................................................................................................................................459
Japan .....................................................................................................................................................459
Indonesia ..............................................................................................................................................492
India ......................................................................................................................................................501
China ....................................................................................................................................................516
AsiaSat .................................................................................................................................................525
Pakistan ................................................................................................................................................532
Thailand ................................................................................................................................................533
APT Satellite (APStar) .........................................................................................................................538
South Korea ..........................................................................................................................................542
Malaysia ...............................................................................................................................................548
The Philippines ....................................................................................................................................552
Singapore and Taiwan ..........................................................................................................................554
Kazakhstan ...........................................................................................................................................555
Vietnam ................................................................................................................................................555
Iran........................................................................................................................................................556
Laos ......................................................................................................................................................557
9. African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites ...............................................559
Arabsat..................................................................................................................................................559
Brazil ....................................................................................................................................................564
Australia ...............................................................................................................................................569
Argentina ..............................................................................................................................................579
Chile .....................................................................................................................................................580
Israel .....................................................................................................................................................581
Egypt ....................................................................................................................................................584
WorldSpace ..........................................................................................................................................585
South Africa..........................................................................................................................................587
Saudi Arabia .........................................................................................................................................588
Tonga ....................................................................................................................................................588

vii
Contents

Regional African Satellite Communications Organization ..................................................................588

Nigeria ..................................................................................................................................................590
Venezuela..............................................................................................................................................591
10. Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites .................................................................................593
Amateur and Educational Satellites .....................................................................................................594
Scientific and Calibration Satellites .....................................................................................................621
Appendix .....................................................................................................................................................627
A. The International Telecommunication Union and Communication Satellites.................................627
B. The World Trade Agreements and Communication Satellites .........................................................630
C. Satellite Beacons for Propagation Research ....................................................................................631
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................................633
Block Diagram Symbols ......................................................................................................................633
Abbreviations and Acronyms ...............................................................................................................634
Frequency Table ...................................................................................................................................640
Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................................645
Index ............................................................................................................................................................769
About the Authors ......................................................................................................................................816

viii
 Historical Background

T
he first well-known article on communication satellites 1. A. C. Clarke, “Extra-Terrestrial Relays,” Wireless World,
was published in 1945 [1]. The article discussed the Vol. 51, No. 10 (October 1945). Reprinted in Communication
synchronous orbit* and the global coverage possible Satellite Systems Technology, Progress in Astronautics and
with three satellites in this orbit. Some other subjects Aeronautics, Vol. 19, R. B. Marsten, ed. (1966).
addressed included Earth coverage and spot-beam antennas, 2. E. Burgess, “The Establishment and Use of Artificial
multiple-beam antennas, optical and radio crosslinks between Satellites,” Aeronautics (September 1949).
the satellites, and solar arrays for a prime power source. An
approximate calculation was given for a 4 GHz downlink, 3. J. R. Pierce, “Orbital Radio Relay,” Jet Propulsion, Vol.
concluding that 10 W of power is sufficient for a voice link 25 (April 1955).
with a 3 ft transmitting antenna and 1 ft receiving antenna. 4. J. R. Pierce and R. Kompfner, “Transoceanic Commu-
In 1949, another article [2] discussed the same issues and nications by Means of Satellite,” Proceedings of the IRE, Vol.
stated that a geosynchronous communication satellite could 47, No. 3 (March 1959); reprinted in Proceedings of the IEEE,
be launched as early as the end of the 1950s. Vol. 85, No. 6 (June 1997).
The first space communications activity can be traced to
5. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964,
1946, when the Army achieved radar contact with the moon.
NASA SP-93 (1966).
In 1954, the Navy began communications experiments using
the moon as a passive reflector. By 1959, an operational 6. L. E. Johnson, “Satellite Communications in the Navy,”
communication link was established between Hawaii and Proceedings of the 6th Space Congress, Vol. 2 (March 1969).
Washington, D.C. This link was available 4 to 10 hr per day 7. Space Electronics Issue, Proceedings of the IRE, Vol.
until 1963, when the program was stopped, apparently because 48, No. 4 (April 1960).
of the progress in artificial, active communication satellites.
The first man-made communication satellite, Project 8. U.S. Army Space Issue, IRE Transactions on Military
SCORE, was launched in December 1958. Its operating life Electronics, Vol. MIL-4, No. 2–3 (April–July 1960).
was limited to 12 days, when the batteries failed. By 1959, 9. “Communicating by Satellite,” Vectors (Hughes
many articles on communication satellite topics began to Aircraft Co.), Vol. 8, No. 4 (4th Quarter 1966).
appear in the technical journals [3–9]. Typical subjects of 10. Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite
discussion were the merits of passive versus active satellites, Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History Office,
low versus synchronous altitude, and random orbital positions Washington, D.C. (1997).
versus stationkeeping. In 1960, two journals published special
issues on space electronics with more than 10 articles on 11. E. Slack. “A Brief History of Satellite Communications.”
communication satellites [7–8]. In the period from 1962 to Pacific Telecommunications Review, Vol. 22, No. 1 (First
1964, experimental programs using the medium-altitude Quarter 2001), available at http://web.ptc.org/library/ptr/pdf/
Telstar and Relay satellites and the synchronous-altitude 1q01.pdf (26 October 2004).
Syncom satellites proved the analytical predictions about 12. D. Whalen, “The Origins of Satellite Communications
satellite communications and provided many convincing 1945–1965,” Paper 2003-0661, 41st AIAA Aerospace Sciences
demonstrations [10–12]. These programs led to the beginning Meeting & Exhibit (Reston, VA, AIAA Inc., January 2003).
of operational satellite communications in 1965 as well as to a
continuing experimental effort that is still advancing the state
of the art.
******

*Over the years terminology has changed to geosynchronous orbit or geostationary orbit, the latter implying a low inclination (e.g. 5 deg or less, often 0.1 deg
or less), which is almost always used in practice. In this book “synchronous orbit” is retained for older satellites but “geostationary orbit” is used for more recent
satellites.

1
 1. Experimental Satellites

A
lthough the performance of communication satellites Communication satellites have been in operational
could be predicted theoretically, until 1962 or 1963 commercial and military service since 1965 and 1967,
there was considerable doubt concerning whether their respectively. However, there was, and still is, the need for
actual performance would match the theory. This was one of additional experimental satellites. These are used to prove new
the basic motivations for the early communication satellite technologies for later introduction into operational satellites.
experiments. Two other important factors were the desire Some satellites combine experimental objectives with
to prove the satellite hardware (since space technology in preoperational demonstrations. Discussions of such satellites
general was still in its infancy) and the need to test operational are included in this chapter if their emphasis is primarily
procedures and ground equipment. Whereas the first few experimental; those directly continued by operational satellites
experiments (SCORE, Courier, and Echo) were very brief are described in later chapters.
beginnings, the Telstar, Relay, and Syncom satellites laid
definite foundations for the first operational satellites.

SCORE
The first artificial communication satellite, called Project Orbit
SCORE (Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment) 100 x 800 nmi, 32 deg inclination
[1–5], was launched in December 1958. The primary objective
of the project was to demonstrate that an Atlas missile could Orbital history
be put into orbit. The secondary objective was to demonstrate Launched 18 December 1958, battery failed 30 December
a communications repeater. 1958
The entire communication subsystem was developed in 6 Decayed 21 January 1959
months by modifying commercial equipment. Two redundant Atlas B launch vehicle
sets of equipment were mounted in the nose of the missile.
Four antennas were mounted flush with the missile surface, Management
two for transmission and two for reception. The subsystem Developed by ARPA; communications equipment built by Army
was designed to operate for the expected 21-day orbital life Signal Research and Development Laboratory, Ft. Monmouth,
of the missile. Because of the short lifetime, batteries alone New Jersey
were the power source; thus, the complexity of solar cells and Each half of the communication subsystem had a tape recorder
rechargeable batteries was avoided. The details about SCORE with a 4 min capacity. Any of the four ground stations in the
are as follows. southern United States could command the satellite into a
Satellite playback mode to transmit the stored message or into a record
Communications equipment integral with Atlas launch vehicle mode to receive and store a new message. A real-time mode
99 lb equipment was also available in which the recorder was bypassed. About
8 hr of actual operation occurred before the batteries failed.
Silver-zinc batteries, 56 W maximum load During this time, voice, single-channel teletype, and frequency-
Capacity multiplexed six-channel teletype signals were transmitted to
the satellite, recorded, stored, and later retransmitted. One of
One voice or six teletype channels
the signals handled in this manner was a Christmas message
Real-time and store-dump modes from President Eisenhower. In addition to the stored-mode
transmissions, there were several real-time transmissions
Transmitter
through the satellite.
132 MHz, 8 W output
All vacuum tubes ******

Receiver
150 MHz, 10 dB noise figure
All transistors Receiver Control Recorder
Antenna
Four slots (two transmit, two receive)
C Transmitter
–1 dB gain

Recorder C
4 min capacity, 300–5000 Hz band

Life Redundant, identical to above

Two weeks
Fig. 1.1. SCORE communication subsystem.

3
Experimental Satellites

1. S. P. Brown and G. F. Senn, “Project SCORE,” 4. S. P. Brown, “The ATLAS-SCORE Communication

Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 48, No. 4 (April 1960). System,” Proceedings of the 3rd National Convention on
2. S. P. Brown, “Project SCORE: Signal Communication Military Electronics (June 1959).
by Orbiting Relay Equipment,” IRE Transactions of Military 5. D. Davis, “The Talking Satellite. A Reminiscence of
Electronics, Vol. MIL-4, No. 2–3 (April–July 1960). Project SCORE,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
3. M. I. Davis and G. N. Krassner, “SCORE—First Vol. 52, No. 7–8 (July–August 1999).
Communication Satellite,” Journal of the American Rocket
Society, Vol. 4 (May 1959).

Echo
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the relative merits Management
of passive and active communication satellites were often Developed by G. T. Schjeldahl Company (balloon), Grumman
discussed. Passive satellites merely reflect incident radiation, (dispenser) for NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
whereas active satellites have equipment that receives, Administration) Langley Research Center (Echo 1), NASA
processes (may be only amplification and frequency translation, Goddard Space Flight Center (Echo 2).
or may include additional operations), and retransmits incident Echo 1 was used for picture, data, and voice transmissions
radiation. At the time of Project Echo, the main advantages between a number of ground terminals in the United States.
given for passive satellites were In addition, some transmissions from the United States
• very wide bandwidths were received in England. Numerous modulation methods
• multiple-access capability were tested during the Echo 1 experiments, and valuable
• no chance for degradations caused by failures of satellite experience was gained in the preparation and operation of the
electronics terminals, especially in tracking the satellites. In addition to
The disadvantages were the communications experiments, Echo 1 was used for radar
• lack of signal amplification and optical measurements, and its orbital data were used to
calculate atmospheric density.
• relatively large orbit perturbations resulting from solar Echo 2 had a slightly different design to provide a stiffer
and atmospheric effects (because of the large surface-to- and longer lasting spherical surface. It was used very little for
weight ratio) communications, although some one-way transmissions were
• difficulty in maintaining the proper reflector shape made from England to the Soviet Union. It was primarily used
The progress in active satellites soon overshadowed in scientific investigations similar to those performed with
the possible advantages of passive satellites, and interest in Echo 1.
passive satellites ceased in the mid-1960s. In the mid-1970s,
there was some interest in passive satellites concerning their ******
use in a nuclear-war environment. 1. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964,
Project Echo [1–12] produced two large spherical passive NASA SP-93 (1966).
satellites that were launched in 1960 and 1964. The details of 2. Special Issue on Project Echo, Bell System Technical
Echo are as follows. Journal, Vol. 40, No. 4 (July 1961).
Satellite 3. Satellite Communications (Military-Civil Roles and
Echo 1: sphere, 100 ft diam, 166 lb Relationships), second report by the Committee on Government
Echo 2: sphere, 135 ft diam, 547 lb Operations, U.S. House of Representatives, House Report No.
Not stabilized, no onboard propulsion 178 (17 March 1968).
Aluminized Mylar surface, maximum reflectivity 98% for 4. H. S. Black, “Latest Results on Project Echo,” Advances
frequencies up to 20 GHz in the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 8 (1961).
5. J. R. Burke, “Passive Satellite Development and
Frequencies
Technology,” Astronautics and Aerospace Engineering, Vol. 1,
Echo 1: 960 and 2390 MHz
No. 8 (September 1963).
Echo 2: 162 MHz
6. L. Jaffe, “Project Echo Results,” Astronautics, Vol. 6,
Orbit No. 5 (May 1961).
Echo 1: 820 x 911 nmi, 48.6 deg inclination (initial values) 7. W. C. Nyberg, “Experiments to Determine
Echo 2: 557 x 710 nmi, 85.5 deg inclination (initial values) Communication Capability of the Echo II Satellite,”
Publications of Goddard Space Flight Center 1964, Vol. II.
Orbital history 8. D. H. Hamilton Jr. et al., “Transcontinental
Unnumbered: launch vehicle failure 13 May 1960 Satellite Television Transmission,” Proceedings of the IRE
Echo 1: launched 12 August 1960, decayed 25 May 1968 (Correspondence section), Vol. 50, No. 6 (June 1962).
Echo 2: launched 25 January 1964, decayed 7 June 1969 9. A. Wilson, “A History of Balloon Satellites,” Journal
Delta launch vehicle of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 34, No. 1 (January
1981).
4
 Courier

10. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications Butrica, ed., NASA History Office, Washington, D.C. (1997),
Satellites,” http://sulu.lerc.nasa.gov/dglover/satcom2. html ch. 4.
(10 June 1999). 12. C. B. Waff, “Project Echo, Goldstone, and Holmdel:
11. D. C. Elder, “Something of Value: Echo and the Satellite Communications as Viewed From the Ground
Beginnings of Satellite Communications,” in Beyond the Station,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite
Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication, A. J. Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History Office,
Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 5.

Courier
The objective of the Courier program [1–3] was to develop a
satellite of higher capacity and longer life than SCORE, which
could be used for communication tests and assessments of
traffic handling techniques. The concept was similar to SCORE
in that the primary operating mode was store-and-dump using
onboard tape recorders. A real-time mode was also available.
Unlike SCORE, Courier was a self-contained satellite and
had both solar cells and rechargeable batteries for power
supply. Except for the final amplifiers of the transmitters, the
electronics were all solid state. The details of Courier are as
follows.
Satellite
Sphere, 51 in. diam, 500 lb in orbit
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 60 W

Capacity
Real time: one voice channel
Store-dump: 13.2 Mb/recorder digital, 4 min voice Fig. 1.2. Courier satellite.

Transmitter
Courier 1B: launched 4 October 1960, operated 17 days
1700–1800 MHz band
Thor-Able Star launch vehicle
Two transmitters on, two standby
Solid state except output tubes Management
2 W output per transmitter Developed by Army Signal Research and Development
Laboratory
Receiver The Courier communication subsystem had four receivers,
1800–1900 MHz band two connected to each antenna. Signals received through the
Two receivers on, two standby two antennas were summed in a baseband combiner. The
All solid state
satellite could support a single half-duplex voice circuit in the
14 dB noise figure

Antenna
Two slots at antipodal points, used for both transmit and
receive
D
–4 dB gain
Linear polarization D
Recorder
Four digital: each 4 min at 55 kbps (13.2 Mb total) Receiver
One analog: 4 min capacity, 300–50,000 Hz
Transmitter
Life
One year Receiver Baseband
combiner S
Orbit
525 x 654 nmi, 28 deg inclination (initial values) Recorders Transmitter
Orbital history
Courier 1A: launch vehicle failure Fig. 1.3. Courier communication subsystem.

5
Experimental Satellites

real-time mode. One analog and four digital recorders, each terminals, located in New Jersey and Puerto Rico. The satellite
with a 4 min recording capability, were used for the store- performed satisfactorily until 17 days after the launch, when
and-dump mode. This allowed any ground terminal to use the communications were stopped by a command system failure.
satellite for transmission of four separate digital (multiplexed
******
teletype) messages, one to each of four other terminals.
Upon command, a recorded message (or the received signal 1. G. F. Senn and P. W. Siglin, “Courier Satellite
in the real-time mode) would modulate two transmitters, one Communication System,” IRE Transactions on Military
connected to each antenna. The satellite also had two spare Electronics, Vol. MIL-4, No. 4 (October 1960).
transmitters. The two carrier frequencies were separated about 2. P. W. Siglin and G. F. Senn, “The Courier Satellite,”
20 MHz. Various signal-combining techniques were used at Communication Satellites, Proceedings of a Symposium Held
the ground to make use of these two signals. in London, L. J. Carter, ed. (1962).
The first Courier launch was unsuccessful because of a
booster failure. The second, in October 1960, was successful. 3. E. Imboldi and D. Hershberg, “Courier Satellite
Communication tests were performed by two ground Communication System,” Advances in the Astronautical
Sciences, Vol. 8 (1961).

West Ford
The West Ford concept [1–4] grew out of a 1958 summer The dipoles were dispensed from an orbiting container in
study on secure, hard, reliable communications. The following May 1963. At first, all were concentrated in one portion of the
conclusions were reached. orbit. During the first few weeks, voice and frequency shift
• Use satellites and microwave frequencies for long- keying (FSK) data up to 20 kbps were transmitted from Camp
distance communications. Parks (Pleasanton, California) to Millstone Hill (Westford,
• Put all active equipment on the ground for reliability. Massachusetts—the source of the project name). Four months
• Use a belt of dipoles instead of a single satellite for later, when the belt was fully extended, the density was much
hardness. lower, and only 100 bps data were transmitted. Because of
this low capacity and the increasing performance of active
When the concept was defined openly, there was some satellites, no further experiments of this type were attempted.
adverse reaction because of the uncertain effects on optical The last transmission of signals was accomplished in 1965,
and radio astronomy. After some time, the project was allowed and a combination of measurements and analytic predictions
to proceed under certain restrictions. indicated that all the dipoles would reenter the atmosphere
West Ford and Echo were the only two passive before the end of the 1960s.
communication reflectors put into orbit. Echo could rightly be
called a satellite, but the West Ford reflector consisted of 480 ******
million copper dipoles. The length was chosen to correspond
to a half wavelength of the 8 GHz transmission frequencies
used in the program. Other West Ford details are as follows.
Satellite
480 million copper dipoles, each 0.72 in. long, 7 x 10–4 in.
diam
88 lb dispenser plus dipoles; dipoles weighed 43 lb

Frequencies
7750, 8350 MHz

Orbit
1970 nmi nominal altitude
Nearly circular, nearly polar
Dispersion: 8 nmi cross-orbit, 16 nmi radially, 1300 ft average
distance between dipoles

Orbital history
First: launched 21 October 1961, dispenser did not release
dipoles
Second: launched 9 May 1963, fully dispersed August 1963
Atlas-Agena B launch vehicle

Management
Developed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Fig. 1.4. West Ford dipoles.

6
 Telstar

1. Special Issue on Project West Ford, Proceedings of the Laboratory,” The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1
IEEE, Vol. 52, No. 5 (May 1964). (Spring 1989).
2. I. I. Shapiro, “Last of the West Ford Dipoles,” Science, 4. W. W. Ward and F. W. Floyd, “Thirty Years of Space
Vol. 154 (16 December 1966). Communications Research and Development at Lincoln
3. W. W. Ward and F. W. Floyd, “Thirty Years of Research Laboratory,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite
and Development in Space Communications at Lincoln Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History Office,
Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 8.

Telstar
The Telstar experiment [1–10] grew out of the Bell Systems’ Two Telstar satellites were produced. The satellites were
interest in overseas communication. Bell Telephone Laboratories 34.5 in. diam spheres with solar cells covering most of the
was a major participant in communication experiments using outer surface. The solar array output alone could not support
Echo 1. The positive results of those experiments strengthened operation of the communication subsystem, so batteries were
the interest in satellite communications generated by earlier used to supply the peak power requirements. The batteries were
analytical papers. Therefore, American Telephone and recharged during the periods when the satellite was not in view
Telegraph Company (AT&T) decided to build an experimental of the ground terminals and the communication subsystem was
active communication satellite. The objectives of the Telstar turned off. This subsystem had a single channel with a 50 MHz
program were to bandwidth. The program details are as follows.
• look for the unexpected Satellite
• demonstrate transmission of various types of information Sphere, 34.5 in. diam
via satellite
170 lb in orbit (Telstar 1), 175 lb in orbit (Telstar 2)
• build a large ground antenna and learn how to use it
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 15 W
• gain experience in satellite tracking and orbital
predictions Spin-stabilized, 200 rpm
• study Van Allen radiation belt effects Configuration
• face the design problems required for a spaceborne One 50 MHz bandwidth double-conversion repeater
repeater
An active satellite was decided on because the required Capacity
balloon size for television bandwidths was much beyond the 600 one-way voice circuits or one TV channel
state of the art. The choice of the Delta launch vehicle provided 60 two-way voice circuits (tests limited to 12 circuits by ground
basic design constraints such as size, weight, and orbit. In equipment)
accordance with the fifth objective, the satellite contained a
number of sensors to make radiation measurements. The third Transmitter
objective was accomplished by the construction and use of a 4170 MHz
ground station at Andover, Maine. All solid state except TWT (traveling wave tube)
TWT operated linear at 3.3 W (saturated power: 4.5 W)

Receiver
6390 MHz
All solid state
12.5 dB noise figure

Antenna
Transmit: 48 small ports equally spaced around satellite waist
Receive: 72 small ports
Uniform pattern around waist and ±30 deg from waist plane
Circular polarization

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: 136.05 MHz, 200 mW transmitter
Command: approximately 123 MHz
Four-element helical antenna

Life
Fig. 1.5. Telstar satellite. Two-year goal

7
Experimental Satellites

transistors in the command decoders. The Telstar 2 satellite

orbit had a higher apogee than Telstar 1, which increased the
time in view of the ground stations and decreased the time in
6390 4170
the Van Allen belts. Telstar 2 was launched in May 1963 and
90 operated successfully for 2 years.
T TW
******
6300 4080 1. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964,
NASA SP-93 (1966).
Fig. 1.6. Telstar communication subsystem.
2. Special Telstar Issue, Bell Systems Technical Journal,
Vol. 42, No. 4 (July 1963). Reprinted as Telstar I, NASA
Orbit SP-32, Vols. 1–3 (July 1963) and Vol. 4 (including Telstar II
Telstar 1: 514 x 3051 nmi, 45 deg inclination supplement) (December 1965).
Telstar 2: 525 x 5830 nmi, 43 deg inclination 3. K. W. Gatland, Telecommunication Satellites, Prentice
Hall, New York (1964).
Orbital history
4. I. Welber, “TELSTAR,” Astronautics and Aerospace
Telstar 1: launched 10 July 1962, operated until 23 November
1962, and 4 January to 21 February 1963 Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 8 (September 1963).
Telstar 2: launched 7 May 1963, operated until May 1965 5. I. Welber, “Telstar Satellite System,” Paper 2618-
62, ARS 17th Annual Meeting and Space Flight Exposition
Delta launch vehicle
(November 1962).
Management 6. “Project Telstar,” Spaceflight, Vol. 4, No. 5 (September
Developed by Bell Telephone Laboratories for AT&T 1962).
Telstar 1 was launched in June 1962. In the following 6 7. J. Holahan, “Telstar, Toward Long-Term Comm-
months, about 400 transmission sessions were conducted unications Satellites,” Space/Aeronautics, Vol. 37, No. 5 (May
with multichannel telephone, telegraph, facsimile, and 1962).
television signals. In addition, more than 250 technical tests 8. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
and measurements had been performed. Stations in the United Satellites,” http://sulu.lerc.nasa.gov/dglover/satcom2. html
States, Britain, and France participated in these activities. In (10 June 1999).
November 1962, the command subsystem on the satellite failed.
The cause was later established as degradation of transistors 9. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
due to Van Allen belt radiation. Various operations effected a Satellites, 1958–1995,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years
recovery that allowed the satellite to be used for another month of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History
and a half early in 1963, after which the command subsystem Office, Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 2.
failed again. 10. M. B. Punnett, “The Building of the Telstar Antennas
Telstar 2 was nearly identical to Telstar 1. The only and Radomes,” IEEE Antenna’s and Propagation Magazine,
significant design change was the use of radiation-resistant Vol. 44, No. 2 (April 2002).

Relay
The Relay program [1–9] was undertaken by NASA to perform Satellite
active satellite communications and to measure Van Allen belt Octagonal prism, 35 in. long, 29 in. diam, 53 in. overall length
radiation and its effect on satellite electronics. Basic objectives 172 lb in orbit
were to transmit telephone and television signals across the
Atlantic and to transmit telephone signals between North Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 45 W
and South America. During the time the satellite was being Spin-stabilized, 150 rpm
developed, foreign governments were invited to participate in
communications experiments. Primary ground stations were in Configuration
Maine, England, and France—the same stations that conducted Two double-conversion repeaters (one on, one standby), each
demonstrations with Telstar 1. Other ground stations were in with one WB and two NB channels
California, New Jersey, Germany, Italy, Brazil, and Japan. Capacity
The Relay satellite had a more complex communication WB: 300 one-way voice circuits or one TV channel
subsystem than Telstar, with two identical redundant repeaters.
Either repeater could be connected to the common antennas NB: 12 two-way telephone circuits (limited by ground equipment,
by ground command. Each repeater had one 25 MHz channel not satellite bandwidth)
and two 2 MHz channels. These channels allowed either Transmitter
one-way transmission of wideband (WB) signals or two-way 4164.7, 4174.7 MHz (NB), 4169.7 MHz (WB)
transmission of narrowband (NB) signals. The communication
subsystem block diagram is shown; the satellite details follow. All solid state except TWT
10 W output

8
 Relay

Orbital history
Relay 1: launched 13 December 1962, operated until February
1965
Relay 2: launched 21 January 1964, operated until May 1965
Delta launch vehicle

Management
Developed by RCA for NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Relay 1 was launched in December 1962. Radiation experiment
data were obtained on the first day. That same day, difficulties
with communications transponder No. 1 that caused excessive
power consumption were noticed. The problem could not be
fully corrected, and from January 1963 transponder No. 2 was
used for almost all the communication experiments. Relay 1
operated until February 1965.
During 1963, several tests and demonstrations were
conducted including telephone and television transmissions.
Network TV broadcasts were transmitted from the United
States to Europe and to Japan. Several times, both television
and telephone transmissions were used for international
medical consultations. In October 1964, television coverage
of the Olympic Games was relayed from Japan to the United
States by Syncom 3 and then from the United States to Europe
by Relay 1.
Relay 2 was modified slightly to provide increased
reliability and radiation resistance. Relay 2 was launched in
January 1964 and was used in a variety of communications
tests similar to those done with Relay 1. By July 1964, Relays
1 and 2 had been used for 112 public demonstrations of
telephone and television transmission. Relay 2 was used until
May 1965.
The Telstar and Relay programs were both considered
successful. They demonstrated that the technology at that
time could produce a useful, medium-altitude communication
satellite. In addition, ground station technology was proven,
and routine operation of ground stations was demonstrated.
Fig. 1.7. Relay satellite. Measurements of communications parameters indicated no
significant deviations from theoretically expected values.
Finally, it was shown that satellite communication systems
Receiver
1723.3, 1726.7 MHz (NB), 1725 MHz
(WB)
W-1725.0 W-4169.7
All solid state
N 1723.3 N 4164.7
14 dB noise figure 1726.7 4174.7
W
X3
Antenna
Two biconical horns (one transmit, one
receive) H T C TW
Approximately 0 dB gain normal to spin N
axis LIM X3
1655 3959.7
Circular polarization
N C
Life LIM X3
One year

Orbit
Relay 1: 712 x 4012 nmi, 47.5 deg Identical redundant repeater
inclination N Narrowband mode
Relay 2: 1130 x 4000 nmi, 46 deg W Wideband mode
inclination Fig. 1.8. Relay communication subsystem.

9
Experimental Satellites

could share frequencies with terrestrial microwave systems 6. Publications of Goddard Space Flight Center 1963, Vol. II:
without mutual interference. a. S. Metzger and R. H. Pickard, “Relay” (See Ref. 5).
****** b. R. H. Pickard, “Relay 1 Spacecraft Performance.”
1. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964, c. R. Pickard, S. Roth, and J. Kiesling, “Relay,
NASA SP-93 (1966). An Experimental Satellite for TV and Multichannel
2. K. W. Gatland, Telecommunication Satellites, Prentice Telephony.”
Hall, New York (1964). 7. “Development of the Relay Communications Satellite,”
Interavia, Vol. 17 (June 1962).
3. Final Report on the Relay 1 Program, NASA SP-76,
Goddard Space Flight Center (1965). 8. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
Satellites,” http//sulu.lerc.nasa.gov/dglover/satcom2. html (10
4. L. Jaffe, “The NASA Communications Satellite June 1999).
Program Results and Status,” Proceedings of the 15th
International Astronautical Congress (1964), Vol. 2: Satellite 9. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
Systems (1965). Satellites, 1958–1995,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years
of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History
5. S. Metzger and R. H. Pickard, “Relay,” Astronautics Office, Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 2.
and Aerospace Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 8 (September 1963).

Syncom 1 to 3
In the early 1960s, both medium and synchronous altitude synchronous altitude satellites. The communication subsystem
communication satellites were of interest to planners. NASA had two receivers and two transmitters for redundancy;
conducted experiments at both altitudes using the Relay and either receiver could be operated with either transmitter.
Syncom satellites. The Syncom program [1–12] had three The channelization was similar to Relay, with two 500 kHz
major objectives: channels for NB two-way communications and one 5 MHz
• to place a satellite in synchronous orbit channel for one-way WB transmissions. (These capabilities
• to demonstrate on-orbit stationkeeping could not be used simultaneously.) The satellite details are as
• to make engineering measurements on a synchronous follows.
altitude communication link Satellite
The Syncom satellite had a short cylindrical body that was Cylinder, 28 in. diam, 15 in. height
spun about its axis to provide stabilization in orbit. The antennas 78 lb in orbit
were mounted beyond one end of the body and were collinear
with the satellite axis. All the satellite equipment was contained
within the body. This design formed the basis for several later

Fig. 1.9. Syncom satellite. Fig. 1.10. Syncom satellite details.

10
 Syncom 1 to 3

Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 28 W initially, 19 7363 1815

W minimum after 1 year
Spin-stabilized
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, cold
gas propulsion for on-orbit use LIM

Configuration
Syncom 1, 2: two 500 kHz bandwidth double- C TW S
conversion repeaters or one 5 MHz bandwidth
double conversion repeater H
Syncom 3: one 5 MHz bandwidth and one LIM
switchable (50 kHz or 10 MHz) bandwidth
double-conversion repeater (some references Identical to above, redundant TW
say 13 MHz instead of 10 MHz)
Fig. 1.11. Syncom communication subsystem.
Capacity
Several two-way voice circuits or one TV
channel on-orbit control subsystem. Syncom 2 was successfully
launched in July 1963. Like Syncom 1, it was not intended
Transmitter to achieve a stationary synchronous orbit because of the
1815 MHz extra propellant weight and control complexity required to
Two TWTs (one on, one standby) attain 0 deg inclination. NASA conducted a number of tests
2 W output using this satellite, including voice, teletype, and facsimile.
During its first year, in addition to engineering tests, 110
Receiver public demonstrations were conducted. Their purpose was to
7363 MHz acquaint the public with communication satellites and to gain
10 dB noise figure a broader-based, subjective appraisal of system performance.
Syncom 3 was launched in August 1964. By this time,
Antenna launch vehicle technology had progressed to the point where
Transmit: three-element collinear slotted array, 6 dB gain, a true synchronous equatorial (inclination <1 deg) orbit
23 x 360 deg beam was possible. The only major change in the communication
Receive: slotted dipole, 2 dB gain equipment was a channel, with greater bandwidth than Syncom
2, to be used for television transmissions.
Telemetry and command The Department of Defense (DOD) also conducted a
Telemetry: 136 MHz, via four monopole antennas number of tests using Syncom 2 and 3. During 1965 and 1966,
both were used extensively. Five ground stations and one
Beacon: 1820 MHz
shipborne terminal were in regular system use. Also, tests with
Command: 148 MHz, via four monopole antennas aircraft terminals were conducted using the very high frequency
(VHF) command and telemetry links. By February 1966, the
Orbit
Syncom 2 and 3 repeaters had a cumulative operational time
Syncom 1, 2: synchronous altitude, approximately 32 deg
of 27,000 hr. DOD use of Syncom diminished when the Initial
inclination
Defense Communication Satellite Program (IDCSP) satellites
Syncom 3: synchronous equatorial became operational.
While the Syncom satellites were being developed and
Orbital history
tested, an Advanced Syncom study was also being conducted.
Syncom 1: launched 13 February 1963, all communications
The Advanced Syncom program was sometimes called Syncom
failed during orbital insertion
II, which, in some references, is difficult to distinguish from the
Syncom 2: launched 26 July 1963, operated through 1966, final second satellite of the original Syncom program (Syncom 2 in
turn off April 1969 this report). The conceptual satellite was larger than Syncom,
Syncom 3: launched 19 August 1964, operated through 1966, generated more prime power, had higher antenna gain, and
final turn off April 1969 had repeaters of two different designs. This program grew
Delta launch vehicle beyond an advanced communications experiment and became
the Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) program.
Management
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for NASA Goddard ******
Space Flight Center 1. Space Communications and Navigation 1958–1964,
Syncom 1 was launched in February 1963. The intended NASA SP-93 (1966).
orbit was at synchronous altitude with a 33 deg inclination. 2. L. Jaffe, “The NASA Communications Satellite
The satellite operated properly during the ascent, but all Program Results and Status,” Proceedings of the 15th
communication was lost when the apogee motor fired to International Astronautical Congress (1964), Vol. 2: Satellite
inject the satellite into its final orbit. The cause of the failure Systems (1965).
was the rupturing of a tank of nitrogen that was part of the

11
Experimental Satellites

3. C. G. Murphy, “The Hughes Aircraft Company’s 8. C. G. Murphy, “A Syncom Satellite Program,” Paper
Syncom Satellite Program,” Paper 2619-62, ARS 17th Annual 63-264, AIAA Summer Meeting (June 1963).
Meeting and Space Flight Exposition (November 1962). 9. D. D. Williams, “Synchronous Satellite Communi-
4. R. M. Bentley and A. T. Owens, “Syncom Satellite cation Systems,” Advances in Communication Systems, Vol. 2,
Program,” Journal of Spacecraft, Vol. 1, No. 4 (July–August A. V. Balakrishnan, ed. (1966).
1964). 10. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
5. P. E. Norsell, “Syncom,” Astronautics and Aerospace Satellites,” http://sulu.lerc.nasa.gov/dglover/satcom2. html (9
Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 8 (September 1963). June 1999).
6. W. H. Edwards and J. S. Smith, “Experience of the 11. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
Defense Communications Agency in Operating Pilot Satellite Satellites, 1958–1995,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years
Communications,” Paper 66-268, AIAA Communications of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History
Satellite System Conference (May 1966). Reprinted in Office, Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 2.
Communication Satellite Systems Technology, Progress in 12. Syncom, HSC 98035/500/7-98, Communications and
Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 19, R. B. Marsten, ed. Customer Relations, Hughes Space and Communications
(1966). Company (July 1998), available at http://www.boeing.com/
7. F. P. Alder, “Syncom,” Proceedings of the 14th defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/376/syncom/syncom. (25
International Astronautical Congress (1963), Vol. 2: Satellite October 2004).
and Spacecraft (1965).

Lincoln Experimental Satellites

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Lincoln pointed toward the center of the Earth. Other details of LES-1
Laboratory had been active for a long time in various aspects of and -2 are as follows.
military communications before the space age. With the early Satellite
developments of space technology, Lincoln Laboratory began 26-sided polyhedron, approximately 24 in. in each dimension
investigations of applications to military communications.
The outcome of some of these investigations was the Lincoln 82 lb in orbit
Experimental Satellites (LES) series. Solar cells, 25 W beginning of life, no batteries
Spin-stabilized with magnetic torquing, 180 rpm
LES-1 to -7 Configuration
Early work in ionospheric and tropospheric scatter 20 MHz bandwidth triple-conversion repeater
communications at Lincoln Laboratory evolved into the West
Ford orbital scatter program. At the conclusion of that program Transmitter
in 1963, Laboratory efforts were directed toward active 7750 MHz (continuous-wave beacon at 7740 MHz)
communication satellite techniques [1–8]. The large West All solid state
Ford ground stations were to be used in the new programs. In
200 mW output, 115 mW at antenna
addition, smaller mobile terminals were to be developed. The
basic goals of the program included demonstration of Receiver
• high-efficiency, all solid-state transmitters 8350 MHz
• electronically despun antennas
16 dB noise figure
• communications with small mobile terminals
G/T: –37 dB/K, maximum
• techniques for stationkeeping and attitude control
Experimental techniques were developed with a view Antenna
toward eventual application in synchronous altitude military Eight horns, electronically switched (only one used at a time)
communication satellites. Approximately 3 dB gain
LES-1 and -2 were essentially identical. They had small
polyhedral bodies and were spin-stabilized. The primary Telemetry
experiment was an all solid-state X-band repeater and an eight- Telemetry: 237.00 MHz, 0.8 W transmitter
horn electronically switched antenna. The other experiments
were in attitude sensing and control. The transmitter source Life
was a crystal oscillator and multiplier chain that was used for Two years
upconversion of the signal from intermediate frequency (IF).
The X-band power was 200 mW. Orbit
The eight horns were mounted so as to provide 1500 x 8000 nmi, 32 deg inclination
omnidirectional coverage. Sensors were used to determine Orbital history
the direction of the Earth and the satellite spin rate. Onboard
LES-1: launched 11 February 1965, launch vehicle failure left
logic then controlled switches to use the antenna most closely satellite in 1500 x 1500 nmi orbit and tumbling

12
 Lincoln Experimental Satellites

Fig. 1.12. LES-1 satellite. Fig. 1.13. LES-4 satellite.

LES-2: launched 6 May 1965, operated until September 1966, Receiver

final turn off May 1967 8350 MHz
Titan IIIA launch vehicle 9 dB noise figure
Management G/T: –29 dB/K, maximum
Developed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Antenna
Operated by MIT Lincoln Laboratory Transmit: eight horns electronically switched, 10 dB peak gain,
LES-1 was launched in February 1965. A launch vehicle circularly polarized, each horn covered about 26 x 45 deg of a
failure left the satellite in the wrong orbit. The results of limited 26 x 360 deg toroid
tests conducted indicated that the repeater and the switched Receive: biconical horn, 26 x 360 deg, circularly polarized
antennas were operating properly. The satellite then entered a
tumbling mode that ended its usefulness. LES-2 was launched Telemetry
in May 1965 and operated as planned until it was turned off in 237.00 MHz
September 1966.
Life
LES-3 was not a communication satellite; its purpose was to
transmit an ultrahigh frequency (UHF) signal for propagation Three years
measurements. LES-3 is described in a later chapter. The LES- Orbit
4 satellite was similar to LES-1 and -2. The interior structure Intended: synchronous equatorial
was the same, but the solar array was mounted on a cylindrical
shell rather than on a polyhedral shell, the cylindrical array Actual: 105 x 18,200 nmi, 26 deg inclination
being more efficient for the synchronous equatorial orbit of Orbital history
LES-4. The satellite details are as follows.
Launched 21 December 1965. Launch vehicle failure resulted
Satellite in wrong orbit and orientation; decayed 1 August 1977.
10-sided cylinder, 31 in. diam, 25 in. height Titan IIIC launch vehicle
116 lb in orbit
Solar cells, 36 W initial minimum, no batteries
Spin-stabilized with magnetic torquing, 11 rpm

Configuration 8350 60 914.4 7750

20 MHz bandwidth triple-conversion repeater T

Transmitter 8290 854.4 6835.6

7750 MHz (continuous-wave beacon at 7740 MHz)
All solid state Fig. 1.14. LES-1, -2, and -4 communication subsystem.
230 mW at antenna, 3 dBW EIRP

13
Experimental Satellites

Fig. 1.15. LES-5 satellite. Fig. 1.16. LES-6 satellite.

Management Satellite
Developed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory Cylinder, 48 in. diam, 64 in. height
Operated by MIT Lincoln Laboratory 230 lb in orbit, beginning of life
The LES-4 repeater design was nearly the same as the LES- Solar cells, 136 W initial maximum, no batteries
2 design, but improved components significantly lowered the Spin-stabilized with magnetic torquing, approximately 10 rpm
receiver noise figure and increased the transmitter power. The
LES-4 transmitting antenna comprised eight horns uniformly Configuration
spaced in a plane normal to the satellite spin axis. Sun and Earth Single 100 or 300 kHz bandwidth double-conversion repeater
sensors and logic circuits controlled the switches to despin the
antenna electronically. The difference in the antenna design Transmitter
from LES-2 was possible because LES-4 was intended for use 228.2 MHz, beacon at 228.43 MHz
in a synchronous equatorial orbit, where coverage could be Solid state
limited to 26 deg in the north-south plane.
LES-3 and -4 were launched in December 1965.
As the result of a launch vehicle malfunction, the
satellites were placed in an elliptical synchronous
255.1 228.2, 228.43
transfer orbit. Originally, the orientation of LES- T
4 was such that only enough power was available
for operation of the telemetry system. Five days Telemetry
after launch, the spin axis orientation had changed 236.75
enough so that power was available for the operation
of all the satellite systems. From that time, the LES-
4 repeater and antenna operated as expected. 100 kHz
The LES-5 and -6 satellites had cylindrical
F1
shapes with equipment mounted on a platform
near the center of the cylinder and normal to its 32.6 228.2
axis. Both had multiple-element antennas mounted T T H S LIM C T
around the cylindrical surface. In addition to
their communications equipment, the satellites 222.5 F2 228.43
carried solar cell degradation and radio frequency 195.6
interference (RFI) experiments. LES-6 also had a 300 kHz Beacon
prototype autonomous stationkeeping subsystem.
The details of LES-5 are as follows. Fig. 1.17. LES-5 communication subsystem.

14
 Lincoln Experimental Satellites

···
Antenna
switches

302.7 249.1
T

Beacon
100 kHz 254.14
31.1375 F1 T

T T T H S T T LIM T T
* *
F2 T
333.8375 F1 f0 = 31.300 280.2375
500 kHz F2 f0 = 31.1375 *8-way hybrid power splitter and combiner
Fig. 1.18. LES-6 communication subsystem.

35 W output, 16.3 dBW EIRP beginning of life nominal in Configuration

satellite’s equatorial plane Single 100 or 500 kHz bandwidth double-conversion repeater
Receiver Transmitter
255.1 MHz 249.1 MHz (500 kHz mode), 248.94 MHz (100 kHz mode),
3.6 dB noise figure beacon at 254.14 MHz
G/T: –26 dB/K nominal in satellite’s equatorial plane Solid-state amplifiers
Variable output power, 120 W initial nominal (see text)
Antenna
Eight dipoles parallel to satellite axis, 2.5 dB gain circularly EIRP: 29.5 dBW at beginning of life, 21 dBW after 5 years
polarized (electronic despin logic tested on satellite, but not
Receiver
used with antennas)
302.7 MHz (500 kHz mode), 302.54 MHz (100 kHz mode)
Telemetry 3.6 dB noise figure
236.75 MHz
Antenna
Life Sixteen sets of dipoles and cavity-backed slots arranged in
Five years eight collinear pairs, circularly polarized
Electronically despun, 9.5 dB gain, 34 deg (north-south) x 54
Orbit deg (equatorial plane) beamwidth
18,000 x 18,180 nmi (30 deg drift per day), 7 deg initial
inclination Telemetry
236.755 MHz
Orbital history
Launched 1 July 1967, operated until May 1971 Orbit
Titan IIIC launch vehicle Synchronous altitude, 3 deg initial inclination

Management Orbital history

Developed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory Launched 26 September 1968, operated until turned off in
Operated by MIT Lincoln Laboratory March 1976, still operable in 1978, 1983, and 1988 tests

The details of LES-6 are as follows. Titan IIIC launch vehicle

Satellite Management
Cylinder, 48 in. diam, 66 in. height Developed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory

398 lb in orbit, beginning of life Operated by MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Solar cells, 220 W initial maximum, limited battery capacity LES-5 and -6 had all solid-state communications equipment
that operated in the military UHF band. (This is called UHF,
Spin-stabilized with magnetic torquing, approximately 8 rpm
although the standard designation is VHF up to 300 MHz and
Cold gas propulsion for on-orbit use UHF above that.) The LES-5 communication subsystem had

15
Experimental Satellites

a final amplifier of conventional design and had very good 7. W. W. Ward and F. W. Floyd, “Thirty Years of Research
efficiency—68-percent direct current (dc) to radio frequency and Development in Space Communications at Lincoln
(RF). The LES-6 amplifier was an experimental design in that Laboratory,” The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1
it was directly connected to the solar-array power bus without (Spring 1989).
any intervening power converters. In this design, all power not 8. W. W. Ward and F. W. Floyd, “Thirty Years of Space
required by other satellite systems was directly available to the Communications Research and Development at Lincoln
transmitter, and the transmitter power varied with the available Laboratory,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite
prime power. It was claimed that this design provided an extra Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History Office,
3 dB of transmitted power initially and 0.5 dB extra at the Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 8.
end of satellite life. In-orbit measurements indicated that
transmitter power was in the range of 100 to 130 W. LES-5 did
not have a despun antenna, but it was used to test some logic LES-8 and -9
that was used in LES-6. The despun circuitry in LES-6 was
based on LES-2 and -4 experience and used similar techniques LES-8 and -9 [1–8] were the latest in a series of experimental
involving Earth and sun sensors. military communication satellites developed by the MIT Lincoln
LES-5 was launched in July 1967 with three IDCSP Laboratory. They were operating with a variety of fixed and
satellites and was placed into a subsynchronous orbit similar mobile terminals with the use of both UHF and K-band (36–38
to theirs. Both Lincoln Laboratory and the military services GHz) for uplinks and downlinks. A K-band crosslink between
conducted a number of tests with LES-5. Aircraft, shipborne, LES-8 and LES-9 was a significant part of the program. The
and fixed and mobile ground terminals were all involved in the communications electronics were all solid state. Two K-band
tests, which were considered very successful. LES-5 operated receivers and transmitters were on each satellite, one used
until May 1971. with a horn antenna and the other with an 18-in. parabolic
LES-6 was launched in September 1968 and was used reflector. The paraboloid worked with a steerable flat plate and
in tests similar to those conducted with LES-5. The satellite a five-horn feed to provide a narrowbeam tracking antenna.
operated satisfactorily. The communication subsystem This antenna was normally used for crosslink communications
continued in active use, although by 1975 the effective radiated but was also used for uplink/downlink traffic. The satellites
power (EIRP) had decreased 8 dB from its initial value. It was acquired the crosslink with initial pointing uncertainties
turned off early in 1976 to avoid any frequency conflict with greater than ±1 deg and maintained tracking to better than 0.1
the Marisat launched in February 1976. deg at typical signal levels. The horn antenna was fixed and
The LES-7 satellite was intended to have an all-solid-state, used only for uplinks and downlinks. The K-band transmitters
100 MHz bandwidth, single-conversion, X-band repeater and used parallel Impatt diode amplifiers to produce an output
a multibeam antenna. Although the program was canceled power of 0.5 W. The crosslink bit rate was either 10 or 100
before the satellite was built, a prototype antenna was built and kbps, using phase shift keying (PSK) modulation. The K-band
tested. This antenna was a waveguide lens-type with a cluster uplinks used both eight-tone FSK and differential quadriphase
of 19 feed horns and was capable of generating beam sizes as shift keying (DQPSK); the K-band downlinks used DPSK. All
small as 3 deg and as large as Earth coverage. UHF transmissions used eight-tone FSK. For transmissions
involving UHF links, which were primarily for relatively
****** simple mobile terminals, the basic data rate was 75 bps. The
1. H. Sherman et al., “The Lincoln Experimental Satellite K-band links handled selected information rates up to 19,200
Program (LES-1, -2, -3, -4),” Journal of Spacecraft and bps, which was adequate for computer data or digitized voice.
Rockets, Vol. 4, No. 11 (November 1967). Except for an optional UHF frequency translation mode with
a bandwidth of 500 kHz, all received uplinks were translated
2. H. Sherman et al., “The Lincoln Experimental to intermediate frequencies and then demodulated. All signal
Satellite Program (LES-1, -2, -3, -4),” Paper 66-271, AIAA routing was controlled by switches set by commands from the
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (May 1966). ground. The basic routings are shown in Fig. 1.20.
3. D. MacLellan, H. MacDonald, and P. Waldron, “Lincoln LES-8 and -9 were practically identical. Most of the
Experimental Satellites 5 and 6,” Paper 70-494, AIAA 3rd electronic subsystems were contained in the satellite body,
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1970). which is 46 in. long and about 44 in. across. The two
Reprinted in Communications Satellites for the 70s: Systems, radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) were mounted
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 26, N. E. one upon the other on the back end of the satellite body. These
Feldman and C. M. Kelly, eds. (1971). RTGs provide all the electrical power used by the satellite;
4. R. Berg, R. Chick, and D. Snider, “LES-7 Transponder,” no solar cells were used. The UHF antenna was also attached
Paper 70-511, AIAA 3rd Communications Satellite Systems to the back end of the satellite body. The K-band antennas
Conference (April 1970). and some electronics, plus Earth sensors, were mounted on
the front end. The overall length of the satellite was about
5. A. R. Dion, “Variable-Coverage Communications 10 ft. The satellite was three-axis-stabilized by a gimballed
Antenna for LES-7,” Paper 70-423, AIAA 3rd Communications momentum wheel and 10 gas thrusters. The satellite details
Satellite Systems Conference (April 1970). were as follows.
6. A. R. Dion and L. J. Ricardi, “A Variable-Coverage Satellite
Satellite Antenna System,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 59, Approximately 10 ft long
No. 2 (February 1971).
LES-9, 948 lb in orbit, beginning of life

16
 Lincoln Experimental Satellites

Orbit
Synchronous, 25 deg inclination, 40°W and 110°W
longitude, later collocated near 106°W longitude

Orbital history
Launched 14 March 1976
Titan IIIC launch vehicle
In use (1989)

Management
Developed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Operated by MIT Lincoln Laboratory
LES-8 and -9 were launched together on a Titan IIIC
booster on 14 March 1976. The first tests showed that
all important communications parameter values were
in good agreement with the prelaunch measurements.
Since then, the satellites were exercised in a variety of
modes, both for detailed performance measurements
and for functionally oriented demonstrations to
Fig. 1.19. LES-9 satellite. prove the operability of the various links. These tests
involved ground and mobile terminals developed by
Lincoln Laboratory, the Air Force, and the Navy. The
LES-8, similar to LES 9 test results were all satisfactory and showed that the LES-8 and
Two RTGs, 152 W each initially, 130 W each after 5 years 9 communications features operationally useful. The satellites
(design goal was 145/125 W) were still in good condition and being used in 1989.
Three-axis stabilization using a gimballed momentum wheel, ******
±0.1 deg about pitch and roll axes, ±0.6 deg about yaw axis
1. A. R. Dion, “Satellite Crosslink K-Band Antenna,”
Cold gas propulsion for on-orbit use NEREM 72 Record.
Transmitter 2. F. W. Sarles Jr., “The Lincoln Experimental Satellites
UHF: 240–400 MHz band, 32 W or 8 W output, EIRP 25 dBW LES-8 and -9,” Paper 21-1, EASCON ’77 Conference Record
(high power mode) or 18 dBW (low power mode) (September 1977).
K-band: 36 to 38 GHz band; 0.5 W output, 21 dBW EIRP (horn); 3. L. J. Collins, “LES-8/9 Communications System Test
0.5 W output, 39 dBW EIRP (dish) Results,” Paper 78-599, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite
Systems Conference (April 1978).
Receiver
UHF: 240–400 MHz band, system noise
temperature approximately 1000 K, G/T –20 UHF Antenna K-Band Horn K-Band Dish
dB/K
K-band: 36–38 GHz band, system noise
temperature 1400 K, G/T D D D
r–8 dB/K (horn), r10 dB/K (dish)
Receive Transmit Receive Transmit Receive Transmit
Antenna
UHF: three crossed dipoles on a ground plane,
35 deg beamwidth, approximately 8 dB gain
(edge of Earth) DPSK DPSK
IF S
K-band: horn, 10 deg beamwidth, 24 dB gain mod mod
(on axis); dish, 18 in. paraboloid, 1.15 deg
beamwidth, 42.6 dB gain (on axis), steerable S
S
±10 deg in elevation and 104 deg in azimuth by
gimballed flat plate Antenna
tracking
Telemetry and command demod
Telemetry: 2240 MHz and 236.75 MHz (LES-8), DPSK
Baseband MFSK demod
2250 MHz and 249.36 MHz (LES-9); alternate converter mod K-dish
via K-band communications downlink or pointing
crosslink Signal control
Command: in 240–300 MHz band; alternate processor
via UHF communications uplink or K-band
communications uplink or crosslink Fig. 1.20. LES-8 and LES-9 communication subsystem.

17
Experimental Satellites

4. F. J. Solman, “The K-Band Systems of the Lincoln Intersatellite Links,” Paper E1.1, International Conference on
Experimental Satellites LES-8 and LES-9,” Paper 78-562, Communications: ICC ’83 (June 1983).
AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 7. W. W. Ward and F. W. Floyd, “Thirty Years of Research
1978). Revised version in Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, and Development in Space Communications at Lincoln
Vol. 16, No. 3 (May–June 1979). Laboratory,” The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1
5. D. M. Snider and D. B. Coomber, “Satellite-to- (Spring 1989).
Satellite Data Transfer and Control,” Paper 78-596, AIAA 7th 8. W. W. Ward and F. W. Floyd, “Thirty Years of Space
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978). Communications Research and Development at Lincoln
6. W. W. Ward, D. M. Snider, and R. F. Bauer, “A Review Laboratory,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite
of Seven Years of Orbital Service by the LES-8/9 EHF Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History Office,
Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 8.

Applications Technology Satellites

The ATS program evolved from the Advanced Syncom study. were used on ATS 1 to 5 with the C-band communications
The ATS series continued some of the communications experiment. Details of the experiment are as follows.
experiments planned for Advanced Syncom and also included Configuration
meteorological, attitude control and stationkeeping, and space
Two 25 MHz bandwidth repeaters
environment experiments. ATS 1 through 5 (called ATS B, A,
C, D, and E before launch) constituted the first generation of Capacity
the program; the second generation was the single ATS 6 (ATS 1200 one-way voice circuits or one color TV channel
F before launch) satellite.
Transmitter
4120 and 4179 MHz
ATS 1 to 5
Two TWTs per repeater, used singly or together
The first objectives of the ATS program were to
• investigate and flight test technology common to a 4 W output per TWT, except 12 W at 4179 MHz on ATS 3
number of satellite applications EIRP: ATS 1: 19.5, 22.0 dBW (1, 2 TWTs); ATS 3: 22.0, 25.0
• investigate and flight test technology for the dBW (1, 2 4W TWTs), 26.5 dBW (1 12 W TWT); ATS 5: 22.5,
geosynchronous orbit 25.0 dBW (1, 2 TWTs)
• conduct a gravity gradient experiment Receiver
• conduct flight test experiments for a number of types of 6212 and 6301 MHz
satellite applications on each individual spacecraft Tunnel diode preamplifiers
ATS 1 to 5 [1–9] had some basic similarities, which are
6.2 dB noise figure
summarized in Table 1.1. The main distinction between the
designs of these satellites was that two used spin stabilization Antenna
and three used gravity-gradient stabilization. Table 1.1 ATS 1: Transmit: phased array, 16 sets of four collinear dipoles,
delineates the communications experiments in each satellite; 14 dB gain, 17 deg (north-south) x 21 deg (equatorial plane)
block diagrams of the equipment associated with each beamwidth. Receive: six-element collinear array, 6 dB gain
experiment are shown graphically. ATS 2: Horn, 10.5 dB gain
The C-band communications experiment was the only
experiment common to all five satellites. The transmit and ATS 3: Mechanically despun cylindrical reflector with linear feed
on cylinder (and spin) axis, 18 dB gain, 17 deg beamwidth
receive frequencies were in the satellite communication bands
used by the Intelsat satellites. Three modes of operation were ATS 4, 5: Receive: planar array, four slots in each of four
possible in each of the two repeaters, which could operate waveguide sections, 16.3 dB gain, 23 deg beamwidth; transmit:
simultaneously. The frequency translation mode was used for similar array, 16.7 dB gain
WB data relay between two ground stations. In this mode, The VHF experiment, which was on ATS 1 and 3, had the
only one carrier was present, and the signal could occupy the primary objective of evaluating communications between
entire 25 MHz repeater bandwidth. Several frequency division ground stations and aircraft. Other objectives were (1) to
multiplexed, single-sideband modulated signals were received demonstrate the collection of meteorological data from
in the multiple access mode, and the composite signal was remote terminals, (2) to communicate with ships, and (3) to
used to phase modulate the transmitter in the satellite. All the evaluate the feasibility of a VHF navigation satellite. The VHF
ground stations received the transmitted signal and selected equipment on the two satellites was similar. The antenna was
the channels of interest from the recovered baseband, which an eight-element, but with a common IF amplifier.
contained all the channels in use. In this way, a number of It was possible to operate only four transmitters to conserve
ground stations could be connected simultaneously. The WB prime power, or to equalize the phase shifters to generate a
data mode was used for transmission of information generated toroidal antenna pattern. On ATS 3 only, it was possible
by onboard meteorological cameras. Various types of antennas to receive a VHF signal and transmit it with the C-band
transmitter. Details of the experiment are as follows.
18
 Applications Technology Satellites

Table 1.1. ATS 1 to 5 Characteristics

Satellite a, b
Characteristics ATS 1 (B) ATS 2 (A) ATS 3 (C) ATS 4 (D) ATS 5 (E)
Cylinder
Diameter (in.) 58 56 58 56 56
Height (in.) 54 72 54 72 72
Initial orbital weight (lb) 775 702 775 670 670
Solar cells and NiCd batteries (W 175 130 175 130 130
initial)
Stabilization Spin Gravity gradient Spin Gravity gradient Gravity gradient
Design life (yr) 3 3 3 3 3
Actual orbit Sunchronous 100 s 600 nmi Synchronous 130 s 480 nmi Synchronous
equatorial, 149°W, equatorial, 105°W equatorial, 70°W,
moved to 164°W in above synchronous
1982, drifting by 1995 orbit by 1995
Intended orbit 6000 nmi Synchronous equatorial
Launch date 7 Dec 1966 6 Apr 1967 8 Nov 1967 10 Aug 1968 12 Aug 1969
Decay date 2 Sep 1969 17 Oct 1968
Launch vehicle Atlas-Agena Atlas-Agena Atlas-Agena Atlas-Centaur Atlas-Centaur
Experiments
C-band communications Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
VHF communications Yes Yes
Millimeter wave propagation Yes
L-band communications Yes
a
Alphabetic designations were used before launch, numeric after.
b
Satellites were developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for NASA, operated by NASA.

Configuration Transmitter
100 kHz bandwidth double-conversion repeater 15.3 GHz
Solid state
Transmitter
135.6 MHz 200 mW output
ATS 1: 5 W per element, 40 W total, 22.5 dBW EIRP Receiver
ATS 3: 6.25 W per element, 50 W total, 25.2 dBW EIRP 31.65 GHz
15 dB noise figure
Receiver
149.2 MHz Antenna
ATS 1: 4.5 dB noise figure Two horns (one each for transmit and receive)
ATS 3: 4.0 dB noise figure 20 deg beamwidth, 19 dB gain

Antenna Modulation (uplinks and downlinks)

Eight-element (dipoles) phased array Phase modulation, 1.43 modulation index to provide
ATS 1: 9 dB gain approximately equal power in carrier and first sidebands
ATS 3: 10 dB gain Modulation frequency: none, 100 kHz, 1 MHz, 10 MHz, or 50
MHz
The millimeter-wave experiment on ATS 5 was designed to
measure atmospheric effects on propagation. No repeater was The L-band (1550/1650 MHz) equipment on ATS 5 had a
included in the satellite. Rather, on both uplinks and downlinks, design similar to the C-band (4 and 6 GHz) communications
a carrier was phase-modulated by a sine wave. The modulation equipment on all five ATS satellites. Its purpose was to
index was selected to equalize power at the carrier and the first investigate navigation and traffic control communications for
two sideband frequencies. Measurements were made at two aircraft. For these functions it may have been more suitable
frequencies, one for the uplink and the other for the downlink. than VHF, where the available bandwidth is limited and
These measurements provided data on absorption, refraction, propagation variations limit navigation accuracy. The L-band
and fading characteristics. The use of the modulated sidebands equipment could be operated as a repeater in the frequency
provided data on the coherence properties of the atmosphere. translation mode. In the multiple access mode, as many as 10
Details of the experiment are as follows. single-sideband modulated signals were received at L-band and

19
Experimental Satellites

Fig. 1.21. ATS 1 satellite. Fig. 1.23. ATS 1 satellite details.

combined into a composite signal that frequency modulated Transmitter

either the L-band or the C-band transmitter. An alternative 1550 MHz center frequency
frequency translation mode used the C-band receiver and the Two TWTs used singly or together
L-band transmitter. The transmitter could also be modulated
by data from onboard experiments. 12 W per TWT, 22.4 dBW EIRP (one TWT), 25.4 dBW EIRP
(two TWTs)
Configuration
25 MHz bandwidth repeater Receiver
1651 MHz center frequency
8 dB noise figure

Antenna
17.2 dB gain
Of the five ATS launches, three satellites were successfully
placed in orbit. ATS 2 and 4 did not achieve the desired orbit
because of launch vehicle malfunctions, and few experimental
data were obtained. The ATS 2 C-band repeaters operated 12
and 626 hr, and the ATS 4 repeaters operated only 9 and 30 hr.
ATS 4 was in orbit only 2 months. ATS 2 was in orbit over 2
years but was deactivated after 6 months.
The experiments on both ATS 1 and ATS 3 were used
extensively after the satellites were in orbit. Through March
1971, the four microwave communication repeaters on these
satellites had accumulated about 35,000 hr of use. Tests were
run in all modes, and numerous spacecraft parameters were
measured. Various tests were run to determine the values of
system noise, delay, frequency response, and intermodulation.
In general, system performance was satisfactory according to
commercial standards. The C-band communications equipment
was also used a number of times for international television
broadcasts of public interest.
Engineering performance measurements were also
performed on the VHF equipment. System performance was
evaluated for ground-satellite-aircraft links using equipment
installed on several commercial aircraft. The U.S. Coast Guard
Fig. 1.22. ATS 4 satellite. performed tests using several shipborne terminals. In general,
20
 Applications Technology Satellites

the results with both aircraft and ships were fair 1-ft
to good communications, and the quality of the parabola 30-ft parabola
satellite link was usually as good as, or better
than, alternative communication links. The VHF Feed
equipment was also used for experiments in clock assembly
synchronization, navigation, and meteorological
data collection and dissemination. Results were Horn
varied, often limited by available equipment or
D
satellite design, but the experiments did provide
a database and recommendations for future
work. Since April 1971, the VHF repeater of I S
ATS 1 was used regularly about 20 hr a week as
a single channel international communication
system called Project PEACESAT (Pan Pacific
Education and Communication Experiments by C-band IF amp
rcvr No. 1
Satellite). PEACESAT provided cultural and

IF output switch
IF input switch
emergency communications to about 20 nations
(mostly small island nations) of the Pacific basin. S-band No. 2
ATS 3 also provided communication services rcvr
in the Pacific basin. Both ATS 1 and ATS 3
degraded in performance, but both continued
L-band No. 3
in use for more than six times their 3-year rcvr
design lives. In 1985, ATS 1 failed to respond
to commands; therefore, it could no longer
be kept at the correct location to serve all the 13/18-GHz I
rcvr
Pacific basin users, even though its electronics
remained usable. ATS 3 was still functioning 6350 150
properly into 1986. T
150
ATS 5 was successfully placed into
6150 150
synchronous orbit. The satellite was to be S S
spinning upon orbital injection and then despun, 150
at which time the gravity-gradient stabilization 5950 150
T
would begin. During orbital injection, however, 150
the satellite developed a spin about an axis
normal to the intended spin axis. In this Fig. 1.24. ATS 1 to 5 communication subsystems.
orientation, the satellite could not be despun.
Because of the spinning condition, the satellite
antennas pointed toward Earth only a small portion of each 7. “Space Systems Summaries,” Astronautics and
revolution. Hence, the communication experiments were Aeronautics, Vol. 13, No. 2 (February 1975).
operated with limited success in a pulsed type of operation 8. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
synchronized with the periods of correct antenna orientation. Satellites,” http://sulu.lerc.nasa.gov/dglover/satcom2. html
****** (15 June 1999).
1. Technical Data Report for the Applications Technology 9. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
Satellite Program, Goddard Space Flight Center (3 March Satellites, 1958–1995,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years
1967; revised periodically until 20 April 1971), 6 volumes. of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History
Office, Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 6.
2. R. H. Pickard, “The Applications Technology Satellite,”
Proceedings of the 16th International Astronautical Congress
(1965), Vol. 4: Meteorological and Communication Satellites ATS 6
(1966).
The ATS 6 satellite [1–28] was the second generation of the
3. Spaceflight, Vol. 27, No. 7–8 (July/August 1985), NASA Applications Technology Satellite program. Prior to
p. 295. launch, the satellite was designated ATS F. The program had
4. Satellite Communications (January 1982), p. 22; included a second, very similar satellite called ATS G, but
(November 1985), p. 45. it was canceled for budgetary reasons. ATS 1 to 5, launched
5. NASA Semiannual Reports to Congress, Vols. 16 in 1966 through 1969, constituted the first generation. Eight
(July–December 1966), 21 (January–June 1969). of the experiments on ATS 6 were for communications and
propagation studies that covered a frequency range from 860
6. R. J. McCeney, “Applications Technology Satellite MHz to 30 GHz.
Program,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 5, No. 3–4 (March– April ATS 6 consisted of a 30 ft diam parabolic antenna, an Earth-
1978). viewing module located at the focus of the parabola, two solar
arrays, and the interconnecting structures. The antenna and the

21
Experimental Satellites

Command: 148.26, 154.2 MHz via two dipole antennas or main

reflector; alternate path through C-band receiver and horn
antenna

Life
Two years (required), 5 years (goal)

Orbit
Synchronous equatorial; 94°W longitude until June 1975, 35°E
longitude from July 1975 to July 1976, 140°W longitude until
July 1979; moved out of synchronous orbit late 1979 or early
1980

Orbital history
Launched 30 May 1974
Titan IIIC launch vehicle
In use until turned off (July 1979)

Management
Developed by Fairchild for NASA
ATS 6 was launched in May 1974. It was originally positioned
at 94°W longitude, where it was used with U.S. ground stations
for 1 year. During June 1975, it was moved to 35°E longitude for
the instructional television experiment broadcasts to India. At
the same time, the NASA millimeter-wave experiment was used
in conjunction with several European ground terminals. After
the 1-year Indian experiment, in the fall of 1976, the satellite
was slowly returned to the Western Hemisphere. During the
Fig. 1.25. ATS 6 satellite. transfer period, demonstrations of the social benefits possible
with such a satellite were made in 27 countries. ATS 6 was then
solar arrays were deployed after the satellite was in orbit. All located at 140°W longitude and used in several experimental
the communications experiments were located in a section of programs. It was turned off in the summer of 1979.
the Earth-viewing module. Feed horns for the large parabola Theposition location and aircraft communication experiment
were mounted on top of the module and other antennas on the (PLACE) was an extension of similar experiments conducted
bottom. General satellite characteristics are as follows. at ATS 1, 3, and 5. Like ATS 5, ATS 6 used frequencies near
Satellite 1550 and 1650 MHz (L-band) for transmissions to and from
30 ft diam parabolic reflector, 6.5 ft diam hub section with aircraft. Both voice and digital data transmissions and a four-
copper-coated Dacron mesh supported by 48 aluminum ribs tone ranging system for aircraft position determination were
Earth-viewing module at antenna focus with experiment
part of the experimental program. The system was configured
sections and support subsystems, 54 x 54 x 65 in. to permit multiple access voice from 100 aircraft in 10 kHz
channels. At first, three ground terminals were used to simulate
Two solar arrays (deployed in space), each half a cylinder, 54 aircraft, with later experiments involving actual aircraft. The
in. radius, 94 in. long
ranging signal operation had a transmission to all aircraft,
Maximum height, 27 ft, 6 in., maximum span, 51 ft, 8 in. with a coded data channel to designate one aircraft at a time to
Initial orbital weight 2970 lb return the signal. All frequencies were coherently related to the
ground station transmitter frequency so that range rate as well
Power as range could be determined. Experiments included multiple
Solar cells and NiCd batteries aircraft tracking, determination of capacity limitations (ground
645 W initial maximum equipment simulated most of the aircraft), determination
415 W minimum after 5 years
of multipath effects, and evaluation of ground and aircraft
terminals. Details of the experiment are as follows.
Stabilization Configuration
Three-axis-stabilized with inertia wheels, 0.1 deg pointing Two-way link through ATS 6 between a ground terminal and
accuracy aircraft for both voice and ranging functions
Pointing to any location on Earth
Transmitter (ATS 6 to aircraft link)
Tracking of low-altitude satellite over ±11 deg from local
1550 MHz
vertical
40 W output, 40.3 or 51.0 dBW EIRP
Telemetry and command
Telemetry: 136.23, 137.11 MHz via two dipole antennas or Receiver (aircraft to ATS 6 link)
main reflector; alternate path through C-band transmitter and 1650 MHz
horn antenna G/T: –4.4 or –5.5 dB/K

22
 Applications Technology Satellites

Antenna was to develop a terminal that would cost less than $200 in
30 ft parabola, 28–29 dB gain with 0.8 x 7.5 deg fan beam, 38.5 large-volume production. The experiment details are the same
dB gain with 1.5 deg pencil beam, circular polarization as given for SITE.
The health/education experiment (formerly the educational
Transmitter (ATS 6 to ground link) television experiment) was used to test satellite distribution of
One of 3750, 3950, or 4150 MHz educational and medical programs. The educational programs
12 W output, 28 dBW EIRP on axis were primarily for children, and the medical programs covered
both professional education and consultation and general
Receiver (ground to ATS 6 link) health care. The receiving terminals for the experiment were
One of 5950, 6150, or 6350 MHz in areas where present television services are limited because
G/T: –17 dB/K peak of either geographical (Rocky Mountain states, Alaska) or
social (Appalachia) factors. Two separate television channels
Antenna could have been transmitted by ATS 6 using separate antenna
Horn, 16.3 to 16.5 dB gain, 13 x 20 deg beamwidth, linear beams (produced by two feed horns and the 30 ft reflector).
polarization Since a 1 deg beamwidth was used, transmission to the various
The satellite instructional television experiment (SITE, geographic areas occurred at different times. The transmissions
or sometimes ITV) was a cooperative effort by NASA from ATS 6 were at 2570 and 2670 MHz (S-band). Some of
and the government of India. The basic objectives were to the receiving terminals were equipped to provide an S-band
demonstrate the use of satellite television broadcasting for return link through ATS 6. Details of the experiment are as
instructional purposes and to evaluate the various techniques follows.
and equipment. The television programs were prepared by Configuration
the Indian government and transmitted at 6 GHz to ATS Forward link: two 30 to 40 MHz bandwidth repeaters for two
6 from one of three ground stations in India. The satellite FM-TV carriers with sound subcarriers plus separate telephone
retransmitted the signals at 860 MHz. The 860 MHz signal carriers
was directly received in 2000 villages by community television Return link: for telephone carriers
receivers with simple 10 ft parabolic antennas. The signal was
also received by regular television stations and rebroadcast Transmitter
to about 3000 villages in the standard VHF television band. 2570 and 2670 MHz (also C-band for monitoring)
The television signal had two audio channels with different 15 W output, 53.0 dBW peak EIRP
dialects. (Operational systems may have as many as 14 audio
channels to cover the major dialects and languages used in Receiver
India.) The 1 year of SITE operation provided experience 5950 MHz
for development of a national television broadcast satellite
G/T: –17 dB/K peak
system being planned by India. Details of the experiment are
as follows. Antenna
Configuration Transmit: 30 ft parabola, 41.5 dB peak gain, 1 deg beamwidth,
40 MHz bandwidth double-conversion repeater circular polarization
Receive: horn, 16.3 dB peak gain, 13 x 20 deg field of view,
Transmitter linear polarization (30 ft parabola might be used for receiving
860 MHz (3750 MHz used occasionally to monitor signals) instead of horn, 48.4 dB peak gain, 0.4 deg bandwidth, 13.7
80 W output, 51.0 dBW EIRP peak dB/K G/T)
In the tracking and data relay satellite experiment, ATS 6 was
Receiver used to relay commands and tracking signals to, and data and
5950 MHz tracking signals from, GEOS-3 and Nimbus 6. The returned
G/T: –17 dB/K peak data were compared with data received from the spacecraft
at a standard ground terminal. The orbit was computed from
Antenna the range and range rate data obtained through ATS 6 and
Transmit: 30 ft parabola, 33 dB peak gain, 2.8 deg beamwidth, the uncertainty of the orbit determination compared with
circular polarization theoretical predictions. ATS 6 used S-band for communications
Receive: horn, 16.3 dB peak gain, 13 x 20 deg field of view, with the spacecraft and C-band for communications with the
linear polarization (30 ft parabola might be used for receiving ground. An array of feed horns under the 30 ft reflector was
instead of horn, 48.4 dB peak gain, 0.4 deg beamwidth, +13.7 switched to allow the antenna beam to track the spacecraft
dB/K G/T) along its orbit. The same equipment was also used to provide
The TRUST experiment (television relay using small a communications relay between the ground and an Apollo
terminals) was similar to SITE and used the same equipment spacecraft during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. Details of the
in ATS 6. SITE was used in a year-long instructional program experiment are as follows.
with evaluations of that program, whereas the main objectives Configuration
of TRUST were hardware oriented. System performance was Two 12 or 40 MHz bandwidth channels
compared with design values, and ionospheric effects on
Two-way link through ATS 6 between ground and a low-altitude
system performance were measured. Considerable emphasis
satellite
was placed on the small 860 MHz receiver. A program goal

23
Experimental Satellites

Transmitter (ATS 6 to satellite link) such as radiometric sky temperature, radar backscatter, and
2063 MHz meteorological conditions. Details of the experiment follow.
20 W output, 48.0 dBW EIRP minimum Configuration
Propagation modes: continuous-wave or multitone downlinks
Receiver (satellite to ATS 6 link)
Communications mode: 40 MHz bandwidth repeater
2253 MHz
G/T: 7.0 dB/K minimum Transmitter (propagation modes)
20.0 and 30.0 GHz
Antenna
Continuous wave: 2 W output, 30 dBW peak EIRP
30 ft parabola, 36.4 dB gain minimum, 13.2 deg overall field of
view using switched feeds, circular polarization Multitone (nine tones): 0.06 W output/tone, 15 dBW peak
EIRP/tone
Transmitter (ATS 6 to ground link)
3753 MHz primary (alternates 3953 or 4153 MHz) Transmitter (communications mode)
20.15 and 30.15 GHz and one of 3750, 3950, or 4150 MHz
12 W output, 28.0 dBW EIRP peak
20.15 GHz: 2 W output, 40 dBW peak EIRP
Receiver (ground to ATS 6 link) 30.15 GHz: 2 W output, 42 dBW peak EIRP
5938 MHz primary (alternates 6138 or 6338 MHz)
C-band: 12 W output, 28 dBW peak EIRP
G/T: –17 dB/K peak
Receiver (communications mode only)
Antenna One of 5950, 6150, or 6350 MHz
Horn: 16.5 dB transmit gain (peak), 16.3 dB receive, 13 x 20
deg field of view, linear polarization G/T: 13.7 dB/K (30 ft parabola), –17 dB/K (horn)

The frequencies from 5925 to 6425 MHz are shared by terrestrial Antenna
and satellite communication services. The RFI experiment was Propagation mode: horn, 27 dB peak gain, 5 x 7 deg beamwidth,
used to determine the extent of interference between these two linear polarization
services. When the RFI experiment was operating, the entire Communication mode:
500 MHz bandwidth of interest was received by ATS 6 and
20.15 GHz: 1.5 ft parabola, 37 dB gain, 2.4 deg
retransmitted to a ground station. Data processing at the ground
beamwidth
station was used to determine the power levels and geographic
and frequency distribution of the terrestrial sources of noise. 30.15 GHz: 1.5 ft parabola, 39 dB gain, 1.6 deg
The minimum detectable noise source EIRP was 10 dBW, beamwidth
and the frequency resolution was 10 kHz. A portable ground C-band transmit: horn, 16.5 dB gain, 13 x 20 deg
station was used as a tracking beacon for ATS 6 and as a system beamwidth
calibration source. Details of the experiment follow. C-band receive: horn, 16.3 dB gain, 13 x 20 deg
Receiver beamwidth or 30 ft parabola, 48.4 dB gain, 0.4 deg
beamwidth
5925 to 6425 MHz
G/T: +17.0 dB/K (30 ft parabola) or –17.0 dB/K (horn) peak,
In the Comsat Corporation millimeter-wave experiment, 39
minimum detectable ground source is 10 dBW EIRP unmodulated uplinks were received by ATS 6 and retransmitted
to a ground station on a C-band downlink. Fifteen stations
Antenna scattered throughout the eastern part of the United States
30 ft parabola, 48.4 dB gain peak, 0.4 deg beamwidth, circular (>100 miles separation) each transmitted 13 and 18 GHz
or linear polarization uplinks. Nine additional stations transmitting 18 GHz uplinks
Horn, 16.3 dB gain peak, 13 x 20 deg beamwidth, linear were placed in groups of three near (<25 miles separation)
polarization three dual-frequency stations. The experiment operated on
a nearly continuous basis for about 1 year. The results are
ATS 6 had two millimeter-wave experiments. The NASA useful for determining the required weather margins for future
experiment used a C-band uplink and 20 and 30 GHz communication links using frequencies near 13 or 18 GHz.
downlinks, whereas the Communications Satellite (Comsat) Data from the three groups of stations, with smaller separations,
Corporation experiment used 13 and 18 GHz uplinks and a were used to determine attenuation correlation and, hence, the
C-band downlink. In the NASA experiment, the 20 and 30 uplink improvement possible with space diversity. Details of
GHz downlinks could have been unmodulated, modulated by the experiment are as follows.
an onboard tone generator, or modulated by a communication
signal received on the C-band uplink. The continuous-wave Configuration
propagation tests had sufficient power to accommodate fades Thirty-nine unmodulated uplink carriers received and
as deep as 60 dB, whereas the communication mode was used retransmitted to a control ground terminal in a 30 MHz
with digital data rates up to 40 Mbps. A 4 GHz downlink was bandwidth
used with the millimeter-wave downlinks for comparisons. The Transmitter
objectives of the experiment were to measure the characteristics
4150 MHz
of the millimeter-wave links and to compare directly
measured propagation effects with indirect measurements 0.2 to 1.3 mW output per carrier
–13 to –21 dBW EIRP per carrier

24
 Applications Technology Satellites

1-ft 1.5-ft
parabola 30-ft parabola Horn parabola

Feed
assembly

Horn

D S D

S C-band
I trans

C-band IF amp S-band

rcvr No. 1 trans

IF output switch
IF input switch

S-band No. 2 L-band

rcvr trans

L-band No. 3 860-MHz

rcvr trans

13/18-GHz I 20/30-GHz
rcvr trans

6350 150 3750

T TW
150
6150 150 3950 *
S S C P TW S
150
5950 150 4150
T
TW
150
C-BAND RECEIVER C-BAND TRANSMITTER
*Switch selects any 1 or 2 TWTs
T T T

150
S S H H S
150

T T T

S-BAND RECEIVER S-BAND TRANSMITTER (L-band is identical)

T T
150
T
H H S
150
L-BAND RECEIVER
T T
18 GHz **
TD 860-MHz TRANSMITTER

20.15 GHz
4 GHz x2 TW
14 GHz
D C
9 GHz 5
Osc x 2000 10 GHz 150 C
**
TD
13 GHz x3 TW
30.15 GHz
13/18-GHz RECEIVER
150
** Redundant units not shown
20/30-GHz TRANSMITTER
Fig. 1.26. ATS 6 communication subsystems.
25
Experimental Satellites

of the feed elements on the top surface of the Earth-viewing

module is shown.
******
1. P. J. McCeney, “Application Technology Satellite
Program,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 5, No. 3–4 (March– April
1978).
2. “Space Systems Summaries,” Astronautics and
Aeronautics, Vol. 13, No. 2 (February 1975).
3. J. P. Corrigan, “The Next Steps in Satellite
Communications,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 9, No.
9 (September 1971).
4. A. B. Sabelhaus, “Applications Technology Satellites F
and G Communications Subsystem,” Proceedings of the IEEE,
Vol. 59, No. 2 (February 1971).
5. W. N. Redisch and R. L. Hall, “ATS 6 Spacecraft
Design/Performance,” EASCON ’74 Conference Record
(October 1974).
6. W. A. Johnston, “ATS-6 Experimental Communications
Satellite: A Report on Early Orbital Results,” National
Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’74 (December
1974).
7. W. N. Redisch, “ATS-6 Description,” International
Conference on Communications: ICC ’75 (June 1975); also,
EASCON ’75 Convention Record (September 1975).
8. Special Issue on ATS 6, IEEE Transactions on
Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 11, No. 6 (November
1975):
Fig. 1.27. Feed structure for the ATS 6 30 ft reflector.
a. E. A. Wolff, “ATS-6—Introduction.”
Receiver b. R. B. Marsten, “ATS-6—Significance.”
Fifteen carriers near 13.19 GHz and 24 near 17.79 GHz c. W. N. Redisch, “ATS-6—Description and
10 dB noise figure Performance.”
d. J. P. Corrigan, “ATS-6—Experiment Summary.”
Antenna e. J. L. Boor, “ATS-6—Technical Aspects of the
Transmit: horn, 17 dB gain Health/Education Telecommunications Experiment.”
Receive: 1 ft parabola, 26/28 dB peak gain (13/18 GHz), 4 x 8 f. J. E. Miller, “ATS-6—Satellite Instructional
deg beamwidth, linear polarization Television Experiment.”
The communications equipment on ATS 6 included four g. J. E. Miller, “ATS-6—Television Relay Using Small
receivers (C-, S-, L-band, and 13/18 GHz), three IF amplifiers, Terminals Experiment.”
and five transmitters (C-, S-, L-band, 860 MHz, and 20 and 30 h. P. E. Schmid, B. J. Trudell, and F. O. Vonbun,
GHz). The 13/18 GHz uplink was downconverted to C-band, “ATS-6—Satellite to Satellite Tracking and Data Relay
amplified, and routed to the C-band transmitter. The other Experiments.”
uplinks were amplified and filtered before downconversion
to the 150 MHz intermediate frequency. Any receiver (except i. V. F. Henry, “ATS-6—Radio Frequency Interference
13/18 GHz) could have been connected to any one of the Measurement Experiment.”
three identical IF amplifiers, which could have provided j. L. J. Ippolito, “ATS-6—Millimeter Wave Propa-
either 12 or 40 MHz bandwidths. The IF outputs could have gation and Communications Experiments at 20 and 30
been connected to any of the transmitters. The transmitters GHz.”
included upconverters, driver amplifiers, and power k. G. Hyde, “ATS-6—Preliminary Results from the
amplifiers; most of these elements were redundant. The C- 13/18 GHz COMSAT Propagation Experiment.”
band and 20 GHz transmitters used TWTs, whereas the lower- 9. M. Howard, “ATS-6: The First Twelve Months,”
frequency transmitters were all transistorized. The primary Spaceflight, Vol. 17, No. 11 (November 1975).
communication antenna was the 30 ft parabola. In addition,
the satellite had a C-band horn and two small parabolas and a 10. A. A. Whalen and W. A. Johnson, Jr., “ATS-6—A
horn for the millimeter-wave experiments. The feed structure Satellite for Human Needs,” Paper 75-900, AIAA Conference on
for the large reflector included 36 elements to provide efficient Communication Satellites for Health/Education Applications
performance for the various frequencies and beam patterns (July 1975).
used in the communications experiments. The arrangement

26
 Communications Technology Satellite

11. The ATS-F and -G Data Book, Goddard Space Flight 20. J. G. Potter and J. M. Janky, “The ATS-F Health-
Center (October 1971; revised September 1972). Education Technology Communications System,” International
12. “The Community Satellite” (in three parts), Spaceflight, Conference on Communications: ICC ’73 (June l973).
Vol. 16, Nos. 9–11 (September, October, and November 21. A. A. Whalen, “Health Education Telecommunications
1974). Experiment,” International Conference on Communications:
13. “The ATS-6 Satellite,” Telecommunication Journal, ICC ’75 (June 1975).
Vol. 41, No. 10 (October 1974). 22. J. R. Burke, “Experimental Systems in Applications
14. L. H. Westerlund, “ATS-F Comsat Millimeter Wave Technology Satellite F and G,” Paper 72-578, AIAA 4th
Propagation Experiment,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 3, Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1972).
No. 2 (Fall 1973). 23. W. A. Johnson, “ATS-6 Experimental Communications
15. A. L. Berman, “The ATS-F Comsat Propagation Satellite Report on Early Orbital Results,” Journal of Spacecraft
Experiment Transponder,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 3, and Rockets, Vol. 13, No. 2 (February 1976).
No. 2 (Fall 1973). 24. E. V. Chitnis and J. E. Miller, “Social Implications of
16. J. L. Levatich and J. L. King, “ATS-F Comsat Satellite Instructional Television Experiment,” International
Millimeter Wave Propagation Experiment,” Paper 8A, National Conference on Communications: ICC ’76 (June 1976).
Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’72 (December 1972). 25. D. L. Brown and Y. P. G. Guerin, “Aeronautical and
17. J. L. King and G. Hyde, “The Comsat 13 and 18 Maritime Communications Experiments with the ATS-6
GHz Propagation Experiment,” International Conference on Satellite,” ESA Bulletin, No. 5 (May 1976).
Communications: ICC ’75 (June 1975). 26. F. O. Vonbun, P. D. Argentiero, and P. E. Schmid,
18. L. J. Ippolito, “The GSFC 20 and 30 GHz Millimeter “Orbit Determination Accuracies Using Satellite-to-Satellite
Wave Propagation Experiment,” International Conference on Tracking,” IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic
Communications: ICC ’75 (June 1975); also, EASCON ’75 Systems, Vol. 14, No. 6 (November 1978).
Convention Record (September 1975). 27. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
19. V. F. Henry and G. Schaefer, “System Design of the Satellites,” http://sulu.lerc.nasa.gov/dglover/satcom2. html
ATS-F RFI Measurement Experiment,” Paper 38D, National 28. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’72 (December 1972). Satellites, 1958—1995,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty years
of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History
Office, Washington, D. C. (1997), ch. 6.

Communications Technology Satellite

The Communications Technology Satellite (CTS), formerly Satellite
called Cooperative Applications Satellite C (CAS-C), was a Body 72 in. diam, 74 in. height with two solar arrays 51 in. wide
joint effort of the Canadian Department of Communications and and 20 ft, 4 in. long; total satellite span 52 ft, 9 in.
NASA [1–22]. The main purpose of CTS was to demonstrate 738 lb in orbit, beginning of life
advanced spacecraft techniques that were applicable to higher-
Sun-tracking solar array and NiCd batteries, 1360 W initially,
power transmissions in the 12 to 14 GHz band, including a approximately 930 W minimum during last year (1979)
high-power transmitter, a lightweight extendable solar
array with an initial output above 1 kW, and a three-axis Three-axis stabilization using a variable-speed momentum
stabilization system to maintain accurate antenna pointing. wheel, ±0.1 deg about pitch (north-south) and roll (velocity
vector) axes, ±1.1 deg about yaw (radial) axis
Canada developed the satellite. NASA provided the primary
experiment, which was a 200 W output, 50-percent efficient 12 Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine thrusters
GHz TWTA (traveling wave tube amplifier). NASA also had for on-orbit use
the responsibility for launching the satellite. The European Configuration
Space Research Organization (ESRO), now known as ESA
Two 85 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters
(European Space Agency), participated in the CTS program
by supplying one of the TWTAs, a parametric amplifier, and Transmitter
some other items. 11.843–11.928 GHz and 12.038 to 12.123 GHz
The satellite body was roughly a cylinder 6 ft in height and
diameter, which was injected into a synchronous equatorial Normal configuration 20 W TWTA on low band and 200 W
TWTA on high band, alternately both bands share the 20 W
orbit in a spinning condition. Solar cells on the satellite body TWTA (at reduced capability)
supplied power during this time. After it was despun, two 51 x
244 in. solar panels were deployed from opposite sides of the Receiver
body. The solar panels rotated about their long axis to track 14.010–14.095 GHz and 14.205 to 14.290 GHz
the sun continually. The antennas were mounted on gimbals
Two preamplifier chains (one on, one standby)
on the front (Earth-viewing) end of the body and required no
deployment. Satellite details are as follows.

27
Experimental Satellites

Noise temperature:
Approximately 2000 K with tunnel diode preamplifier or
approximately 1350 K with parametric amplifier
G/T: 6.4 dB/K on-axis with parametric amplifier

Antenna
Two 28 in. diam antennas, 36.2 dB gain
on axis for transmit and receive, 2.5 deg
beamwidth, steerable over ±7.25 deg Fig. 1.28. Communications Technology S atellite.
linear polarization
• center frequency: 12.080 GHz
Telemetry and command
• efficiency: 45% at 224 W output (including power
Telemetry: 2277.5 MHz, 2 W transmitter
supply)
Beacon: 11.7 GHz, 200 mW transmitter
The CTS had redundant receivers, one with a tunnel diode
Command: 2097.2 MHz preamplifier and the other with a parametric amplifier. Both
receiver chains were single conversion and had a tunnel
Life diode amplifier (TDA) following the mixer. The receivers fed
Two years redundant field effect transistor amplifiers that provided the
Orbit input signals for the TWTAs. The satellite had two narrowbeam
antennas, one directed toward a control terminal and the other
Synchronous equatorial, 116°W longitude, (142°W last half of
1979) ±0.2°E-W stationkeeping, inclination b0.8 deg through toward remote terminals. The two channels were used for two-
mid-1979 way communications. The high-power TWTA was used for
transmission to the remote terminals that used relatively small
Orbital history antennas.
Launched 17 January 1976 Canada, NASA, and other U.S. Government agencies
Delta 2914 launch vehicle started conducting communication experiments with the
CTS following its launch on 19 January 1976. Canada had its
In use until turned off (November 1979) control terminal at Ottawa and remote terminals in the north.
Management The capability of the CTS allowed the remote terminals to be
relatively small, as indicated by the characteristics given in
Developed by Canadian Department of Communications
Table 1.2. The CTS could support several simultaneous links
The communication equipment included 20 and 200 W with these terminals. For example, the 8 ft terminal noted
TWTAs. Two 85 MHz channels were available. Normally, in Table 1.2 could receive a television signal transmitted
one of the redundant 20 W TWTAs was the power amplifier with only a quarter of the total CTS power. In May 1976,
for one channel as well as the low-level driver for the 200 W the CTS was renamed Hermes in Canada. By mid-1978,
TWTA on the second channel. In a backup mode, the 200 W 32 experimental programs had been completed or were in
TWTA was bypassed, and the output of the 20 W TWTA was progress and seven more were planned. These experiments
divided between the two channels. Some characteristics of the were in the fields of propagation, communications engineering,
200 W TWTA, as demonstrated during the first 6 months in television broadcasting, education, medicine, government,
orbit, were and community affairs. Results were positive and encouraged
• construction: coupled cavity, multistage depressed further work. The operational viability of many of these
collector, conduction cooling projects was studied further using the 12 and 14 GHz channels
• RF output at saturation: 200 W continuous-wave on Anik B. In July 1979, CTS was moved to support satellite
minimum over the operating band, 240 W peak, 30 dB communications testing in Australia. CTS was used until
gain, 3 dB bandwidth r85 MHz November 1979, at which time it was turned off.
******
Table 1.2. CTS Ground Terminals
Antenna
Receiver Type and Maximum Trans-
Diameter Peak Gain Beamwidth Noise Temperature GT mitter Power
Function (ft) (dB) (deg) (K) (db/K) (W)
Control terminal
Transmit and recieve TV and 30 59 0.18 Uncooled paramp, 425 32.9 1000
multiplexed voice signals
Remote terminals
TV transmission 10 50 0.54 TDA, 1150 19.5 1000
TV reception and two-way voice 8 48 0.67 TDA, 1150 16.5 1
Two-way voice 4 42 1.3 Mixer, 2660 7.8 1
Receive FM sound broadcast 2 equivalent 35 2x4 Mixer, 2660 0.8

28
 Communications Technology Satellite

14205–14290 11843–11928
D

14010–14095 12038–12123
D C

TD TD TW

C S 2167 S F S S S TW

P TD S S TW

2167 F

F Field effect transistor amplifier

Fig. 1.29. CTS communication subsystem.

1. C. Franklin and E. Davison, “A High Power 10. J. Kaiser, “Experiments in Satellite Communications
Communications Technology Satellite for the 12 and 14 with Small Earth Terminals,” Paper 80-0535, AIAA 8th
GHz Bands,” Paper 72-580, AIAA 4th Communications Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980).
Satellite Systems Conference (April 1972). Reprinted in 11. H. R. Raine, “The Communications Technology
Communications Satellite Systems, Progress in Astronautics Satellite Flight Performance,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 5, No.
and Aeronautics, Vol. 32, P. L. Bargellini, ed. (1974). 5–6 (May–June 1978).
2. V. O’Donovan, “Design of a 14/12 GHz Transponder 12. Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 29,
for the Communications Technology Satellite,” Paper 72-734, No. 9 (September 1976), p. 608.
CASI/AIAA Meeting: Space—1972 Assessment (July 1972).
13. R. E. Alexovich, “On-Orbit Performance of the 12
3. P. L. Donoughe, “United States Societal Experiments GHz, 200 Watt Transmitter Experiment Package for CTS,”
via the Communications Technology Satellite,” International Paper 1.3, International Conference on Communications: ICC
Conference on Communications: ICC ’76 (June 1976). ’78 (June 1978)
4. L. J. Ippolito, “Characterization of the CTS 12 and 14 14. N. G. Davies, J. W. B. Day, and M. V. Patriarche, “The
GHz Communication Links—Preliminary Measurements and Transition from CTS/Hermes Communications Experiments
Evaluation,” International Conference on Communications: to Anik-B Pilot Projects,” EASCON ’78 Conference Record
ICC ’76 (June 1976). (September 1978).
5. L. D. Braun and M. V. O’Donovan, “Characteristics of a 15. A. Casey-Stahmer, “From Satellite Experiments to
Communications Satellite Transponder,” Microwave Journal, Operational Applications: Canadian Experiences and Plans,”
Vol. 17, No. 12 (December 1974). Acta Astronautica, Vol. 8, No. 1 (January 1981).
6. J. Day, “CTS Communications Experiments,” Paper 16. N. G. Davies et al., “CTS/Hermes—Experiments
35B, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’72 to Explore the Applications of Advanced 14/12 GHz
(December 1972). Communications Satellites,” Proceedings of the XXIXth
7. D. L. Wright and J. W. B. Day, “The Communications International Astronautical Congress (October 1978).
Technology Satellite and the Associated Ground Terminals 17. C. A. Siocos, “Broadcasting-Satellite Signal Reception
for Experiments,” Paper 75-904, AIAA Conference on Experiment in Canada Using the High-Power Satellite
Communications Satellites for Health/ Education Applications Hermes,” International Broadcasting Convention, IEE
(July 1975). Conference Publication No. 166 (September 1978).
8. E. F. Miller, J. L. Fiala, and I. G. Hansen, “Performance 18. H. R. Raine and J. S. Matsushita, “Hermes Satellite
Characteristics of the 12 GHz, 200 Watt Transmitter (CTS): Performance and Operations Summary,” Paper 80-
Experiment Package for CTS,” EASCON ’75 Convention 0578, AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
Record (September 1975). (April 1980).
9. G. H. Booth, “The Canadian/U.S. High Power 19. J. W. B. Day, N. G. Davies, and R. J. Douville, “The
Communications Technology Satellite,” Satellite Systems for Applications of Lower Power Satellites for Direct Television
Mobile Communications and Surveillance, IEE Conference Broadcasting,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 12 (December
Publication No. 95 (March 1973). 1980).
29
Experimental Satellites

20. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA History
Satellites,” http://sulu.lerc.nasa.gov/dglover/satcom2. html Office, Washington, D.C. (1997), ch 14.
(10 June 1999). 22. “Hermes, Communications Technology Satellite
21 B. C. Blevis, “The Pursuit of Equality: The Role of (CTS),” Online Journal of Space Communication, No. 4,
the Ionosphere and Satellite Communications in Canadian http://satjournal.tcom.ohiou.edu/Issue4/historal_hermes.html
Development,” in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of (25 October 2004).

Sirio
The Italian industrial research satellite (Sirio) [1–12] was MHz apart. In the satellite, they were converted to about 386
developed for use in propagation and communication MHz with a separation of 20 kHz, and a calibrated reference
experiments at 11.6 and 17.4 GHz. These frequencies were signal was inserted between them. This combined signal was
selected prior to the 1971 World Administrative Radio further converted to 266 MHz and used to amplitude-modulate
Conference and, therefore, did not exactly coincide with the 11.6 GHz downlink carrier. The downlink carrier amplitude
the satellite communication frequency bands defined at the was controlled to provide a reference level. This combination
conference. A large part of the Italian aerospace industry of uplinks and downlinks allowed all measurements to be
participated in construction of the satellite under direction of performed on the ground. The measurements made were
the Italian National Research Council (CNR). Three ground absolute attenuation at 11.6 and 17.4 GHz, and relative
stations in Italy plus stations in other European countries attenuation and phase delay over frequency intervals of 772
participated in the Sirio experiments. MHz and 532 MHz. In addition, multiple ground receivers
The satellite had a cylindrical, spin-stabilized body were used to measure space diversity improvement. Space
with a despun antenna on one end. All the equipment was diversity on the uplink was achieved by having two sidetones
mounted on an internal platform. The payload was primarily transmitted from different locations.
for support of the three primary experiments: propagation, In the NB communication mode, as many as 12 biphase
NB communications, and WB communications. Secondary modulated carriers were transmitted to the satellite by
experiments were for measurements of the natural environment frequency division multiplexing. The data rate on each carrier
at synchronous altitude. was 70 kbps, and the satellite bandwidth was 2.5 MHz. In the
In the propagation experiment, the 17.4 GHz uplink was satellite, the combined signal was amplified at IF and then used
amplitude-modulated at 386 MHz to produce two sidetones 772 to modulate the downlink carrier. The WB communication
mode was similar, except that the satellite bandwidth was 35
MHz. The uplink transmission was a single television channel
or high-rate digital data.
The satellite was operated in any one of the three modes.
The satellite equipment was common for all the modes except
for portions of the IF section. The transmitter output power
was 10 W from either of two TWTAs. The equipment details
are as follows.
Satellite
Cylinder, 56 in. diam, 34 in. height (78 in. overall)
480 lb in orbit, beginning of life
Solar cells, 135 W beginning of life, 100 W minimum after 2
years
Spin-stabilized, 90 rpm
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine thrusters
for on-orbit use

Configuration
Communication experiment: 2.5 MHz bandwidth repeater with
as many as twelve 70 kbps carriers, or 35 MHz bandwidth
repeater with one TV channel
Propagation experiment: 40 kHz bandwidth repeater

Transmitter
11.597 GHz
10 W output TWTA (one on, one standby)
EIRP: propagation mode, 16 dBW; NB communication, 24
dBW; WB communication, 26 dBW; all at edge of coverage (all
Fig. 1.30. Sirio satellite. 5 dB higher in central 1 deg of beam)

30
 Sirio

and used in a variety of experiments. In 1983, it

was moved to a position over the Indian Ocean for
17395 11597 cooperative Chinese-Italian experiments, which
D
lasted until October 1984. Sirio was turned off in
1985.
Propagation The Sirio 2 satellite was an ESA program. The
24
satellite was primarily constructed with hardware left
386 266 TW over from the basic Sirio program, but the payloads
were different. Sirio 2 had an S-band transponder
for distribution of meteorological data between
362 242 H S S ground sites, and a detector and retroreflector for a
laser clock synchronization experiment.
70 The Sirio 2 program started in 1978. The satellite
17395 292 11597 TW was launched together with a Marecs satellite on an
Ariane launch vehicle in September 1982. A failure
in the Ariane third stage resulted in the loss of both
362 satellites.
Communication
******
Fig. 1.31. Sirio communication subsytem.

Receiver
17.395 GHz
G/T: –16 dB/K (–10 dB/K over central 3
x 5 deg of beam)

Antenna
Fixed feed horn with mechanically despun
reflector, >22.5/23.5 dB gain on axis
(11.6/17.4 GHz), 6 x 10 deg beamwidth
(6 deg is north-south beamwidth), beam
center 6.5 deg above equatorial plane,
steerable 3.5°W to 4.5°E of satellite
nadir, circular polarization

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: 136.14 MHz, 6.5 W
transmitter
Command: 148.26 MHz
Four quarter wave monopole antennas

Life
Two years

Orbit
Synchronous equatorial, 15°W longitude,
later moved to 12°E longitude; moved to
65°E in early 1983; drifting in 1990s

Orbital history
Launched 25 August 1977, in use until
1985
Delta 2313 launch vehicle

Management
Developed by Italian aerospace industry
for CNR (Consiglio Nazionale della
Richerche)
The Sirio experiment was defined in
1968 and was originally scheduled to be
launched in 1972. A number of delays
occurred as the result of technical,
political, and financial reasons. The
satellite was launched 25 August 1977 Fig. 1.32. RF spectra in the Sirio satellite.

31
Experimental Satellites

1. F. Carassa, “The Italian Satellite Sirio,” Paper 70-501, 8. Special Issue on the Sirio Programme, Alta Frequenza,
AIAA 3rd Communications Satellite Systems Conference Vol. 47, No. 4 (April 1978) (English Issue No. 2). Partial
(April 1970). Reprinted in Communication Satellites for the contents:
’70s: Systems, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. a. F. Carassa, “The Sirio Programme and Its
26, N. E. Feldman and C. M. Kelly, eds. (1971). Propagation and Communication Experiment.”
2. P. Fanti and S. Tirro, “The Italian Sirio Experiments: b. A. Canciani, “System and Subsystem Design
Satellite and Ground Equipment,” Paper 70-502, AIAA 3rd Criteria of the Sirio Satellite.”
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1970).
c. G. Perrotta, “The SHF Experiment Onboard
Reprinted in Communication Satellites for the ’70s: Systems,
Equipment.”
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 26, N. E.
Feldman and C. M. Kelly, eds. (1971). d. S. Tirro, “The System Design of the SHF
Experiment.”
3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (23 August 1971),
p. 92. 9. F. Carassa et al., “The Sirio SHF Experiment and its
First Results,” Astronautics for Peace and Human Progress,
4. “Space Programmes Around the World: 2. Italy,” Proceedings of the XXIXth International Astronautical
Interavia, Vol. 26 (June 1971). Congress (October 1978).
5. “The World of Aerospace,” Interavia, Vol. 29 (January 10. E. Saggese, “In Orbit Performance of the SIRIO SHF
1974). Experiment,” Alta Frequenza, Vol. 48, No. 6 (June 1979).
6. G. Perrotta, “The Italian Sirio 12–18 GHz Experiment: 11. P. Ramat, “Propagation Measurements in Circular
The Forerunner of 20–30 GHz Preoperational Satellites,” Polarization on a Satellite-Earth Path Through SIRIO
Paper 78-631, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems Experimental Satellite,” Alta Frequenza, Vol. 48, No. 6 (June
Conference (April 1978). 1979).
7. F. Carassa, “The Sirio Programme,” Acta Astronautica, 12. P. Berlin, “The Sirio-2 Programme,” ESA Bulletin, No.
Vol. 5, No. 5–6 (May–June 1978). 19 (August 1979).

Japanese Satellites
Japan built and launched several low-altitude satellites in the NASA. These are described in chapter 8. At the same time,
early 1970s, but its first communications and broadcasting Japan was developing smaller synchronous orbit satellites and
satellites were built in the United States and launched by a launch vehicle for them. The launch vehicle was the N rocket,
which was based on the 1970 design of the U.S. Thor-Delta. An
improved version, the N-2, was based on the mid-1970s Delta.
The first synchronous orbit mission for this launch vehicle
was the Engineering Test Satellite-II (ETS-II), described
in chapter 9. The successor to ETS-II was the Experimental
Communication Satellite (JECS), which was also launched
by the N rocket. Japan continued the development and test of
satellite bus and payload technologies and the demonstration
of improved launch vehicles with a series of Engineering Test
Satellites (ETS), also known by the name Kiku. This section
describes the Engineering Test Satellites that have or had a
communications or broadcasting payload. Three closely
related satellites not numbered in the ETS series are also
described: the Communications and Broadcasting Engineering
Test Satellite (COMETS), the Optical Intersatellite (or Inter-
orbit) Communications Engineering Test Satellite (OICETS),
and the Wideband InterNetworking Engineering Test and
Demonstration Satellite (WINDS).

Japanese Experimental Communication

Satellite
The objectives of the Japanese Experimental Communication
Satellite (JECS) program [1–4] were to develop techniques for
launch and on-orbit control of synchronous satellites, to make
propagation measurements, and to conduct communications
experiments. The satellites were launched on the Japanese
N rocket. JECS was based on the Skynet I design, because
the Skynet was sized to the Delta launch vehicle from which
Fig. 1.33. Japanese Experimental Communication Satellite. the N rocket was developed; both satellites were built by the
32
 Japanese Satellites

same manufacturer. Like Skynet, JECS was spin-stabilized Life

with a mechanically despun antenna. The solar array was Approximately 1.5 years
mounted around the outside of the spinning body, and other
subsystems were attached inside the spinning body on both Orbit
sides of an equipment platform. The despun section had two Synchronous equatorial, 145°E longitude planned, both satellites
parabolic antennas whose beamwidth was sized to cover Japan actually are drifting in near synchronous elliptical orbit
while minimizing radiation on adjacent nations. The larger
Orbital history
antenna was for C-band (4 and 6 GHz), and the smaller was
for K-band (31 and 34 GHz). There was also a 128-element JECS A: launched 6 February 1979, destroyed by collision with
launch vehicle third stage during apogee motor firing
C-band array mounted around the top end of the satellite
body, which provided nearly onmidirectional coverage. The JECS B: launched 22 February 1980, destroyed by apogee
C-band equipment could be switched between the two C-band motor failure
antennas. Technical details of the satellite are as follows. Japanese N launch vehicle
Satellite Management
Cylinder, 55.7 in. diam, 37 in. height (64.8 in. overall) Developed by Mitsubishi (prime), Ford Aerospace and
Approximately 290 lb in orbit, beginning of life Communications Corporation (spacecraft and antennas), and
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 118 W maximum at beginning of Nippon Electric Company (transponder) for National Space
life, 99 W minimum after 1 year Development Agency of Japan

Spin-stabilized, 80–115 rpm The communication subsystem of the JECS had five basic
sections, shown in Fig. 1.34: C- and K-band receivers (left), an
Configuration intermediate frequency section (middle), and C- and K-band
Single transponder with selectable bandwidth of 10, 40, or 120 transmitters (right). The IF section handled only one signal
MHz, input and output independently switchable to either C- at a time. By ground commands, either transmitter and either
band or K-band receiver could be connected to the IF section, giving a total of
four possible configurations. The bandwidth of the IF section
Transmitter could be switched to 10, 40, or 120 MHz. The 10 MHz option
C-band: 4.08 GHz center frequency, redundant 5 W TWTAs was intended for range and range rate measurements and the
(one on, one standby), 23 dBW EIRP wider bandwidths for the communications experiments.
K-band: 31.65 GHz center frequency, single 2.5 W TWTA, 34 JECS was launched in early February 1979 but was
dBW EIRP destroyed during apogee motor firing, apparently by a
collision with the launch vehicle third stage. The spare JECS
Receiver was launched a year later and was destroyed by a failure of the
C-band: 6.305 GHz center frequency, tunnel diode preamplifier, apogee motor.
–12 dB/K G/T
K-band: 34.83 GHz center frequency, mixer followed by ******
transistor amplifier, –5 dB/K G/T

Antenna
C-band: narrowbeam parabola, 22 in.
diam, measured minimum gain with rotary D
joint loss 20.5/23.6 dB (transmit/receive), 6245–6365 4020–4140, 3940
beamwidth approximately 9/6.5 deg S S
C-band: array composed of 128 cavity-
backed crossed dipoles mounted in a 128 element array
band around the satellite body, pattern
nearly uniform in array plane and ±45 deg
from the plane
34,770–34,890 31,590–31,710
K-band: narrowbeam parabola, 12 in. D
diam, measured minimum gain with rotary
joint loss 34.7/34.9 dB (transmit/receive), T T T TW
beamwidth approximately 2.5 deg
H S S H
All antennas use circular polarization 30,750 27,570
The two narrowbeam antennas are despun T T TW
TD T
together
H S C
Telemetry and command 2225
TW
Telemetry: approximately 136 MHz, via
four monopole antennas S
Beacon: 3.94 GHz, via either C-band 3940
parabola or array
Beacon
Command: approximately 148 MHz, via 4
monopole antennas Fig. 1.34. JECS communication subsystem.

33
Experimental Satellites

1. M. Hirai et al., “Development of Experimental and to use GaAs solar cells, which were being produced in Japan.
Applications Satellites,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 8–9 The satellite stabilization accuracy was equal to the state of the
(August–September 1980). art achieved by other nations. The satellite and payload details
2. T. Ishida, “Program of Experimental Communication are as follows.
Satellite (ECS) of Japan,” Paper 78-614, AIAA 7th Satellite
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978). Rectangular body about 1.4 x 1.67 x 1.74 m, 3.47 m height to
3. M. Ohara, “The Satellite Transponder Performance for top of antenna, 9.7 m across tips of deployed solar arrays
the Experimental Communications Satellite (ECS),” Paper 78- 1080 kg at launch, 529 kg in orbit, end of life
563, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems Conference Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 1067 W maximum, beginning of
(April 1978). life; 820 W minimum, end of life
4. E. W. Matthews, L. F. Brokish, and G. F. Will, “The Three-axis stabilized, ±0.08 deg 3S (pitch and roll), ±0.45 deg
Communications Antenna System on the Japanese Experimental 3S (yaw)
Communications Satellite,” Paper 78-584, AIAA 7th Commu-
nications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978). Configuration
C/L-band for fixed to mobile terminals, 3 MHz bandwidth
L/C-band for mobiles to fixed, 3 MHz bandwidth
Engineering Test Satellite V C/C-band for fixed to fixed, 3 MHz bandwidth
The Japanese national space program has used Engineering L/L-band for mobiles to mobiles, 300 kHz bandwidth
Test Satellites (ETS) as a means of proving basic equipment
and techniques for satellites, launch vehicles, and satellite Transmitter
control and operations. ETS-V [1–14] was the first of this L: 1540.5–1543.5 MHz and 1545–1548 MHz
series to incorporate a communications payload. The ETS-V Two 25 W FET amplifiers
satellite, also known as Kiku-V had four objectives:
• to serve as a test payload for the Japanese H-1 launch 35.5 dBW per channel EIRP on axis
vehicle and high-energy upper stage C: 5218.75–5241.25 MHz
• to establish three-axis stabilization technology for Two 8 W FET amplifiers
synchronous orbit satellites 25 dBW EIRP on axis
• to use in experiments in maritime communications with
Japanese fishing vessels Receiver
• to use in experiments in aeronautical communication and L: 1642.5–1645.5 MHz and 1647 to 1650 MHz
navigation and air traffic control FET preamps, 1.65 dB noise figure
The communications payload of ETS-V, which was used –4 dB/K minimum G/T on axis
in satisfying the third and fourth objectives, was called the C: 5948.75–5971.25 MHz
Aeronautical Maritime Experiment Transponder. It was the
space segment of the Experimental Mobile Satellite System. FET preamps, 2.1 dB noise figure
The ETS-V satellite body, the solar arrays, and the antennas –8 dB/K G/T on axis
are shown in Fig. 1.35. ETS-V was the first Japanese-built three-
axis-stabilized satellite and served as a test of the stabilization Antenna
subsystem as well as of the deployable, sun-tracking solar L: one 1.5 m diam parabolic reflector, offset fed by two helices to
arrays. It was the first communication satellite of any nation produce two beams, each with approximately 9 deg beamwidth
and 25 dB on axis gain, circular polarization
C: one Earth coverage horn with approximately
20 dB on axis gain, circular polarization

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: in 2200–2290 MHz
Command: in 2025–2110 MHz

Life
Five years (1.5 year fuel load planned)

Orbit
Geostationary, 150°E longitude, stationkeeping
to ±0.1° N-S and E-W

Orbital history
Launched 27 August 1987, still operating in
1992, moved above synchronous orbit after
Fig. 1.35. ETS-V satellite. 1995
Japanese H-1 launch vehicle

34
 Japanese Satellites

1644, 1648.5 1540.5, 1546.5

D D

5960 5230
D

T T T T T T S

S S

IF filter network
T T T T T T S

T T T T T T

S H S

T T T T T T

Fig. 1.36. ETS-V communication subsystem.

Management Following the basic mobile communications experiments,

Developed by Mitsubishi Electric Company (prime contractor) several supplementary experiments have been conducted. One
and NEC (communication subsystem) for NASDA, Ministry of was a position location test using signals from a mobile station
Posts and Telecommunications, and Ministry of Transport transmitted through both ETS-V and the Pacific Inmarsat.
Operated by NASDA In another experiment, non-government organizations used
the satellite for mobile communications demonstrations. In
The payload used C-band to communicate with fixed ground
addition, Aussat conducted land mobile experiments through
terminals in Japan and L-band to communicate with mobile
the southern L-band antenna beam. Other experiments
terminals, that is, ships and airplanes. Both antennas as well
were conducted while the satellite continued to operate.
as an S-band telemetry and command antenna can be seen on
The experience gained through the ETS-V experiments will
the satellite (Fig. 1.35). The L-band antenna generated two
be applied in the future design of an operational mobile
independent beams, which provided coverage of all Asian
communications satellite system.
coastal waters and seas and about half of the Pacific Ocean.
The two beams provided higher gain than a single beam with ******
broader coverage; this gain was necessary to limit the antenna 1. S. Miura et al., “Aeronautical Maritime Satellite
size required on the mobiles. Communication Experiments Program,” Satellite Systems
Because ETS-V was a test satellite, rather than an for Mobile Communication and Navigation, IEE Conference
operational one, the communication subsystem had only partial Publication No. 222 (June 1983).
redundancy. There were four paths through the subsystem, for
communication between fixed terminals (C-band receiver/ 2. S. Miura, M. Wakao, and N. Futagawa, “L-Band
C-band transmit), from fixed to mobile terminals (C/L-band), Transponder of ETS-V for Experimental Mobile Satellite
from mobile to fixed terminals (L/C-band), and between System,” Paper 24.2, International Conference on Com-
mobile terminals (L/L-band). The path was determined by munications: ICC ’85 (June 1985).
the uplink frequency, which caused the IF filter network to 3. H. Murayama et al., “ETS-V System,” Paper 86-0723,
route the signal to the proper downlink. The IF filters were AIAA 11th Communication Satellite Systems Conference
constructed with surface acoustic wave devices. (March 1986).
The ETS-V satellite development began in 1983. The
4. K. Kondo et al., “Development of Aeronautical Maritime
satellite was launched in 1987. Initial testing showed that
Experimental Transponder on Engineering Test Satellite-V,”
the satellite and the payload were operating properly. The
Paper 86-0647, AIAA 11th Communication Satellite Systems
primary mobile communications experiments were conducted
Conference (March 1986).
between Earth stations in Japan and a ship and a 747 aircraft.
Signal quality was measured in many conditions, and fading 5. T. Mori and T. Iida, “Japan’s Space Development
countermeasures were tested. Land mobile communications Programs for Communications: An Overview,” IEEE Journal
were conducted with vehicles and trains; three modulation on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 5, No. 4 (May
formats were tried. The 1-1/2 year basic operational period of 1987).
the satellite finished successfully in 1989.

35
Experimental Satellites

6. M. Miura, “Perspective of Satellite Communications in satellites, whereas the ion thrusters were a new technology for
Japan,” Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 56, No. 8 (August a 10-year life satellite. Other aspects of the ETS-VI attitude
1989). control and power used techniques new to Japan. In addition,
7. K. Kondo et al., “Aeronautical Maritime Experimental the satellite carried a variety of sensors to measure the launch
Transponder on Engineering Test Satellite-V,” Proceedings of environment and the internal and external environments in
the 18th European Microwave Conference (September 1988). orbit.
ETS-VI had six communications payloads. The largest
8. K. Kondo, Y. Hashimoto, and T. Ide, “Routing was the fixed communications payload, to demonstrate high-
and Filtering in the ETS-V Transponder for Mobile capacity services between fixed-site ground terminals. The
Communication Experiments,” International Journal of primary frequency bands were 20 and 30 GHz. Each was
Satellite Communications, Vol. 7, No. 4 (October–November associated with one of the large reflectors, which form very
1989). narrow beams. Twelve of these beams were required to cover
9. K. Kondo et al., “CRL’s Mobile Satellite Communication the main islands of Japan. To reduce the payload weight in
Experiments Using ETS-V,” Paper 90-0775, 13th AIAA order to accommodate other payloads, only four beams were
International Communication Satellite Systems Conference implemented. Two of these pointed at Tokyo and Osaka, which
(March 1990). are the largest metropolitan areas; the same frequencies were
10. N. Hamamoto, K. Kondo, and S. Ohmori, “Results on used independently in both beams. This frequency reuse, in
CRL’s Mobile Satellite Communication Experiments Using addition to dual polarization frequency reuse, demonstrated
ETS-V Satellite,” Space Communications, Vol. 7, No. 4–6 techniques necessary for a very high capacity communications
(November 1990). satellite. Being an experiment, this payload did not have as
many 20 and 30 GHz transponders as the spectrum can support.
11. Aviation Week & Space Technology (21 October 1985), However, it also had one transponder using the 4 and 6 GHz
p. 127; (28 October 1985), p. 47; (10 March 1986), p. 139; (28 bands. This transponder shared the 30 GHz reflector and has
July 1986), p. 43; (25 August 1986), p. 83; (11 May 1987), p. one beam that covered most of Japan. Its purpose was to be an
142. alternate to any of the 20 and 30 GHz transponders and beams,
12. S. Ohmori et al., “Experiments on Aeronautical Satellite if the traffic exceeded their capacity or if they were temporarily
Communications Using ETS-V Satellite,” IEEE Transactions unavailable due to attenuation caused by heavy rain.
on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 28, No. 3 (July The mobile communications payload shared the 20 GHz
1992). reflector and had five beams, which covered all of Japan plus
the ocean areas to 200 miles offshore. The main demonstration
13. “ETS-V Engineering Test Satellite V [Kiku-5],” http://
with this payload was communications between small fishing
yyy.tksc.nasda.go.jp/Home/This/This-e/ets-5_e.html (10 June
vessels and shore stations. The one transmitter of this payload
1999).
amplified the signals for all five beams, dividing its power
14. R. Miura, et al., “A Land-Mobile Satellite Track- automatically in proportion to the number of signals in each
ing Experiment with a DBF Self-Beam Steering Array beam. This feature was important because the traffic patterns
Antenna,” Electronics and Communications in Japan (Part for mobile terminals are variable.
I: Communications), Vol. 81, No. 7 (July 1998), available at The fixed and mobile communications payloads were
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jissue/39481 (25 connected through an IF switch. This allowed signals from any
October 2004). of the uplink beams to be routed to any of the downlink beams.
The switch was fast enough to route individual time division
multiple access (TDMA) bursts to different beams. Within
Engineering Test Satellite VI the fixed communications payload, the TDMA rate was as
ETS-VI [1–38] was one of the Experimental Test Satellites high as 200 Mbps; rates within the mobile communications
(ETS) developed and launched by Japan. The project had three payload were limited by its 5 MHz bandwidth. The IF switch
broad objectives. One was spacecraft technology: to develop was supplemented by a 20 GHz RF routing switch.
and operate a three-axis-stabilized satellite weighing more than Both switches shared an onboard controller, which
4000 lb. Another was to verify the capability of the Japanese communicated with the ground via separate 20 and 30 GHz
H-II launch vehicle by launching ETS-VI on the second flight control and status links.
of the H-II series. A third was to build, and demonstrate in Another payload was the S-band intersatellite link. Its
orbit, several communications payloads incorporating new performance was similar to that of the S-band multiple access
technologies appropriate to future operational missions. portion of the U.S. Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS).
The development aspect of the spacecraft technology The reason was that the Japanese planned to develop their own
objective was carried out both by the basic design features of relay satellite compatible with the U.S. TDRS. The antenna
ETS-VI and by several experiments. The spacecraft body was a used a 19-element phased array to form one transmit and two
rectangular box, with solar arrays, two large antenna reflectors, receive beams steerable to any satellite at altitudes up to 1000
and one smaller antenna compartment, which deploy from it km. In the satellite drawing in Fig. 1.37, the phased array is the
in orbit. The structure was made of composite materials. A flat hexagonal panel to one side of the antenna tower. These
bipropellant system was used for the apogee maneuver and S-band intersatellite links were coupled with 20 and 30 GHz
in-orbit control, augmented by ion thrusters for north-south feeder links to and from the ground; together they provided
stationkeeping. A nickel-cadmium battery was the primary two-way communications between ground stations and low
power storage, but ETS-VI also had a nickel-hydrogen battery. orbit satellites. Transmissions were PSK with code division
The latter was new for Japan, although common in other multiple access. Bit rates up to 1.5 Mbps were possible, but

36
 Japanese Satellites

rates under 300 kbps were used most of the

time.
Another intersatellite link payload
used Ka-band: 23 GHz for a link
from ETS-VI and 26 GHz for a return
link. This payload was similar to one
planned by the United States for the
Advanced TDRS, and now in orbit on TDRS 8
to 10. Its purpose was to prepare for the Japanese relay
satellite in a manner compatible with TDRS (and with the
planned European relay satellite). Like the S-band intersatellite
payload, this payload was coupled with 20 and 30 GHz feeder
links between ETS-VI and the ground. Data rates up to about 10
Mbps will to be tested. Testing of both intersatellite payloads
began with a ground-based user satellite simulator.
Another ETS-VI payload was for millimeter wave Fig. 1.37. ETS-VI satellite.
communications. The primary purpose of this payload was to
demonstrate communications with very small Earth terminals,
for example, as small as a 30 cm diameter antenna and 0.5 W
transmitter. Another application was for an intersatellite link, Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver,
which can be demonstrated with a ground-based simulator. hydrazine monopropellant for on-orbit use, plus ion propulsion
This payload used 38 GHz for transmissions from ETS- for north-south stationkeeping
VI and 43 GHz to ETS-VI. The data rate with small Earth
terminals was 64 to 512 kbps; for intersatellite demonstrations Configuration
it was 10 Mbps. The attenuation caused by rain is very high Fixed communications payload (FC): multiple 200 MHz
bandwidth transponders at C band (4 and 6 GHz) and Ka-band
at these frequencies, but many of the applications postulated
(18 and 30 GHz) connecting multiple beams through an IF
for the small Earth terminals do not require continuous switch, dual-polarization and dual-beam frequency reuse
communications and are able to tolerate outages during storms.
The millimeter wave payload was small—a 16 in. antenna and Mobile communications payload (MC): five beams connected
through a single 5 MHz bandwidth S-band (2.5/2.6 GHz)
a weight of 22 lb. It was mounted on the same platform as the
transponder
Ka-band intersatellite payload. A single pointing mechanism
steered the platform and provided the antenna pointing control S-band Intersatellite Link payload (S-ISL): one forward tran-
for both payloads. These payloads were mounted on the side sponder with 5 MHz bandwidth, one return transponder with 5
MHz bandwidth
of the antenna tower opposite the S-band phased array. The
millimeter-wave payload was also connected to the 20 and Ka-band Intersatellite Link payload (K-ISL): one forward
30 GHz feeder links for communications with the primary transponder and one return transponder
experiment ground terminals. Millimeter wave payload (MMW): one forward transponder and
ETS-VI also had an optical communications payload. The one return transponder
aim of this payload was to demonstrate technology for an Optical payload (Opt): duplex communications, 1 Mbps data
intersatellite link. The payload had a 7.5 cm diameter telescope. rate
The uplink used an argon laser, the downlink a GaAlAs diode S-ISL, K-ISL, and MMW are each connected with 30 GHz
laser. The data rate was 1 Mbps. The payload used a two-stage (uplink) and 20 GHz (downlink) feeder links through a 2 GHz
control loop. A charge-coupled device array detector provided IF switch network; the two transponders within each of these
coarse pointing information to the outer loop, which controlled payloads can be connected to each other as an alternative to
a gimballed flat mirror. A quadrant detector provided fine the feeder link connections
pointing information to an inner loop, which controlled the fine
pointing mechanism. Pointing accuracy while autotracking the Transmitter
uplink was expected to be 2 mrad (0.0001 deg). FC: 3.82 GHz (H polarization), 4.08 GHz (H), 17.885 GHz (V
Development of ETS-VI began in 1987. Structural and and H), 18.365 GHz (V)
thermal tests of satellite engineering models were conducted 7 W SSPAs at 4 GHz
in 1989 and 1990. Additional details are as follows. K-ISL feeder: 19.938 GHz
Satellite S-ISL feeder: 20.1219, 20.2455 GHz
Rectangular body 2.0 x 3.0 x 2.8 m, 29.95 m across the deployed 10 W TWTAs at 18 GHz, plus 4 W SSPA near 20 GHz for
solar arrays, 7.85 m height of body plus antenna tower a downlink associated with the ISL and MMW payloads
3800 kg at launch, 2000 kg in intended orbit, beginning of life; MC: 2502.5 MHz
1906 kg dry
8 GaAs FET power amplifiers
Sun-tracking solar arrays, NiCd battery (operations), NiH2
battery (test), approximately 4720 W beginning of life, 4100 W 100 W total output power flexibly shared among beams
minimum at summer solstice after 10 years S-ISL: 2108.4 MHz
Three-axis-stabilized, ±0.05 deg accuracy in pitch and roll, 0.9 W SSPA for each of 16 antenna elements
±0.15 deg accuracy in yaw
34.2 dBW minimum total EIRP

37
Experimental Satellites

K-ISL: 23.3875 GHz

3 W SSPA
Subreflector Subreflector
36.2 dBW minimum EIRP position position
MMW: 38.0 GHz
Two SSPAs, one 0.8 W, one 0.5 Pointing Pointing
W, each with four parallel GaAs control control
FETs in the final stage, one
active, one spare Receiver Control Tr ansmitter
Opt: 0.83 micron
Two GaAlAs laser diodes, 14
mW average power, one active, 30 GHz 20 GHz S
one spare receivers transmitters
IF
Receiver switch
FC: 6.045 GHz (V polarization), 6.305 6 GHz 4 GHz
GHz (V), 27.685 GHz (V and H), receivers transmitters
28.165 GHz (V), 30.805 GHz (V),
3.5 dB receiver noise figure at 6
GHz From mobile To mobile
communications communications
K-ISL feeder: 29.772 GHz payload payload
S-ISL feeder: 29.8984 GHz Fig. 1.38. ETS-VI fixed communications subsystem.
5 dB receiver noise figure with HEMT preamplifiers at 27
to 31 GHz, <7.4 dB system noise figure K-ISL: 80 cm diam parabola, >34.7/36.3 dB gain (transmit/
MC: 2657.5 MHz receive), ±0.2 deg pointing accuracy with autotracking,
steerable ±9.8 deg, circular polarization
2.5 dB receiver noise figure
MMW: 40 cm diam parabola, 37/41 dB gain (transmit/receive),
S-ISL: 2287.5 MHz mounted on same steerable platform as Ka-ISL antenna,
1.5 dB receiver noise figure circular polarization
–4 dB/K minimum G/T Opt: 7.5 cm diam gimballed telescope, 30 or 60 mrad (1.7 or 3.4
mdeg) transmit beamwidth; two-stage pointing with autotrack,
K-ISL: 25.8505 GHz (data), 25.298 (beacon) coarse pointing accuracy 32 mrad, fine pointing accuracy 2
5 dB receiver noise figure with HEMT preamplifier mrad
6.4 dB/K minimum G/T
Telemetry and command
MMW: 43.0 GHz Telemetry: in 2200–2290 MHz
5.2 dB receiver noise figure with HEMT preamplifier Command: in 2025–2110 MHz
Opt: 0.51 micron
Life
Avalanche photodiode
Ten years (spacecraft), 2 to 3 years (payloads)
Antenna
Orbit
FC and MC: One 2.5 m diam reflector for 4, 6, and 27–31 GHz;
one 4 and 6 GHz feed horn produces one beam with 33/35 dB Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W intended,
gain at edge of coverage, linear polarization; about two dozen but see “Orbital history”
27–31 GHz feed horns form four 0.3 deg beams with 48 dB
Orbital history
gain at edge of coverage, dual linear polarizations; the two
frequency bands share the antenna via a frequency selective Launched 28 August 1994, did not reach intended orbit; initial
surface; 0.015 deg antenna pointing accuracy at 27–31 GHz orbit approximately 4200 x20,800 nmi, 13 deg inclination; orbit
using a steerable subreflector. One 3.5 m diam reflector for 2 for experimental use 4620 x 20,873 nmi, 13 deg inclination
and 18 GHz; twelve 2 GHz feed horns produce five beams with Japanese H-II launch vehicle
31 dB gain at edge of coverage, circular polarization; about
two dozen 18 GHz feed horns form four 0.3 deg beams with 48 Management
dB gain at edge of coverage, dual linear polarizations; the two Developed for NASDA by Toshiba (spacecraft), NTT (FC and
frequency bands share the antenna via a frequency selective MC payloads), and others
surface; 0.015 deg antenna pointing accuracy at 18 GHz using
a steerable subreflector ETS-VI was launched in August 1994. The launch vehicle
operated as expected and delivered the satellite to a transfer
S-ISL: 19-element phased array, elements arranged in a
orbit. However, because of a faulty valve, the satellite’s
hexagonal pattern, 5.8 ft across corners; all 19 elements used
to form two receive beams, 16 elements used to form one apogee motor produced only one-tenth of the design thrust,
transmit beam; element gain r14.8/14.5 dB (receive/transmit); which left the satellite in an inclined, elliptical orbit. Since the
total gain >27.3/26.2 dB (receive/transmit); beams steerable satellite could not be moved to a circular, geostationary orbit,
±10 deg, pointing error r1.1 deg; circular polarization the initial orbit was modified slightly in November 1994 to
a period of five orbits in 3 days, so that the satellite track, as

38
 Japanese Satellites

VI,” Paper 24.8, Global Telecommunications Conference:

Globecom ’87 (November 1987).
2.6 GHz
D 5. K. Nakagawa, M. Kawai, and M. Tanaka, “Fixed and
D
D Mobile Satellite Communication Systems for ETS-VI,” Paper
D 88-0866, AIAA 12th International Communication Satellite
D
Systems Conference (March 1988).
T 6. T. Yasaka et al., “Multi-Band Multi-Beam Antenna
Complex for Orbit Experiment,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 18
T (1988).
7. I. Ohtomo and H. Kumazawa, “On-Board Multibeam
T C MPA Antenna Technologies for Future Communication Satellite,”
Proceedings of the 18th European Microwave Conference
T (September 1988).
T
8. K. Nakamaru et al., “An Overview of Japan’s Engineering
Test Satellite VI (ETS-VI) Project,” Paper 52.3, International
To From Conference on Communications: ICC ’89 (June 1989).
IF switch shared with
MPA Multiport amplifier
fixed communications 9. M. Tanaka et al., “Experimental Fixed and Mobile
payload
Satellite Communications System,” Paper 52.4, International
Fig. 1.39. ETS-VI mobile communications subsystem. Conference on Communications: ICC ’89 (June 1989).
10. S. Okubo, “ETS-VI Experimental S-Band Inter-
viewed from the ground, repeated every 3 days. New attitude Satellite Communications System,” Paper 52.5, International
control and solar-array pointing strategies were developed Conference on Communications: ICC ’89 (June 1989).
and implemented. These allowed use of the satellite, although 11. M. Shikatani, “ETS-VI Experimental Optical Inter-
with limitations on the portions of the orbit available for Satellite Communication Systems,” Paper 52.6, International
experiments. Furthermore, the radiation level in this orbit is Conference on Communications: ICC ’89 (June 1989).
much higher than in the intended geostationary orbit, which
causes the solar array output to decrease faster. 12. M. Kawai et al., “Multibeam Satellite Communications
Experiments with the satellite began late in 1994. All of System for Fixed and Mobile Communications Experiments,”
the satellite bus technology experiments, except the apogee Space Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4 (1989).
propulsion, were successful. Use of the communication 13. H. Kamazawa, I. Ohtomo, and Y. Kawakami, “Fixed/
subsystems showed that all equipment was functioning Mobile Multi-Beam Communication Antenna for ETS-VI
with performance levels close to those measured before Satellite,” 1989 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas
launch. S-band mobile communications were demonstrated and Propagation (June 1989).
and propagation data were gathered. Performance of the 14. K. Nakamaru et al., “Design and Development Status of
S-band intersatellite link was measured, and the link was the Engineering Test Satellite-VI (ETS-VI),” Paper 90-0874,
demonstrated with a simulated user at a ground station and 13th AIAA International Communication Satellite Systems
then with NASA’s Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite. Conference (March 1990).
Performance of the millimeter wave payload was measured
and demonstrations and propagation measurements conducted 15. I. Ohtomo, “Development of the On-Board Fixed and
using it. Acquisition and tracking of the optical uplink and Mobile Multibeam Antenna for ETS-VI Satellite,” Paper
downlink were demonstrated and atmospheric conditions 90-0805, 13th AIAA International Communication Satellite
measured in Japan. Optical acquisition, tracking, and bit error Systems Conference (March 1990).
rate measurements were conducted with a NASA ground 16. M. Tanaka et al., “Experimental Intersatellite Data
station in California. Communication experiments with ETS- Relay and Tracking System for ETS-VI,” Paper 90-0887,
VI continued into 1996. 13th AIAA International Communication Satellite Systems
****** Conference (March 1990).
1. T. Iida et al., “Japan’s Large Experimental 17. Y. Suzuki et al., “Experimental Millimeter-Wave
Communications Satellite (ACTS-E): Its Mission Model and Satellite Communications System,” Paper 90-0813, 13th AIAA
Technology,” International Conference on Communications: International Communication Satellite Systems Conference
ICC ’84 (May 1984). (March 1990).
2. T. Mori and T. Iida, “Japan’s Space Development 18. M. Kawai, M. Tanaka, and I. Ohtomo, “ETS-VI
Programs for Communications: An Overview,” IEEE Journal on Multibeam Satellite Communications Systems,” Paper 89-520,
Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 5, No. 4 (May 1987). 40th Congress of the International Astronautical Federation
(October 1989).
3. M. Miura, “Perspective of Satellite Communications in
Japan,” Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 56, No. 8 (August 19. T. Ono and M. Mori, “On-board Satellite Switch
1989). Conttroller for Multi-beam Communication Satellite,: Paper
326.6, International Conference on Communications: ICC’90
4. Y. Kawakami et al., “On-Board Ka-Band Multibeam (July 1990).
Antenna System with High-Pointing Accuracy for ETS-
39
Experimental Satellites

26. H. Kitahara et al., “The ETS-VI Satellite,” Paper 94-

43 GHz 38 GHz 1162, AIAA 15th International Communications Satellite
D
Systems Conference (February 1994).
T 27. N. Kadowaki, S. Isobe, and Y. Suzuki, “Research and
Development on Personal Satellite Communications in Japan,”
T T P S T H S Paper 94-1053, AIAA 15th International Communications
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994).
2 GHz
41 GHz 36 GHz T 28. H. Kohata et al., “Operations and Communications
To From
feeder links
Experiments of ETS-VI on an Elliptical Orbit,” Paper AIAA-
98-1000, 16th International Communications Satellite Systems
Fig. 1.40. ETS-VI millimeter wave subsystem. Conference (February 1996).
29. Y. Arimoto, “Satellite Communication Experiment
3 elements 16 elements Using ETS-VI—Overview of the Experiment,” Journal of the
Communications Research Laboratory, Vol. 44, No. 1 (March
2.3 GHz 2.1 GHz
D 1997).
30. T. Ikegami, “Results of ETS-VI Satellite
T P PS C T P PS T Communications Experiment—S-Band and Millimeter-Wave
PS C Communication Experiments,” Journal of the Communications
Research Laboratory, Vol. 44, No. 1 (March 1997).
19 identical units 16 identical units
31. K Araki et al., “Results of ETS-VI Satellite
Communications Experiment—Laser Communications
To From Experiment,” Journal of the Communications Research
PS Phase shifters feeder links Laboratory, Vol. 44, No. 1 (March 1997).
Fig. 1.41. ETS-VI S-band intersatellite link subsystem. 32. K. E. Wilson et al., “Overview of the Ground-to-Orbit
Lasercom Demonstration,” Space Communications, Vol. 15,
No. 2 (1998).
25.8 GHz 23.4 GHz
D 33. N. Kadowaki, et al., “Advanced Satellite Commu-
nications Experiments Using ETS-VI,” TENCON ‘92. Tech-
nology Enabling Tomorrow: Computers, Communications
T T
and Automation towards the 21st Century, 1992 IEEE Region
10 International Conference, Vol. 2 (November 1992), pp.
2 GHz
24 GHz 21 GHz 695–699.
To From 34. H. Kumazawa, I. Ohtomo and Y. Kawakami, “Fixed/
feeder links
Mobile Multi-Beam Communication Antenna for ETS-VI
Fig. 1.42. ETS-VI Ka-band intersatellite link subsystem. satellite,” pp. 472–475, Digest of the Antennas and Propagation
Society International Symposium, Vol. 1 (June 1989).
20. M. Shikatani et al., “Optical Intersatellite Link 35. K. Araki, et al., “Results in Space Laser Communications
Experiment Between the Earth Station and ETS-VI,” Free Demonstration Using ETS-VI Satellite,” Paper AAS 97-416,
Space Laser Communication Technologies II, SPIE Vol. 1218 Space Cooperation into the 21st Century, Proceedings of the
(1990). 7th International Space Conference of Pacific Basin Societies,
21. K. Horikawa, M. Tanaka, and K. Yamamoto, “A Highly Advances in the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 96, Univelt, Inc.,
Flexible and Highly Efficient 100W S-Band Transponder for San Diego (1997).
Multibeam Mobile Satellite Communications,” Paper 92-1823, 36. M. Tanaka, et al., “Antenna Pattern Measurement of
AIAA 14th International Communications Satellite Systems S-Band Active Phased Array on ETS-VI,” Electronics and
Conference (March 1992). Communications in Japan (Part I: Communications), Vol. 80,
22. K. Araki et al., “ETS-VI Laser Communications No. 4 (April 1997), available at http://www3.interscience.
Experiment System,” Paper 92-1833, AIAA 14th International wiley.com/cgi-bin/jissue/57454 (25 October 2004).
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1992). 37. Y. Matsumoto, et al., “Evaluation of System Noise
23. H. Kitahara et al., “The ETS-VI Satellite System Temperature of S-band Intersatellite Communications Equip-
and Experiments,” Paper 92-2051, AIAA 14th International ment on ETS-VI Satellite,” Electronics and Communications
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1992). in Japan (Part I: Communications), Vol. 80, No. 1 (January
24. S. Samejima, M. Tanaka, and I. Ohtomo, “Overview 1997), available at http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-
of Satellite On-Board Multibeam Communications System for bin/jissue/57389 (25 October 2004).
ETS-VI,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 28 (1992). 38. K. E. Wilson, et al., “ Overview of the Ground-to-Orbit
25. K. Nakamaru et al., “Technologies for Japan’s Lasercom Demonstration,” Space Communications, Vol. 15,
Engineering Test Satellite-VI,” Space Technology, Vol. 13, No. No. 2 (1998).
4 (July 1993).

40
 Japanese Satellites

Communications and Broadcast frequencies were chosen for the wide bandwidth available
Engineering Test Satellite and the small size mobile terminals that can be built. The
The Communications and Broadcasting Engineering Test disadvantage was link outages because of the high atmospheric
Satellite (COMETS) program [1–16] was conducted by the attenuation in rain; these outages were considered acceptable
Japanese National Space Development Agency (NASDA) and for personal communications, whereas they are not acceptable
by the Communications Research Laboratory of the Ministry for many other communication links.
of Posts and Telecommunications. COMETS, also known This payload had two antenna beams, one aimed at Tokyo
as Kakehashi, continued the efforts of the ETS-V and ETS- and one aimed at the adjacent Nagoya area. Both had K-band
VI programs in the development of new technology and the capability; the Tokyo beam also had the millimeter wave
conduct of experiments in three fields: data relay, broadcasting, capability. The two beams intentionally had adjacent footprints
and mobile communications. The COMETS program began in to allow evaluation of interference effects. Of the three beam
1990. The satellite bus was derived from that of ETS-VI; it and frequency combinations available, the payload supported
supports three payloads. any two simultaneously in either a frequency translation mode
The purpose of the interorbit communications equipment or a regenerative mode or both. The payload had an overall
was to demonstrate link acquisition and tracking, and data bandwidth of 36 MHz, split into three 500 kHz and three 6
transfer between satellites in geosynchronous and low Earth MHz wide frequency translation channels plus an 800 kHz
orbits, and to evaluate orbit determination of the satellites by filter for the regenerative channel. The regenerative channel
means of tracking data derived from the links. The Japanese allowed up to eight 4.8 or 24 kbps FDMA uplinks; each of the
advanced Earth observation satellite was to have been the eight were demodulated, then time-division-multiplexed for
primary low orbit satellite communicating with COMETS. retransmission to the ground.
The technology and experiments with this payload directly COMETS was about the same size and weight as ETS-VI.
supported development of Japan’s data relay satellite system, It had three large antennas, one for interorbit links, one for the
for which the first satellite was launched in 2002 (refer to broadcasting payload, and one for the data-relay feeder links
chapter 8). This relay system is intended to be interoperable and the mobile communications payload. Satellite and payload
with those of NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). details available follow.
The interorbit communications payload had both S-band and Satellite
Ka-band interorbit links coupled with K-band links between Rectangular body 2 x 3 x 2.8 m, 7.87 m height including antenna
COMETS and the ground. The interorbit link frequencies were tower, 30.9 m span across deployed solar arrays
compliant with the interoperability agreement of NASDA, 3945 kg at launch, 2150 kg in orbit, beginning of life
NASA, and ESA. The payload supported single forward
Sun-tracking solar arrays with GaAs cells, NiH2 batteries,
(COMETS to low orbit) and return (low orbit to COMETS) >5300 W at end of life
channels in each frequency band. The return link data rate
capability was 100 bps to 6 Mbps at S-band and 1 to 120 Three-axis-stabilized, interorbit link antenna pointing to 0.16
deg (program track), ±0.043 deg (autotrack)
Mbps at Ka-band; the forward rate was 100 bps to 300 kbps
at S-band and 100 kbps to 30 Mbps at Ka-band. Modulation Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver, liquid
formats included BPSK and QPSK. The acquisition and monopropellant propulsion for on-orbit use, ion propulsion for
tracking experiments had a goal to demonstrate a tracking loss north-south stationkeeping
of no more than 0.5 dB at Ka-band with a 3.6 m diam antenna Configuration
on COMETS.
Interorbit communications (IO): 2 MHz bandwidth forward
The purpose of the satellite broadcasting equipment was channel at S-band (2 GHz), 10 MHz bandwidth return channel
to evaluate performance of the equipment on the satellite at S-band (2.2 GHz), 30 MHz bandwidth forward channel at
and to conduct broadcasting experiments. Several past Ka-band (23 GHz), 150 MHz bandwidth return channel at Ka-
and current Japanese satellites provide television band (26 GHz); K-band (20 and 30 GHz) feeder links with the
broadcasting in the 12 GHz downlink band. This ground
payload was the first evaluation of the 21 GHz Broadcasting (Br): two 120 MHz bandwidth channels
satellite broadcasting band. (Although the
allocated satellite broadcasting band is 21.4 to
22.0 GHz, the COMETS payload transmitted at Fig. 1.43. COMETS satellite.
20.7 GHz.) The payload had two beams, one each
for the southern and Tokyo areas of Japan; these two
were representative of six beams that would cover all of
Japan in an operational system. One broadcasting signal was
transmitted in each of the two beams. The satellite power
amplifier was a 200 W coupled cavity TWTA developed in
Japan. Broadcasting experiments included comparisons of
modulation and compression techniques and evaluation of the
effects of atmospheric attenuation and cochannel interference
between the two beams.
The purpose of the mobile communications equipment was
to test mobile and personal communications equipment and
techniques that could be implemented in a future system. Both
K-band and millimeter wave frequencies were tested. These
41
Experimental Satellites

Feeder link and Inter-orbit links Receiver

mobile/personal
IO: S-band tuneable in 2200–2290 MHz, Ka-
band tuneable in 25.525–26.425 GHz; feeder
To tracking
link 30.18 GHz (for S-band), 29.785 GHz (for
receiver BFN BFN BFN c Ka-band)
D d a D D G/T 7 dB/K minimum (S-band), 26 dB/K
minimum
b
(Ka-band)
30 GHz
2 GHz Br: 27.3 and 27.8 GHz
MP: 30.75–30.85 GHz (K-band), 46.87–46.9
(millimeter)
23 GHz
S H H H S Two low-noise receivers (K-band)
One active, one spare HEMT LNA, 2.3 dB
noise figure (millimeter)

To Antenna
mobile/personal
payload IO: 3.6 m diam reflector for S-band and Ka-
band, four S-band feed horns surrounding a
d
single multimode K-band horn, autotracking
at Ka-band, steerable to 10 deg from nadir,
switchable between two circular polarizations
a S H H S 20 GHz K-band feeder links via MP antenna
2.2 GHz
C Horn, approximately 20 deg beamwidth for
beacon
Br: 2.3 m diam reflector with multiple feed horns,
From autotracking, maximum gain 50 dB, gain over
mobile/personal coverage areas 44 dB, circular polarization
payload
H MP: 2.0 m diam reflector with multiple feeds,
autotracking
b S
26 GHz Tracking Telemetry and command
receiver Telemetry: in 2200–2290 MHz band
H H S Command: in 2025–2110 MHz band
Antenna
control Life
Three years
Receiver, same as above
c S
26 GHz Orbit
Geostationary, 121°E longitude intended, but
Fig. 1.44. COMETS interorbit communications subsystem.
see “Orbital history”

Mobile and personal communications (MP): two K-band (20 Orbital history
and 30 GHz) beams and one mm-wave (44/47 GHz) beam, any Launched 21 February 1998, did not reach intended orbit; initial
two simultaneously, 36 MHz bandwidth (divided as described orbit 246 x 1902 nmi at 30 deg inclination; orbit for experimental
in text) use 473 x 17,711 km, 30 deg inclination
Transmitter Japanese H-2 launch vehicle
IO: S-band tuneable in 2025–2110 MHz, Ka-band tuneable in
23.19–23.55 GHz plus beacons at 23.3875 and 23.54 GHz;
feeder link 20.37 GHz (for S-band), 19.685 GHz (for Ka-band) BFN
One active, one spare SSPA (S-band), EIRP 38–43.5 dBW D BFN
D
One active, one spare SSPA (Ka-band), EIRP 48–56 dBW
TWTA for beacon (Ka-band), EIRP 27 dBW
Br: 20.7 GHz H TW

Two active, one spare coupled-cavity TWTA, switchable to

200 W or 63 W S H S TW 3/2
MP: 20.98–21.07 GHz (Ka-band), 43.75–43.78 GHz
(millimeter)
H TW
Two 20 W SSPAs (K-band)
One 20 W TWTA (millimeter) Fig. 1.45. COMETS broadcasting subsystem.

42
 Japanese Satellites

Management
NASDA; payload developments managed by NASDA
and CRL
During the launch of COMETS, the second burn of
the second stage of the launch vehicle was shorter
than programmed. This left COMETS in a low orbit.
By the end of May 1998, seven orbit adjustments had
raised the satellite to an elliptical orbit with a ground
track that repeated nine times in 2 days. Ground
terminals were modified to accommodate the large
angular motion of the satellite and Doppler shift
caused by the unplanned orbit. Use of COMETS
began in July 1998 and continued into 1999. Tests
included evaluation of equipment on the satellite, Fig. 1.46. COMETS mobile personal communications subsystem.
communications demonstrations, and propagation
measurements. Most use of COMETS was with ground 10. C. Ohuchi. “Mobile and Personal Satellite Communications
terminals in Japan, but some use was made with ground Experiments with Japan’s Experimental Satellite COMETS,”
terminals in Australia. Proceedings of the Second European Workshop on Mobile/
Personal Satcoms (EMPS ’96) (October 1996), pp. 195–202.
******
11. H. Wakana, et al., “COMETS for Ka-Band and Mil-
1. M. Takeuchi et al., “Experimental Advanced Mobile
limeter-Wave Advanced Mobile Satellite Communications and
Satellite Communications System in MM-Wave and Ka-
21 GHz Advanced Satellite Broadcasting Experiments,” IEEE
Band Using Japan’s COMETS,” Globecom ’92, IEEE Global
International Conference on Communications (June 1998), p. 79.
Telecommunications Conference, Vol. 1 (December 1992).
12. H. Wakana, et al., “COMETS Experiments for
2. T. Oshima et al., “Planned Experiments Using the
Advanced Mobile Satellite Communications and Advanced
Communications and Broadcasting Engineering Test Satellite
Satellite Broadcasting,” International Journal of Satellite
(COMETS),” Third European Conference on Satellite
Communications, Vol. 18, No. 2 (March-April 2000).
Communications, IEE Conference Publication Number 381
(November 1993). 13. H. Wakana, et al., “Communications and Broadcasting
Experimental test Satellite (COMETS) – Experimental Results,”
3. N. Kadowaki, S. Isobe, and Y. Suzuki, “Research and
Paper 2000-1150, AIAA 18th International Communications
Development on Personal Satellite Communications in Japan,”
Satellite Systems Conference (April 2000).
Paper 94-1053, AIAA 15th International Communications
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994). 14. M. Ohkawa, et al., “COMETS 21-GHz Advanced
Satellite Broadcasting Experiments—Evaluation of Trellis-
4. K. Kameda et al., “Experimental Inter-Orbit
Coded 8-PSK Performance,” IEEE Transactions on
Communications System in the Communications and
Broadcasting, Vol. 46, No. 2 (June 2000).
Broadcasting Engineering Test Satellite,” Paper 94-0907,
AIAA 15th International Communications Satellite Systems 15. A. Miura, et al. “Ka-Band Aeronautical Satellite
Conference (February 1994). Communications Experiments Using COMETS,” IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Vol. 51, No. 5
5. S. Ohmori et al., “Advanced Mobile Satellite
(September 2002).
Communications Using COMETS Satellite in mm-Wave and
Ka-Band,” Proceedings of the Third International Mobile 16. M. Ohkawa, “Comets 21 GHz Advanced Satellite
Satellite Conference (June 1993). Broadcasting Experiments,” 2000 Asia-Pacific Microwave
Conference (December 2002), pp. 1539–1542.
6. M. Takeuchi et al., “Facilities for COMETS
Experiments,” AAS Paper 95-568, Strengthening Cooperation
in the 21st Century, Proceedings of the 6th International Space
Congress of Pacific Basin Societies, American Astronautical
Engineering Test Satellite VIII
Society (1996). The Engineering Test Satellite VIII (ETS-VIII) [1–20] is
being developed by the Japanese National Space Development
7. H. Nishida et al., “The COMETS Satellite,” Paper Agency (NASDA) to demonstrate the following technologies.
AIAA-96-0999, 16th International Communications Satellite • Satellite bus suitable for a satellite in-orbit weight on
Systems Conference (February 1996). the order of 6000 pounds (almost 50 percent larger than
8. T. Takahashi et al., “Ka-Band Satellite Broadcasting ETS-VI and COMETS)
Experiments Using COMETS,” Paper AIAA-98-1304, 17th • Very large deployable antenna reflector
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference • Communication subsystem that will enable voice- and low-
(February 1998). speed communications with, and broadcasting to, hand-
9. E. Morikawa et al., “Ka-Band and Millimeter-Wave held terminals, and high-speed packet communications
Advanced Mobile Satellite Communication Experiments with terminals the size of a laptop computer
Using the COMETS Satellite,” Paper AIAA-98-1305, 17th • Atomic clock and navigation signal generator on the
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference satellite
(February 1998).

43
Experimental Satellites

The second and third technologies are the main mission by other organizations using the capabilities of the satellite
of the project. The second technology provides the large as made available by JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration
reflector needed for the satellite to communicate with hand- Agency), the successor to NASDA. Additional details follow.
held terminals, and the first technology provides the satellite Satellite
bus capable of supporting the deployed reflector, and the high- Rectangular body approximately 2.35 x 2.45 x 7.3 m including
power transmitter and other equipment that is part of the third antennas, 40 m span across deployed solar arrays, 37 m span
technology. The fourth technology includes two Cesium clocks across deployed reflectors
on the satellite and will be tested, in conjunction with the Global
5800 kg at launch, 2900 kg in orbit, beginning of life
Positioning System and laser range finding from the ground,
with a view toward a future satellite positioning system. Sun-tracking solar arrays, NiH2 batteries, 7500 W at summer
There are two large deployable reflectors on ETS-VIII. solstice after 3 years of life
One is for transmitting, the other for receiving. Each reflector Three-axis-stabilized, pointing accuracy ±0.05 deg (roll and
is composed of 14 hexagonal modules. Each module has a pitch), ±0.15 deg (yaw)
mesh surface with cables that control the surface of the mesh. Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and on-
Each module has six radial truss members that fold together orbit use
for launch, so that an entire reflector occupies a cylinder 1 m
diam by 3.4 m length. Configuration
Although the large reflectors with their phased-array feeds Communications (C): S-band communications with mobile
could generate many beams, only three beams will be used on terminals
ETS-VIII. Each of these beams will be pointed at a different part Broadcasting (B): S-band broadcasting to mobile terminals
of Japan. In the transmitter, each feed network section divides Feeder link (F): feeder link for communications and
the signal into 31 paths, each of which has an independent broadcasting
attenuator and phase shifter followed by an amplifier. The
output of each path is combined with the corresponding path Transmitter
of the other section and applied to one of the 31 elements of C and B: 2500–2505 MHz and 2535–2540 MHz
the reflector feed array. In the receiver, the same signal path is C and B share thirty-one solid-state amplifiers (one per phased-
used in the reverse direction. array feed element), twenty-three 10 W amplifiers and eight 20
Voice communications with mobile (hand-held, vehicular, and W amplifiers
airborne) terminals will be at 5.6 kbps, and data communications
F: 20.8 GHz, two 8 W TWTAs
at 32 kbps. Multiple access will be by means of TDMA on each
of several carrier frequencies. Packet communications will Receiver
be at rates up to 1024 kbps with rate one-half convolutional C: 2655–2660 MHz
coding and up to 512 kbps without coding. An onboard packet
One low-noise amplifier per phased-array feed element
processor will demodulate, route, and remodulate each packet.
Mobile terminals will be able to communicate directly with Minimum G/T 13.5 dB/K
other mobile terminals and with terrestrial networks via ETS- F: 30.6 GHz, two low-noise amplifiers
VIII base stations. The broadcasting will be six channels at
selectable rates between 32 and 256 kbps. Antenna
Work on ETS-VIII began in 1996. Construction and testing C, B: 31-element phased-array feeds (1 transmit, 1 receive)
of early models of critical portions of the satellite, including each producing three beams; each feed is a microstrip antenna
modules of the large reflectors, began in 1997. Engineering inside a metal cup
model testing of structural, thermal, and electrical models of Two deployed reflectors (1 transmit, 1 receive), each 16.7 x19.2
the satellite, as well as a full size reflector, was completed m with 13 m diam effective aperture, maximum root mean
by 2000. An in-orbit deployment test of a model of the large square surface deviations 0.094 in. (2.4 mm)
reflector, made of seven half-size modules, was conducted 42 dB minimum gain over coverage area of each beam
as part of an Ariane launch in December 2000. This test was Left-hand circular polarization
named LDREX (Large Deployable Reflector Experiment).
Some anomalies were observed and the design of the flight Telemetry and command
reflector was modified accordingly. Launch of LDREX-2 Telemetry: in 2200–2290 MHz band
occurred in October 2006. Manufacturing of the protoflight
Command: in 2025–2110 MHz band
model of the satellite began in 2000; launch was originally
planned for 2002 but was delayed for years. Life
After launch and in-orbit testing, there will be two kinds Satellite bus 10 years, mission life 3 years
of experiments using ETS-VIII. The first will be the basic
experiments, carried out by the developers of the satellite. This Orbit
work will include measurement of antenna characteristics; Geostationary, 146°E longitude, stationkeeping to ± 0.1 deg
evaluation of onboard packet switches, modulators, and
demodulators; sound and data transmissions to terminals the Orbital history
size of a cellular telephone; high-speed data transmissions Launched 18 December 2006
and broadcasting; and evaluation of orbit determination, clock Japanese H-2A launch vehicle
synchronization, and ground user position determination. The
second set, the utilization experiments will be carried out

44
 Japanese Satellites

Fig. 1.47. ETS-VIII satellite.

Management 7. S. Hama, Y. Matsumoto, and S. Taira, “GEO Based

Developed by NASDA (JAXA since October 2003) in cooperation Mobile Communication of the Near Future—BFN and Packet
with Communications Research Laboratory (National Institute Switch on the ETS-VIII Satellite,” Space Communications,
of Information and Communications Technology since April Vol. 15, No. 1 (1998).
2004) and Advanced Space Communications Research
Laboratory, in cooperation with multiple Japanese companies 8. A. Meguro, A. Tsujihata and M. Hamamoto, “The
13 m Aperture Space Antenna Reflectors for Engineering
Operated by JAXA Test Satellite VIII,” 1999 IEEE Antennas and Propagation
International Symposium Digest, Vol. 3 (1999), p. 1520.
******
9. H. Ishida, et al., “A 20 W Class S-band SSPA for
1. H. Noda et al., “Concept of the Engineering Test
Japanese Engineering Test Satellite VIII,” Paper 2000-1188,
Satellite VIII,” Paper AIAA-98-1303, 17th International Com-
AIAA 18th International Communications Satellite Systems
munications Satellite Systems Conference (February 1998).
Conference (April 2000).
2. N. Hamamoto et al., “An Experimental Multimedia
10. K. Uchimaru, et al., “Large Deployable Reflector on
Mobile Satellite Communication System Using the ETS-VIII
ETS VIII (Second Report),” Paper 2000-1144, AIAA 18th
Satellite,” Paper AIAA-98-1301, 17th International
Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(February 1998). Signal
processor
3. Y. Kawakami et al., “Study on S-Band Mobile
Communications Systems Using a Geostationary
Satellite,” Paper AIAA-98-1212, 17th International
Communications Satellite Systems Conference Transmit
(February 1998). Feeder link beam
receiver forming T
4. K. Tokunaga et al., “Design Optimization of network
Phased Array Fed Reflector Antennas for Mobile
I.F. Switch

31 Identical units
Communication Satellites,” Paper AIAA-98-1223,
17th International Communications Satellite Systems
Conference (February 1998).
Receive
5. Y. Matsumoto et al., “Array Element and Feeder link beam
T
BFN Design for Phased-Array-Fed Satellite transmitter forming
network
Antennas,” Paper AIAA-98-1224, 17th International 31 Identical units
Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(February 1998).
6. K. Nakamura et al., “Large Deployable Packet
processor
Reflector on ETS-VIII,” Paper AIAA-98-1229, 17th
International Communications Satellite Systems
Conference (February 1998). Fig. 1.48. ETS-VIII communication subsystem.

45
Experimental Satellites

International Communications Satellite Systems Conference OICETS was in storage and the launch had been delayed to
(April 2000). 2005.
11. Y. Suzuki, et al., “Onboard Large Scale MMIC Beam The major payload on OICETS is the Laser Utilizing
Forming Network for ETS-VIII,” Paper 2000-1193, AIAA 18th Communications Experiment (LUCE); the secondary payload
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference is a sensor to measure microvibrations over the frequency range
(April 2000). 0.5 Hz to 1 kHz. One face of the rectangular OICETS body will
always face Earth. The optical portion of LUCE includes the
12. A. Meguro, et al., “Technology Status of the 13 m optical transmitter and receiver, fine pointing mechanisms, and
Aperture Deployment Antenna Reflectors for Engineering the telescope (the optical antenna), all of which are mounted
Test Satellite VIII,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 47, Nos. 2-9 (July- on a two-axis gimbal that is attached to the anti-Earth face of
November 2000). OICETS. The electronics portion of LUCE includes the gimbal
13. M. Yoneda, Y. Tsuchihashi and O Takeda, “The and fine pointing control processors, test data generation and
Characteristics of Digital Modulation and demodulation for bit error rate measurement units, and command and telemetry
Engineering Test Satellite-VIII (ETS-VIII) On-Board Packet interfaces with the satellite; this equipment is within the
Switch,” 19th AIAA International Communications Satellite satellite body. The LUCE optical and electronics equipment
Systems Conference (April 2001). weighs approximately 110 kg and 40 kg respectively and uses
220 W during communications. The optical equipment is on a
14. K. Yamada, et al., “Integration and Testing of Large
two-axis gimbal with a range of 380 deg in azimuth and 120
Deployable Reflector on ETS-VIII,” Paper 2003-2217,
deg in elevation. Fine pointing is accomplished through a pair
AIAA 21st International Communications Satellite Systems
of small single-axis mirrors with a range of 1 milliradian. The
Conference (April 2003).
pointing accuracy for the optical beam will be better than ±2.6
15. H. Seko, et al., “Development of the DS2000 Platform microradians during communications.
for GEO/HEO Satellites, Paper 2003-2353, AIAA 21st Intern’l. In September 2003 the engineering model of LUCE was
Comm. Satellite Systems Conference (April 2003). taken to an ESA ground station on the Canary Islands and
16. K. Yonezawa and M. Homma, “Attitude Control successfully tested with Artemis. The ground station’s beacon
On ETS-VIII Mobile Communication Satellite With Large was used to aid acquisition since LUCE was not designed to
Deployable Antenna,” Paper 2003-2216, AIAA 21st Intern’l. be operated from the ground. Nevertheless, at times of good
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 2003). atmospheric conditions, acquisition was accomplished without
using that beacon. In space the acquisition sequence between
17. J.-H. Jang, M. Tanaka and N. Hamamoto, “Folding Artemis and OICETS will be: first, Artemis scans a beacon
Parabolic Reflector Antenna For S-Band Satellite and OICETS stares at a 0.4 deg field of view; second, OICETS
Communications Using The ETS-VIII Satellite,” Paper 2003- detects the beacon and returns communication beam; and third,
2213, AIAA 21st International Communications Satellite Artemis detects the beam from OICETS, stops its scan, turns
Systems Conference (April 2003). on its communication beam, and turns off its beacon.
18. O. Takeda, et al. “Development of On-Board Processor Testing of LUCE in orbit will include evaluation onboard
for the Japanese Engineering Test Satellite- VIII (ETS- VIII),” equipment in the space environment, acquisition and tracking,
Paper 2003-2292, AIAA 21st International Communications interorbit communications, microvibration measurements, and
Satellite Systems Conference (April 2003). optical communication link and ranging with Japanese ground
19. JAXA,http://i-space.jaxa.jp/satellite/ETS-VIII_e.htm, stations.
undated, and http://www.jaxa.jp/missions/projects/sat/tsushin/ The link from Artemis to LUCE will be at 2.048 Mbps with
ets8/index_e.html, 15 January 2004 (26 October 2004). a pulse position modulation format. The return link will be at
49.37 Mbps with an on-off modulation format. The link from
20. S. Kimura, et al., “Visual Analysis in a Deployable Artemis will originate at an ESA ground station in Belgium,
Antenna Experiment,” IEEE Transactions On Aerospace And which will receive the data sent from LUCE to Artemis; these
Electronic Systems, Vol. 40, No. 1 (January 2004). links will be at 29 and 19 GHz. The OICETS microvibration

Optical Inter-orbit Communications

Engineering Test Satellite
The Optical Inter-orbit Communications Engineering Test
Satellite (OICETS) [1–11] program was begun in 1993 when
NASDA and the European Space Agency (ESA) signed an
agreement of cooperation in optical communications in space.
Their plan is to demonstrate acquisition, tracking, pointing,
and communications on links between NASDA’s OICETS in
low Earth orbit and ESA’s Artemis in geosynchronous orbit. In
1994 the agreement was broadened to include an intersatellite
link at S-band. In 1996 they agreed Artemis would be
launched by a Japanese launch vehicle. This launch was
scheduled for 2001, to be followed by OICETS. However,
because of delays in Japanese launch vehicle development,
Artemis was launched in 2001 on a European Ariane. In 2004, Fig. 1.49. OICETS satellite.

46
 Japanese Satellites

measurements and the communication bit

error rates will be compared to determine Telescope FP Point ahead Optical
mechanism mechanism transmitter
if there is a correlation. OICETS S-band Gimbal
Optical
command and telemetry links will operate receiver Spare
direct with ground stations and, at other
times, through Artemis as a relay satellite, Point ahead
CP sensor FP sensor sensor
and also through the Japanese Data Relay
Test Satellite (DRTS) launched in 2002.
OICETS was launched in 2005 and
renamed Kirari, meaning twindle or flash. CP FP Communication Point ahead
Additional information about OICETS processor processor electronics processor
and LUCE follows.
Satellite
Rectangular body 0.78 x 1.1 x 1.5 m, span
of deployed solar arrays 9.36 m, overall Main
processor
height include optical equipment 2.93 m
Approximately 570 kg at launch and in FP: fine pointing
orbit CP: coarse pointing
Solar arrays and Nickel Metal Hydride
battery Fig. 1.50. OICETS laser communication subsystem.

Three-axis-stabilized
2. M. Toyoda et al., “Inter Satellite Optical Communication
Transmitter Experiments Using OICETS,” Paper AIAA-98-1240, 17th
847 nm, 100 mW average power GaAlAs laser diode (one International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
active, one spare) (February 1998).
Receiver 3. Y. Koyama and K. Shiratama, “Development of
819 nm (data), 801 nm (acquisition beacon)
Laser Communication Terminal for OICETS,” Space
Communications, Vol. 15, No. 2 (1998).
Charge-coupled device with 672 x 488 pixels for acquisition (0.4
deg field of view), quadrant silicon photodetector for tracking, 4. “Optical Inter-orbit Communications Engineering Test
silicon avalanche photodiode for communications Satellite [OICETS],” http://yyy.tksc.nasda.go.jp/Home/This/
This-e/oisets_e.html (15 June 1999).
Antenna 5. T. Jono, Y. Suzuki and A Yamamoto, “OICETS
26 cm diam center-fed Cassegrain telescope, left-hand circular Program: A Major Technical Challenge for Optical Inter-Orbit
polarization
Communications,” Paper AAS 97-414, Space Cooperation
Telemetry and command into the 21st Century, Proceedings of the 7th International
Telemetry: in 2212–2228 MHz band Space Conference of Pacific Basin Societies, Advances in
the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 96, Univelt, Inc., San Diego
Command: in 2043–2045 MHz band (ground terminals to (1997).
OICETS), in 2029–2059 MHz band (Artemis or DRTS to
OICETS) 6. K. Shiratama, et al., “LUCE Inner Optics for OICETS.”
Paper 98-1243, AIAA 17th International Communications
Life Satellite Systems Conference (February 1998).
Mission life about 1 year
7. Y. Koyama and K. Shiratama, “Development of
Orbit Laser Communications Terminal for OICETS,” Space
610 km altitude at beginning of life to 550 km at end of life, 97.8 Communications, Vol. 15, No. 2 (1998).
deg inclination 8. T. Yamawaki, et al., “Development of LUCE (Laser
Utilizing Communications Equipment) for OICETS,” Space
Orbital history Technology, Vol. 21, No. 1-2 (2001).
Launched 24 August 2005
9. NASDA, “Optical Inter-orbit Communications
Dnepr launch vehicle Engineering Test Satellite (OICETS),” http://www.nasda.
Management go.jp/projects/sat/oicets/index_e.html, 25 Sept. 2003 (26 Oct.
2004).
NASDA, JAXA since October 2003
10. M. Toyoshima, et al., “Reconfirmation of the Optical
****** Performances of the Laser Communication Terminal Onboard
1. T. Jono et al., “Optical Communications System of the OICETS Satellite,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 55, No. 3-9
OICETS,” Paper AIAA-96-1079, 16th International Comm. (August-November 2004).
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1996). 11. JAXA,http://www.jaxa.jp/missions/projects/sat/
tsushin/oicets/index_e.html, 25 Sept. 2003 (26 Oct. 2004).

47
Experimental Satellites

Wideband InterNetworking Engineering Test

and Demonstration Satellite (WINDS)
Japan has been making a strong promotion of an information
technology society. The Gigabit Satellite concept received
attention for several years, and there is now the i-Space project
[1]. WINDS is part of i-Space, and is aimed at developing and
demonstrating the space portion of the infrastructure
for an information technology society [2-8].
The goal of WINDS is to establish both a
domestic ultrahigh-speed internet network
and ultrahigh-speed international internet
access. The WINDS space infrastructure Fig. 1.51. WINDS satellite.
will be integrated with the terrestrial
infrastructure and will contribute wide coverage,
flexible reallocation of capacity, and relative immunity to resulting from a November 2003 failure delayed the launch.
outages caused by natural disasters. Additional information follows.
Numerical goals of WINDS include data rates of 155 Mbps Satellite
to and 6 Mbps from homes equipped with 45 cm antennas up Rectangular body approximately 2 x 3 x 3 m, 8 m height of
to 1.2 Gbps to and from offices equipped with 5 m antennas. body plus antennas, 21.5 m span of deployed solar arrays
WINDS will offer two types of communication services:
4850 kg at launch, approximately 2700 kg at beginning of life
moderate- to high-rate asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
links with processing and packet switching on the satellite, Sun-tracking solar arrays, more than 5200 W over life
and ultrahigh-rate links without processing on the satellite. Three-axis stabilization
Processing on the satellite will be demodulation and decoding
of uplinks to ATM cells, routing the cells, which can include Configuration
copying cells for multicasting, and coding and modulating the See text
downlinks. The processor has nine inputs; each can accept
14 frequency multiplexed links at 1.536 Mbps or one link at Transmitter
6.144, 24.00, or 51.84 Mbps; 155 Mbps links are uplinked as 17.7–18.8 GHz
three 51.84 Mbps signals. The processor has three outputs at Multiport high-power amplifier with eight active and two spare
155 Mbps each. Information rates for the unprocessed links 50 W TWTAs operated in linear region; total output power >280
are 622 Mbps and 1.244 Gbps. W to multibeam antennas
WINDS will communicate with ground terminals through 128 solid-state PHEMT amplifiers each connected to
two types of antennas. It has two multibeam antennas; one has one element of the active array, 1 W output each at 1 dB
nine fixed beams aimed at urban areas in Japan, Korea, and compression
nearby parts of China; the other has 10 fixed beams aimed EIRP>68 dBW (multibeam antenna), >55 dBW (active array)
at urban areas from Hong Kong to the east coast of India to
Indonesia. Any eight of these 19 beams may be selected and Receiver
used simultaneously. The high gain of these antennas will be 27.5–28.6 GHz
used with the 622 Mbps and 1.2 Gbps links. For downlinks PHEMT low-noise amplifiers connected to multibeam anten-
these antennas are coupled to the output of a multiport high- nas
power amplifier, which can flexibly distribute power among
128 PHEMT low-noise amplifiers each connected to one
eight outputs to accommodate variations in demand for element of the active array
capacity and variations in weather attenuation in each of the
eight selected downlink beams. WINDS also has active array 2.8 dB maximum noise figure
antennas, one for receiving and one for transmitting; each will G/T >18 dB/K (multibeam antenna), >7 dB/K (active array)
generate two beams, which can be scanned to any location on
Earth with about 20 degrees or more elevation angle to the Antenna
satellite. Scanning can be synchronized with the TDMA bursts Two multibeam antennas, offset-fed Cassegrain geometry
used on the processed links. with 2.4 m diam main reflectors, frequency selective surface to
diplex transmit and receive signals
The two primary reflectors for the multibeam antennas
are clearly visible in the satellite in Fig. 1.51. The triangular Two active array antennas, 128 elements each, transmit
structure on the Earth-viewing side of the body contains the aperture 69 x 54 cm, receive aperture 48 x 29 cm
feed horns and supports the subreflectors for these antennas. Multibeam antennas have one linear polarization in each
Frequency selective surfaces, which diplex the transmit and beam, adjacent beams are usually on opposite polarizations;
receive frequencies for these antennas, protrude from the array antennas use linear polarization
triangular structure. The array antennas are in the rectangular
unit next to the underside of the triangular structure. Life
Design work on WINDS began in 2001, and protoflight 5 years
hardware was in development in 2003. As of September 2003 Orbit
the projected launch date was 2005, but launch vehicle changes
Geostationary, probably 143°E

48
 Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

1 1
From multibeam Multiport To multibeam
antennas amplifier antennas
8 8

IF switch matrix and

IF switch matrix and

down converters
ATM baseband subsystem

up converters
DEM MOD
1 1
BFN
BFN 1

MUX
From 128 1
DEM SW MOD To 128
element element
receive transmit
array array
128 BFN SW
2 DEM MOD BFN 128
control
2

Fig. 1.52. WINDS communication subsystem.

Orbital history 4. M. Nakao et al., “Outline of the WINDS Onboard

Launch planned in April 2007 to March 2008 period Switch for Regenerative Repeating,” Paper 2003-2398,
H-IIA launch vehicle AIAA 21st International Communications Satellite Systems
Conference (April 2003).
Management 5. A. Akaishi et al., “Ka-band Active Phased Array
JAXA (NASDA until October 2003) with National Institute of Antenna for WINDS Satellite,” Paper 2003-2397, AIAA 21st
Information and Communications Technology (Communications International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
Research Laboratory until April 2004) (April 2003).
****** 6. N. Yoshimura et al., “Conceptual Design of Networking
Scheme for WINDS,” Paper 2003-2396, AIAA 21st
1. JAXA, i-Space homepage, http://i-space.jaxa.jp/
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
index01_e.html (26 October 2004).
(April 2003).
2. N. Kadowaki et al., “High Speed Internetworking
7. JAXA, “Wideband Internetworking Engineering Test
Technology Utilizing Satellite On-Board Switch,” Paper
and Demonstration Satellite(WINDS),” http://www.jaxa.jp/
2002-1964, 20th AIAA International Communication Satellite
missions/projects/sat/tsushin/winds/index_e.html, 18 August
Systems Conference (May 2002).
2004 (26 October 2004).
3. R. Kuramasu et al., “The Wideband Internetworking
8. NASDA, “Wideband Internetworking Engineering Test
Engineering Test And Demonstration Satellite (WINDS)
and Demonstration Satellite(WINDS),” http://www.nasda.
System,” Paper 2002-2044, 20th AIAA International
go.jp/projects/sat/winds/index_e.html (26 October 2004).
Communication Satellite Systems Conference (May 2002).

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

In 1973, NASA greatly reduced its efforts in communications In 1983, NASA defined an Advanced Communications
technology, primarily because of budget restrictions. Private Technology Satellite (ACTS) [12–69], which incorporates the
industry supported some developments with short-term (e.g., results of the hardware developments. ACTS demonstrated all
a few years) potential for commercial success. However, the critical communication technologies necessary for high-
private industry could not support the higher-risk, higher- capacity operational satellites in the 1990s, but on a reduced
potential developments, which require about a decade to bring scale. An operational satellite will probably have six to 12
to commercial usefulness. Because of this, and with urgings times the number of beams, channels, and total capacity as
from many directions, NASA was able to resume its support ACTS. (For various reasons, especially economics, operational
of communications technology in 1978. satellites of this complexity were delayed and did not enter
The major item in the new program is a high-capacity operation until 2005.) The ACTS program included the
domestic communications satellite in the 30 and 20 GHz following tasks.
bands. This became known as the 30/20 GHz program [1–11]. • Demonstration of the new technology items on the
Market analyses and system studies were carried out first. Then spacecraft (multibeam antenna, IF switch matrix,
in 1980, several hardware developments were undertaken. baseband processor, high-power TWTA, and low-noise
These included a multibeam antenna with both fixed and receiver)
scanned beams, a baseband processor, an IF switch matrix, a • TDMA (time division multiple access) network control
TWTA, and a low noise receiver. The initial phases of these and operations experiments
developments were completed by 1984.

49
Experimental Satellites

• Tests of ground terminal hardware

• Tests of error correction and power control to
minimize degradations caused by atmospheric
attenuation
• Propagation measurements
TheACTS support subsystems within
the central body of the satellite and
the deployed solar arrays were based
on flight-proven designs. The two large
reflectors were attached to the central body
of the spacecraft and were deployed in orbit.
The smaller subreflectors were mounted on a mast, extending
forward of the central body, and did not require deployment.
The feed arrays for the two antennas were mounted on the front
face of the central body. Other communications equipment
was mounted within the body. Satellite and communication Fig. 1.53. Advanced communications technology satellite.
subsystem details are as follows.
Satellite
Rectangular body 80 x 84 x 75 in., 47 ft across deployed solar G/T: 15–18 dB/K (multibeam antenna), 11 dB/K (mechanically
arrays, 30 ft across deployed reflectors steered antenna)
3270 lb in orbit, beginning of life
Antenna
Sun-tracking solar arrays, NiCd batteries, 1770 W maximum, Two offset-fed Gregorian multibeam antennas with 3.3 m
beginning of life; 1400 W minimum after 4 years; only house- (20 GHz) and 2.2 m (30 GHz) diam main reflectors, 0.3 deg
keeping loads are supported during eclipses beamwidth, orthogonal linear polarizations used on each
Three-axis-stabilized using momentum wheels, antenna antenna; each reflector has 47 feed horns split between the
pointing accuracy ±0.025 deg pitch and roll and ±0.15 deg yaw two polarizations: three for the fixed spots, 13 for the isolated
with autotrack, ±0.1 deg pitch and roll and ±0.25 deg yaw with scanning positions, and 31 for the sector scan; 25 dB cross-
Earth sensor; offset pointing to ±6 deg pitch, ±2 deg roll polarization isolation between beams, 25 dB copolarization
isolation between beams separated by more than one
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine thrusters
beamwidth
for on-orbit use
One 43 in. diam offset-fed parabolic steerable antenna; 44 dB
Configuration gain (receive), 42 dB gain (transmit); 1 deg beamwidth; linear
Three fixed beams, two scanned beams, and one steerable polarization; one feed horn each for transmit and receive, feed
beam, interconnected by an IF switch matrix and a baseband horns are coupled to beam-forming networks of multibeam
processor antennas; antenna steerable ±10 deg in azimuth and elevation
One 6.5 x 11 in. offset-fed elliptical reflector with a single feed
Capacity horn (20.185 GHz, vertical polarization; 20.195 GHz, horizontal
900 MHz bandwidth for each of three switch matrix channels polarization); one 7.5 x 13 in. offset-fed elliptical reflector with
110 Mbps or 2 x 27.5 Mbps for each of two baseband processor two feed horns (27.505 GHz, vertical polarization; commands,
channels horizontal polarization)
Any combination of three channels simultaneously Telemetry and command
Telemetry: 20.185 GHz–20.195 GHz, 200 mW transmitter
Transmitter
via propagation beacon antenna; in 3.7–4.2 GHz band via
19.2–20.2 GHz, center frequencies vary from 19.451–19.7 omnidirectional antenna during launch, transfer orbit, and
GHz depending on type of signal initialization
Four 46 W TWTAs, three active, each switched to one fixed or Command: in 29.5–30 GHz band, received via propagation
scanned beam or to the mechanically steerable beam beacon antenna; in 5.925–6.425 GHz band via omnidirectional
EIRP: 59–60 dBW per fixed or scanned beam, 53 dBW on antenna during launch, transfer orbit, and initialization
steerable beam
Life
Propagation beacons to 20.185, 20.195, and 27.505 GHz;
solid-state amplifiers, 0.18 W (20.185, 20.195 GHz), 0.08 W Four years, estimated on-orbit fuel supply for 5 years
(27.5 GHz); EIRP over CONUS 17.5 dBW (20.185, 20.195
GHz), 14.2 dBW (27.5 GHz)
Orbit
Geostationary, 100°W, stationkeeping to ±0.05 deg north-south
Receiver and east-west; north-south stationkeeping ended 1998, moved
29–30 GHz, center frequencies vary from 29.238–29.68 GHz to 105.2°W in summer 2000
depending on type of signal
Orbital history
Three active receivers plus one spare Launched 12 September 1993, in use until shut down 28 April
HEMT preamplifiers 2004
3.5 dB receiver noise figure Shuttle launch vehicle with transfer orbit stage

50
 Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

MBA MSA MBA

BFN BFN BFN BFN

Receiver Transmitter
BBP BBP
MSM
Receiver Transmitter
BBP BBP
Receiver Transmitter
MSM MSM
BBP
Receiver Transmitter
MSM MSM

Control MSM BBP Baseband processor

BFNs BFN Beam forming network
MBA Multibeam antenna
MSA Mechanically steered antenna
MSM Microwave switch matrix

BASEBAND PROCESSOR DETAILS

1. Demodulators L Limiting amplifier
1. 2. 3. 4.
Switch 2. Memories and decoders
1. 2. 3. 4. 3. Memories and coders
S Summing amplifier
4. Modulators

RECEIVER DETAILS TRANSMITTER DETAILS

L MSM
From MSM
T T T BBP S L TW To antenna
antenna BBP

X4 Autotrack X3
signal
6.48 GHz 5.4 GHz
Fig. 1.54. ACTS communication subsystem.

Management above 3 GHz and interconnected the four receivers and four
Developed by GE Astro-Space (formerly RCA) for NASA transmitters. Only three were active at a time; the fourth was
Operated by GE Astro-Space, later Martin-Marrieta, later redundant. The microwave switch matrix was usually operated
Lockheed Martin (spacecraft control); NASA (communications with the three fixed beams, but one or two could be replaced
control) by scanned beams. Signals were typically serial minimum shift
keyed (SMSK), but other modulation formats were tested. The
The ACTS communication subsystem was composed of
original plans were for a data rate of 220 Mbps; as a result of
multibeam antennas and multimode electronics. The two large
experimenters’ interests, transmissions were also at low rates
antennas, one for transmission and one for reception, each was
and at 155 and 622 Mbps. The matrix switched in synchronism
able to form five beams. Three beams were fixed, pointed at
with TDMA burst transmissions from as many as 10 ground
Cleveland, Atlanta, and Tampa. The Cleveland uplink beam was
terminals; switching time is 100 ns. The TDMA frame length
used by the ACTS autotracking receiver to keep the antennas
was 1 ms, and the burst switching pattern could be changed
accurately pointed. The other two beams are scanning beams.
as often as once a minute. The switch could also be fixed in
Each scanned one contiguous area in the northeast United
any one state, thereby providing three transponders of fixed
States and either six or seven specific metropolitan areas in
connectivity for WB and FDMA experiments. Uplink power
other parts of the country. The scanning was controlled by
control was used to counter the effects of variable propagation
beam-forming networks, which switch among the multiple
losses.
feed horns for each scanning beam; the switching can be
The low burst rate mode was associated with the baseband
accomplished in one-half microsecond. Uplink and downlink
processor portion of the communication subsystem. The
scanning patterns were independent. A separate, mechanically
processor accepted either one 110 Mbps (exact rate 110.592
steerable antenna formed a single beam that can be steered
Mbps) or two 27.5 Mbps (exact rate 27.648 Mbps) inputs from
toward any point in the 50 states. This antenna was operated as
each scanned beam. The inputs were at approximately 3.3 GHz;
part of the scanned beam capability.
the two lower rate inputs were at separate frequencies. During
The communications electronics were able to process signals
increased propagation losses, the data rate was reduced by a
from any three of the five beams, three fixed and two scanned.
factor of four and rate 1⁄2 coding applied to produce symbol
The electronics had two separate paths, corresponding to two
rates of 55 Msps or 13.75 Msps. The transmission format was
operating modes for the communication links. The high-burst-
TDMA with SMSK modulation. Uplink capacity could be
rate mode was associated with the microwave switch matrix.
demand assigned in increments of 64 kbps. The uplink rate
This 4 x 4 matrix operated at an intermediate frequency slightly
and coding could switch from burst to burst. The input bursts
51
Experimental Satellites

were demodulated, and decoded if necessary; the resulting Ohio University organized a consortium [67, 69] to
64-bit words were routed through buffer memories to a data continue use of ACTS; this consortium took formal control of
routing switch. The switch sent the 64-bit words through ACTS in May 2001 and operated and experimented with the
output buffer memories to two modulators. The downlink burst satellite until it was turned off in April 2004 because of a lack
transmission rate was, independently in each beam, either 110 of funding to continue operations.
Mbps uncoded or 27 Mbps encoded to 55 Msps.
The satellite also had two propagation beacons at 20 GHz ******
and one at 27.5 GHz. The 20 GHz beacons had telemetry 1. S. H. Durrani, “The NASA Communication R&D
subcarriers. All three beacons were used for power monitoring Program,” International Telemetering Conference Proceedings
for power control or coding decisions for fade compensation (November 1980).
on the main links, and for propagation research. 2. R. E. Alexovich, “National Aeronautics and Space
The ACTS satellite control center was in New Jersey, Administration Plans for Space Communication Technology,”
but command and telemetry links were routed via terrestrial EASCON ’79 Conference Record (September 1979).
lines between this center and NASA’s master ground station
in Cleveland. This station handled the satellite command 3. D. K. Dement, “Developing the Next Phase in NASA’s
and telemetry transmissions, controlled the communications Satellite Communications Program,” Acta Astronautica, Vol.
payload and the network of users, and recorded system data. 7, No. 11 (November 1980).
In operational orbit the telemetry and command links were in 4. W. M. Holmes, “30/20 GHz Demonstration System
the 20 and 30 GHz bands; C-band (4 and 6 GHz) links were for Improving Orbit Utilization,” International Telemetering
used during transfer orbit and as an operational backup. Many Conference Proceedings (November 1980).
other ground terminals were provided by experimenters for 5. J. N. Sivo, “30/20 GHz Experimental Communications
both communications and propagation applications. Satellite System,” Paper B5.2, National Telecommunications
The ACTS contract was awarded in 1984. However, in that Conference: NTC ’81 (November 1981).
year and in most years until 1990, the programs had ups and
downs in the budget process, even being completely eliminated 6. J. N. Sivo, “Advanced Communications Satellite
and then restored. The satellite was launched in September Systems,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications,
1993. On-orbit testing and experimental results indicated Vol. 1, No. 4 (September 1983).
that the satellite remained in good condition throughout the 7. H. G. Raymond and W. M. Holmes, “An Advanced
first 4 years on orbit, meeting or exceeding performance Mixed User Domestic Satellite System Architecture,” Paper 80-
specifications, other than some beam wander due to daily 0494, AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
thermal distortions of the subreflector of one of the large (April 1980).
antennas.
8. D. E. Santarpia and J. W. Bagwell, “Status of NASA’s
The experimental program, involving NASA, industry,
Multibeam Communications Technology Program,” EASCON
universities, and DOD, began early in 1994. Experimenters
’83 Conference Record (September 1983).
designed, funded, and conducted their own experiments, while
NASA helped with experiment planning, provided satellite 9. J. T. Shaneyfelt, S. W. Attwood, and D. R. Carroll,
time, and managed satellite operations. Experiments and “Satellite Baseband Processor Test Performance Summary,”
demonstrations included performance measurements of various EASCON ’83 Conference Record (September 1983).
multiple-access methods and network protocols; T1 (1.544 10. A. L. Saunders, “The NASA Satellite Communication
Mbps) links to terminals with 4 ft antennas; transmissions to 20 x 20 Matrix Switches,” EASCON ’83 Conference Record
and from terminals with antennas as small as 14 in.; video, (September 1983).
voice, and data transmissions to aircraft; 622 Mbps links for
11. C. C. Chen and W. A. Minnin, “Advanced 30/20 GHz
satellite-fiber interoperability and remote supercomputing;
Multiple Beam Antenna for Future Communication Satellite,”
land mobile communications for both civil and Army uses;
EASCON ’83 Conference Record (September 1983).
telemedicine, including remote image diagnostics; simulated
restorals of damaged terrestrial networks; distance education; 12. W. M. Holmes, “The ACTS Multibeam Communications
and propagation measurements. Package,” IEEE National Telesystems Conference (November
Since ACTS reached its operational location, the majority 1983).
of the fuel consumption was for north-south stationkeeping; 13. W. M. Holmes and G. A. Beck, “The ACTS Flight
continuance of this stationkeeping would have led to an end System: Cost-Effective Advanced Communications
of the satellite life in summer 1998. Instead, that year this Technology,” Paper 84-0683, AIAA 10th Communication
stationkeeping was discontinued. The satellite remained at Satellite Systems Conference (March 1984).
100°W longitude with the orbital inclination increasing.
NASA planned to terminate the ACTS mission by September 14. T. Inukai and S. J. Campanella, “ACTS TDMA Network
2000. However, NASA and various experimenters desired Control,” Paper 84-0682, AIAA 10th Communication Satellite
to continue use of the satellite. In May 2000, formal NASA Systems Conference (March 1984).
operation of the satellite concluded, but it was not turned off. 15. R. R. Lovell, “Giant Step for Communication Satellite
In the following months it was moved to 105.2°W, where it will Technology,” Aerospace America, Vol. 22, No. 3 (March
remain due to the “gravity well” at that longitude. At that time 1984).
the satellite and the 20 and 30 GHz communications equipment 16. R. R. Lovell and C. L. Cuccia, “NASA’s Communications
was in good health and had redundant units available. The only Programs for Interconnectivity,” 1985 EASCON Conference
limit on satellite operations was the shortage of fuel. Record (October 1985).
52
 Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

17. J. A. Frohbieter, “Advanced Communications 33. R. T. Gedney and R. J. Schertler, “Advanced

Technology Satellite,” 1985 EASCON Conference Record Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS),” Paper 52.1,
(October 1985). International Conference on Communications: ICC ’89 (June
18. T. W. Lanpher, “ACTS: The Case for U.S. Investment 1989).
in 30/20 GHz,” Satellite Communications, Vol. 7, No. 5 (May 34. C. W. Bostian et al., “Communications and Propagation
1983). Experiments for the Olympus and ACTS Satellites,” Paper
19. R. W. Myhre, “Advanced 30/20 GHz Multiple- 52.2, International Conference on Communications: ICC ’89
Beam Antennas for Communications Satellite,” Paper B1.3, (June 1989).
International Conf. on Comm.: ICC ’83 (June 1983). 35. J. C. Graebner and W. F. Cashman, “ACTS Multibeam
20. Aviation Week & Space Technology (18 September Communications Package: Technology for the 1990s,” Paper
1978), p. 31; (25 May 1981), p. 73; (6 Sept. 1982), p. 241; (12 90-0835, AIAA 13th International Communication Satellite
December 1983), p. 16; (6 February 1984), p. 25; (19 March Systems Conference (March 1990).
1984), p. 16; (6 August 1984), p. 24; (7 July 1986), p. 108. 36. D. A. Olmstead, “Advanced Communications
21. Spaceflight, Vol. 25, No. 7–8 (July–August 1983), Technology Satellite (ACTS),” Paper 90-0839, AIAA 13th
p. 314. International Communication Satellite Systems Conference
(March 1990).
22. Satellite Communications (March 1987), p. 10; (April
1988), p. 12; (September 1989), p. 8; (December 1989), p. 8; 37. F. Gargione, “ACTS Hardware—A Pictorial,” Paper
(January 1990), p. 10; (December 1990), p. 12. 90-0834, AIAA 13th International Communication Satellite
Systems Conference (March 1990).
23. R. J. Schertler, “ACTS Experiments Program,” Paper
16.5, Global Telecommunications Conference: Globecom ’86 38. S. J. Campanella, B. A. Pontano, and D. M. Chitre, “A
(December 1986). Users Perspective of the ACTS Hopping Beam TDMA System,”
Paper 90-0833, AIAA 13th International Communication
24. J. C. Graebner and W. F. Cashman, “Advanced Satellite Systems Conference (March 1990).
Communication Technology Satellite,” Paper 16.1, Global
Telecommunications Conference: Globecom ’86 (December 39. D. L. Wright, J. R. Balombin, and P. Y. Sohn, “Advanced
1986). Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) and Potential
System Applications,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 78, No. 7
25. Y. H. Choung and W. C. Wong, “Multibeam (July 1990).
Antenna Design and Development for NASA Advanced
Communications Technology Satellite,” Paper 16.2, Global 40. D. L. Wright and J. R. Balombin, “ACTS System
Telecommunications Conference: Globecom ’86 (December Capability and Performance,” Paper 92-1961, AIAA 14th
1986). International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(March 1992).
26. F. Meunnemann, L. Dombro, and J. Long, “A 20 GHz
High Efficiency Dual Mode TWTA for the ACTS Program,” 41. F. Gargione, “The ACTS Spacecraft,” Paper 92-1962,
Paper 16.3, Global Telecommunications Conference: Globe- AIAA 14th International Communications Satellite Systems
com ’86 (December 1986). Conference (March 1992).
27. R. L. Moat, “ACTS Baseband Processing,” Paper 42. W. F. Cashman, “ACTS Multibeam Communications
16.4, Global Telecommunications Conference: Globecom ’86 Package: Description and Performance Characterization,”
(December 1986). Paper 92-1963, AIAA 14th International Communications
Satellite Systems Conference (March 1992).
28. Y. H. Choung et al., “NASA ACTS Multibeam Antenna
(MBA) System,” EASCON ’86 Conference Record (September 43. D. N. Meadows, “The ACTS NASA Ground
1986). Station/Master Control Station,” Paper 92-1965, AIAA 14th
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
29. Y. C. Choung et al., “Design and Development of NASA (March 1992).
ACTS MBA,” 1987 International Symposium on Antennas and
Propagation (June 1987). 44. R. T. Gedney et al., “Advanced Communications
Technology Satellite (ACTS),” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 26, No.
30. L. Palmer and L. White, “Demand Assignment in the 11 (November 1992).
ACTS LBR System,” Paper 16.3, International Conference on
Communications: ICC ’88 (June 1988). 45. R. T. Gedney, “New Technologies Get Into the ACTS,”
Aerospace America (April 1994).
31. F. M. Naderi and S. J. Campanella, “NASA’s Advanced
Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS): An Overview 46. F. Gargione, “ACTS On-Orbit PerformanceAssessment,”
of the Satellite, the Network, and the Underlying Technologies,” Paper 94-0936, AIAA 15th International Communications
Paper 88-0797, AIAA 12th International Communication Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994).
Satellite Systems Conference (March 1988). 47. F. Davarian, “ACTS Propagation Campaign,” Paper
32. R. L. Moat and D. R. Carroll, “Hardware Realization 94-1042, AIAA 15th International Communications Satellite
of the Baseband Processor for a SS-FDMA/TDMA/ Systems Conference (February 1994).
DAMA System,” Paper 88-0830, AIAA 12th International 48. F. Gargione, “The Advanced Communications
Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1988). Technology Satellite: Five New Technologies,” The United
Nations Workshop on Space Communication for Development
(November 1992).
53
Experimental Satellites

49. R. J. Krawczyk, “ACTS Operational Performance 60. R. Bauer, “Advanced Communications Technology
Review—September 1995,” NASA ACTS Results Conference Satellite,” http://acts.lerc.nasa.gov/acts/ (14 June 1999).
(September 1995). 61. D. R. Glover, “NASA Experimental Communications
50. T. A. Coney, “Advanced Communications Technology Satellites,” http://sulu.lerc.gov/dglover/satcom2.html (14 June
Satellite (ACTS) Baseband Processor Mode System 1999).
Performance,” NASA ACTS Results Conference (September 62. R. T. Gedney, F. Gargione and R. Schertler, The
1995). Advanced Communications Technology Satellite: An Insider’s
51. R. Acosta, “ACTS On-Orbit MBA Performance,” NASA Account of the Emergence of Interactive Broadband Technology
ACTS Results Conference (September 1995). in Space, SciTech Publishing, Inc., Raleigh, NC (May 2000).
52. R. T. Gedney, “Microwave Switch Matrix 63. R. J. Krawczyk, L. R. Ignaczak and F. Gargione,
(MSM) Performance,” NASA ACTS Results Conference “Operational Performance of the Advanced Communications
(September.1995). Technology Satellite,” Paper 2000-1186, AIAA International
53. R. J. Schertler, “ACTS Experiments Program Overview,” Communication Satellite Systems Conference (April 2000).
NASA ACTS Results Conference (September 1995). 64. R. J. Krawczyk and L. R. Ignaczak, “The Advanced
54. F. Gargione et al., “Mobile Experiments Using ACTS,” Communications Technology Satellite–Performance, Relia-
Space Communications, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1995). bility, and Lessons Learned,” Paper 1.1, Proceedings of the
Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS)
55. R. Acosta, D. Wright, and K. Mitchell, “ACTS Conference 2000 (May 2000).
Multibeam Antenna On-Orbit Performance,” Paper AIAA-96-
1028, 16th International Communications Satellite Systems 65. R. C. Reinhart, et al., “ACTS Ka-Band Earth Stations:
Conference (February 1996). Technology, Performance, and Lessons Learned,” Paper 1.2,
Proceedings of the Advanced Communications Technology
56. R. J. Schertler, “Summary Report on Key ACTS Satellite (ACTS) Conference 2000 (May 2000).
Experiments,” Paper AIAA-96-1074, 16th International
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (Feb. 1996). 66. F. Gargione, ed., “Legacy of NASA’s Advanced
Communications Technology Satellite,” Online Journal of
57. T. C. Jedrey (ed.), “Special Issue on the Advanced Space Communication, No. 2, http://satjournal.tcom.ohiou.
Communications Technology Satellite,” including F. Gargione edu/issue02/main.html (10 August 2004).
et al., “Advanced Communications Technology Satellite
(ACTS): Design and On-orbit Performance Measurements,” 67. R. Bauer, et al., “Extending ACTS Operations Through
and 11 other papers, International Journal of Satellite a University-Based Consortium,” Space Communications, Vol.
Communications, Vol. 14, No. 3 (May–June 1996). 18, No. 1-2 (2002).
58. R. Bauer, “Ka-Band Propagation Measurements: An 68. NASA Glenn Research Center, Advanced
Opportunity with the Advanced Communications Technology Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), http://acts.
Satellite (ACTS),” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 85, No. 6 grc.nasa.gov/ (11 August 2004).
(June 1997). 69. Ohio University, Ohio Consortium for Advanced
59. R. J. Acosta et al., “Advanced Communications Communications Technology, http://www.csm.ohiou.edu/
Technology Satellite (ACTS): Four-Year System Performance,” ocact/ (11 August 2004).
IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 17,
No. 2 (February 1999).

Stentor
Stentor was a French program to develop, launch, and operate CNES, France Telecom, and the contractors were to
a high-technology satellite [1-8]. The name is derived from achieve their goals through development and operation of the
the words, Satellite de Télécommunications pour Expériences spacecraft bus and a complex Ku-band payload. The DGA
de Nouvelles Technologies en ORbite. The Stentor program objectives were to be accomplished with a simpler EHF
was sponsored by Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES, payload on the same satellite.
the French Space Agency), France Telecom, and DGA (the Preliminary studies were conducted in the early 1990s.
French Ministry of Defense) with some contribution by French Following approval of the program by the French government,
contractors Astrium and Alcatel. The goals of the program a development contract was signed in December 1995. The
were to satellite was to have a 9-year life. The first 2 years were to be
• develop and operate new payload and bus technologies for technology and system experiments and for demonstrations
in space of new telecommunications services. The remaining years
• conduct in-orbit experiments and evaluate operational were to be for additional telecommunications demonstrations
performance and for measurements of stability and aging of the new
• demonstrate new services using an in-orbit satellite components on the satellite. Unfortunately the satellite was
destroyed by a launch vehicle failure. In spite of this, some of
• improve manufacturing to reduce satellite production
the technology developments in the Stentor program have been
costs
applied to subsequent operational communication satellites,

54
 Stentor

(a) 12, 14 GHz

Large Steerable Active
reflector spot array

12.5–12.75 GHz
D 1
D IF Beam forming
Receiver S
module network 48

S
Digital TV
module
3/2 S
Communications
Receiver module

(b) 20, 41, 44 GHz

20.2–21. GHz

S
44–45 GHz

Beacon Receiver
41.4 GHz
C
Beacon
20.7 GHz

Fig. 1.55. Stentor communication subsystem.

albeit without the desired on-orbit proofs that Stentor was to The EHF (20, 41, 44 GHz) payload had a two-channel
have provided. transponder and beacons for propagation research at 20.7
Technologies in the Stentor program were both for the bus and 41.4 GHz. The EHF antennas had one beam centered on
(ion propulsion, lithium ion battery, deployable thermal radiator, France and one on French Guyana to support propagation
fluid loops for heat transport, GPS receiver for autonomous measurements in two different climates.
stationkeeping) and for the communications payload (active Additional information follows.
array antenna, digital processors). The satellite was jointly Satellite
developed by Alcatel Space and Matra Marconi Space (now
Astrium Eurostar 3000 bus
EADS Astrium), which, after industry consolidation, are the
two remaining satellite contractors in France. Dry weight approximately 1100 kg, launch weight approximately
The Ku-band (12, 14 GHz) payload had a WB transponder 2080 kg
with very linear response, three transponders with surface Sun-tracking solar array with GaAs cells, lithium ion batteries,
acoustic wave filters, and onboard processing and multiplexing 2500 W at end of 2 years
to combine up to 12 FDMA digital television uplinks in Three-axis stabilization, pitch by onboard momentum control,
MPEG2/DVB-S format into a single TDM downlink. The roll and yaw by solar sail
maximum downlink rate for the television signals was 38 Mbps, Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and east-
with individual channels rates 1.095 to 7.664 Mbps The Ku- west stationkeeping, xenon ion for north-south stationkeeping
band payload had a phased-array antenna, a very lightweight 8
ft diam deployed reflector, and a steerable spot beam antenna. Configuration
The array was composed of 48 subarrays, each powered by Ku: one 220 MHz bandwidth transponder, three transponders
a solid-state amplifier; it could generate three independently with bandwidths switchable between 36 and 72 MHz, one
steerable beams. digital channel with onboard processing to multiplex up to 12
uplinks into a single downlink

55
Experimental Satellites

EHF: one transponder divided into two 40 MHz bandwidth Orbit

channels Geostationary, planned for 11°W, N-S stationkeeping to ±0.05
deg
Transmitter
Ku: in 12.5–12.75 GHz Orbital history
48 SSPAs in active antenna, 3.2/1.6 W each (single/multiple Destroyed by launch vehicle failure, 11 December 2002
carrier modes), 54/51 dBW maximum EIRP over France Ariane 5 launch vehicle
Linearized amplifiers switched to either deployed reflector or
steerable spot, 56 dBW maximum EIRP at edge of France Management
EHF: 20.2–20.24 and 21.16–21.2 GHz, 20.7 and 41.4 GHz Developed by EADS Astrium (was Matra-Marconi Space when
beacons, 350/450 mW SSPA (20.7/41.4 GHz) program started, then Astrium) and Alcatel
Would have been operated by CNES
Receiver
Ku: 14.0–14.25 GHz ******
G/T +4/+8 dB/K at edge of coverage for steerable spot/ 1. B. Ehster, “Stentor Programme,” Proceedings of the
deployed reflector Euro-Asia Space Week on Cooperation in Space, European
EHF: 44.0–44.04 and 44.96–45.0 GHz Space Agency SP-430 (February 1999), p. 137.
G/T –3 dB/K at edge of coverage (3 dB below peak gain) 2. B. Curbelie and B. Ehster, “Stentor Programme: An
Ongoing and Efficient Way for Preparing the Future,” Acta
Antenna Astronautica, Vol. 44, Nos. 7–12 (April–June 1999).
Ku active array (transmit only): 48 planar subarrays arranged
within 1.05 m diam octagon, 3 independent beams steerable 3. C. Argagnon et al., “From Stentor to Skybridge,
±4 deg east-west, ±2 deg north-south, beam size variable from Different Problems, One Product Line for Active Antennas,”
France to much of Europe, gain 26 to 40 dB depending on beam Acta Astronautica, Vol. 50, No. 4 (February 2002).
size, linear polarization, 33 dB cross-polarization isolation 4. J. Lemorton et al., “A New Opportunity for EHF
Ku transmit-receive antenna with fixed coverage over France, Propagation Experiments: the EXPRESS Campaign with
2.4 m diam ultralight deployable reflector, same linear the Satellite STENTOR,” International Journal of Satellite
polarization as active array Communications, Vol. 19, No. 3 (May/June 2001).
Ku transmit-receive steerable spot beam, 1.8 deg beamwidth, 5. P. Raizonville et al., “Demonstrations of New
linear polarization opposite to other Ku antennas Telecommunication Services Using Stentor Satellite,” 19th
EHF transmit-receive antenna for 41.4 and 44-45 GHz, AIAA International Communications Satellite Systems
transmit-only antenna for 20.2-21.2 GHz, each antenna had Conference (April 2001).
an offset parabolic reflector with one feed horn for Europe and
one for Guyana, 34–37 GHz peak gain, nominal coverage area 6. H. Chane et al, “The Transmit Active Antenna
is 1 deg off axis, right-hand circular polarization, 33 dB cross- Subsystem of Stentor Satellite,” 19th AIAA International
polarization isolation Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 2001).
7. C. Guerreiro and L. Cohen, “Stentor Telecommunication
Telemetry and command
Mission Ground Segment,” Paper IAF-01-M.2.b.08, 52nd
Command: in or near 12.5–12.75 GHz
International Astronautical Congress (October 2001).
Telemetry: in or near 14.0–14.25 GHz
8. Alcatel Space, “STENTOR, The Experimental
Life Satellite” (June 1999), http://www.alcatel.com/space/pdf/
9 years telecom/stentorgb.pdf (26 October 2004).

56
 2. Global Systems Satellites

I
nternational satellite systems are either global systems described in chapter 5 as are the Soviet and Russian satellites
or regional systems. Among both types of systems, some that it uses. The Inmarsat system and its satellites are described
originated as intergovernmental organizations but have in chapter 3, grouped with other systems that provide service
become commercial companies since the late 1990s. Examples primarily to mobile terminals, whereas the satellites described
are Intelsat, a global-system operator, and Eutelsat, operator of in this chapter emphasize service to fixed terminals.
a regional system. Other global and regional systems began as Intelsat, which began operations in 1965, is the global
and remain commercial companies. Examples are PanAmSat, system with the longest history and service to the greatest
SES Astra, and AsiaSat. number of nations. Intelsat was created in 1964 as an
In the context of this book, global systems have satellites intergovernmental organization established by a treaty.
with coverage of several continents and span several ocean Proposals for commercial competition with Intelsat were made
areas. Their satellites are described in this chapter. Regional in the mid-1980s by several U.S. companies. Intelsat opposed
satellite systems have satellites that primarily provide them, but eventually the U.S. Government allowed them to
coverage of one continent. As regional systems have grown, develop their systems. The policy issues concerning these
the distinction between them and the global systems has systems are reviewed, particularly in the PanAmSat and Loral
decreased. Nevertheless, for the sake of organizing this book, sections of this chapter. In 1998 Intelsat began changing into
the satellites of regional systems are described in chapter 6 on a commercial organization with the transfer of six satellites
North American satellites, chapter 7 on European satellites, to a new and independent commercial company, New Skies
chapter 8 on Asian or chapter 9 on and other satellites. The Satellites, which is described in this chapter. Intelsat completed
Intersputnik system established by the Soviet Union is its privatization in 2001.

Intelsat
Intelsat began developing satellites for international public In 1998 Intelsat began taking action to change its structure
use as soon as the early experimental communication satellites from an intergovernmental organization to a private company.
had proved the technology. Starting from a single satellite, the An early step in this restructuring was the creation of a separate
Intelsat system grew to a global network using many satellites. entity, New Skies Satellites, in spring 1998. Near the end of
Ten generations of satellites, some with subgenerations (e.g., 1998, Intelsat transferred to New Skies five satellites in orbit
Intelsat V and V-A) have been brought into service. Each of and one satellite under construction. A decision to privatize
these satellites is described. In addition, since Intelsat is an was made in November 1999, a formal plan was approved
outstanding example of the commercial application of space a year later, and the task was completed in July 2001. The
technology, an overall system description is included. Table corporate structure includes a holding company, Intelsat Ltd.,
2.1 provides a summary of these satellites and their significant based in Bermuda, and an operating company, Intelsat LLC,
characteristics. based in Washington, D.C. In August 2004 Intelsat agreed to
Intelsat (the International Telecommunication Satellite be purchased by Zeus Holdings of Bermuda, composed of
Organization) was an intergovernmental organization formed several private investment companies. This transaction was
in 1964 as a result of the U.S. Communication Satellite Act of completed in January 2005.
1962. Its structure was defined in the Definitive Agreements Some aspects of the privatization were regulated by the
that went into effect in 1973, replacing the 1964 Interim U.S. Open-Market Reorganization for the Betterment of
Agreements. Intelsat policy and long-term plans were International Telecommunications Act, the ORBIT Act, which
formulated by the Assembly of Parties, which met every became law in 2000. One of the requirements in this Act was for
2 years and was composed of all governments that were an initial public stock offering by a certain time. This deadline
members of Intelsat. Basic financial, technical, and operational was changed more than once, and the requirement for a stock
matters were decided at yearly meetings of representatives of offering was rescinded in 2004, thereby accepting privatization
the governments. The smaller Board of Governors met several by the sale to Zeus. In 2005 the FCC determined that Intelsat
times a year to make decisions on the design, development, had satisfied the requirements of the ORBIT Act [1].
operation, and maintenance of the satellites. This board was In August 2005 Intelsat and PanAmSat signed a merger
composed of representatives of countries with large ownership agreement under which Intelsat acquired PanAmSat. The
percentages and of geographic regions where countries did not acquisition was completed in July 2006, and integration of the
have large ownership percentages. two systems has begun. However, given the lateness of this date
Ownership of the intergovernmental organization reflected relative to this book, descriptions of the two systems are separate
national investments in Intelsat; these percentages were and reflect their situations prior to July 2006. The PanAmSat
adjusted to approximate each country’s use of the system. When description follows this description of Intelsat [2–3].
Intelsat began, U.S. ownership was more than 60 percent. As
more nations began using the system, this percentage dropped ******
and was slightly under 20 percent by 1998. Other large 1 Intelsat, “FCC Finds Intelsat To Be In Compliance
owners, with percentages decreasing from 7 to 2 percent in With All ORBIT Act Privatization Requirements” (18 April
the late 1990s were the United Kingdom, Norway, Italy, India, 2005), http://ww2.intelsat.com/press/release_details.aspx?yea
Germany, France, Canada, Australia, China, and Brazil. r=2005&art=20050418_02_EN.xml&lang=en&footer=97 (19
July 2006).
57
Global Systems Satellites

Table 2.1. Intelsat Satellites

Satellite Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status
Intelsat I Early Bird 1965 Hughes Aircraft C Retired, drifting
Intelsat IIA to IID 1966–1967 Hughes Aircraft C One failed to achieve proper orbit;
others retired, drifting
Intelsat IIIA to IIIH 1968–1970 TRW C Three failed to achieve proper
orbit; others retired or failed
Intelsat IV F-1 to F-8 1971–1975 Hughes Aircraft C One launch failure; others retired,
moved above geostationary orbit
Intelsat IV-A F-1 to F-6 1975–1978 Hughes Aircraft C One launch failure; others retired,
moved above geostationary orbit
Intelsat V F-1 to F-9 Intelsat 501 to 509 1980–1985 Ford Aerospace and Communica- C, Ku One launch failure; others retired,
tions moved above geostationary orbit
Intelsat V-A F-1 to F-6 Intelsat V F-10 to F-15, 1985–1989 Ford Aerospace and Communica- C, Ku One launch failure; others retired,
Intelsat 510–515, NSS tions moved above geostationary orbit
513, Columbia 515
Intelsat 601–605 Intelsat VI F-1 to F-5 1989–1991 Hughes Aircraft C, Ku 604 moved above geostationary
orbit spring 2006; others in use
Intelsat 701–705, 709 Intelsat VII F-1 to F-6, 1993–1996 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku All in use
NSS 703
Intelsat 706–708 Intelsat VII-A F-1 to F-3 1995–1996 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku 708 launch failure; others in use
Intelsat 801–804 Intelsat VIII, NSS 803 1997 Martin Marietta Astro Space C, Ku 804 failed 2005; others in use
Intelsat 805–806 Intelsat VIII-A, NSS 806 1998 Martin Marietta Astro Space C, Ku In use
Intelsat 901–907 2001–2003 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku In use
Intelsat 10-01, 10-02 2004 Matra-Marconi, later Astrium, then C, Ku 10-01 not completed, contract
EADS Astrium canceled; 10-02 in use
Intelsat APR*
Intelsat Americas**
*Intelsat APR-1 and APR-2 are leased capacity on Insat 2E and Sinosat 1, described respectively in the India and China sections of chapter 8.
**Intelsat Americas 5–8 and 13, formerly Telstars 5–8 and 13, are described in chapter 6.

2. Intelsat, “Intelsat and PanAmSat to Merge, Creating a fully operational system. The three choices were randomly
World-Class Communications Solutions Provider” (29 Au- spaced, medium-altitude satellites; gravity-gradient-stabilized
gust 2005), http://ww2.intelsat.com/press/releases.aspx?year= medium-altitude satellites with controlled phasing; and larger
2005&lang=en (19 July 2006). satellites in synchronous equatorial orbits.
3. Intelsat, “Intelsat Completes Acquisition of PanAm- The Early Bird [1–11] basically followed the Syncom 3
Sat” (3 July 2006), http://www.intelsat.com/pdf/press_relea design, taking the third of these three choices. The bandwidth
ses/2006/20060703.pdf (19 July 2006). and radiated power were increased from Syncom to provide
better service, including two-way television. Larger solar
cell panels were used, increasing the satellite height. Since
Intelsat I the satellite was to be used for transmission between North
America and Europe, the antenna pattern was shaped to
In August 1964, the International Telecommunication Satellite service the Northern Hemisphere. Maximum gain occurred at
Consortium (now called Intelsat) was formed with the goals 45°N latitude, rather than at the equator. The satellite had two
of production, ownership, management, and use of a global independent repeaters: one for transmissions from Europe to
communication satellite system. The feasibility of satellite North America and the other for the opposite direction. The
communications had already been proved, and Intelsat decided Intelsat I satellite details are as follows.
to launch a satellite to gain information in four areas:
• rain margins required at ground stations Satellite
• reaction of telephone users to the transmission delay Hughes HS 303 bus
• long-term operation of the stationkeeping control valves Cylinder, 28 in. diam, 23 in. height
• applicability of communication satellites for 85 lb in orbit, beginning of life
commercial telephone use Solar cells, 45 W maximum, 33 W minimum after 3 years (NiCd
The satellite was basically experimental to provide some batteries are not used by the communication subsystem)
results in these areas of uncertainty. If the results were favorable, Spin-stabilized
the satellite would be put into operational use. Because of Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver
the success of Syncom, Intelsat decided to use a satellite of
similar design. However, at the same time, three design studies Configuration
were initiated, covering the three possible orbital modes for Two 25 MHz bandwidth double conversion repeaters

58
 Intelsat

Orbital history
Launched 6 April 1965
Commercial service use from 28 June 1965 to January 1969
and from 29 June to 13 August 1969 (to fill coverage gap caused
by Intelsat IIIB outage), drifting near synchronous altitude
Delta launch vehicle

Management
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Comsat
Corporation/Intelsat
Operated by Comsat Corporation for Intelsat
Early Bird (also called Intelsat I) was launched in April 1965.
Extensive tests were conducted using stations in Maine, England,
France, and Germany, which had also operated with Telstar
and Relay. Noise, intermodulation, and frequency response
measurements were made with single and multiple carriers
with voice and television signals. Optimal operating points for
ground equipment were determined. The tests indicated that
operation to commercial standards could be maintained. DOD
also conducted limited tests using Early Bird.
Early Bird was put into regular commercial service in June
1965 and operated regularly until January 1969. In July and
August 1969, it was used again during a temporary outage of
Intelsat IIIB.
******
Fig. 2.1. Early Bird satellite
1. S. Metzger, “The Commercial Communications
Satellite System—1963 to 68,” Astronautics and Aeronautics,
Capacity Vol. 6, No. 4 (April 1968).
240 two-way voice circuits or one two-way TV circuit
2. J. Alper and J. N. Pelton, eds., The Intelsat Global
Transmitter System, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 93,
4081 MHz to United States, 4161 MHz to Europe AIAA, New York (1984).
Two TWTAs (traveling wave tube amplifier) (one on, one 3. R. M. Bentley, “Early Bird,” Astronautics and
standby) Aeronautics, Vol. 3, No. 3 (March 1965).
6 W output, 10 to 11 dBW EIRP (effective isotropic radiated 4. R. M. Bentley, “Early Bird Experimental Results,”
power) per repeater Proceedings of the 16th International Astronautical Congress
(1965), Vol. 4: Meteorological and Communication Satellites
Receiver
(1966).
6390 MHz from United States, 6301 MHz from Europe
5. J. M. Barstow, “Satellite Communication Systems,”
9 dB noise figure
Microwave Journal, Vol. 9, No. 10 (November 1966).
Antenna 6. M. J. Votaw, “The Early Bird Project,” IEEE
Transmit: six-element colinear slot array, 9 dB gain, 11 x 360 Transactions on Communications Technology, Vol. 14, No. 4
deg beam tilted 7 deg above equatorial plane (maximum gain (August 1966).
at about 45°N latitude)
7. A. T. Owens, “The Early Bird Communications
Receive: three-element cloverleaf array, 4 dB gain, 40 x 360 System,” Space Electronics Symposium, AAS Science and
deg beam Technology Series, Vol. 6 (1965).
Telemetry and command
Telemetry: 136.44 and 136.98 MHz, 1.8 W 6301, 4081,
transmitter via four monopole antennas; 6390 4161
and via subcarriers on beacons 6301 72 4081
LIM
Beacon: 4104.14 and 4137.86 MHz
Command: via omnidirectional antenna TW
6229 4153
Life H H S
1.5 year design life 6330 4221
TW
Orbit 60
LIM
Synchronous equatorial 6390 4161
Fig. 2.2. Early Bird communication subsystem.

59
Global Systems Satellites

8. S. B. Bennett, “Early Bird I Communications

Parameters,” Paper 66-263, AIAA Communications Satellite
Systems Conference (May 1966). Reprinted in Communication
Satellite Systems Technology, Progress in Astronautics and
Aeronautics, Vol. 19, R. B. Marsten, ed. (1966).
9. L. F. Gray, “Experimental Performance of the Early
Bird Communication System,” AIAA Paper 66-264, AIAA
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (May 1966).
Reprinted in Communication Satellite Systems Technology,
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 19, R. B.
Marsten, ed. (1966).
10. E. J. Martin and W. S. McKee, “Commercial Satellite
Communications Experience,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 4, No. 7
(July 1967).
11. D. J. Whalen, “Billion Dollar Technology: A Short
Historical Overview of the Origins of Communications
Satellite Technology, 1945—1965,” in Beyond the Ionosphere:
Fifty Years of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed.,
NASA History Office, Washington, D.C. (1997), ch. 9.

Intelsat II
Intelsat II [1–6] was developed as a follow-on to Early Bird
(Intelsat I). A prime factor in the timing of the Intelsat II
program was the NASA need for multichannel communications Fig. 2.3. Intelsat II satellite.
with overseas ground and shipborne tracking stations to aid
the Apollo program. Formerly, these communication links
depended on high-frequency radio, but the increase in manned Transmitter
space flights required improved quality and reliability. Intelsat 4055–4185 MHz
II satellites were designed to satisfy NASA requirements and Four 6 W TWTAs: any combination of one, two, or three active;
to have additional capacity for other commercial traffic. 12 W output, 15.4 dBW EIRP with two TWTAs on
The design of the Intelsat II satellite was derived from the
Syncom 3 and Early Bird designs. Mechanically, all three Receiver
satellites were similar. The communication subsystem of 6280–6410 MHz
Intelsat II had a single, wide bandwidth repeater rather than Redundant: one on, one standby
the pair of narrowband repeaters used on Early Bird. The 6 dB noise figure
antenna pattern was centered at the equator to provide equal
coverage to both Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Parallel Antenna
TWTs (traveling wave tubes) were used in the transmitter to Transmit: four-element biconical horn array, 5 dB gain, 12 x 360
compensate for this wider beamwidth (the Early Bird antenna deg beamwidth
pattern covered only the Northern Hemisphere). Therefore, the Receive: single biconical horn, 4 dB gain
communication capacity of Intelsat II was the same as that of
Early Bird. The Intelsat II satellite details are as follows.
Satellite
Hughes HS 303 bus
6280– 4055–
Cylinder, 56 in. diam, 26.5 in. height (45 in. overall) 6410 TW 4185
192 lb in orbit, beginning of life TD TW
H TW
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 85 W initially, 75 W minimum
after 5 years 2225
H H C
Spin-stabilized
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver H TW

Configuration Identical to above,

redundant TW
One 130 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeater
Normally two TWTs are on,
Capacity but 1, 2, or 3 may be used
240 two-way voice circuits
Fig. 2.4. Intelsat II communication subsystem.

60
 Intelsat

Telemetry and command capacity than the previous satellites, which had a multiple
Telemetry: two frequencies near 136 MHz, via eight monopole access capability allowing communications between any pair of
antennas; and via subcarriers on beacons terminals within view of the satellite. The Intelsat III program
Command: via omnidirectional antenna was the first to provide global service, with satellites serving
each of the three ocean areas of the world. This fulfilled a goal
Life defined in the original charter of the Intelsat organization.
Three-year design life Intelsat III satellites were larger than Intelsat II satellites.
The basic design was similar, with equipment mounted on a
Orbit platform within a spinning, cylindrical body on which solar cells
Synchronous equatorial were mounted. A despun antenna was the major new feature
of the Intelsat III design. The beamwidth of the antenna was
Orbital history optimized for Earth coverage and provided significantly more
Satellite, launch dates, service area, and comments: gain than the antennas on earlier satellites. Increased gain was
Intelsat IIA, 26 October 1966, failed to achieve synchronous the major reason the Intelsat III communication capacity was
orbit, 12 hr orbit allowed 4 to 8 hr use per day until IIB was five times that of Intelsat II. The communication subsystem
launched, decayed from orbit on 7 September 1982 had two independent repeaters, each with a bandwidth of 225
Intelsat IIB, 11 January 1967, Pacific, retired in early 1969 MHz. The Intelsat III satellite details are as follows.
Intelsat IIC, 7 April 1967, Atlantic, retired in February 1970 Satellite
Intelsat IID, 27 September 1967, Pacific, retired in 1971 Cylinder, 56 in. diam, 41 in. height (78 in. overall)
Delta launch vehicle Approximately 330 lb in orbit, beginning of life
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 160 W at beginning of life, 130
Management W minimum after 5 years
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Comsat
Spin-stabilized, 90 rpm
Corporation/Intelsat
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine mono-
Operated by Comsat Corporation for Intelsat
propellant for on-orbit use
The first Intelsat II satellite (IIA) was launched in October
1966, but because of an apogee motor malfunction, its final Configuration
orbit was elliptical with a synchronous altitude apogee. It was Two 225 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters
used for communications in the Pacific area a few hours a
day until satellite IIB was launched. After that, it was used Capacity
occasionally for ground station tests. Satellites IIB, IIC, and 1200 two-way voice circuits or four TV circuits
IID were launched successfully and operated properly. They
Transmitter
were used both in regular commercial service and in the
3705–3930 MHz and 3970–4195 MHz
NASA communications network. These three satellites, along
with Early Bird, were retired by 1971. Each repeater has a low-level TWTA driving a high-level
TWTA
******
10 W output, 27 dBW EIRP each repeater (22 dBW minimum
1. S. Metzger, “The Commercial Communications Satel- at edge of Earth)
lite System—1963 to 68,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol.
6, No. 4 (April 1968).
2. J. Alper and J. N. Pelton, eds., The Intelsat Global Fig. 2.5. Intelsat III satellite.
System, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 93,
AIAA, New York (1984).
3. E. J. Martin and W. S. McKee, “Commercial Satellite
Communications Experience,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 4, No. 7
(July 1967).
4. H. Shinkawa, “Satellite Communication,” Electronics
and Communications in Japan, Vol. 50, No. 10 (October
1967).
5. “Intelsat 2 Communications Satellite,” Telecom-
munication Journal, Vol. 34, No. 2 (February 1967).
6. J. Arnaud, “Progress in Intelsat,” IEEE International
Conference on Communications: ICC ’68 (June 1968).

Intelsat III
Work on Intelsat III satellites [1–7] started in 1966 about the
time the first Intelsat II was launched. The objective of the
Intelsat III program was to develop satellites with greater
61
Global Systems Satellites

Management
Developed by TRW Systems Group (6 percent subcontracted
5930– TD 3705– in Western Europe and Japan) for Comsat Corporation/
6155 3930 Intelsat
S H TW TW
Operated by Comsat Corporation for Intelsat
*
TD Originally, the Intelsat III program was to include six launches.
2225 During the course of the program, however, partially because
C of the failure of the first launch, the program was extended
2225
to eight launches. The seventh satellite was fabricated from
TD
available spare parts, and the eighth was the refurbished
prototype. Between December 1968 and April 1970, five of
S H TW TW the eight satellites were successfully placed into synchronous
6195– 3970– orbit, and all five operated satisfactorily. A component failure
6420 * 4195
TD reduced the capacity of Intelsat IIIC, but it was moved from the
Pacific to the Indian Ocean area, where it provided acceptable
*Spare TD and switching not in first three satellites service in view of the lower traffic density there in those years.
Beginning in 1972, the Intelsat III satellites were removed
Fig. 2.6. Intelsat III communication subsystem.
from service as the Intelsat IV satellites became available.
Receiver ******
5930 to 6155 MHz and 6195–6420 MHz
1. S. Metzger, “The Commercial Communications
Two tunnel diode amplifiers in each repeater (one on, one Satellite System—1963 to 68,” Astronautics and Aeronautics,
standby) (standby amplifiers not on first three satellites) Vol. 6, No. 4 (April 1968).
<7 dB noise figure 2. J. Alper and J. N. Pelton, eds., The Intelsat Global
Antenna System, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 93,
Despun conical horn with flat reflector 45 deg to horn axis
AIAA, New York (1984).
19.3 deg beamwidth, circular polarization 3. J. Arnaud, “Progress in Intelsat,” IEEE International
Conference on Communications: ICC ’68 (June 1968).
Transmit: 18 dB peak gain
4. C. O. Meredith, “Lessons Learned from the Intelsat III
Receive: 21 dB peak gain
Satellite Program,” Paper 72-534, AIAA 4th Communications
Telemetry and command Satellite Systems Conference (April 1972). Reprinted in
Telemetry: 3933 and 3967 MHz via omnidirectional or Earth Communications Satellite Systems, Progress in Astronautics
coverage (communication subsystem) antennas and Aeronautics, Vol. 32, P. L. Bargellini, ed. (1974).
Command: 6175 MHz via omnidirectional antenna 5. M. Feigen, “The Intelsat III Satellite,” IEEE
International Conference on Communications: ICC ’68 (June
Life 1968).
Five-year design life 6. W. L. Glomb and L. Feit, “Overall System,” Electrical
Orbit Communication, Vol. 45, No. 4 (1970).
Synchronous equatorial 7. A. J. Grey, “Communication, Telemetry, and Command
Subsystem,” Electrical Communication, Vol. 45, No. 4
Orbital history (1970).
Satellite, launch date, service area, and comments. (Dates
in parentheses indicate end of active service. The Intelsat III
satellites are no longer available for service.) Intelsat IV
Intelsat IIIA, 18 September 1968, failed to achieve Intelsat III satellites were a significant improvement over the
proper orbit previous Intelsat satellites. However, prior to the first Intelsat
Intelsat IIIB, 18 December 1968, Atlantic (March 1970) III launch, it was recognized that the continually increasing
Intelsat IIIC, 5 February 1969, Pacific, Indian (April demand for communication satellite services would shortly
1979) require even larger satellites in orbit. Therefore, design work
Intelsat IIID, 21 May 1969, Pacific (November 1972) was begun on Intelsat IV [1–7] about the time the first Intelsat
III satellites were brought into service. The main requirements
Intelsat IIIE, 25 July 1969, failed to achieve proper orbit, for the Intelsat IV satellites were to provide increased capacity
reentered the atmosphere 14 October 1988
and operational flexibility while remaining compatible with
Intelsat IIIF, 14 January 1970, Atlantic (March 1972), existing ground terminals.
Indian, Pacific (December 1974) The design of Intelsat IV differed significantly from that
Intelsat IIIG, 22 April 1970, Atlantic (failed in March of Intelsat III and was based on the Tactical Communications
1972) Satellite (Tacsat) design, described in chapter 4. The Intelsat
Intelsat IIIH, 23 July 1970, failed to achieve proper orbit IV solar array was much larger than that of Intelsat III, to
support a significant increase in total transmitter power.
Delta launch vehicle

62
 Intelsat

Since the launch vehicle constrained the diameter of the solar Transmitter
array, the increase in size necessitated an increase in height. 3707–4193 MHz
As a result, like Tacsat, but unlike other previous satellites, Two TWTAs per repeater (one on, one standby)
the spin axis was not the axis of the maximum moment of
inertia, and hence the spinning satellite was not inherently 6 W output per repeater
stable. Therefore, special attitude control devices were used EIRP per repeater: 22.0 dBW (Earth coverage antenna), 33.7
to maintain stability. This design was named a gyrostat. The dBW (narrowbeam antenna), both at –3 dB points of antenna
antennas and communications electronics were all mounted pattern
on a platform that was despun relative to the main body of
Receiver
the satellite in order to remain pointed at the Earth. All other
equipment was mounted within the cylindrical satellite body. 5932–6418 MHz
Additional Intelsat IV details are as follows. Four complete units (one on, three standby), tunnel diode
preamplifiers
Satellite
Hughes HS 312 bus 8.2 dB noise figure

Cylinder, 94 in. diam, 111 in. height; 210 in. (17.5 ft) overall G/T: –18.7 dB/K minimum, –17.2 dB/K nominal
height
Antenna
Approximately 1600 lb in orbit, beginning of life Four Earth coverage horns, 20.5 dB gain, 17 deg beamwidth
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 570 W initially, 460 W at end (two for transmit and two for receive)
of life Two narrowbeam parabolas, 50 in. diam, 31.7 dB gain,
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, 50–60 rpm, antenna pointing error 4.5 deg beamwidth, steerable in the 17 deg Earth coverage
<±0.35 deg (each axis) cone
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine All six antennas mounted on a despun platform and circularly
monopropellant for on-orbit use polarized

Configuration Telemetry and command

Twelve 36 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters Telemetry: 3947.25 and 3952.5 MHz via communication
subsystem’s TWTAs and an omnidirectional antenna, or via
Capacity solid-state amplifiers and an Earth coverage (communication
Total of 3000–9000 two-way telephone circuits, depending on subsystem) antenna
use of Earth coverage or narrowbeam antennas, number of Command: in 6168–6182 MHz band via omnidirectional
carriers per repeater, and modulation formats antenna
One color TV channel per repeater

Fig. 2.7. Intelsat IV satellite. Fig. 2.8. Intelsat IV satellite details.

63
Global Systems Satellites

Life capacity was always limited by the available transmitter power.

Seven-year design life Since the Intelsat III design used 450 MHz of the 500 MHz
allocation, the Intelsat IV design was bandwidth limited, and
Orbit 12 separate repeaters were used to achieve more efficient
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W spectrum utilization. The total repeater bandwidth was 432
MHz, but the total capacity using Earth coverage antennas was
Orbital history 3000 telephone circuits—2.5 times the capacity of Intelsat III.
Satellite, launch date, and comments: Intelsat IV was the first satellite to have narrowbeam
Intelsat IV F-2, 25 January 1971, service life about 9 years, antennas. It had two transmitting antennas with 4.5 deg
then moved above synchronous orbit beamwidths in addition to the Earth coverage (approximately
Intelsat IV F-3, 19 December 1971, service life about 10 17 deg beamwidth) receiving and transmitting antennas. Up to
years, then moved above synchronous orbit four repeaters were connected to each narrowbeam antenna,
Intelsat IV F-4, 23 January 1972, service life about 11 providing a maximum satellite capacity of 9000 telephone
years, then moved above synchronous orbit circuits. Under normal operating conditions, each Intelsat IV
provided a capacity of 4000 to 6000 circuits. The maximum
Intelsat IV F-5, 13 June 1972, service life about 9 years,
then moved above synchronous orbit
capacity was not realized because of the inefficiencies incurred
when several transmissions shared a repeater.
Intelsat IV F-7, 23 August 1973, service life about 11 years, All eight Intelsat IV satellites were launched, with only one
then moved above synchronous orbit unsuccessful launch. The first launch was in January 1971 and
Intelsat F-8, 21 November 1974, service life about 10 the last in May 1975. All the satellites, except for one lost in
years, then moved above synchronous orbit a launch failure, had service lives of 9 to 12 years. Generally,
Intelsat F-6, 20 February 1975, launch vehicle failure the service life began with a period of active service, followed
Intelsat F-1, 22 May 1975, service life about 12 years, then by a period as a spare or used for leased service. All have been
moved above synchronous orbit turned off and moved above synchronous orbit, the last in
1987, so that they cannot interfere with active satellites.
Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle
******
Management
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Comsat
1. J. Alper and J. N. Pelton, eds., The Intelsat Global
Corporation/Intelsat, approximately 20 percent subcontracted System, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 93,
to companies in Western Europe, Japan, and Canada AIAA, New York (1984).
Operated by Intelsat 2. Special Issue on Intelsat IV, Comsat Technical Review,
Vol. 2, No. 2 (Fall 1972).
Previous Intelsat satellites all had one or two communication
channels; with each new design, increased capacity was 3. S. B. Bennett and I. Dostis, “Design of the Intelsat
achieved by increasing the channel bandwidth. The resulting IV Transponder,” Paper 72-535, AIAA 4th Communications

5932– Channel 1
6418 EC *
TW S
Receiver 1
3 * NB EC
TD TD TW TW S

5
2225 *
TW S C

S S C
7 3707–
*
TW S 4193
Receiver 2
5932– 9
6418 EC *
TW
H
11
Receiver 3 *
TW
NB EC
S S
3707–
Receiver 4 Same for channels 4193
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12

EC Earth coverage antenna

*Redundant TWT for each channel not shown
NB Narrowbeam antenna

Fig. 2.9. Intelsat IV communication subsystem.

64
 Intelsat

Satellite Systems Conference (April 1972). Reprinted in Transmitter

Communications Satellite Technology, Progress in Astronautics 3707–4193 MHz
and Aeronautics, Vol. 33, P. L. Bargellini, ed. (1974). Two 6 W TWTAs (one on, one standby) for each of the four
4. C. A. Blackwell and M. P. Brown Jr., “Communication global coverage channels
Satellite System Design,” IEEE Communication Systems and One 5 W TWTA for each of the 16 spot-beam channels, with
Technology Conference (April 1974). one spare TWTA for every two channels
5. W. L. Pritchard and P. L. Bargellini, “Trends in Minimum EIRP per repeater at edge of coverage 29 dBW (half
Technology for Communications Satellites,” Astronautics and of a hemispheric beam), 26 dBW (hemispheric beam), 22 dBW
Aeronautics, Vol. 10, No. 4 (April 1972). (global beam)
6. A. A. McKenzie, “Special Report—Communications: Receiver
What’s Up in Satellites,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 9, No. 5 (May 5932–6418 MHz
1972).
Four hemispheric beam receivers (two on, two standby)
7. T. Wilding-White, “Intelsat IV,” Flight International Two global beam receivers (one on, one standby)
(18 February 1971).
8 dB noise figure, –11.6 dB/K G/T (hemispheric beam), –17.6
dB/K G/T (global beam)
Intelsat IV-A Antenna
The North Atlantic area always has the largest volume of Two Earth coverage horns (one transmit, one receive)
communications traffic and is the area that paces the introduction Three shaped-beam antennas (two transmit, one receive) with
of higher-capacity satellites into the Intelsat system. By 1972, multiple feeds to generate coverage patterns approximating
two Intelsat IV satellites operating together were required in continental shapes; at least 27 dB isolation between eastern
this area. According to the projections of capacity demand, and western lobes of each antenna; each antenna was
these two satellites would have been saturated by the end of approximately square except for rounded corners, 54 in. across
1975. Providing more capacity would require either a third for transmit, 35 in. for receive
Intelsat IV or a new satellite of larger capacity. Since the first All antennas mounted on a despun platform and circularly
alternative would force several ground stations to construct polarized
another antenna, Intelsat elected to develop Intelsat IV-A [1–
10].
The support subsystems and satellite body of Intelsat IV-
A were the same as for Intelsat IV except for more efficient
solar cells. It had five communication antennas: global
coverage receive, global coverage transmit, shaped-beam
receive, and two shaped-beam transmit. The new antennas
and communication electronics allowed an increase to twenty
36 MHz channels from the 12 on Intelsat IV. Intelsat IV-A
satellite details are as follows.
Satellite
Hughes HS 353 bus
Cylinder, 94 in. diam, 111 in. height; 275 in. (23 ft) overall
height
1820 lb in orbit, beginning of life
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 590 W at beginning of life, 525
W at end of life
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, approximately 50 rpm, antenna
pointing error b±0.25 deg (N-S axis) and b±0.2 deg (E-W
axis)
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine
monopropellant for on-orbit use

Configuration
Twenty 36 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters, dual-
beam frequency reuse

Capacity
Maximum capacity approximately 15,000 two-way voice
circuits; nominal capacity in a typical operational configuration
was approximately 6000 two-way voice circuits plus two
transponders for SPADE and TV transmissions Fig. 2.10. Intelsat IV-A satellite.

65
Global Systems Satellites

E W NE SE NW SW

Channel TW *
Receiver 1
1A
S TD TD TW S H S 2/3 TW 3/2

2225 1B TW *
5932– (Same for 3A&B, 5A&B, 3707–
6418 7A&B, 9A&B, 11A&B) 4193
Receiver 2
S S Channel TW NE NW
2A
Receiver 3
S 2/3 TW 3/2
2B
Receiver 4 TW S
S S H S
(Same for 4A&B)

Global receiver 1 TW
C
Channel
6
S S S S

Global receiver 2 TW

(Same for 8, 10, 12)

* Splits power between outputs or sends all power to either output

Fig. 2.11. Intelsat IV-A communication subsystem.

Telemetry and command Management

Telemetry: two frequencies near 3950 MHz via communication Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company and subcontractors in
subsystem’s TWTAs and an omnidirectional antenna, or via Western Europe, Japan, and Canada for Comsat Corporation/
solid-state amplifiers and an Earth coverage (communication Intelsat
subsystem) antenna Operated by Intelsat
Command: in 6168–6182 MHz band via omnidirectional
Four of the 20 channels on Intelsat IV-A were devoted to
antenna
global coverage. All four channels passed through one of
Life the redundant global coverage receivers. Each channel had
Seven-year design life redundant 6 W TWTs. Sixteen channels were connected to
the shaped-beam antennas and divided into A and B groups,
Orbit each with eight channels. All the channels within a group used
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W separate frequencies, but the corresponding channels of the
two groups (e.g., 1A and 1B) used the same frequencies. There
Orbital history were four receivers for these channels, but only two were used
Satellite, launch date, and comments: at a time (one for each group). The other two receivers were
Intelsat IV-A F-1, 25 September 1975, service life exceeded spares. The spot-beam channels used 5 W TWTs, with one
design life, then moved above synchronous orbit spare TWT available for every two channels.
Intelsat IV-A F-2, 29 January 1976, service life exceeded The shaped-beam antennas had east and west beams to
design life, then moved above synchronous orbit prevent interference between overlapping channels; the A
channel of each pair used one beam, and the B channel used the
Intelsat IV-A F-4, 26 May 1977, service life exceeded
other beam. The satellites were positioned over oceans, with
design life, then moved above synchronous orbit
the shaped beams serving the continental areas on either side
Intelsat IV-A F-5, 29 September 1977, launch vehicle of the ocean. (Any terminals near the satellite longitude were
failure between the two beams and had to use the global coverage
Intelsat IV-A F-3, 6 January 1978, service life exceeded channels.) There was at least 27 dB isolation between the
design life, then moved above synchronous orbit two beams. The receive antenna had two sets of feed horns
Intelsat IV-A F-6, 31 March 1978, service life exceeded that produced the two beams (east and west). One transmit
design life, then moved above synchronous orbit antenna had four sets of feed horns that produced northeast,
Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle northwest, southwest, and southeast beams. The eastern pair
of beams was isolated from the western pair, but the north and
66
 Intelsat

south members of a pair were not isolated, since they carried 7. B. I. Edelson and R. W. Rostron, “Technological Trends
no overlapping channels. Six channels were connected to the in Commercial Satellite Design,” Spaceflight, Vol. 15, No. 8
west beams of this antenna and six to the east beams. Each of (August 1973).
the channels connected to the east side could have its power 8. “First Intelsat-IVA Launched,” Telecommunication
split between the northeast and southeast beams and similarly Journal, Vol. 42, No. 10 (October 1975).
for channels connected to the west side. The other transmit
antenna had two sets of feed horns that produced northeast and 9. Flight International (24 October 1974), p. 581.
northwest beams, and two channels were connected to each 10. Aviation Week & Space Technology (11 September
of these beams. In an optional mode, two of these channels 1972), p. 19; (1 January 1973), p. 20; (2 December 1974), p.
could be switched to a global coverage antenna, in which case 26; (10 October 1977), p. 24.
the other two had to be turned off. A considerable number
of switches in the communication subsystem allowed great
flexibility in routing signals, subject only to the constraint that Intelsat V
the A and B channels of any one pair were not simultaneously Forecasts of Intelsat traffic were for steady increases;
on the same beam. consequently, new model satellites needed to be introduced
Each beam on both the receive and transmit antennas into the system at intervals of about 4 to 5 years. The Intelsat
was formed by a set of feed horns that shaped the beams for IV-A satellites were first used in 1975. These satellites provided
coverage of the proper land masses. The coverage being used a moderate capacity increase without requiring significant
was adequate for Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean areas with ground terminal changes. However, further capacity increases
fixed feed horns and fixed reflectors, with only one exception. were not practical with a simple stretching of the Intelsat IV/
This fact simplified the satellites because no antenna gimballing IV-A design, so development of a new satellite was begun in
was required; it also allowed the flexibility to move a satellite 1976. The new satellite (Intelsat V, Fig. 2.12) was put into use
from one ocean area to another. The exception to the general beginning in 1980.
coverage was an additional feed horn that had to be switched Intelsat V satellites [1–24] had two new design features that
into the west receive beam and southwest transmit beam to required significant ground terminal changes. The first feature
provide adequate coverage of New Zealand from an Intelsat was the use of dual-polarization uplinks and downlinks in the
IV-A in the Pacific region. 4 and 6 GHz bands. All previous Intelsat satellites used one
At first, three Intelsat IV-A satellites were ordered, followed polarization for uplinks and the orthogonal polarization for
by a second order for three more in 1974. All six were launched downlinks. This change required improvements at all ground
between September 1975 and March 1978. The first three were terminals to ensure isolation between the two polarizations. The
placed into service in the Atlantic region; they were turned off dual polarizations were combined with the two independent
and moved above synchronous orbit in the mid-1980s. The beams (east and west) introduced on Intelsat IV-A. Together,
fourth was lost as the result of a launch vehicle failure. The last these techniques tripled the satellite capacity in the 4 and 6
two were in the Indian Ocean region for several years, then GHz bands, compared with the Intelsat IV design. The second
moved to the Pacific region when replaced by two Intelsat V new feature was the use of the 11 and 14 GHz bands, and
satellites. They were in use until 1989. two independent beams were used with these bands also.
****** The nations with the largest traffic volumes used these new
frequencies and constructed new terminals for them.
1. J. Alper and J. N. Pelton, eds., The Intelsat Global Intelsat V satellites had a rectangular body about 6 ft across.
System, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 93, The sun-tracking solar arrays, composed of three panels
AIAA, New York (1984). each, were deployed in orbit. On the Earth-viewing face of
2. L. S. Pilcher, “Intelsat IV-A as a Communication the body was an antenna tower on which were mounted both
Capability,” Paper 74-473, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite the communications and telemetry, tracking, and command
Systems Conference (April 1974). (TT&C) antennas and the feed networks for the large reflectors.
3. J. Dicks and M. Brown, “Intelsat IV-A Transmission
System Design,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 5, No. 1 Fig. 2.12. Intelsat V satellite.
(Spring 1975).
4. J. L. Dicks and M. P. Brown, “Intelsat IV-A
Satellite Transmission Design,” Paper 74-474, AIAA 5th
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1974).
5. F. Taormina, D. K. McCarty, T. Crail, and D. Nakatani,
“Intelsat IVA Communications Antenna—Frequency Re-
use through Spatial Separation,” International
Conference on Communications: ICC
’76 (June 1976).
6. G. E. LaVean and E.
J. Martin, “Communication
Satellites: The Second Decade,”
Astronautics and Aeronautics,
Vol. 12, No. 4 (April 1974).

67
Global Systems Satellites

pairs were kept independent by the angular separation of

West
the beams—the same technique used on Intelsat IV-A. The
spot pairs that share a common frequency and direction were kept
East independent by the assignment of one to a hemispheric beam
East
spot zone and one to a smaller zone beam. These beams were separated,
West
zone
not by direction, but by orthogonal polarizations. Of the five
narrower transponders, two used the east and west beams
for twofold frequency reuse and the other three were global
beams. The pair of narrow reuse transponders and/or one pair
of hemispheric beam reuse transponders were switchable to
use one of each pair for additional global service with the other
East
hemi
turned off. For all reuse transponders, several possible transmit
West and receive connections were possible, as shown in Fig. 2.14.
hemi
The 11 and 14 GHz bands had six transponders, two
each of 72, 77, and 241 MHz bandwidths. They were used in
twofold frequency reuse through east and west spot beams.
These transponders were operated at 11 and 14 GHz or cross
connected with the other frequencies. For example, one
transponder might have been switched to 14 GHz receive and
(a) 4 GHz transmit and another to 6 GHz receive and 11 GHz
transmit. The 4 and 6 GHz signals passed through the satellite
with a single frequency conversion, whereas all 11 and 14
West
spot GHz signals used a 4 GHz intermediate frequency so that all
interconnections could be done at a common frequency.
The 4 and 6 GHz hemispheric and zone beams were formed
by one transmit and one receive antenna. Each was composed
East
West
zone of a parabolic reflector and an 88 horn feed. These beams were
zone
not steerable, but there were switches in the zone beam feed
matrices because the pattern required for the satellite serving
East the Indian Ocean was different from that required for the
spot Atlantic and Pacific regions. The 11 and 14 GHz spot beams
were formed by parabolic reflectors that were each steerable
over a limited portion of the Northern Hemisphere.
The initial Intelsat V contract was for seven satellites; later
East
hemi
an eighth and then a ninth were added to the contract. (The
later satellites called Intelsat V F-10 to F-15 were the Intelsat
West V-A series.) The first launch was in December 1980; the last,
hemi the only failure, in 1984. The eight successfully launched
satellites operated properly, and all were still in use in 1994.
By 1996, five were in use, and one remained in use in 1999.
The Intelsat V characteristics are summarized as follows.
Satellite
Fig. 2.13. Typical Intelsat V antenna patterns. Rectangular body 5.4 x 5.8 x 6.6 ft, 51 ft across tips of deployed
(a) Atlantic Ocean solar arrays, 21.7 ft height to top of antenna tower
(b) Indian Ocean
Approximately 2280 lb in orbit, beginning of life; approximately
1820 lb end of life (satellites with the maritime subsystem are
The tower was fixed to the satellite body, but the three largest about 80 lb more)
reflectors deployed in orbit. The tower was about 15 ft tall Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiCd (NiH2 for F-5 to F-9)
and was constructed almost entirely of graphite fiber/epoxy batteries, approximately 1800 W beginning of life, 1290 W
materials for strength, light weight, and thermal stability. The minimum after 7 years
entire satellite weighed about 2200 lb in orbit and spanned
Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels, antenna
about 51 ft across the solar arrays. pointing accuracy ±0.2 deg pitch and roll, ±0.5 deg in yaw
The communication subsystem (Fig. 2.14) operated at the
4 and 6 GHz frequencies used by all previous Intelsat satellites Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine
monopropellant for on-orbit use
as well as at 11 and 14 GHz. The 4 and 6 GHz bands had
21 transponders, 16 with 72 or 77 MHz bandwidths and five Configuration
with 36 or 41 MHz bandwidths. The 16 wider transponders 4 and 6 GHz: 21 single-conversion repeaters with bandwidths of
were operated with fourfold frequency reuse; there were four 36–77 MHz, dual-beam and dual-polarization frequency reuse
separate frequencies, each with four transponders. Within
11 and 14 GHz: six double-conversion repeaters with band-
each cofrequency set, two transponders were assigned to
widths of 72 to 241 MHz, dual-beam frequency reuse
west beams and two to east beams. Thus, these transponder

68
 Intelsat

EH EH East
East S S C
hemi T T TW hemi
WH WH
2225 ES (1–2) ES 2/3 TW 3/2 RHC
Receiver 2
LHC WS WS
S S
TW C West
Receiver 3 EZ EZ hemi
WZ (1–2) WZ (1–2) [Same for (3–4), (5–6)]
West
hemi S Receiver 4 S
EH EH S
TW
WH WH
East S Receiver 1 S EZ (3–4) EZ 2/3 TW 3/2
zone
WZ WZ
Receiver 2 TW S
RHC S S EH EH
Receiver 3 (7–8) [Same for (9)]
WH WH
West EZ EZ
zone S Receiver 4 S TW
WZ (5–6) WZ
S S C Global
ES ES RHC
TW
WS WS
Global S Receiver 1 S (10) [Same for (11), (12)]
EZ EZ

LHC S Receiver 2 S WZ WZ C East

(7–8) TW zone
ES (7–12) ES
Receiver 3 2/3 3/2 LHC
WS WS TW

EH EH C West
TW zone
WH (7–8) G
(1–2) [Same for (3–4), (5–6), (7–8)]
G WH
East S S
spot TD T East
G TW C
spot
10.3 GHz
EH EH 2/3 TW 3/2 LIN
Receiver 2
LIN
S S WH (9) G
C West
Receiver 3 G WH TW spot
West G 7.25 GHz
spot S Receiver 4 S
(10) (1–2) [Same for (5–6)]
(11)
TW
(12)
S S

Notes TW
a. Each switch matrix (center column of figure) can form any one-to-one
combination of inputs and outputs. 7.50 GHz
b. The numbers in parentheses are channel numbers. The multiple numbers indicate (7–12) East [Same for (7–12) West]
channel bandwidths >36 MHz, e.g., (1–2) is a 77 MHz channel occupying the
spectrum used by channels 1 and 2 on Intelsat IV. See Fig. 2.35.
c. LHC/RHC = Left-/right-hand circular polarization; LIN = Linear polarization.
d. Channels (7–8) and (9) may each be used on both EH and WH, or on global.
e. Spot-beam antennas have diplexers (not shown). Hemispheric and zone beams
have beam-forming networks (not shown).
f. Combiners after transmitters also have inputs from unillustrated transmitters.
g. Spot-beam receiver first stage is TD for satellites 1 to 6, T for satelites 7 to 9.

Fig. 2.14. Intelsat V communication subsystem.

69
Global Systems Satellites

Capacity Life
Nominal capacity in a typical operational configuration is 12,000 Ten-year design life
two-way voice circuits plus two TV transmissions
Orbit
Transmitter Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W
4 and 6 GHz: 3704–4198 MHz
Orbital history
Global beam: one 8.5 W TWT per repeater plus one spare
per repeater Satellite, launch date, and comments:
Hemispheric beam: one 8.5 W TWT per repeater plus one Intelsat V F-2, 11 December 1980, moved above
spare per two repeaters synchronous orbit after mid-1996
Zone beam: one 4.5 W TWT per repeater plus one spare Intelsat V F-1, 23 May 1981, moved above synchronous
per two repeaters orbit after mid-1996
EIRP (specified minimum): 23.5 dBW (global beam); 26 Intelsat V F-3, 15 December 1981, moved above
dBW (hemispheric or zone beam, 36 MHz repeaters); 29 synchronous orbit after mid-1996
dBW (hemispheric or zone beam, 72 to 77 MHz repeaters) Intelsat V F-4, 5 March 1982, moved above synchronous
11 and 14 GHz: 10.954–11.191 GHz, and 11.459–11.698 GHz orbit after 1995
One 10 W TWT per repeater (one-for-one redundancy for Intelsat V F-5, 28 September 1982, 72°E longitude, moved
241 MHz repeaters, one-for-two redundancy for 72 to 77 above synchronous orbit by 2000
MHz repeaters) Intelsat V F-6, 19 May 1983, moved above synchronous
EIRP (specified minimums): 41.1 dBW (east spot), 44.4 orbit mid-1998
dBW (west spot) Intelsat V F-7, 19 October 1983, moved above synchronous
orbit after mid-1996
Receiver
Intelsat V F-8, 4 March 1984, retired 1995, moved above
4 and 6 GHz: 5929 to 6423 MHz synchronous orbit
Five active receivers with six spares, bipolar preamplifiers Intelsat V F-9, launch vehicle failure, June 1984, left
(F-1 to F-4), FET (field effect transistor) preamplifiers (F-5 satellite in low orbit, from which it decayed October 1984
to F-9)
Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle (F-1 to F-6, F-9)
G/T: –18.6 dB/K (global beam), –11.6 dB/K (hemispheric
beam), –8.6 dB/K (zone beam), all minimum values (all Ariane launch vehicle (F-7 to F-8)
improve 2.6 dB for F-5 to F-9) With Intelsat’s numbering change in the 1990s, Intelsat V F-1
11 and 14 GHz: 14.004–14.498 GHz became Intelsat 501, F-2 became 502, etc.
Two active receivers with two spares, tunnel diode Management
preamplifiers (F-1 to F-6), FET preamplifiers (F-7 to F-9)
Developed by Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation
G/T: 0.0 dB/K (east spot), +3.3 dB/K (west spot), both (now Space Systems/Loral) for Comsat Corporation/Intelsat,
minimum values approximately 23 percent subcontracted to companies in
France, West Germany, United Kingdom, Japan, and Canada
Antenna
Operated by Intelsat
4 and 6 GHz: two Earth coverage horns (one transmit, one
receive); 18 deg/22 deg beamwidths, 16.5 dB/14.5 dB minimum In mid-1978, Intelsat began a detailed study of the addition of
gains; two reflectors (96 in. diam transmit, 61 in. diam receive), a maritime communication subsystem (MCS) to some of the
each with 88-horn feeds, each generating two hemispheric Intelsat V satellites. This subsystem had been developed for use
beams (21.5 dB minimum gain) and two smaller zone beams as part of the Inmarsat system space segment. It was added to
(24.5 dB minimum gain); zone beams each overlap a portion of Satellite 5 launched in September 1982 and also Satellites 6–9.
one of the hemispheric beams and are separated by orthogonal The maritime subsystem made use of some of the global
polarizations; beams are optimized to cover specified terminal
beam equipment of the basic communications payload. An
locations; circular polarization; minimum interbeam spatial or
polarization isolation 27 dB L-band (1.5/1.6 GHz) antenna and some communications
equipment were added, as shown in Fig. 2.15. Several other
11 and 14 GHz: two reflectors (one east, one west), each modifications were added to the satellite beginning with
generating one beam for transmission and reception; west
the fifth flight model. These modifications were primarily
beam is 1.6 deg with minimum gain of 36 dB, east beam is
1.8 deg x 3.2 deg with minimum gain of 33 dB; each beam to increase reliability and reduce weight, the latter partially
steerable over a limited portion of the Earth; linear polarization; compensating for the maritime subsystem addition. Because of
minimum interbeam spatial isolation 33 dB power subsystem limitations, not all the maritime and 11 GHz
capacity could be used simultaneously. This was acceptable to
Telemetry and command Intelsat, because the 11 GHz transponders were not expected
Telemetry: 3947.5 and 3952.5 MHz via either communication to be used on all of the satellites. The Intelsat V maritime
subsystem TWTAs and omnidirectional antenna or via solid- subsystem performance details were as follows.
state amplifier and Earth coverage horn antenna; 2 dBW typical
EIRP at edge of Earth, right-hand circular polarization Beacon: Configuration
11.198 and 11.452 GHz; 9 dBW typical EIRP at edge of Earth, Coast to ship: one double-conversion repeater with a 7.5 MHz
right-hand circular polarization bandwidth
Command: in the band 6174 to 6176 MHz Ship to coast: one single-conversion repeater with an 8 MHz
bandwidth
70
 Intelsat

Switch TW
LHC S Receiver 1 S matrix
S S C Global
RHC
Receiver 2 TW
Global S S (10) [Same for (11), (12)]
Receiver 3
Basic Intelsat V
MCS addition
RHC S Receiver 4 S

T
T S S T T TW
T
Global
F H S S S D S H S S LHC
T
1535– 1636.5–
1542.5 1644.5
T S S T T TW
T
2657.5
2556
Fig. 2.15. Intelsat V Maritime communication subsystem.

Capacity 1975), p. 134; (27 March 1976), p. 792; (7 August 1976), p.

Thirty voice circuits (high-power mode) or 15 voice circuits 317; (25 September 1976), p. 892.
(low-power mode) 4. Aviation Week & Space Technology (29 October 1973),
Transmitter p. 55; (24 February 1975), p. 62; (21 July 1975), p. 23; (17
L-band: 1535.0–1542.5 MHz; two transistor amplifiers (one
November 1975), p. 55; (5 January 1976), p. 36; (27 September
active, one spare) 70 or 35 W output 1976), p. 45; (18 October 1976), p. 21; (14 February 1977), p.
17; (17 October 1977), p. 161; (6 August 1984), p. 26.
EIRP: r32.6 dBW at edge of coverage (high-power mode) or
r29.6 dBW (low-power mode) 5. R. J. Rusch, J. T. Johnson, and W. Baer, “Intelsat
C-band: 4192.5–4200.5 MHz; two 4.5 W TWTs (one active, one
V Spacecraft Design Summary,” Paper 78-528, AIAA 7th
spare) Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978).
EIRP: 20 dBW at edge of coverage 6. G. T. Hayes, N. I. Totah, and J. W. Young, “Design
of the Antenna Module Structure for Intelsat V Spacecraft,”
Receiver Paper 78-592, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems
L-band: 1636.5–1644.5 MHz; two receivers (one active, one Conference (April 1978).
spare) 7. R. J. Rusch and D. G. Dwyre, “Intelsat V Spacecraft
G/T: r–15 dB/K Design,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 5, No. 3–4 (March– April
C-band: 6417.5–6425 MHz; four receivers (two active, two 1978).
spare) shared with global coverage beam of basic payload 8. J. L. Dicks and M. P. Brown, “Intelsat V Satellite
G/T: r–17.6 dB/K Transmission Design,” Paper 2.2, International Conference on
Communications: ICC ’78 (June 1978).
Antenna
L-band: one quad helix array, Earth coverage, 14 dB gain at
9. J. C. Fuenzalida, P. Rivalan, and H. J. Weiss, “Summary
edge of coverage, 18 deg beamwidth, steerable ±2°E-W, of the Intelsat V Communications Performance Specifications,”
circular polarization Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 7, No. 1 (Spring 1977).
C-band: uses Earth coverage horns of the basic payload 10. C. F. Hoeber, “Intelsat V System Design,” Paper 5/1,
WESCON ’77 Conference Record (September 1977).
****** 11. E. A. Robertson, “Communications Requirements for
1. J. Alper and J. N. Pelton, eds., The Intelsat Global the Intelsat V Spacecraft,” EASCON ’76 Conference Record
System, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 93, (September 1976).
AIAA, New York (1984). 12. K. G. Reseck and D. G. Dwyre, “Intelsat V—Transition
2. E. A. Robertson, “Planning for the Intelsat V System,” to the Shuttle,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 15, No. 6
National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’74 (December (June 1977).
1974). 13. V. J. Jakstys and H. T. Ward, “Intelsat V Spacecraft
3. Flight International (19 July 1973), p. 107; (19 Antenna Subsystem,” International Telemetering Conference
September 1974), p. 362; (24 October 1974), p. 581; (24 July Proceedings (November 1978).

71
Global Systems Satellites

14. E. C. Nygren, “Shaped-Beam, Frequency-Reuse Feed Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, approximately
Arrays for Offset-Fed Reflectors,” Paper 80-0558, AIAA 8th 1800 W beginning of life, 1280 W minimum after 7 years
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980). Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels, antenna
15. G. H. Schennum and H. T. Ward, “Intelsat V Spacecraft pointing accuracy ±0.2 deg in pitch and roll, ±0.4 deg in yaw
Antenna Subsystem,” Paper 25.1, International Conference on Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine mono-
Communications: ICC ’80 (June 1980). propellant for on-orbit use
16. C. E. Johnson, “Intelsat V Spacecraft Telemetry Configuration
Command and Ranging,” International Telemetering 4 and 6 GHz: 26 single-conversion repeaters with bandwidths
Conference Proceedings (November 1981). of 36–77 MHz, dual-beam and dual-polarization frequency
17. L. R. Dest and S. E. Magnusson, “In-Orbit Operation reuse
and Test of Intelsat V Satellites,” Paper 82-0464, AIAA 9th 11 and 14 GHz: six double-conversion repeaters with
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982). bandwidths of 72 to 241 MHz, dual-beam frequency reuse
18. J. Martin, D. Arnstein, and C. Adams, “Communications Capacity
Performance Specifications of the Intelsat V with Maritime Nominal capacity in a typical operation configuration is 15,000
Communications Subsystem,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. two-way voice circuits plus two TV transmissions
13, No. 1 (Spring 1983).
19. S. Bangara, V. Riginos, and K. Fullett, “Maritime Transmitter
Communication System Package of Intelsat V,” Satellite 4 and 6 GHz: 3704–4198 MHz
System for Mobile Communications and Navigation, IEE Global beam: one 8.5 W TWT per repeater plus one spare
Conference Publication No. 222 (June 1983). per repeater
20. M. Barrett and K. Fullett, “Maritime Communications Hemispheric beam: one 8.5 W TWT per repeater plus one
Satellite In-orbit Measurements,” Comsat Technical Review, spare per two repeaters
Vol. 13, No. 1 (Spring 1983). Zone beam: one 4.5 W TWT per repeater plus one spare
per two repeaters
21. N. J. Barberis and C. F. Hoeber, “Design Summary of
the Advanced Intelsat V Spacecraft,” Paper 82-0537, AIAA 9th EIRP (specified minimum): 23.5 dBW (global beam) (3
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982). dB larger for Channel 7–8); 26 dBW (hemispheric or zone
Reprinted in Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 20, No. 4 beam, 36 MHz repeaters); 29 dBW (hemispheric or zone
beam, 72–77 MHz repeaters); 32.5 dBW (spot) (3 dB
(July–August 1983).
larger for Channel 7–8)
22. J. L. Stevenson and R. D. Strauss, “The Operational 11 and 14 GHz: 10.954–11.191 GHz, and 11.459–11.698 GHz
Reliability of the Intelsat V Satellite Fleet,” Paper 92-1947, (plus option to switch from the lower band to 11.7–11.95 GHz
AIAA 14th International Communications Satellite Systems or 12.5–12.75 GHz, on F-4 to F-6)
Conference (March 1992).
One 10 W TWT per repeater (one-for-one redundancy for
23. Intelsat, Satellite Guide, Intelsat, Washington D.C. 241 MHz repeaters, one-for-two redundancy for 72–77
(August 1998). MHz repeaters)
24. “Intelsat V Satellite Characteristics,” Intelsat Earth EIRP (specified minimums): 41.1 dBW (east spot), 44.4
Station Standards, Document IESS-405 (Rev. 4A) (30 dBW (west spot)
November 1998).
Receiver
4 and 6 GHz: 5929–6423 MHz
Intelsat V-A Six active receivers with six spares, FET preamplifiers, 4.3
dB receiver noise figure
Intelsat V-A [1–8] was a modification of the Intelsat V design.
Development started late in 1979. As with previous changes G/T: –16.0 dB/K (global beam), –9.0 dB/K (hemispheric
to Intelsat satellites, the primary goal was to increase satellite beam), –6.0 dB/K (zone beam), all minimum values, FET
preamplifiers
capacity to keep ahead of traffic growth in the Atlantic region.
Externally, the satellite appeared almost identical to 14 GHz: 14.004–14.498 GHz
Intelsat V; internally, several changes were made to improve Two active receivers with two spares, FET preamplifiers,
performance, reliability, and communications capacity. 6.8 dB receiver noise figure
Several weight-saving measures were taken to compensate G/T: +1 dB/K (east spot), +4.3 dB/K (west spot), both
for the additional communications hardware. The internal minimum values
arrangement of the communications hardware was modified
for thermal balance. The Intelsat V-A satellite details given Antenna
here are in many cases identical to those for Intelsat V. Intelsat 4 and 6 GHz: two Earth coverage horns (one transmit, one
V-A satellites did not have the MCS. receive); 18 deg/22 deg beamwidths, 16.5 dB/ 14.5 dB mini-
mum gains; two reflectors (96 in. diam transmit, 61 in. diam
Satellite receive), each with 88-horn feeds, each generating two
Rectangular body 5.4 x 5.8 x 6.6 ft, 51 ft across tips of deployed hemispheric beams (21.5 dB minimum gain) and two smaller
solar arrays, 21.7 ft height to top of antenna tower zone beams (24.5 dB minimum gain); zone beams each overlap
Approximately 2420 lb in orbit, beginning of life a portion of one of the hemispheric beams and are separated

72
 Intelsat

EH EH East
East S S C
hemi T T TW hemi
WH WH
2225 ES (1–2) ES 2/3 TW 3/2 RHC
Receiver 2
LHC WS WS
S S
TW C West
Receiver 3 EZ EZ hemi
West WZ (1–2) WZ (1–2) [(Same for 3–4), (5–6)]
hemi S Receiver 4 S
EH EH S
TW
WH WH

East EZ (3–4) EZ 2/3 TW 3/2

S Receiver 1 S
zone
WZ WZ
Receiver 2 TW S
RHC EH EH
S S
(7–8) [Same for (9)]
Receiver 3 WH WH

EZ EZ TW Global
West
zone S Receiver 4 S
WZ (5–6) WZ S S C S RHC

ES ES TW East
spot
LHC S Receiver 1 S WS WS (10) [Same for (11), (12)]

EZ EZ TW Global
Receiver 2
Global S S WZ WZ S S C S LHC
(7–8)
Receiver 3 ES (7–12) ES TW West
spot
RHC S Receiver 4 S WS WS (10) [Same for (11), (12)]

EH EH C East
TW zone
WH (7–8) G
2/3 TW 3/2 LHC
East S S G WH
spot TD T
G C West
10.3 GHz TW zone
EH EH
Receiver 2 G
LIN WH (9) (1–2) [Same for (3–4), (5–6), (7–8), (9)]
S S
G WH
Receiver 3 C East
TW spot
G
West
spot S Receiver 4 S WZ WZ
2/3 TW 3/2 LIN
(9)
EZ EZ

C West
(10), (11), (12) TW spot
(10), (11), (12) 7.25 GHz
Notes (1–2) [Same for (5–6)]

a. Each switch matrix (center column of figure) can form any one-to-one
combination of inputs and outputs. TW
b. The numbers in parentheses are channel numbers. The multiple numbers S S
indicate channel bandwidths 36 MHz, e.g., (1–2) is a 77 MHz channel
occupying the spectrum used by channels 1 and 2 on Intelsat IV. See Fig. 2.35. TW
c. LHC/RHC = Left-/right-hand circular polarization;
LIN = Linear polarization. 7.50 GHz
d. Channels (7–8) and (9) may each be used on both EH and WH, or on global. (7–12) East [Same for (7–12) West]
e. Spot-beam antennas have 11 and 14 GHz diplexers (not shown). Hemispheric and
zone beams have beam-forming networks (not shown).
f. Combiners after transmitters also have inputs from unillustrated transmitters.
g. The mixer input for the spot beam channels’ (1–2) and (5–6) transmitters may be
switched to provide alternate transmit frequencies (see text).

Fig. 2.16. Intelsat V-A communication subsystem.

73
Global Systems Satellites

by orthogonal polarizations; beam shapes are optimized to the existing Channel 9 transponders by opposite polarizations.
cover specified terminal locations; one feed horn is associated Another change is the addition of 4 GHz feed horns to the east
with each of the 11 and 14 GHz reflectors for transmission only, and west spot-beam antennas, which were previously used only
5 deg beamwidth, 26.2 dB minimum gain; circular polarization; at 11 and 14 GHz. The channels received on the global beams
minimum interbeam spatial or polarization isolation 27 dB
can be switched, in groups, between global transmit beams and
11 and 14 GHz: two reflectors (one east, one west) each these new 5 deg beams. These beams are intended for use with
generating one beam for transmission and reception; west transponders leased by Intelsat for domestic communications
beam is 1.6 deg with minimum gain of 36 dB, east beam is systems. The last three satellites have the capability to switch
1.8 deg x 3.2 deg with minimum gain of 33 dB; each beam
channels (1–2) and (5–6) between the 10.95 to 11.2 GHz band,
steerable over a limited portion of the Earth; linear polarization;
minimum interbeam spatial isolation 27 dB available on all Intelsat Vs and V-As, and the 11.7 to 11.95
GHz or 12.5 to 12.75 GHz bands. These latter bands allow
Telemetry and command Intelsat more flexibility in the use of international frequency
Telemetry: 3947.5 or 3948.0 MHz and 3952.0 or 3952.5 MHz via allocations and are intended for Intelsat Business Service
either communication subsystem TWTAs and omnidirectional (IBS) to smaller ground terminals. Satellites with the business
antenna or via solid state amplifier and Earth coverage horn services modification are occasionally called Intelsat V-AB
antenna; 2 dBW typical EIRP at edge of Earth, right-hand or V-B.
circular polarization The first Intelsat V-A was launched in March 1985. Two
Beacon: 11.198 and 11.452 GHz; 9 dBW typical EIRP at edge others were launched later in 1985. A fourth was lost in a
of Earth, right hand circular polarization launch vehicle failure in 1986. The last two were launched in
Command: in the band 6174 to 6176 MHz 1988 and 1989. All five satellites were in use in 1996. In 1998,
Intelsat V-A F15 was sold to Columbia Communications,
Life and F-13 was one of several Intelsat satellites transferred to
Ten-year design life New Skies Satellites. Of the three Intelsat V-A satellites that
remained with Intelsat, two were still in operation in 1999 and
Orbit one remained in operation into 2003.
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W
******
Orbital history 1. J. Alper and J. N. Pelton, eds., The Intelsat Global
Satellite, launch date, and comments: System, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 93,
Intelsat V-A F-1, 22 March 1985, moved above synchronous AIAA, New York (1984).
orbit by mid-2000 2. N. J. Barberis and C. F. Hoeber, “Design Summary of
Intelsat V-A F-2, 30 June 1985, removed from service late the Advanced Intelsat V Spacecraft,” Paper 82-0537, AIAA 9th
2003 or early 2004 Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982).
Intelsat V-A F-3, 29 September 1985, moved above Reprinted in Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 20, No. 4
synchronous orbit after mid-1996 (July–August 1983).
Intelsat V-A F-5, Launch vehicle failure May 1986 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (28 September
Intelsat V-A F-4, 17 May 1988, transferred to New Skies 1981), p. 75; (21 December 1981), p. 20; (4 April 1983), p. 48;
Satellites in November 1998, renamed NSS-513, moved (10 October 1983), p. 77.
above synchronous orbit in 2003 4. J. Martin, D. Arnstein, and C. Adams, “Communications
Intelsat V-A F-6, 26 January 1989, sold to Columbia Performance Specifications of the Intelsat V-A,” Comsat
Communications in January 1998, renamed Columbia Technical Review, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Spring 1983).
515, moved above synchronous orbit in 2003
5. J. L. Stevenson and R. D. Strauss, “The Operational
Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle (F-1 to F-3) Reliability of the Intelsat V Satellite Fleet,” Paper 92-1947,
Ariane launch vehicle (F-4 to F-6) AIAA 14th International Communications Satellite Systems
Intelsat V-A satellites were often called Intelsat V F-10 to F-15; Conference (March 1992).
with Intelsat’s numbering change in the 1990s, Intelsat V F-10 6. “The Intelsat 5 Satellites,” http://www.intelsat.int/tech/
became Intelsat 510, F-11 became 511, etc. sats/is5.htm (23 June 1999).
Management 7. Intelsat, Satellite Guide, Intelsat, Washington D.C.
Developed by Ford Aerospace and Communications Cor- (August 1998).
poration (now Space Systems/Loral) and subcontractors from 8. “Intelsat VA Satellite Characteristics,” Intelsat Earth
France, West Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, and
Station Standards, Document IESS-406 (Rev. 4A) (30
Canada, for Intelsat
November 1998).
Operated by Intelsat (F-4 operated by New Skies Satellites
after its transfer)
In the communications subsystem, three global beam tran- Intelsat VI
sponders were added. They use the same frequency as the Intelsat V satellites were introduced into the Intelsat system
existing, dedicated global beam transponders but use the in 1981. However, studies of higher-capacity satellites using
opposite polarization. Two Channel 9 zone beam transponders new or improved technologies had begun several years earlier.
were also added, separated by the spatial discrimination The major technologies considered were increased frequency
between east and west zone beams. They are separated from reuse, use of newly allocated portions of spectrum adjacent
74
 Intelsat

to existing 4 and 6 GHz and 11 and 14 GHz bands, active

switching onboard the satellite, increased EIRP in some Fig. 2.17. Intelsat VI satellite.
channels, and intersatellite links. The actual Intelsat VI design
[1–25] incorporates all except the last.
The satellite (Fig. 2.17) is a new design but incorporates
features from the Leasat and HS-376 designs. (The latter is used
for Satellite Business Systems (SBS), Anik C, and many other
communication satellites.) The basic satellite body is about 11
ft in diameter and about 6-1⁄2 ft high. The upper portion of
the cylindrical surface of this section is a thermal radiator; the
lower portion is part of the solar array. The remainder of the
solar array is a drum about 12-1⁄2 ft high, which fits around
the main body during launch and is deployed in orbit to the
configuration shown in the figure. Small adjustments to the
deployed position can be made to maintain the in-orbit balance
of the satellite. The main body includes a liquid propellant
system, used for both the apogee boost maneuver and on-orbit
stationkeeping and attitude control adjustments. Intelsat VI
satellite and communication subsystem details are as follows.
Satellite
Hughes HS 389 bus
Cylinder, 3.6 m diam, stowed height 5.3 m., main section
approximately 2.2 m. height, deployed section approximately
3.8 m. height; 11.7 m. overall height
1910 kg dry mass, approximately 2100 kg in orbit, beginning
of life
Solar cells and NiH2 batteries, more than 2600 W beginning of
life, approximately 2200 W at end of life
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, approximately 30 rpm, antenna
pointing accuracy ±0.05 deg
Bipropellant liquid propulsion for apogee maneuver and on- Receiver
orbit use 4 and 6 GHz: 5854–6423 MHz
Configuration Eight active receivers plus eight spares, FET preamplifiers,
4 and 6 GHz: 38 single-conversion repeaters with bandwidths 3.2 dB receiver noise figure
of 36–72 MHz, sixfold frequency reuse except twofold in global G/T (minimum): –16 dB/K (global beam), –9 dB/K
beams and in hemispheric beams’ repeater (1´–2´) (hemispheric beam), –6 dB/K (zone beam); typical
11 and 14 GHz: 10 double-conversion repeaters with bandwidths performance up to several dB better
of 72–159 MHz; dual-beam frequency reuse 11 and 14 GHz: 14.004–14.498 GHz

Capacity Two active receivers plus two spares, FET preamplifiers,

5.0 dB receiver noise figure
Nominal capacity approximately 24,000 two-way voice circuits
(capacity approximately 120,000 circuits with full use of digital G/T (minimum): +1 dB/K (east spot), +4 dB/K (west spot);
circuit multiplication techniques) plus three TV transmissions typical performance a few dB better

Transmitter Antenna
4 and 6 GHz: 3629 to 4198 MHz 4 and 6 GHz: two Earth coverage horns; two reflectors (3.2
m. diam transmit, 2.0 m. diam receive), each with 147 feed
Global beam: one 16 W TWT per repeater horns, each generating two hemispheric beams and four
Hemispheric beam: eight repeaters have 20 W TWTs, two smaller reconfigurable zone beams; zone beams overlap parts
have 40 W TWTs of the hemispheric beams and are separated by orthogonal
Zone beam: one 5.5 W TWT per SE and SW repeater, one polarizations; beam shapes are optimized to cover specified
2 W FET amplifier per NE and NW repeater terminal locations; each array of feed horns has four distribution
networks: one for hemispheric beams and three (switchable
All amplifiers have one spare per two repeaters between Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific coverage patterns) for the
Minimum EIRP: 26 dBW (global beam), 34–37 dBW zone beams; circular polarization; minimum interbeam spatial
(hemispheric beams), 31 dBW (zone beams); channel (9) or polarization isolation 27 dB
1 to 2 dB lower 11 and 14 GHz: two reflectors (one west, one east) each
11 and 14 GHz: 10.954–11.191 GHz, and 11.459–11.698 generating one beam for transmission and reception; 43 and
GHz 39 in. diam; west beam is 1.6 deg with minimum gain of 36 dB,
east beam is 1.8 x 3.2 deg with minimum gain of 33 dB; each
One 8.5 W TWT plus one spare per repeater beam is steerable over a limited portion of the Earth; linear
EIRP (minimum): 41 dBW (east spot), 44 dBW (west spot) polarization; minimum interbeam spatial isolation 33 dB

75
Global Systems Satellites

Telemetry and command provide steerable east and west spot beams for 11 GHz
Telemetry: 3947.5 or 3948.0 MHz and 3952.0 or 3952.5 MHz via transmission and 14 GHz reception. The large hatbox-shaped
either communication subsystem TWTAs and omnidirectional objects behind these two reflectors contain the more than 100
antenna (4 dBW typical EIRP at edge of Earth, linear feed horns for the 4 and 6 GHz reflectors. These complex feed
polarization) or via solid-state amplifier and Earth coverage arrays allow the beams to be shaped to a reasonable match
horn antenna (7 dBW typical EIRP at edge of Earth, right-hand to the geographic areas they serve. The feed arrays can be
circular polarization) switched to different configurations depending on the ocean
Beacon: 11.198 and 11.452 GHz, 8 dBW minimum EIRP over region where the satellite is located.
Earth, right-hand circular polarization The switch matrices in the center column of the
Command: near 6175 MHz communication subsystem diagram (Fig. 2.19) allow many
different interconnections between the various beams. This
Life flexibility allows the satellite to be in a configuration that
Thirteen-year design life is best suited to the traffic pattern that it is handling. Most
of the switch matrices are changed infrequently by ground
Orbit command. Two may be switched, according to a ground-
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W controllable pattern stored on the satellite, through up to 64
Orbital history states within a 2 ms frame. This capability is used in a satellite-
switched time division multiple access (SS/TDMA) mode,
Satellite, launch date, longitude mid-2006, comments:
which significantly increases the satellite’s capacity relative to
Intelsat 602, 27 October 1989, 150.5°E longitude frequency division multiple access (FDMA) operation.
Intelsat 603, 14 March 1990, stabilized in low Earth orbit Development of the satellites started in March 1982. Critical
after launch vehicle malfunction, transferred to operational new technology feasibility had been proved earlier through
orbit after addition of new propulsion by May 1992 shuttle several studies sponsored by Intelsat and others. The contract
flight, 20°W longitude included five satellites with options for more, but none of the
Intelsat 604, 23 June 1990, moved above geostationary options were exercised. The first satellite was launched in
orbit spring 2006 October 1989, and following a long in-orbit checkout including
Intelsat 605, 14 August 1991, 174°E longitude some operational use, it began full operational service in spring
1990. The in-orbit checkout period for subsequent satellites
Intelsat 601, 29 October 1991, 64.25°E longitude
was shorter. The second satellite could not be separated from
Ariane (601, 602, 604, 605), Titan (603) the upper stage of the launch vehicle and was put into a stable
With Intelsat’s former numbering scheme, Intelsat 601 was low orbit by use of onboard propulsion, after separation from
Intelsat VI F-1, 602 was VI F-2, etc. its perigee motor, which remained attached to the upper stage.
An experiment on a shuttle flight verified that the satellite
Management could survive the low-orbit environment until a new perigee
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Intelsat. motor could be attached. This was done during a May 1992
Approximately 22 percent subcontracted to companies in the shuttle flight. The satellite reached synchronous orbit and
United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan, West Germany, and entered service. The following three Intelsat VI launches were
Canada
successful. The first two satellites to reach synchronous orbit
Operated by Intelsat were used in the Atlantic region, then moved to the Indian
The communications equipment is mounted on a despun shelf Ocean region when replaced by the next two satellites. Other
within the spinning main body. (The deployed array spins moves occurred in later years as the Intelsat constellation was
with the body.) The antenna feed arrays and reflectors are also adjusted following launches of the Intelsat 7, 8, and 9 series of
mounted to the despun shelf. There are six communications satellites. Four of the five Intelsat 6 satellites were operating
antennas. The global coverage transmission and reception normally in fall 2004; the oldest was available as a spare but
beams each have a dual-polarized horn. The largest deployed was not used for operational traffic. In spring 2006 Intelsat
reflector produces six 4 GHz transmit beams. The second 604 was the first of this series to be retired and moved above
deployed reflector provides the corresponding 6 GHz receive geostationary orbit.
beams. Two of the beams provide east and west hemispheric ******
coverage. They share a common polarization and frequency
plan, their signals kept separate by the directions of the two 1. J. Alper and J. N. Pelton, eds., The Intelsat Global
beams. The other four are zone beams. They use the same System, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 93,
frequencies as the hemispheric beams but the opposite AIAA, New York (1984).
polarization. The four are separated from each other by 2. G. P. Cantarella and P. Nadkarni, “Intelsat VI
their directions, which are nominally northeast, northwest, Spacecraft Concepts,” International Telemetering Conference
southeast, and southwest. The southern zone beams are larger Proceedings (November 1980).
than the northern zone beams, because they serve population
3. R. Colby, G. Forcina, and B. A. Pontano, “SS/TDMA
centers in the equatorial and southern parts of the globe,
Operation Using Intelsat VI Spacecraft,” Paper F7.2, National
which are more dispersed than those in the northern part of the
Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’81 (December 1981).
globe. The hemispheric beam patterns are fixed, but the zone
beams have three patterns, one for each ocean region, which 4. W. R. Schnicke, J. B. Binckes, and J. E. Martin, “Ten-
can be switched in orbit. Examples of the hemispheric and Year Life Intelsat VI Spacecraft,” Paper 82-0517, AIAA 9th
zone beams are shown in Fig. 2.18. The two smaller reflectors Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982).

76
 Intelsat

5. S. B. Bennett and D. J. Braverman, “Intelsat VI

Technology,” IAF-82-68, 33rd Congress of the International
Astronautical Federation (September 1982).
Zone 1 6. A. Ghais et al., “Summary of Intelsat VI Communications
Zone 3 Performance Specifications,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol.
12, No. 2 (Fall 1982).
Zone 2
7. G. Forcina and B. Pontano, “Fault Detection/
Diagnostics for the Intelsat VI SS-TDMA Subsystem,” Sixth
International Conference on Digital Satellite Communications
Zone 4 (September 1983).
8. M. F. Caulfield, S. O. Lane, and F. A. Taormina, “Intelsat
VI Antenna System,” Paper 47.6, Global Telecommunications
Conference: Globecom ’83 (November 1983).
9. K. Jarett, “Operational Aspects of Intelsat VI Satellite-
Switched TDMA Communication System,” Paper 84-0669,
AIAA 10th Communication Satellite Systems Conference
(a) (March 1984).
10. S. Kitazume and H. Ogawa, “14/4 GHz Receiver,
Upconverter and Solid State Power Amplifier for Intelsat VI,”
Zone 1 Paper 84-0745, AIAA 10th Communication Satellite Systems
Conference (March 1984).
11. N. M. F. Wong, “Intelsat VI—A 50-Channel
Communication Satellite with SS-TDMA,” Paper 20.1,
First Canadian Domestic and International Satellite
Zone 3 Communications Conference (June 1983).
12. P. T. Thompson and E. C. Johnston, “Intelsat VI—A
Zone 2 New Satellite Generation for 1986–2000,” International
Journal of Satellite Communications, Vol. 1, No. 1 (July–
Zone 4 September 1983).
13. S. B. Bennett and D. J. Braverman, “Intelsat VI—A
Continuing Evolution,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 72, No.
11 (November 1984).
14. E. J. Lerner, “Designing Communications Satellites:
(b) Intelsat VI and Aussat,” Aerospace America, Vol. 23, No. 5
(May 1985).
15. E. I. Podraczky and W. R. Schnicke, “The Process for
Success—Intelsat VI,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 20, No.
Zone 1 2 (Fall 1990).
Zone 3 16. L. B. Perillan, W. R. Schnicke, and E. A. Faine, “Intelsat
VI System Planning,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 20, No.
Zone 2 2 (Fall 1990).
17. B. A. Pontano, A. I. Zaghloul, and C. E. Mahle, “Intelsat
VI Communications Payload Performance Specifications,”
Zone 4 Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Fall 1990).
18. G. P. Cantarella and G. Porcelli, “Specifying the
Spacecraft Bus,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 20, No. 2
(Fall 1990).
19. S. B. Bennett and G. Hyde (eds.), section with five
papers on “Intelsat VI: Spacecraft Design,” Comsat Technical
Review, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Spring 1991).
(c)
20. S. B. Bennett and G. Hyde (eds.), section with six
papers on “Intelsat VI: From Spacecraft to Satellite Operation,”
Fig. 2.18. Typical Intelsat VI C-band antenna patterns. Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Fall 1991).
(a) Atlantic Ocean 21. S. B. Bennett, “Intelsat 603 ‘Reboosted’ to Synchronous
(b) Indian Ocean Orbit,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring
(c) Pacific Ocean 1992).

77
Global Systems Satellites

EH EH East
hemi
(1'–2')
WH WH TW C

ES ES
(1–2) 2/3 3/2 RHC
WS WS TW
East
hemi S T T S West
EH EH hemi
TW
2225 WH WH C

Receiver 2 (1'–2')
NEZ NEZ [Same or (1–2), (3–4), (5–6), (7–8)]
LHC
S S SEZ (1–2) SEZ
T S
Receiver 3 TW
NWZ NWZ
West SWZ SWZ
hemi S Receiver 4 S 2/3 3/2
TW
ES ES
(3–4)
WS WS TW S
NE Receiver 1 S
zone S
EH EH
(9), Note f
WH WH
Receiver 2
NEZ NEZ TW
RHC S S RHC
(3–4)
Receiver 3 SEZ T SEZ C

NWZ NWZ 2/3 TW 3/2 Global

SE
zone S Receiver 4 S SWZ SWZ LHC
C
TW
EH EH
WH WH (10) [Same for (11), (12)]
NW Receiver 1
zone S S
NEZ NEZ

Receiver 2 SEZ SEZ TW S

RHC S S NWZ (5–6) NWZ

2/3 TW 3/2
Receiver 3 SWZ SWZ

ES ES
SW Receiver 4 TW S
zone S S
WS WS

EH EH (9), Note f
SE
WH WH zone
LHC S Receiver 1 S
TW C
NEZ NEZ
Receiver 2 SEZ SEZ
2/3 3/2 LHC
Global TW
S S NWZ (7–8) NWZ SW
Receiver 3 zone
SWZ SWZ
TW C
ES ES
RHC S Receiver 4 S
WS WS (1–2) [Same for (3–4), (5–6), (7–8)]

EH EH NE and NW zones same as SE and SW zones except T

WH WH instead of TW
East NEZ NEZ
spot S T T S
SEZ (9) SEZ TW East
10.3 GHz spot
NWZ NWZ S S
Receiver 2 C
LIN SWZ SWZ
S S TW
Receiver 3 G (9) Note f Note h LIN
(1–2) [Same for (3–4), (5–6), (7–8), (9–12)]
G (9) Note f
West
spot S Receiver 4 S
ES ES TW West
(9–12) spot
WS WS
S S C
G (10), (11), (12)
TW
G (10), (11), (12)
Note h
(1–2) [Same for (3–4), (5–6), (7–8), (9–12)]
Notes
a. The numbers in parentheses are channel numbers. The multiple numbers f. Channel 9 may be used on both EH and WH or on the co-polarized global beam;
indicate channel bandwidths >36 MHz, e.g., (1–2) is a channel occupying it may also be used in all 4 zones or on the co-polarized global beam.
the spectrum used by channels 1 and 2 on Intelsat IV. See Fig. 2.35.
g. Spot-beam antennas have 11 and 14 GHz diplexers (not shown). Hemispheric and
b. (1'–2') occupies the spectrum just below (1–2). zone beams have beam-forming networks (not shown).
c. Each switch matrix (center column of figure) can form any one-to-one . h. 7.25 GHz for (1–2), (3–4), (5–6); 7.50 GHz for (7–8), (9–12).
combination of inputs and outputs
d. The switch matrices marked "T" can be used for SS/TDMA. i. Combiners after transmitters also have inputs from unillustrated transmitters.

e. LHC/RHC = Left-/right-hand circular polarization; LIN = Linear polarization.

Fig. 2.19. Intelsat VI communication subsystem.

78
 Intelsat

22. Hughes Space and Communications, “Intelsat VI F-3 Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, 3970 W minimum
Reboost” (April 1992), http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/ after 10.9 years
space/bss/factsheets/376/intelsat_vi_f3/intelsat_vi_f3.html Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels and magnetic
(17 November 2004). torquers, antenna pointing accuracy ±0.25 deg
23. Boeing Satellite Systems, “Intelsat VI” (July 1993), Unified bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and on-
http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/ orbit use
376/intelsat_vi/intelsat_vi.html (13 October 2004).
Configuration
24. Intelsat, Satellite Guide, Intelsat, Washington D.C. 4 and 6 GHz: 30 uplink channels combined into 26 downlink
(August 1998). channels with 34–77 MHz bandwidth, single conversion, dual-
25. Fast Facts” (August 2004), http://www.intelsat.com/pdf/ beam and dual-polarization frequency use
en/aboutus/press/download/fastfacts.pdf (13 October 2004). 11–12 and 14 GHz: 12 uplink channels combined into 10
downlink channels with 34–112 MHz bandwidths, double
conversion, dual-beam frequency reuse
Intelsat VII
Capacity
Satellites in the Intelsat system have two roles. The primary Nominal capacity in a typical operational configuration is
satellite in each ocean region provides the basic Intelsat 18,000 two-way voice circuits (90,000 with full use of digital
services by connecting all nations in the region. The primary circuit multiplication techniques) plus three TV transmissions
satellite is complemented by a spare satellite, which is used
for preemptible services. Other Intelsat satellites provide Transmitter
specialized services, including major path communications 4 and 6 GHz: 3704–4198 MHz
(high-density international traffic removed from the primary Global and spot beams: six 16 W solid-state amplifiers for
satellite so that the primary will have capacity to serve all four 36 MHz bandwidth repeaters, three 30 W solid-state
international paths regardless of traffic density), business amplifiers for two 41 MHz bandwidth repeaters
communications to small antennas, cable restoration, and Hemispheric beams: seven 30/20 W solid-state amplifiers
domestic leased services. for five repeaters (beam 1/beam 2)
Every generation of Intelsat satellites through Intelsat VI
Zone beams: seven 16/10 W solid-state amplifiers for five
had been designed to accommodate growth in the Atlantic
repeaters (zone 1/zone 2)
region primary role, the most demanding (i.e., highest capacity
requirement) in the Intelsat system. When planning began for EIRP (specified minimum): 26/29 dBW (global beams,
Intelsat VII in 1985, a new course evolved. The Intelsat VI 36/41 MHz bandwidth), 33/36 dBW (spot beams, 36/41
MHz bandwidth), 33 dBW (hemispheric and zone beams),
satellites to be launched, beginning about 1990, would fulfill the
32.1 dBW (hemispheric beam 2 on F-4 and F-5)
demanding primary roles until after the year 2000. The requirement
for Intelsat VII [1–18] became replacement of Intelsat V and V-A 11–12 and 14 GHz: 10.954–11.191 GHz (band A), 11.458–
satellites in the Pacific region primary role and in the specialized 11.694 GHz (band B), 11.704–11.941 GHz (band C), 12.504–
12.741 GHz (band D); repeaters (1,2), (3,4), (5,6) independently
services role in all regions. This requirement led to a satellite
switchable to bands A or C on one of spots 1 and 2, to bands A
smaller than Intelsat VI, but with increased flexibility to serve the or D on the other, to bands A, C, or D on spot 3; repeaters (7–9),
underlying geography from a variety of orbital locations through (10–12) always on band B; beacons 11.198 and 11.452 GHz
an increased set of antenna beams interconnected by many
Seven 35 W TWTAs for five repeaters interconnected with
switches. The satellite design also emphasizes high performance,
eight 50 W TWTAs for five repeaters to form 15-for-10
to increase the usefulness of smaller Earth stations, and higher redundancy
orbital reliability and lifetimes.
The satellite design is primarily derived from Intelsat EIRP (specified minimum): 45.4/43.4/46.7/44.6 dBW (spot
1), 44.5/41.4/45.8/ 42.6 dBW (spot 2), –/–/44.1/41.2 dBW
V and V-A and the Japanese Superbird (see chapter 8). The
(spot 2 + 2A), 46.0/43.0/47.5/44.5 dBW (spot 3; EIRPs are
satellite body is a rectangular box. Within the box, a cylindrical 0.3 dB higher or lower for some configurations of spot 3),
structure carries the primary loads. The solar arrays are each for 35 W, inner coverage/35 W, outer coverage/50 W,
deployed from the north and south faces of the satellite. The inner coverage/50 W, outer coverage (35 W not used with
two largest antennas are attached to the east and west faces spot 2 + 2A)
and are deployed in orbit; the other antennas are mounted on
the Earth-viewing face. The communications and spacecraft
equipment is mounted on the insides of the satellite’s body
panels and on a few secondary panels. Details of the satellite
and its payload are as follows.
Satellite
Loral FS-1300 bus
Rectangular body, 2.7 x 2.6 x 2.4 m, 21.8 m solar array
span, 4.7 m tall including body and antennas, 7.9 m
across large antennas
Approximately 1900 kg in orbit, beginning of life,
1470 kg dry mass
Fig. 2.20. Intelsat VII satellite.

79
Global Systems Satellites

Fig. 2.21. Intelsat VII satellite details.

Receiver satellite is upright, hemispheric beam 1 is west and beam

4 and 6 GHz: 5929–6423 MHz 2 is east, zone beam a (or A is northwest, beam b (or B)
is northeast, beam g (or G) is southwest, and beam d (or
Six receivers with four active for global and spot beams, six D) is southeast (zone 1 is a + d, zone 2 is b + g); when the
receivers with four active for hemispheric and zone beams; spacecraft is inverted, each compass direction is replaced
HEMT (high electron mobility transfer) preamplifiers, 1.8 by its complement; zones a and g overlap hemisphere 1
dB receiver noise figure and zones b and d overlap hemisphere 2, the zones and
G/T (specified minimum): –11.5 dB/K (global beams), –5.0 hemispheres are on orthogonal circular polarizations, the
dB/K (spot beams), –8.5 dB/K (hemispheric beam 1), –7.5 hemisphere beams are spatially separate, as are the zone
dB/K (hemispheric beam 2), –5.5/ –5.5/–9 dB/K (zone beams; minimum interbeam isolation is 27 dB
beam 1 with zone a/zone d/zones a + d), –4/–4/–7.5 dB/K 11–12 and 14 GHz: three circular parabolic reflectors, two
(zone beam 2 with zone b/zone g/zone b + g) (S1 and S2) shaped to generate elliptical beams; each used
11–12 and 14 GHz: 14.004 to 14.494 GHz for both transmission and reception; one beam and one feed
horn (S1, S3), two beams and two feed horns (S2) with the
Five receivers with three active, FET preamplifiers, 3.5 dB
second switched in (2 + 2A) or out; 1.3 x 2.7 deg/1.9 x 4.3
receiver noise figure
deg (S1), 2.0 x 3.5 deg/3.0 x 5.4 deg (S2), 2.0/2.8 deg (S3)
G/T (specified minimum): +4.5/+1.5 dB/K (spot 1), +2.5/– inner/outer coverage beamwidth; 33.7/31.5/34.6/31.3 dB gain
1.0 dB/K (spot 2), +0.5/–3.0 dB/K (spot 2 + 2A), +3.8/+0.8 (S1), 31.6/28.4/32.0/28.5 dB gain (S2), 34.2/32.4/34.8/32.2
dB/K (spot 3), each for inner/outer coverage dB gain (S3) inner coverage transmit/outer coverage transmit/
inner coverage receive/outer coverage receive; each antenna
Antenna transmits and receives using orthogonal linear polarizations,
4 and 6 GHz: two global coverage horns, one transmit, one receive; S1 and S2 use opposite polarizations, S3 is the same as S1 on
18 deg beamwidth; 16.8 dB gain; dual circular polarizations Satellites F-1 and F-2 and switchable on later satellites; each
One 0.7 m diam parabolic reflector for the spot beam; 6 deg beam steerable to any point on Earth
beamwidth; 24.5 dB transmit gain, 24.8 dB receive gain; dual
circular polarizations; steerable to any point on the Earth
Telemetry and command
Telemetry: 3947.5 or 3948.0 MHz, and 3952.0 or 3952.5 MHz,
One 2.44 m diam (transmit) and one 1.57 m diam (receive) 3 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of Earth, right-hand circular
parabolic reflector for hemispheric and zone beams; 110 polarization
feed horns (transmit), 114 feed horns (receive); when the
80
 Intelsat

Beacon: 307° E longitude (upright spacecraft attitude)

3950 MHz, 4 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of Earth, linear
polarization
11.198 and 11.452 GHz, 6 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of


Earth, right-hand circular polarization


11.701 and 12.501 GHz, 6 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of spot
beam coverage, linear polarization
Command: near 6175 MHz H1
H2
Life
10.9-year design life, with fuel for 12–14.5 years (Atlas launch
vehicle) or 17–18.6 years (Ariane launch vehicle)


Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W


Orbital history
Satellite, launch date, location mid-2006, comments: (a)
Intelsat 701, launched 23 October 1993, 180°E longitude
Intelsat 702, launched 17 June 1994, 54.85°E longitude 359° E longitude (inverted spacecraft attitude)
Intelsat 703, launched 6 October 1994, 57°E longitude,
transferred to New Skies Satellites in November 1998 and
renamed NSS-703


Intelsat 704, launched 10 January 1995, 66°E longitude


Intelsat 705, launched 22 March 1995, 50°W longitude
Intelsat 709, launched 15 June 1996, 85°E longitude
H2
Ariane launch vehicle for 701, 702, and 709 H1
Atlas IIAS (includes Centaur) launch vehicle for 703, 704, 

and 705
With Intelsat’s former numbering scheme, Intelsat 701 was
Intelsat VII F-1, 702 was VII F-2, etc.; satellites 706–708 

are Intelsat VII-A satellites described below, and satellite
709 was Intelsat VII F-6

Management
Developed for Intelsat by Space Systems/Loral (formerly Ford (b)
Aerospace Corporation) with subcontractors from France,
Japan, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom,
Canada, the United States 174° E longitude (upright spacecraft attitude)

Operated by Intelsat (703 operated by New Skies Satellites

after its transfer)
The communication subsystem is similar to those of Intelsat
V-A and VI. It has more flexibility in switching individual
repeaters between the antenna beams, a third K-band spot 

beam, and the ability to steer each spot beam independently
H2
over the entire Earth. Compared with Intelsat VI, the


H1
communication subsystem is simplified by not including the
fast switch matrices for SS/TDMA, by reusing the frequency
band only twice in the zone beams (rather than four times), 

and by not having reconfigurable beam shapes for hemispheric
or zone beams. The latter simplification is compensated for
by the ability of the spacecraft to invert itself in orbit, thereby 

reversing the unequal hemispheric beams and zone beams
to optimize ground terminal coverage from various orbital
locations, as shown in Fig. 2.22.
(c)
Because of the attitude inversion capability, new beam
designations are required. The two hemispheric beams are
Fig. 2.22. Intelsat VII C-band antenna patterns.
numbers 1 and 2, which correspond to the earlier satellites’
(a) Atlantic Ocean, Western Location
west and east hemispheric beams in normal satellite attitude, (b) Atlantic Ocean, Eastern Location
but become east and west, respectively, when the satellite (c) Pacific Ocean

81
Global Systems Satellites

is inverted. The four zones are designated a, b, g, and d (or and outages, Intelsat specified that the satellites must be
A B G and D) and are northwest, northeast, southwest, and compatible with multiple launch vehicles. After evaluating
southeast when the satellite is in normal attitude. Zones a and four choices, Intelsat split the satellites between two. Several
d may be combined into zone beam 1 for reception; zones b growth enhancements were studied during the course of the
and g may be combined into zone beam 2 for reception. Each Intelsat VII contract; some were used in the Intelsat VII-A
zone beam transmitter can be switched to either zone within development. After Intelsat VII-A was authorized, a sixth
the beam. The two zones in each zone beam are diagonally Intelsat VII was ordered in 1993; it was launched in 1996.
opposed, rather than in the same hemisphere, so that both zone
******
beams can support the same hemisphere. The reason for this
is that ground station traffic is not balanced between east and 1. L. Ersoy and G. H. Schennum, “Intelsat VII Spacecraft
west for most prospective Intelsat VII orbital locations. The Antennas,” 1989 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas
switch matrices in the center of the communication subsystem and Propagation (June 1989).
(Fig. 2.23) allow most repeaters to be connected to any one 2. “Intelsat VII—Another Step in the Evolution of the
of six beams for reception and independently to any of the Global Intelsat Communications System,” Proceedings of
six beams for transmission. The six are the two hemispheric a Colloquium of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (23
beams, the two zone beams, and two K-band spot beams. March 1989).
Further switching in the K-band receiver and transmitter
sections allows switching of any repeater to a third K-band 3. P. J. Madon, “Intelsat VII Spacecraft,” Space
beam. The remaining repeaters may each be connected to Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4 (1989).
the C-band global coverage antenna or spot-beam antenna 4. C. J. Lilly, “Intelsat’s New Generation,” IEE Review,
for reception and transmission. K-band spot beam 2 has an Vol. 36, No. 3 (March 1990).
auxiliary feed that may be used to form an additional beam 2A; 5. P. Thompson and R. Silk, “Intelsat VII: Another Step in
this capability is used only when beam 2 is centered on Japan, the Development of Global Communications,” Journal of the
which will aim beam 2A at the southeast part of Australia. British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 43, No. 8 (Aug. 1990).
The basic frequency plan is the same as other Intelsats. One
difference is the repeaters for channel (5,6), which operate as 6. P. J. Madon and D. K. Sachdev, “Intelsat VII Program
two separate uplink channels (5), (6) of 34 MHz bandwidth for and the Future,” Paper 90-0785, 13th AIAA International
reception and switching, but are combined into one channel of Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1990).
72 MHz bandwidth for transmission. The other difference is 7. T. Abdel-Nabi, E. Koh, and D. Kennedy, “Intelsat
the regrouping of the upper half of the K-band into two equal VII Communications Capabilities and Performance,” Paper
channels, each of 112 MHz bandwidth. These repeaters are 90-0787, 13th AIAA International Communication Satellite
fixed in the 10.95 to 11.2 GHz downlink band. The repeaters Systems Conference (March 1990).
in the lower half of the K-band are switchable between two or 8. P. Neyret et al., “The Intelsat VII Spacecraft,” Paper
three 250 MHz downlink bands to accommodate all available 90-0788, 13th AIAA International Communication Satellite
frequency allocations around the world. Systems Conference (March 1990).
All C-band amplifiers on Intelsat VII are solid-state; in
contrast, most C-band amplifiers on previous Intelsats were 9. M. Eldridge and F. Dietrich, “Features of the Intelsat
TWTAs. The K-band amplifiers are all TWTAs, as before, VII Repeater,” Paper 90-0790, 13th AIAA International
but they are the first to be coupled with linearizers to reduce Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1990).
distortions. The five Intelsat VIIs are the same, except that 10. G. Schennum et al., “The Intelsat VII Antenna Farm,”
the polarization of K-band spot beam 3 is switchable on 703 Paper 90-0791, 13th AIAA International Communication
through 705, and 704 and 705 have a broader hemi 2 coverage Satellite Systems Conference (March 1990).
to improve service in the Indian Ocean.
11. D. K. Sachdev et al., “Intelsat VII: A Flexible Spacecraft
The Intelsat VII contract was awarded in October 1988
for the 1990s and Beyond,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 78,
and covered five satellites. The contract makes a distinction
No. 7 (July 1990).
between design life and maneuvering life. The former,
specified as 10 years minimum, was negotiated as 10.9 years. 12. S. Chenard, “Intelsat VII, Small but Smarter,” Space
The latter, depending on the launch vehicle and the amount Markets, Vol. 5, No. 3 (July–August 1989).
of fuel carried on the satellite, can be as long as 19 years. 13. P. T. Thompson, R. Silk, and A. Herridge, “The Intelsat
This recognizes the fact that significant capabilities have VII/VIIA Generation of Global Communications Satellites,”
existed on almost all Intelsats beyond their design life, and International Journal of Satellite Communications, Vol. 10,
that these capabilities are available to all ground terminals if No. 4 (July–August 1992).
fuel is available for stationkeeping. Furthermore, Intelsat VII
is designed to operate beyond stationkeeping life, at up to 3 14. Aviation Week & Space Technology (9 November 1987),
deg inclination, where it will be useful to ground terminals p. 31; (27 March 1989), p. 34.
with tracking capabilities. 15. S. Jamshidi and C. B. Cotner, “Communications
The first satellite was launched in October 1993, about a Performance of the Intelsat VII and VIIA Satellites,” Comsat
year later than desired. The main cause of the delay was the Technical Review, Vol. 24, No. 1–2 (1994/1995).
development of a spacecraft computer, which is the controller 16. K. Tjonneland and B. Teixeira, “In-Orbit Test of
and central processor for many bus subsystems. The next two Intelsat VII (F1-5),” Paper AIAA-96-1179, 16th International
satellites were launched in 1994 and the last two in 1995. Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
To guard against the possibility of launch vehicle failures 1996).
82
 Intelsat

(1–2)
T
H1 H1 (3–4)
Hemi 1 T T T
LHC H2 H2 (5)
T
Hemi 2 2225
Z1 Z1
Receiver 2 C T C Hemi 1
Zone A Zone 1 (1–2)
Z2 Z2 (6) RHC
Receiver 3 T
RHC SC
S1 S1 (7–8)
Zone D Receiver 4 T
Zone B S2 S2 (9)
Receiver 5 S T S
RHC SC Same for
Zone 2 Receiver 6 (3–4),(5), (9) (9)
Zone G Same for hemi 2
(6), (7–8/9)
(1–2) S
SC Selects either input T
or sums both (3–4)
T C Zone A
S
Spot Receiver 1 (5)
T
LHC Receiver 2 S H1 H1
C T S Zone 1
Global Receiver 3 H2 H2 (6)
T LHC
Global Receiver 4 Z1 (9) Z1 (7–8) S
T C Zone D
RHC Receiver 5 S Z2 Z2 (9)
T
Note b S
Spot Receiver 6
Same for zone 2 (B, G)
S1 S1 G (9)
(10– G (9)
S2 12) S2
S
T T C Spot
(1–2) T (10)
Spot 1 G (9) (10) S
10.3 GHz T RHC
LIN G (9) (11) (11)
Receiver 2
T S
3/2

Spot 2 Note b
Receiver 3 (10) (10) C Global
T
G (10), (11), (11) (11) S
Spot 3 Receiver 4 (12) T
Same G (10), (11), G (9)
Receiver 5 for (5), (12)
(6), T
S
(7–9), C Global
(10–12) (12) (12)
S
T LHC
Notes S
T
a. The numbers in parentheses are channel numbers. (12) (12) C Spot
The multiple numbers indicate channel bandwidths T S
>36 MHz, e.g., (1–2) is a channel occupying the
spectrum used by channels 1 and 2 on Intelsat IV.
See Fig. 2.35.
TW
(1–2)
b. Channel 9 may be used on hemispheric and z
beams or on global and spot beams. TW
3/2

C
3/2

3/2

c. See text for geographic coverage of hemispheric and • •

Spot 1
zone beams. •
d. LHC/RHC = Left-/right-hand circular polarization; TW S LIN
(1–2)
LIN = Linear polarization.
Note f TW
e. K-band antennas (Spots 1, 2, and 3) have diplexers Same for (3–4), (5) Spot 2
that are not shown. Hemispheric and zone beams and (6), combined C
have beam forming networks that are not shown. into (5–6), (7–9),
(10–12) Note f
f. The LO input for (7–9) and (10–12) is fixed at
7.50 GHz (band B). For (1–2), (3–4), and (5–6) TW
the LOs may each be switched to 7.25 GHz (band A), Spot 3
8.005 GHz (band C), or 8.805 GHz (band D). The TW C
output combiner for Spot 3 can accommodate •
channels on all four bands. One output combiner for • •
Spot 1 and 2 can accommodate channels on bands • Inputs from
A, B, and C; the other can accommodate channels TW (3–4), (5–6),
on bands A, B, and D. (7–9), (10–12)
TW

Fig. 2.23. Intelsat VII communication subsystem.

83
Global Systems Satellites

17. Intelsat, Satellite Guide, Intelsat, Washington D.C. channels (1–2), (3–4), and (5–6) to be switched to any of the
(August 1998). three downlink bands instead of only two choices per beam on
18. “Intelsat VII Satellite Characteristics,” Intelsat Earth Intelsat VII. When repeater (10–12) is received through spot
Station Standards, Document IESS-409 (Rev. 4) (30 November beam 3, it may be transmitted on a K-band downlink, or the
1998). repeater (12) portion of the spectrum may be transmitted on a
C-band global or spot beam, or both downlinks may be used.
The Intelsat VII-A procurement was initiated with an order
Intelsat VII-A for two satellites in December 1990. An additional satellite
was ordered in September 1992. Intelsat VII-A satellite and
At the end of 1990, Intelsat made a decision to develop communication details are as follows.
Intelsat VII-A satellites [1–6] as a growth version of Intelsat
VII. The growth in the communication subsystem includes Satellite
higher transmitter powers in both C-band (4 GHz) and K- Loral FS-1300 bus
band (11–12 GHz); four more K-band channels, which are Rectangular body, 2.7 x 2.6 x 2.4 m, 27.2 m solar array span,
accommodated by dual-polarization frequency reuse on two 5.2 m tall including body and antennas, 8 m across large
spot-beam antennas; and greater flexibility in the K-band antennas
downlinks. These changes were selected after a study of 1823 kg dry mass, 3686 kg launch mass
various options, and were in response to traffic forecasts of Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, 5230 W minimum
increasing demand for K-band bandwidth and for additional after 10 years
power in both C-band and K-band to support networks with
smaller ground antennas. Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels and magnetic
torquers, antenna pointing accuracy ±0.25 deg
The satellite design is based upon Intelsat VII; the changes
are those necessary to support the higher weight and power of Unified bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and
the modified communication subsystem. A fourth panel was on-orbit use
added to each wing of the solar array, which already had been Configuration
designed to accommodate the fourth panel, and battery capacity
4 and 6 GHz: 30 uplink channels combined into 26 downlink
was increased. These changes increase satellite power by more channels with 34 to 77 MHz bandwidth, single conversion,
than 1 kW. The basic structure was lengthened, as are the north dual-beam and dual-polarization frequency reuse
and south faces of the body. This change provides space for the
additional communications hardware and for larger fuel and 11–12 and 14 GHz: 16 uplink channels combined into 14
downlink channels (one downlink channel unavailable for
oxidizer tanks, and the additional radiator area necessitated each channel using two TWTAs combined) with 34–112
by the higher-power transmitters. The larger tanks allow the MHz bandwidths, double conversion, dual-beam and dual-
satellite lifetime to match that of Intelsat VII. The appearance polarization frequency reuse
of the satellite is the same as Intelsat VII except for the slightly
longer body and the fourth solar panel on each side. Capacity
The only changes in the C-band part of the communication Nominal capacity in a typical operational configuration is 22,500
subsystem were an increase in the solid-state amplifier two-way voice circuits (112,500 with full use of digital circuit
power from 16 to 30 W for four global beam repeaters, new multiplication techniques) plus three TV transmissions
redundancy switching, and a switch to allow connection
between a K-band spot-beam uplink and a C-band global-beam Transmitter
downlink. The changes in the K-band part of the subsystem 4 and 6 GHz: 3704–4198 MHz
are more extensive. Global and spot beams: six 30 W solid-state amplifiers for
The primary architectural change in the K-band commu- four 36 MHz bandwidth repeaters, three 30 W solid-state
nications equipment is the addition of dual-polarization capa- amplifiers for two 41 MHz bandwidth repeaters
bility to spot beams 1 and 2, to form spots 1X and 2X. Each Hemispheric beams: seven 30/20 W solid-state amplifiers
of the new spots requires a receiver, and another spare receiver for five repeaters (beam 1/beam 2)
is being added, so that the total complement is five active plus Zone beams: seven 16/10 W solid-state amplifiers for five
three spare receivers. Additional upconverters, switches, filters, repeaters (zone 1/zone 2)
and amplifiers allow each new spot to handle two channels, EIRP (specified minimum): 29 dBW (global beams),
increasing the total number from 10 to 14. Considerable 36 dBW (spot beams), 33 dBW (hemispheric and zone
switching exists to allow several choices of frequencies for beams)
these additional channels. Seven TWTAs have been added,
11–12 and 14 GHz: 10.954–11.191 GHz (band A), 11.204–
and all the TWTAs have been regrouped into two groups of
11.441 GHz (band E), 11.458–11.694 GHz (band B), 11.704–
six TWTAs for four channels and two groups of five for three. 11.941 GHz (band C), 12.504–12.741 GHz (band D); repeaters
One group of six and one group of five have 72 W TWTAs; (1,2), (3,4), (5,6) independently switchable to bands A, C, or D
the other groups have 49 W TWTAs. This is an increase from on spots 1, 2, and 3; repeaters (7–9), (10–12) always on band
the 50 W and 35 W on Intelsat VII, resulting in 1 to 2 dB more B; on spot 1X repeater (1–3) switchable to bands A, C, or D—
radiated power. Furthermore, it is possible to combine the alternatively, repeater (7–9) may be used on band E—similarly
TWTAs from each of four S1–S1X and S2–S2X repeater pairs for repeater (4–6) or (10–12) on spot 1X and (1–3) or (7–9) and
to realize an additional 2.5 dB EIRP in S1 or S2 while leaving (4–6) or (10–12) on spot 2X; beacons 11.198 and 11.452 GHz
the S1X or S2X repeater off. Any S1, S1X, S2, or S2X repeater Eleven 49 W TWTAs for seven repeaters interconnected
may be switched to S3, including repeaters with combined with eleven 72 W TWTAs for seven repeaters; two TWTAs
TWTAs. Another change in the K-band equipment allows
84
 Intelsat

may be combined on one to four repeaters with the paired Telemetry and command
repeater turned off Telemetry: 3947.5 or 3948.0 MHz, and 3952.0 or 3952.5 MHz,
EIRP (specified minimum): 47.2/44.7 dBW (spot 1 or 1X, 49 3 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of Earth, right-hand circular
W, inner coverage/outer coverage), 47.2/43.7 dBW (spot polarization
2 or 2X, 72 W, inner coverage/outer coverage), 45.4/42.3 Beacon:
dBW (spot 2A, 49 W, inner coverage/outer coverage),
43/44/41/43 dBW (spot 3, 49 W, inner coverage/72 W, inner 3950 MHz, 4 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of Earth, linear
coverage/49 W, outer coverage/72 W, outer coverage); all polarization
values increase 2.5 dB with two TWTAs combined 11.198 and 11.452 GHz, 6 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of
Earth, right-hand circular polarization
Receiver
11.701 and 12.501 GHz, 6 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of
4 and 6 GHz: 5929–6423 MHz spot beam coverage, linear polarization
Six receivers with four active for global and spot beams, six Command: near 6175 MHz
receivers with four active for hemispheric and zone beams;
HEMT preamplifiers, 1.8 dB receiver noise figure Life
G/T (specified minimum): –11.5 dB/K (global beams), –5.0 Ten-year design life, fuel for 17.7 years (Ariane)
dB/K (spot beams), –8.5 dB/K (hemispheric beam 1), –7.5
dB/K (hemispheric beam 2), –5.5/ –5.5/–9 dB/K (zone Orbit
beam 1 with zone a/zone d/zones a + d), –4/–4/–7.5 dB/K Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W
(zone beam 2 with zone b/zone g/zone b + g)
11–12 and 14 GHz: 14.004–14.494 GHz Orbital history
Satellite, launch date, location mid-2006:
Eight receivers with five active, FET preamplifiers, 3.5 dB
receiver noise figure Intelsat 706, launched 17 May 1995, 50.25°E longitude
G/T (specified minimum): +4.5/+1.5 dB/K (spot 1), +2.5/– Intelsat 707, launched 14 March 1996, 53°W longitude
1.0 dB/K (spot 2), +0.5/–3.0 dB/K (spot 2 + 2A), +3.8/+0.8 Intelsat 708, launch vehicle failure, 14 February 1996
dB/K (spot 3), each for inner/outer coverage
Ariane launch vehicle (F-1, F-2), Long March launch
Antenna vehicle (F-3)
4 and 6 GHz: two global coverage horns, one transmit, one These three satellites were also known as Intelsat VII-A
receive; 18 deg beamwidth; 16.8 dB gain; dual circular F-1 through F-3
polarizations
Management
One 0.7 m diam parabolic reflector for the spot beam; 6
deg beamwidth; 24.5 dB transmit gain, 24.8 dB receive Developed for Intelsat by Space Systems/Loral (formerly Ford
gain; dual circular polarizations; steerable to any point on Aerospace Corporation) with subcontractors from France,
the Earth Japan, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom,
Canada, the United States
One 2.44 m diam (transmit) and one 1.57 m diam (receive)
parabolic reflector for hemispheric and zone beams; 110 Operated by Intelsat
feed horns (transmit), 114 feed horns (receive); when the
satellite is upright, hemispheric beam 1 is west and beam ******
2 is east, zone beam a (or A) is northwest, beam b (or B) 1. P. T. Thompson, R. Silk, and A. Herridge, “The Intelsat
is northeast, beam g (or G) is southwest, and beam d (or VII/VIIA Generation of Global Communications Satellites,”
D) is southeast (zone 1 is a + d, zone 2 is b + g); when the
International Journal of Satellite Communications, Vol. 10,
spacecraft is inverted, each compass direction is replaced
by its complement; zones a and g overlap hemisphere 1 No. 4 (July–August 1992).
and zones b and d overlap hemisphere 2, the zones and 2. T. Abdel-Nabi and P. Nadkarni, “The Planning and
hemispheres are on orthogonal circular polarizations, the Service Utilization Aspects of the Intelsat VII-A Spacecraft,”
hemisphere beams are spatially separate, as are the zone Paper 92-1945, AIAA 14th International Communications
beams; minimum interbeam isolation is 27 dB Satellite Systems Conference (March 1992).
11–12 and 14 GHz: three circular parabolic reflectors, two
3. P. Neyret et al., “The Intelsat VII-A Spacecraft,” Paper
(S1 and S2) shaped to generate elliptical beams; each used
for both transmission and reception; one beam and one feed 92-1946, AIAA 14th International Communications Satellite
horn (S1, S3), two beams and two feed horns (S2) with the Systems Conference (March 1992).
second switched in (2 + 2A) or out; 1.3 x 2.7 deg/1.9 x 4.3 4. S. Jamshidi and C. B. Cotner, “Communications
deg (S1), 2.0 x 3.5 deg/3.0 x 5.4 deg (S2), 3.3/4.4 deg (S3) Performance of the Intelsat VII and VIIA Satellites,” Comsat
inner/outer coverage beamwidth; 33.7/31.5/ 34.6/31.3 dB gain Technical Review, Vol. 24, No. 1–2 (1994/1995).
(S1), 31.6/28.4/32.0/28.5 dB gain (S2), 34.2/32.4/34.8/32.2
dB gain (S3) inner coverage transmit/outer coverage transmit/ 5. Intelsat, Satellite Guide, Intelsat, Washington D.C.
inner coverage receive/outer coverage receive; each antenna (August 1998).
transmits and receives using orthogonal linear polarizations,
6. “Intelsat VIIIA Satellite Characteristics,” Intelsat
S1 and S2 use opposite polarizations, S3 is the same as S1 on
satellites F-1 and F-2 and switchable on later satellites; each Earth Station Standards, Document IESS-415 (Rev. 2A) (30
beam steerable to any point on Earth November 1998).

85
Global Systems Satellites

Intelsat VIII and VIII-A

Intelsat generations through Intelsat VI increased in capacity Fig. 2.24. Intelsat VIII satellite.
and complexity in order to satisfy increasing traffic in all
Intelsat operating locations. Since Intelsat VI, the satellites
have been optimized for specific portions of the Intelsat
mission. System planning identified a need for the Intelsat
VIII generation [1–7] to have very high C-band (4 and 6 GHz)
capacity, transmit power, and flexibility with moderate K-band
(11–12 and 14 GHz) capacity but high flexibility.
The Intelsat VIII C-band payload is similar to that of
Intelsat VI in that it provides six-fold frequency reuse through
two hemispheric beams on one polarization and four zone
beams on the other. It has the same frequency plan, including
the use of the (1’–2’) channel on hemispheric beams in the
extended C-band frequency allocation. It has six global beam
channels in normal configuration and can add one or two more
by switching off two hemispheric-beam or four zone-beam
channels. Like Intelsat VII, channels (5) and (6) are separate
on the uplink but combined on the downlink. The C-band
antenna resembles that of Intelsat VII rather than the more
complex Intelsat VI design. Hemispheric beam coverages
are fixed except for the east-west exchange possible through
satellite inversion; multiple zone beams are generated and four
selected by simple switching to match each operating location.
Two of the four selected zone beams can be combined, making
the coverage similar to Intelsat VII and facilitating transition
from one satellite to the other. Zone beams can be configured and west faces of the body. The C-band antenna feeds and K-
so that an uplink in one is retransmitted in the other three. band antennas are mounted on the Earth-viewing face. The two
The C-band payload uses SSPAs (solid-state power C-band reflectors deploy in orbit. The satellite is compatible
amplifiers) for all amplification, in order to get high capacity with multiple launch vehicles.
through their good linearity. The SSPAs are of two types, Unlike previous Intelsat generations, the -A version of
sharing a common design except for the final stage. The Intelsat VIII is not a simple increase in capacity or power.
higher-power type is used on the broader hemispheric and Rather, Intelsat VIII-A has a major restructuring of the payload
global beams; the other type is used on the zone beams. All while retaining the same basic objectives as Intelsat VIII—high
SSPAs have variable output power to allow on-orbit matching C-band capacity, power, and flexibility with moderate K-band
to EIRP and isolation requirements. capacity. The actual realization of Intelsat VIII-A emphasized
The K-band payload has six channels per polarization in C-band capacity and power, to accentuate service to small Earth
a frequency plan like that of Intelsat VII. For the downlink, station antennas, and accepted a reduction in K-band capacity,
uplink channels (5) and (6) are combined and uplink channels and these satellites were the first Intelsats to use the entire 800
(7–9) and (10–12) are combined. There is also a channel (12) MHz C-band allocation. Furthermore, the coverage provided
that can be used at K-band or in conjunction with the C-band by Intelsat VIII-A is different from previous Intelsats. First,
global channel (12). K-band channels (1–2) through (5–6), the prior satellites were configured for transoceanic coverage,
and (7–9) when limited to the (7–8) spectrum, can be cross- whereas Intelsat VIII-A is tailored to landmass coverage.
strapped with the corresponding hemispheric and zone beam Second, while the C-band landmass coverage of Intelsat VIII-
channels. As on Intelsat VII-A, channels (1–2) through (5–6) A is equivalent to the hemispheric beams on prior Intelsats, it
may be switched to any of the three allocations available in has neither the global beams nor the zone beams that were part
different parts of the world. This is accomplished by switching of those designs. Third, the coverage of each Intelsat VIII-A
the local oscillator input to the upconverter for each channel. is individually set, unlike the common coverage established
Following the upconverter is a driver amplifier that is also for each prior Intelsat generation. The first Intelsat VIII-A,
a linearizer for the TWTA that follows. At most, six K-band Intelsat 805, was planned for service to Asia but the coverage
downlink channels can be on at a time, of which up to five can was later changed to the Americas and Western Europe. The
be assigned to the same spot beam. second Intelsat VIII-A, Intelsat 806, has a similar coverage.
The Intelsat VIII satellite is a typical three-axis-stabilized Intelsat VIII-A bus is the same as Intelsat VIII. The C-band
design with deployable solar arrays. The satellite is composed payload has fewer channels but the same EIRP per channel.
of bus and payload modules. The bus module includes a central Since expected Intelsat VIII-A coverage is broader than an
structural cylinder plus various struts and panels that support Intelsat VIII hemispheric beam, higher power is required
the bus subsystems. The north, south, and Earth-viewing faces to maintain the same EIRP. This higher power caused the
of the body are the basic structure for the payload module. reduction in the number of channels. On Intelsat VIII-A the C-
The north and south faces have embedded heat pipes. The two band channel bandwidths are increased to 45 and 90 MHz and
modules are designed for independent parallel integration and occupy a wider spectrum, thus departing from the traditional
test. In the satellite drawing (Fig. 2.24) the larger transmit and Intelsat frequency plan. The C-band antenna is switchable
smaller receive C-band reflectors are deployed from the east on orbit between dual linear polarizations and dual circular
86
 Intelsat

polarizations. Intelsat 805 and 806 also have one steerable K-

band spot beam coupled to three very high-power channels.
Intelsat VIII procurement began in late 1991. In September
1992, a contract was awarded for two satellites. Two more
Intelsat VIIIs and the first Intelsat VIII-A were soon added to the
contract. The second Intelsat VIII-A was added in 1994. Satellite
and payload details for both Intelsat VIII and VIII-A follow.
Satellite
Martin-Marietta (later Lockheed Martin) series 7000 bus
Rectangular body, 2.5 x 2.2 x 3.2 m
Dry mass/launch mass 1538/3245 kg (Intelsat VIII), 1595/3570
kg (Intelsat VIII-A)
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, 4830 W at end of
design life
Three-axis-stabilized, ±0.1 deg pointing in pitch and roll, ±0.25
(a) deg yaw; offset pointing control to ±6 deg pitch and ±2 deg roll
Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuvers; liquid
monopropellant propulsion for on-orbit use and arcjets for
north-south stationkeeping

Configuration (Intelsat VIII)

4 and 6 GHz: 44 uplink channels combined into 38 downlink
channels with 34–77 MHz bandwidth, single conversion, sixfold
frequency reuse with multiple beams and dual polarizations in
channels (1–2) through (9), twofold frequency reuse with dual
polarizations in channels (1’–2’) and (10) through (12)
11–12 and 14 GHz: 12 uplink channels with 34–112 MHz
bandwidth combined into eight downlink channels with
41–112 MHz bandwidth, only six downlink channels active
simultaneously, double-conversion; two uplink channels that
connect to 4 GHz downlinks, 41 MHz bandwidth, simultaneous
operation possible with most combinations of 11–12 GHz
downlinks; dual-beam frequency reuse

Configuration (Intelsat VIII-A)

4 and 6 GHz: 28 transponders, eight with 72 MHz bandwidths,
(b) 20 with 34–41 MHz bandwidths; twofold frequency reuse with
dual polarizations
11–12 and 14 GHz: three transponders with 72 MHz
bandwidths

(c)

Fig. 2.25. Typical Intelsat VIII C-band antenna patterns.

(a) Atlantic Ocean Ku-Band
(b) Indian Ocean C-Band
(c) Pacific Ocean Fig. 2.26. Intelsat 805 coverage areas

87
Global Systems Satellites

H1 H1
(1'–2') T (1'–2')
H2 (1'–2') H2
(1–2) (1–2)
Hemi 1 T T H1 H1 (3–4) (3–4)
LHC Hemi 1
H2 H2 (5) (5–6) C RHC
Hemi 2 2225
Receiver 2 Z1 Z1 C (7–8)
Z2 Z2 (6) (9)
Receiver 3
(7–8) S
Zone Receiver 4 Z3 (1–2) Z3
Selection (9)
Switches Receiver 5 Z4 Z4
(10) (10)
Receiver 6 S1 S1 Global A
(11) C RHC
(11)
RHC Receiver 7 S2 S2
(12)
(12) T
Receiver 8 Same for
(3–4), (5),
Receiver 9 (6), (7–8/9) Same for Hemi 2 (RHC) and Global B (LHC)

H1 H1
Receiver 1
Global A H2 H2 (1–2) T
LHC Receiver 2 (1–2)
Z1 Z1 (3–4)
Global B Receiver 3 (3–4)
RHC Z2 Z2 (5) Zone
Receiver 4 (5–6) selection
Z3 (9) Z3 C C switches
(6) (7–8) LHC
Z4 Z4
(7–8) (9)
GA GA
T T (9)
GB GB T
Spot 1
10.3 GHz
note b Same for other 3 zones (LHC)
LIN Receiver 2
S1 S1
(1–2)
Receiver 3
Spot 2 S2 (10–12) S2 T TW
(3–4)
Receiver 4

Receiver 5 (5) C Spot 1

(10), (11)
GA GA C
Notes (6)
GB GB LIN
a. The numbers in parentheses are (7–9)
channel numbers. The multiple (12)
numbers indicate channel S1 S1
C
bandwidths 36 MHz, e.g., (1–2) C Spot 2
is a channel occupying the S2 S2
spectrum used by channels 1 and (10–12)
2 on Intelsat IV. (12)
T TW
b. Channel 9 may be used on note f.
hemispheric and zone beams or
on global and spot beams.
c. LHC/RHC = left-/right-hand
circular polarization;
LIN = linear polarization.
d. K-band antennas (Spots 1 and 2)
have diplexers that are not shown.
Hemispheric and zone beams have
beam forming networks that are
not shown.
e. The LO input for (7–9) and (10–12) Fig. 2.27. Intelsat VIII Communication Subsystem.
is fixed at 7.50 GHz (band B). For
(1–2), (3–4), and (5–6) the LOs
may each be switched to 7.25 GHz
(band A), 8.005 GHz (band C), or
8.805 GHz (band D).
f. There are two inputs for each channel
in this set; only one is shown; only six
inputs total may be active.

88
 Intelsat

Capacity (Intelsat VIII) 11–12 and 14 GHz: two reflectors with offset Gregorian
Nominal capacity in a typical operational configuration is 22,500 geometry; beamwidth 2.0/2.8 deg (spot 1 inner/outer coverage),
two-way voice circuits (112,500 with full use of digital circuit 1.3 x 2.7/1.9 x 4.3 deg (spot 2 inner/outer coverage); two spots
multiplication techniques) plus three TV transmissions on orthogonal linear polarizations, switchable (reversible) on
orbit; >30 dB cross polarization isolation; both spots steerable;
Transmitter (Intelsat VIII) global coverage horn for beacon
4 and 6 GHz: 3629–4198 MHz
Antenna (Intelsat VIII-A)
Global and hemispheric beams: two sets of 12 variable 4 and 6 GHz: two shaped, offset-fed reflectors (one transmit, one
power SSPAs for nine transponders, 27–38 W receive); beam shaped to cover the Americas and Europe; dual
Zone beams: four sets of seven variable power SSPAs for polarizations switchable between linear and circular on orbit
five transponders, 10–20 W 11–12 and 14 GHz: one steerable beam
EIRP (minimum): 29 dBW (global beams), 34.5/36 dBW
(hemispheric and zone beams, outer/inner coverage Telemetry and command
areas) Telemetry: 3947.5 or 3948.0 MHz, and 3952.0 or 3952.5 MHz,
11–12 and 14 GHz: 10.954–11.191 GHz (band A), 11.458– 3 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of Earth, right-hand circular
11.694 GHz (band B), 11.709–11.946 GHz (band C), polarization
12.509–12.746 GHz (band D); transponders (1–2), (3–4), Beacon: 3950 MHz, 4 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of Earth,
(5–6) each independently switchable to bands A, C, or D, linear polarization
transponders (7–9), (10–12) in band B 11.198 and 11.452 GHz (Intelsat VIII), 6 dBW minimum
Nine TWTAs for six transponders, 43 W EIRP at edge of Earth, right-hand circular polarization
EIRP (minimum): 44/47 dBW (outer/inner coverage 11.701 and 12.501 GHz (Intelsat VIII), 6 dBW minimum
areas) EIRP at edge of spot beam coverage, linear polarization
12.501 GHz (Intelsat 805) ; 11.701 GHz (Intelsat 806),
Transmitter (Intelsat VIII-A)
1.5 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of spot beam coverage;
4 and 6 GHz: 3400–4200 MHz linear polarization
55 to 60 W linearized TWTAs Command: two frequencies near 6175 MHz
EIRP: 37.5/36 dBW (805 inner/outer coverage)
Life
11–12 and 14 GHz: 12.5–12.75 GHz (805), 11.7–11.95 GHz
(806) Ten-year design life, propellant life 13–19 years
115–130 W linearized TWTAs Orbit
EIRP: 49/42 dBW (805 inner/outer coverage) Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05 deg east-west and
north-south
Receiver (Intelsat VIII)
4 and 6 GHz: 5854–6423 MHz Orbital history
Satellite, launch date, location mid-2006, comments:
Four receivers with two active for global beams, nine
receivers with six active for hemispheric and zone beams; Intelsat 801, launched 27 February 1997, in use, 31.5°W
HEMT preamplifiers with 2 dB noise figures longitude
G/T (minimum): –12 dB/K (global beams), –8 dB/K Intelsat 802, launched 25 June 1997, in use, 33°E
(hemispheric beams), –2 dB/K (zone beams) longitude
11–12 and 14 GHz: 14.004–14.498 GHz Intelsat 803, launched 23 September 1997, 177°W
longitude, transferred to New Skies Satellites November
Four receivers with two active, HEMT preamplifiers with
1998 and renamed NSS-803, renamed NSS-5 in
2.5 dB noise figures
December 2002
G/T (minimum): 2/5 dB/K (outer/inner coverage)
Intelsat 804, launched 21 December 1997, failed January
Receiver (Intelsat VIII-A) 2005, drifting near geostationary orbit
4 and 6 GHz: 5850 to 6650 MHz Intelsat 805, launched 18 June 1998, in use, 55.5°W
longitude
–7.8/–9 dB/K (805 inner/outer coverage), –8.0 dB/K (806)
Intelsat 806, launched 27 February 1998, in use, 40.5°W
11–12 and 14 GHz: 14.0–14.25 GHz longitude, transferred to New Skies Satellites November
+2.0/–5.0 dB/K (805 inner/ outer coverage), +1.0 dB/K 1998 and renamed NSS-806
(806) Ariane launch vehicle (801–803), Atlas 2 (804–806)
Antenna (Intelsat VIII) 801 to 804 are Intelsat VIII, 805 to 806 are Intelsat VIII-A
4 and 6 GHz: two offset-fed parabolic reflectors, 2.6 m diam
(transmit) and 1.7 m diam (receive), with 88 feed horns Management
generating two hemispheric beams on one polarization and Developed for Intelsat by Martin Marietta Astro Space with an
multiple zone beams on the other, four zone beams selected at international team of subcontractors
a time by switches; 29 dB minimum isolation between beams; Operated by Intelsat (803 and 806 operated by New Skies
circular polarization; transmit reflector is steerable in two Satellites after their transfer)
axes; dual-polarized global coverage horns, one transmit, one
receive, circular polarization ******
89
Global Systems Satellites

1. P. Neyret et al., “Intelsat VIII,” Paper 94-1037, However, at most, 12 transponders can be operated at one time
AIAA 15th International Communications Satellite Systems on the first two satellites and 14 on the succeeding satellites.
Conference (February 1994). The satellite has considerable cross-strapping between C-band
2. D. J. Cornelius et al., “The Intelsat VIII/VIIIA and Ku-band transponders, allowing uplinks in one band to be
Generations of Global Communication Satellites,” used with downlinks in the other band.
International Journal of Satellite Communications, Vol. 13, The seven satellites were launched in an aggressive
No. 1 (January–February 1995). campaign that was completed in 20 months. Once in orbit,
they were tested and entered into operation, replacing satellites
3. D. Wolk, J.-M. Mari, and D. Rosowsky, “The 14 Channel in the Intelsat VI and VII series. These older satellites were
C-Band Output Multiplexer Assembly for Intelsat 805/806,” moved to other longitudes where they resumed operation.
Paper AIAA-96-0982, 16th International Communications Additional information about the Intelsat IX satellites and
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1996). their communication subsystems is as follows.
4. Intelsat, Satellite Guide, Intelsat, Washington D.C. Satellite
(August 1998). Loral series 1300 bus
5. “Intelsat VIII Satellite Characteristics,” Intelsat Rectangular body, 30.5 m solar-array span
Earth Station Standards, Document IESS-417 (Rev. 1A) (30
Approximately 1900 kg dry mass
November 1998).
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, >8000 W
6. “Intelsat VIIIA Satellite Characteristics (Flight Model minimum
805),” Intelsat Earth Station Standards, Document IESS-418
(Rev. 2), (30 November 1998). Three-axis stabilization

7. Intelsat, “Intelsat Reports Loss of IS-804 Satel- Configuration

lite” (16 January 2005), http://ww2.intelsat.com/press/ 4 and 6 GHz: 42 uplink channels but only 36 or 38 downlink
release_details.aspx?year=2005&art=20050116_01_ channels (depending on zone beam connections) available
EN.xml&lang=en&footer=85 (19 January 2005). with 34–77 MHz bandwidth (two channels can each be split
into two segments with 16 MHz bandwidth on the uplink), single
conversion, six- or sevenfold frequency reuse with four or five
Intelsat IX zone beams on one polarization and two hemispheric beams
on the other polarization; six channels (two channels can each
The Intelsat IX satellites [1–4] were developed to replace be split into two segments with 18 MHz bandwidth on the uplink
the Intelsat VI satellites. The development of two satellites and twofold frequency reuse with dual-polarized global beams
began in spring of 1997; two more satellites were added to 11 and 14 GHz: 16 channels with 36–77 MHz bandwidths,
the contract at the end of that year, a fifth was added at the double conversion, dual-beam and dual-polarization frequency
end of 1998, and the final two were added in January 2000. At reuse; 12/14 channels (up to 8 per spot beam) can be used
the beginning of the contract, the satellites were known as the simultaneously (901–902/903–907)
Follow-on Series, but the name soon changed to Intelsat IX.
The Intelsat IX satellites have greater capacity and more Transmitter
coverage areas than prior Intelsat satellites. The satellites have 4 and 6 GHz: 3629–4198 MHz
the global and hemispheric beams similar to prior satellites. 9 to 25 W solid-state amplifiers and 40–60 W TWTAs
However, whereas prior Intelsats had at most four zone beams,
EIRP (beam edge/peak): 31/36 dBW (global beams),
the Intelsat IXs have the capability for four or five zone beams, 36/45.5 dBW (hemispheric beams), 35.1/47.8 dBW (zone
and some of the zone beams have larger coverage areas than beams)
the zone beams of the earlier satellites. In C-band the satellites
11 and 14 GHz: 10.954–11.191 GHz and 11.459–11.693 GHz
have six transponder frequencies for hemispheric and zone
beams and three frequencies for global beams. Two of the Approximately 100 W TWTAs
six frequencies can be reused simultaneously in both EIRP up to 53/54 dBW (901–902/903–907
hemispheric beams on one polarization, and in the zone
beams on the other polarization. The other four frequencies
can be reused simultaneously in the two hemispheric beams
and in four zone beams. Thus, the satellites have a total of
38 transponders in the hemispherical and zone beams. The
transponders on the frequencies that can be used in the zones
have satellite-switched TDMA, which was previously used only
on the Intelsat VI series. The three global beam transponder
frequencies are reused twice by means of dual polarizations,
for a total of six transponders. One global transponder
frequency (two transponders) and one hemispheric-zone beam
transponder frequency (six transponders) can be operated with
the transponder bandwidth split into two halves on the uplink;
this increases flexibility, especially for service to small Earth
terminals.
In Ku-band the satellites have eight transponder frequencies; Fig. 2.28. Intelsat IX satellite.
each can be used simultaneously in both Ku-band spot beams.
90
 Intelsat

Receiver
4 and 6 GHz: 5854 to 6423 MHz
G/T (beam edge/peak): –5.6 to –11.2 dB/K (global beams),
+2 to –7.4 dB/K (hemispheric beams), +6.3 to –7.4 dB/K
(zone beams)
11 and 14 GHz: 14.004–14.493 GHz
G/T: up to +9 dB/K

Antenna
4 and 6 GHz: global coverage horns, 18 deg beamwidth, dual
circular polarizations; two deployed parabolic reflectors for
zone and hemispherical beams, dual circular polarizations
11 and 14 GHz: two spot beams on orthogonal linear
polarizations, each beam steerable to any point on Earth

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: 3947.5 or 3948.0 MHz, and 3952.0 or 3952.5 MHz,
right-hand circular polarization, 0 to 3 dBW EIRP at edge of
Earth
Beacon: 3950 MHz, vertical linear polarization, 4–11 dBW EIRP
at edge of Earth; 11.198 and 11.452 GHz, right-hand circular
polarization; 6 dBW minimum EIRP at edge of Earth
Command: near 6175 MHz

Life
Mission life at least 13 years

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W

Orbital history
Satellite, launch date, longitude mid-2006
Intelsat 901, launched 9 June 2001, 18°W
Intelsat 902, launched 30 August 2001, 62°E
Fig. 2.29. Typical Intelsat IX C-band coverage areas.
Intelsat 903, launched 30 March 2002, 34.5°W
Intelsat 904, launched 23 February 2002, 60°E
Intelsat 10
Intelsat 905, launched 5 June 2002, 24.5°W
In January 2000, Intelsat decided to purchase a New Intelsat-
Intelsat 906, launched 6 September 2002, 64°E Alpha (NI-Alpha) satellite. The “New Intelsat” referred to
Intelsat 907, launched 15 February 2003, 27.5°W Intelsat after the then in-progress conversion from an inter-
Ariane 44 launch vehicle (all except 904), Proton launch governmental organization to a private company. The NI-
vehicle (904) Alpha contract was only the second satellite to be purchased
by Intelsat from a European manufacturer. (The first, Intelsat
Management K-TV, was transferred during manufacturing to New Skies.)
Developed for Intelsat by Space Systems/Loral with subcon- All other Intelsat satellites had come from U.S. manufacturers.
tractors from France, Japan, Germany, the United States, and This satellite was planned to provide further increases in power
other countries and flexibility for service to the Americas and Europe from
Operated by Intelsat a location over the Atlantic Ocean. The contract included an
option for a second satellite, NI-Alpha 2, which subsequently
****** was added to the contract. Later the names were changed to
1. “Intelsat IX Satellite Characteristics,” Intelsat Earth Intelsat 10-01 and 10-02 [1–3].
Station Standards, Document IESS-422 (Rev. A), 30 November In November 2002, Intelsat canceled the purchase of
1998. satellite 10-01, citing a contract clause that allowed this action
if the satellite delivery slipped 8 months or more beyond
2. Intelsat, Satellite Guide, Intelsat, Washington D.C. the contract date of August 2002. Production of Intelsat 10-
(August 1998). 02 continued, and the satellite was launched. By mid-2006,
3. Satellite Fact Sheets, http://www.intelsat.com/ Intelsat plans for the next few years did not include more
resources/satellites/facts.aspx (27 October 2004). satellites in this series.
The development of the Intelsat 10 series was aimed at
4. G. H. Schennum et al., “Global Horn Antennas for
a common satellite with payloads that could be adapted for
the Intelsat-IX Spacecraft,” Proceedings of the IEEE 1999
specific landmass coverage needs at 50ºW and 1ºW longitude
Aerospace Conference (March 1999).
91
Global Systems Satellites

orbital locations. The landmass coverage was in contrast to

the transoceanic emphasis for other Intelsat series of satellites
except Intelsat VIII-A. The first longitude, for which
Intelsat 10-01 was planned, requires coverage of the
Americas and Western Europe. The second
longitude, to which Intelsat 10-02 has been
launched, has coverage of the east coast
of North America, all of South America,
western Europe, Africa, the Middle East,
and the western half of India. Fig. 2.30. Intelsat 10 satellite.
The Intelsat 10-02 payload has C-band
capacity similar to that of the Intelsat IX series, but
50 percent more Ku-band capacity. In C-band there are two 11 and 14 GHz: 13.75 to 14.5 GHz
hemispheric beams and two zone beams (see Fig. 2.31). The G/T (beam edge/peak): 0/+6.5 dB/K (spot 1, 2), –1.3/+7.7
western hemispheric beam uses both polarizations. The eastern dB/K (spot 3)
hemispheric beam uses one polarization, and the zone beams
use the other polarization. The C-band frequencies are reused Antenna
in each of these five beams and polarizations. If none of the 4 and 6 GHz: two 2.7 x 3.2 m reflectors each with one feed horn
transponders are connected to global beams, then this five-fold per beam, dual circular polarizations
frequency reuse supports 25 transponders with 72 or 77 MHz 11 and 14 GHz: steerable Gregorian antennas, linear polari-
bandwidths and 20 with 36 or 41 MHz bandwidths. If some of zation
the latter transponders are connected to global beams, then the
total number of simultaneous transponders will be reduced. Telemetry and command
There are three steerable Ku-band beams, two of which are Telemetry: near 3950 MHz
also rotatable. Onboard connectivity exists between C-band Command: near 6175 MHz
uplink and Ku-band downlinks, and vice versa. Approximately
half of the Ku-band transponders are owned by the Norwegian Life
company Telenor Satellite Broadcasting, a long-standing Orbital design life at least 13 years
customer of Intelsat, especially for satellite services from the
Orbit
longitude occupied by this satellite.
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W
After launch and in-orbit initialization, Intelsat 10-02
replaced Intelsat 707, which was moved to 53ºW longitude Orbital history
and is in operation there. Additional information follows. Launched 16 June 2004, in operation at 1ºW longitude
Satellite Proton launch vehicle
Eurostar 3000 bus, 45 m solar array span
Launch mass 5600 kg, dry mass approximately 2650 kg Management
Developed by Matra-Marconi, later Astrium, later EADS
Solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, >11 kW at end of life Astrium
Three-axis stabilized, ±0.15 deg antenna pointing accuracy Operated by Intelsat
Bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and east-west
stationkeeping, ion propulsion for north-south stationkeeping ******
Configuration
4 and 6 GHz: multiple transponders with 36–77 MHz bandwidth,
dual-beam and dual-polarization frequency use
11 and 14 GHz: multiple transponders with frequency use

Transmitter
4 and 6 GHz: 3629 to 4198 MHz
TWTAs with 40–60 W per channel
EIRP (beam edge/peak): 32/35 dBW (global beams), 37/42
dBW (hemispheric beams), 37/46.9 dBW (zone beams)
11 and 14 GHz: 10.95–11.2 GHz, 11.45–11.7 GHz, and 12.5–
12.75 GHz
TWTAs with up to 150 W per channel, EIRP (beam edge/
peak): 46.7/55.3 dBW

Receiver
4 and 6 GHz: 5854–6423 MHz
G/T (beam edge/peak): –10.7/–7.7 dB/K (global beams),
–6.5/–2 dB/K (hemispheric beams), –4.6/+5.2 dB/K (zone Fig. 2.31. Intelsat 10-02 C-band antenna patterns.
beams)
92
 Intelsat

1. G. Marsh, NI-Alpha—A New Generation for Intelsat,” Intelsat APR2

Space & Communications, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Spring 2000). In 2000 Intelsat announced an agreement to lease up to six 36
2. L. Virdee et al., “Intelsat’s Next Generation Satellite for MHz bandwidth C-band transponders on the Sinosat 1 satellite
the Americas,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 48, No. 5-12 (March– described in chapter 8 [1]. Sinosat was launched in 1998 and
June 2001). is in operation at 110.5ºE longitude in the geostationary orbit.
3. Satellite Fact Sheets, http://www.intelsat.com/re Intelsat refers to this lease as its APR2 satellite.
sources/satellites/facts.aspx (27 October 2004). In 2001 Intelsat announced an APR3 satellite to be
launched to 85ºE longitude in 2002. However, nothing more
was announced about this satellite, and in spring of 2003
Intelsat APR1 Intelsat 709 was moved to 85ºE longitude.
In 1992, in response to escalating demand for communications ******
services in Asia, Intelsat added the Asia-Pacific region to the 1. Intelsat Press Release, “Intelsat to Lease Six
three regions (Atlantic, Indian, Pacific) that it had had since Transponders on SINOSAT-1,” 6 June 2000, http://www.intelsat.
inception. One of the steps taken by Intelsat to provide satellite com/aboutus/press/releases.aspx?year=2000&lang=en(2
capacity for this new region was a lease of seven 36 MHz November 2004).
bandwidth and two 72 MHz bandwidth C-band transponders
on India’s Insat 2E, which is described in chapter 8. The lease
was signed early in 1995 with the expectation that the service Intelsat Americas
would start in January 1998. However, the Insat 2 development
did not proceed smoothly, so the service introduction was In July 2003 Intelsat agreed to purchase six satellites from
delayed. The satellite was launched in April 1999 and the lease Loral Space & Communications [1–2]. Four of the satellites
started soon after. It extends through May 2009 and can be were and continue to be in orbit and two were in construction.
extended if the satellite continues to operate. All are designed for service to North America or North and
Intelsat has named this leased capacity Intelsat APR1 Central America, a large market but one that Intelsat had not
[1–2], APR standing for Asia-Pacific Region. All leased hitherto emphasized. On that same day in July, Loral entered
transponders use the wide coverage beam for the uplink; five into bankruptcy. In October 2003 the bankruptcy court approved
of the 36 MHz bandwidth transponders are connected to the the sale. By that time one of the in-orbit satellites, Telstar 4,
zone beam downlink; the other leased transponders to the wide had failed, and one of the in-construction satellites, Telstar 13,
beam downlink; these coverages are shown in Figure 2.32. had been launched. The other in-construction satellite, Telstar
A programmatic description and technical details about the 8, was launched in June 2005.
satellite are given in the section on India in chapter 8 on Asian, This purchase was completed in March 2004. At that time
African, South American, and Australian satellites. It is in the the satellites were renamed in a new Intelsat Americas series.
geostationary orbit at 83ºE longitude. Telstars 5, 6, 7, 8, and 13 became Intelsat Americas (or IA-) 5,
6, 7, 8, and 13. In conjunction with this purchase, Intelsat had
****** agreed to purchase a new satellite from Space Systems/Loral,
1. “Earth Station Performance Characteristics for Access a subsidiary of Loral Space & Communications. In November
to Intelsat’s Leased Capacity on the APR1 Satellite,” Intelsat 2004 the construction contract for this satellite, IA-9, was
Earth Station Standards, Document IESS-420 (Rev. 1A) (30 announced. In the same month a sudden electrical problem
November 1998). caused the failure of IA-7. All Intelsat Americas satellites are
described in chapter 6 about North American satellites.
2. Intelsat, Satellite Guide, Intelsat, Washington D.C.
(August 1998). ******
1. Intelsat Press Release, “Intelsat Signs Agreement to
Purchase Loral’s North American Satellite Services Assets,”
15 July 2003, http://www.intelsat.com/aboutus/press/releases.
aspx?year=2003&lang=en (3 November 2004).
2. Intelsat Press Release, “Intelsat Completes Acquisition
of Loral’s North American Satellite Assets; FSS Leader Begins
Executing Customer Transition and Satellite Integration
Plan,” 17 March 2004, http://www.intelsat.com/aboutus/press/
releases.aspx (3 November 2004).

Intelsat System
The Intelsat communication system includes the satellites
described earlier, a large number of Earth terminals, and a
control center [1–90]. Intelsat owns the satellites and the control
center. The terminals are owned by private companies or in
decreasing numbers by government agencies, not by Intelsat.
The system has Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean regions.
Fig. 2.32. Intelsat APR1 coverage area. Satellites came into use in these regions in 1965, 1967, and

93
Global Systems Satellites

Standard C terminals communicate with the 11 and 12 and

300 14 GHz transponders first used on Intelsat V satellites. At these
280
frequencies, rain attenuation is significant and is accounted for
in the terminal specification. Some Standard C terminals use
260 two antennas separated by 10 to 20 miles in order to overcome
rain attenuation by space diversity. The Standard C terminals
240 are used by nations with major communication requirements,
which already have one or more Standard A terminals.
220
Standard D is a move in the opposite direction. The objective
200 Antennas is to provide a terminal of lower cost than Standard B for places
with very low communications requirements, perhaps only one
180 or two voice circuits per terminal. Standard D came into use in
the mid-1980s and has been applied by small island nations in
160 the Pacific, and by some African nations, for communications
140
between their capitals and small cities in rural areas.
Standard E and F terminals also date from the mid-1980s.
120 The difference between E and F is only the frequency band
used and the frequency-dependent specifications. Both are for
100 use with Intelsat Business Service (IBS). These terminals are
Countries either located at a specific customer location, or serve multiple
80
customers in a relatively small area, such as one metropolis.
60 This type of customer-specific siting is in contrast to the earlier
terminals, which typically serve a whole nation.
40 Standard H and K terminal specifications were developed
in the latter half of the 1990s to reflect the continuing satellite
20
performance improvements. These specifications allow the
0 use of even smaller antennas than Standard E and F.
65 70 75 80 85 90 Standard G terminals are not used with the Intelsat global,
YEAR END public communications network. Rather, they are used in
Fig. 2.33. Intelsat Earth terminals. domestic or binational networks that use leased or purchased
Intelsat satellite capacity. The network operator is free to
1969 respectively. In 1992 an Asia-Pacific region was added determine most design and operating characteristics. Intelsat
to optimize service to the Asian landmass and adjacent areas. specifies what is necessary to ensure that these terminals do
Satellite operations in this region began in 1993. not interfere with other users of the satellite.
The number of Earth terminals increased yearly since the The Intelsat system has TT&C terminals at six sites. These
system became operational in 1965. Past growth in the number terminals continually monitor all communication downlinks
of countries with terminals and the total number of antennas for satellite problems or evidence of out-of-specification
are shown in Fig. 2.33; by 1999, thousands of terminals were conditions in any transmission. The TT&C terminals monitor
located in more than 200 nations and territories. Only those satellite health via the telemetry they receive, gather data to be
antennas used in Intelsat’s public international network are used in orbit predictions, and transmit commands. They are
shown. Many countries also use leased Intelsat satellite capacity located in Maryland, Hawaii, Australia, Italy, Germany, and
for domestic networks. The number of antennas used in these China. They are under the direction of the Intelsat Operations
networks increased rapidly since the late 1970s and, by 1983, Center in Washington, D.C., and are linked with it via Intelsat
exceeded the number of antennas shown in the figure. satellites. The Intelsat system also has 20 facilities that monitor
Some basic characteristics of the Intelsat Earth terminals are both satellite transponder performance and the traffic. Six of
given in Table 2.2. Nearly all terminals now in use correspond these are collocated with the TT&C terminals; the others are
to one of these standard types. Standard A terminals have been in coverage areas of other satellite beams.
in use since the 1960s. Although certain features are standard,
the terminals have significant differences in the amount of
electronic equipment they have, which depends on the number,
type, and capacity of the communication links that must be
handled simultaneously. Their large antenna size was necessary,
because the early satellites (through Intelsat III) were power
limited. Thus, system capacity was a function of ground antenna
gain, so large antennas were used. Beginning with Intelsat IV,
the satellite power limitation decreased. Therefore, Intelsat
adopted a specification for the smaller Standard B terminal. The
objective of Standard B is to provide a lower-cost terminal for
nations with moderate traffic requirements. In 1986, because
of the continuing increase in satellite performance, shown in
Fig. 2.34, Intelsat reduced the Standard A gain requirements,
allowing a smaller antenna diameter. Fig. 2.34. Intelsat capacity sensitivity.

94
 Intelsat

Table 2.2. Intelsat Standard Earth Terminal Characteristics

Standard Minimum G/T, dB/K
Terminal Frequency (reference frequency, Typical Antenna Modulation and Multiple
Type Bande Satellite Series Used GHz)g Diameter, m (ft)h Access Formats
A C V through IX 35.0 (4.0) i FDM/FM, CFDM/FM, SCPC/
15–18 (49–59)
QPSK, TV/FM, TDMA, QPSK/
IDR, IBS, TCM/IDR, DAMA
B C V through IX 31.7 (4.0) 11–13 (36–43) CFDM/FM, SCPC/QPSK, TV/
FM, QPSK/IDR, IBS, TCM/IDR,
DAMA, Low-Cost TDMA
i
C Ku V through IX 37.0 (11.2) 11–13 (36–43) FDM/FM, CFDM/FM, QPSK/IDR,
IBS, TCM/IDR

Da C V through IX D-2: 31.7 (4.0) D-2: 11 (36) SCPC/CFM

D-1: 22.7 (4.0) D-1: 4.5–6 (15–20)

E Ku V through IX E-3: 34.0 (11.0) E-3: 8–10 (26–33) QPSK/IDR, IBS, TCM/IDR
E-2: 29.0 (11.0) E-2: 5.5–7 (18–23)
E-1: 25.0 (11.0) E-1: 3.5–4.5 (11.5–15)
F C V through IX F-3: 29.0 (4.0) F-3: 9–10 (30–33) CFDM/FM, QPSK/IDR, IBS, TCM/
F-2: 27.0 (4.0) F-2: 7–8 (23–26) IDR, DAMA
F-1: 22.7 (4.0) F-1: 4.5–7 (15–23)
Gb C or Ku V through IX, APR1f No fixed value specified No fixed value All, to the extent approved by
Intelsat

Hc C V through IX H-4: 22.1 (4.0) H-4: 4–6 (13–20) IBS, DAMA

H-3: 18.3 (4.0) H-3: 2.5–4 (8–13)
H-2: 15.1 (4.0) H-2: 1.8–3 (6–10)
Kc Ku V through IX K-3: 23.3 (11.0) K-3: 3–3.5 (10–11.5) IBS
K-2: 19.8 (11.0) K-2: 2–2.5 (6.5–8)

Zd

a i
Acceptance of new Standard D terminals ended in 1998, and reference to this Originally, due to lower satellite performance, the typical Standard A diameter
standard was removed from Intelsat Earth station standard documents. was 29–32 m (95–105 ft), and the typical Standard C diameter was 17–18 m
b (56–59 ft).
Standard G is for use with services provided by countries or organizations that
lease or purchase transponder capacity from Intelsat; the other standard termi-
nals are for use with satellite services provided directly by Intelsat. A terminal in- Glossary:
volved in both types of service is classified both Standard G and one of the other
standards. BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
c
Standards H-1 and K-1 are reserved for future use. CFDM Companded FDM
d
Standard Z (domestic services on leased or purchased transponders) has been CFM Companded FM
merged into Standard G (formerly only international services on leased or pur- DAMA Demand Assigned Multiple Access using QPSK/FDMA
chased transponders).
e
FDM Frequency Division Multiplex
C-band includes uplink frequencies between 5850 and 6650 MHz and downlink
frequencies between 3400 and 4200 MHz. The typical minimum elevation angle FM Frequency Modulation
is 5 deg. Ku-band includes uplink frequencies between 14.0 and 14.5 GHz and IBS Intelsat Business Services using QPSK/FDMA or BPSK/FDMA
downlink frequencies in some bands between 10.95 and 12.75 GHz. The typical
minimum elevation angle is 10 deg. Not all terminals are required to operate over IDR Intermediate Data Rate using QPSK/FDMA or 8PSK/FDMA
the entire band designated for that standard type. QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
f
All APR1 transponders are leased; therefore this satellite supports only Standard TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
G terminals.
SCPC [Preassigned] Single Channel Per Carrier
g
G/T is in the direction to the satellite with clear sky and light wind, and is scaled
with frequency over the operating band. VSAT Very Small Aperture [Earth] Terminal
h
G/T is specified by Intelsat. Antenna diameter is not specified, but is listed for 8PSK Octal Phase Shift Keying
information.

One major objective in the planning for each new generation Intelsat handles telephone, telegraph, data, internet, and
of Intelsat satellites has been to minimize the changes television traffic. In early years, almost all Intelsat traffic was
necessary in the ground terminals. The satellite frequency voice, but with the growth of television transmissions and later
plan has a large influence on how well this objective can be a surge in nonvoice digital services, revenues from voice traffic
achieved. The Intelsat frequency plan had major changes from fell to about 55 percent of total revenue by 1995. The Atlantic
Intelsat III to Intelsat IV and from Intelsat IV-A to Intelsat region has always had the majority of Intelsat traffic, almost
V. Since Intelsat V, the frequency plan has retained the same 70 percent in early years decreasing to about 60 percent today.
basic structure, except for Intelsat VIII-A. The C-band portion The Pacific region began earlier than the Indian Ocean region
of this plan is shown in Fig. 2.35. because of earlier satellite availability. However, Indian Ocean

95
Global Systems Satellites

1'-2' 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9 Channel number assignment, introduced in 1971, used
Hemispheric beams 72 72, 77 72 72 72 36 Bandwidth, MHz
the SPADE technique (single channel
(Polarization A)
per carrier, pulse code modulation,
1'-2' 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9
72 72, 77 72 72 72 36
multiple access, demand-assigned
Zone beams
(Polarization B)
equipment). SPADE use ended in
9 10 11 12
1993, but a new demand assignment
Global/C-spot 36 36 36 41 technique was brought into full use
(Polarization A) in 1997. Demand assignment is used
9 10 11 12 for traffic peaks above preassigned
Global/C-spot 36 36 36 41 capacity or between terminals with no
(Polarization B) preassigned circuits.
A number of transmission
Uplink frequency, MHz 5850 5925 6170 6180 6425 techniques are used in the Intelsat
Downlink frequency, MHz 3625 3700 3945 3955 4200 network. The choice depends
primarily on the type and quantity
of information to be transmitted, and
Notes: secondarily on the types of ground
1. This generic diagram applies to Intelsat V, V-A, VI, VII, VII-A, VIII, and IX; see the individual
terminals used. When Intelsat began,
descriptions to determine which features are on each. the only links were between a few
large ground terminals in developed
2. Polarization A is LHCP uplink, RHCP downlink; polarization B is the reverse.
countries. Because of the equipment
3. Channel 1-2 has 72-MHz bandwidth if channel 1'-2' is present, otherwise it has and experience developed in terrestrial
77-MHz bandwidth. Channel 1’-2’ is present for hemispheric beams on Intelsats VI, VIII, and microwave systems, frequency
IX, and for zone beams on Intelsat IX. division multiplexing (FDM)/FM
4. The channel 7-8 uplinks can be split into two 34-MHz segments on Intelsat V. The became the early Intelsat transmission
channel 5-6 uplinks can be split into two 34-MHz segments on Intelsats VII, VII-A, and VIII. standard; with transmissions at one of
The channel 9 hemispheric uplinks can be split into two 16-MHz segments and the channel 12 several specified capacities (e.g., 24,
uplinks can be split into two 18-MHz segments on Intelsat IX.
60…792, 972 voice circuits).
5. The 10 MHz between channels 5-6 and 7-8 is used for command and telemetry carriers. SPADE transmissions were single
channel per carrier/quadriphase
6. Channel 9 may be used either on the hemispheric beams or the copolarized global
and spot beams, and may be used either on the zone beams or on the copolarized
shift keying/FDMA (SCPC/QPSK/
global and spot beams. FDMA). The same transmission
format, except with preassignment,
7. Both hemispheric beams on a satellite have the same frequency plan; all zone beams
on a satellite have the same frequency plan.
is commonly used by Standard B
terminals, which usually do not have
8. Individual Intelsat VIII-A satellites have unique combinations of 36, 41 (channel 12), and sufficient traffic for the multiple
72-MHz channels between 5850 and 6650 MHz for uplinks and between 3400 and voice circuit FDM transmissions. The
4200 MHz for downlinks.
SCPC data rate is 64 kbps, conveying
Fig. 2.35. Intelsat C-band Frequency Plan either a single voice circuit or a single
digital data circuit or multiplexed
lower rate data circuits.
traffic rose above Pacific traffic with the considerable transfer With increasing traffic, some Standard B terminals were
of Hawaiian and Alaskan traffic to U.S. domestic systems. In outgrowing the SCPC technique on some links. FDM/FM with
the mid-1980s to mid-1990s, Pacific traffic grew quickly, as companding (CFDM/FM) was introduced in 1983. The signal
many small nations had begun to use the system. quality improvement caused by companding partially offset the
This traffic is the international use of the Intelsat satellites. lower gain of Standard B terminals.
Beginning in 1974, Intelsat leased spare satellite capacity for Television transmissions also used FM. At first, a single
use in domestic satellite communication systems. Since the TV/FM signal was assigned to a 36 MHz satellite transponder.
end of the 1970s, this service rapidly increased in popularity. Later, for more efficient use of satellite capacity, two TV/FM
By 1985, more than two-dozen countries were leasing Intelsat signals often shared a transponder. Now there has been a
capacity, and about a dozen others had plans to do so. Because transition to digital transmission of TV.
of this rapid growth, in 1982 Intelsat changed its policy from As the number of countries that use Intelsat increased, the
providing this service by means of excess satellite capacity to diversity of routings multiplied. As a result, the percentage of
planning future satellite capacity to meet the expected demand, links requiring high-capacity FDM/FM carriers decreased, and
and in 1985 Intelsat authorized satellite transponder sales to the number of low-capacity carriers increased. This reduced
member nations. (Leased and purchased satellite capacity is the effective satellite capacity, which drops as the number of
described in the next subsection.) In addition, in 1982, Intelsat FDMA carriers per transponder grows. Therefore, in 1978,
began leasing satellite capacity for international television Intelsat began field tests with TDMA, which provides more
transmission. capacity than FDMA for the projected traffic loading on many
Satellite capacity may be allocated to the terminals by Intelsat transponders.
preassignment and demand assignment. Preassignments are Since 1981, limited operational use of TDMA began on
made by the Operations Center for long-duration use. Demand Intelsat V satellites. The transmission rate is 120.8 Mbps

96
 Intelsat

and uses 72 MHz bandwidth transponders. Intelsat V-A for intra-European communications. However, the reaction
satellites have some changes to provide better response to within the Intelsat staff and membership to these proposals
TDMA transmission. Full operational use of TDMA began in was that they have the potential for significant economic harm
1985. Its effectiveness increased as the Intelsat VI satellites and thus could not pass the test for coordination. The U.S.
were launched because these satellites have a dynamic Government, aware of its obligation as an Intelsat member,
switching capacity, which can reconfigure the antenna beam and under pressure from Intelsat, studied the situation. The
interconnections on a TDMA burst-to-burst basis (SS/TDMA) conclusion, in 1985, was a policy that private systems could
to maintain connectivity between TDMA ground stations in be allowed to compete with Intelsat, but only for certain types
different beams. Digital speech interpolation (DSI) is used on of communications and with certain conditions.
TDMA voice circuits to provide up to two and one-half times On the basis of this policy, between mid-1985 and early
more circuits per transponder than non-DSI transmissions. In 1986, the FCC granted conditional authorizations to six
addition, the data rate per voice circuit was reduced from 64 applicants. These conditional authorizations required the
kbps to 32 kbps using an adaptive voice encoding technique; applicants to complete an agreement with a communications
this provides another factor-of-2 improvement in efficiency of entity (usually a government agency) in at least one foreign
transponder use. country and to complete the Intelsat coordination process. In
To make use of these benefits of digital transmission addition, these private international systems were restricted
on links not requiring the very high TDMA rate, Intelsat to serving private communications links not interconnected
introduced the Intermediate Data Rate (IDR) service in 1984. with the public-switched network and to providing all services
IDR links use QPSK modulation, information rates between under long-term leases. These conditions were relaxed in
64 kbps and 44.7 Mbps, error correction encoding, and share later decisions, but full, open competition took longer than
transponders by means of FDMA. IDR is used by both large a decade to be realized. The first of these systems began
and small terminals. operation in 1988. They are described in subsequent sections
In the late 1980s, the shift of terrestrial transmissions of this chapter. In response to these competitive and political
to digital methods, coupled with the availability of digital pressures, Intelsat, after considerable resistance, began to
equipment and tariff incentives from Intelsat, led to a significant study the restructuring described earlier in this chapter.
shift from analog to digital voice.
IBS began in 1984. The transmission characteristics are the ******
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No. 2 (1983). 66. J. F. Phiel, “The Intelsat Digital Communication
51. W. R. Hinchman and L. Perillan, “Intelsat New Systems,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol.
Services,” Paper 86-0625, AIAA 11th Communication Satellite 43, No. 8 (August 1990).
Systems Conference (March 1986). 67. P. McDougal, “VSATs and Developmental
52. L. McKnight, “The Deregulation of International Communications,” Space Communication and Broadcasting,
Satellite Communications,” Paper 43.2, IEEE National Vol. 6, No. 6 (September 1989).
Telesystem Conference (May 1984). 68. R. L. Turner, “Impact of Intelsat VII on Services and
53. L. McKnight, “The Deregulation of International Earth Stations,” IEE Colloquium, Intelsat VII—Another Step in
Satellite Communications: U.S. Policy and the Intelsat the Evolution of the Global Intelsat Communications System
Response,” Space Communication and Broadcasting, Vol. 3, (March 1989).
No. 1 (March 1985). 69. M. P. Brown Jr. et al., “Intelsat VI Transmission Design
54. A. Kavanaugh, “An Analysis of U.S. International and Computer System Models for FDMA Services,” Comsat
Satellite Policy Formation,” Telecommunications Policy, Vol. Technical Review, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Fall 1990).
10, No. 2 (June 1986). 70. S. J. Campanella et al., “SS-TDMA System
55. Satellite Communications (December 1983), p. 10; Considerations,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 20, No. 2
(April 1984), p. 12; (February 1984), p. 40; (March 1984), (Fall 1990).
p. 20; (August 1986), p. 12; (May 1987), p. 41; (September 71. S. B. Bennett and G. Hyde (eds.), “Section With Six
1987), p. 41; (October 1987), p. 14; (May 1988), p. 8; (February Papers on Intelsat VI: From Spacecraft to Satellite Operation,”
1989), pp. 8, 46; (January 1990), p. 25; (Nov. 1990), p. 8. Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Fall 1991).
56. S. Jamshidi and L. N. Nguyen, “Intelnet Services— 72. M. P. Brown Jr., F. A. S. Loureiro, and M. Stojkovic,
A Global Data Distribution and Collection Scheme,” “Earth Station Considerations for Intelsat VI,” Comsat
International Journal of Satellite Communications, Vol. 4, No. Technical Review, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1992).
2 (April–June 1986). 73. M. Onufry et al., “DCME in the Intelsat VI Era,”
57. L. Buchsbaum and M. Robusto, “Intelsat Business Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1992).
Services (IBS) Transmission Engineering,” 7th International 74. A. K. Jefferis, “Technical and Economic Aspects of
Conference on Digital Satellite Communications (1986). the Intelsat System,” Paper 92-2052, AIAA 14th International
58. R. J. Colby, R. Parthasarathy, and J. F. Phiel, “The Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1992).
Intelsat TDMA System—Conception to Operation,” 7th 75. I. Goldstein, “Intelsat: Seizing the Future,” Space
International Conference on Digital Satellite Communications Communications, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1992).
(1986).
76. J. F. Phiel, T. Abdel-Nabi, and M. P. Brown, Jr., “The
59. D. K. Sachdev, “The New Intelsat: Facing Future Global Evolution of Digital Modulation and Access Techniques in
Communications Requirements,” Aerospace Century XXI: the Intelsat System,” Paper 94-1038, AIAA 15th International
Space Sciences, Applications, and Commercial Development, Communications Satellite Systems Conference (Feb. 1994).
Advances in the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 64, Part III
(October 1986). 77. M. J. Robusto et al., “Intelsat’s Traffic Monitoring
Systems,” Tenth International Conference on Digital Satellite
60. L. M. Buchsbaum, “System Design for Vista—The Communications, IEE Conference Publication No. 403, Vol. II
Intelsat Service for Low Density Traffic Routes,” Paper 88- (May 1995).
0766, AIAA 12th International Communication Satellite
Systems Conference (March 1988).

99
Global Systems Satellites

78. T. Oishi et al., “Laboratory and Field Tests of the New satellites. However, most do not have the finances necessary
Intelsat Standard DCME,” Tenth International Conference on to obtain a satellite nor enough traffic to warrant the use of
Digital Satellite Communications, IEE Conference Publication a whole satellite. Leasing of satellite capacity has been an
No. 403, Vol. II (May 1995). answer to these needs. Aside from Intelsat, Indonesia has
79. G. Forcina, S. Oei, and S. Simha, “The Intelsat DAMA leased some capacity to its neighbors for a number of years,
System,” Tenth International Conference on Digital Satellite and in 1985, the Eutelsat and Arabsat organizations began
Communications, IEE Conference Publication No. 403, Vol. II leasing to their members. Use of such a lease is a low-cost
(May 1995). way to establish a domestic satellite system. This arrangement
also leads to a quick implementation because ground terminals
80. G. Forcina, S. Oei, and R. Bedford, “Intelsat TDMA can be delivered much more quickly than satellites. Intelsat
and DAMA,” Paper AIAA-96-1016, 16th International leases a specific bandwidth with certain guaranteed satellite
Communication Satellite Systems Conference (Feb. 1996). performance parameters; EIRP is the most significant. Subject
81. “Introduction and Approved IESS Document List,” to several constraints to prevent interference to other satellite
Intelsat Earth Station Standards, Document IESS-101 (Rev. users, the leasing country is free to control its own use of the
43) (30 November 1998). leased capacity.
Prior to the availability of the Intelsat leases, some
82. “Standards A, B, F, and H: Antenna and Wideband RF
countries used the regular Intelsat service for domestic links,
Performance Characteristics of C-band Earth Stations Accessing
treating them as international links. Examples were the use of
the Intelsat Space Segment,” Intelsat Earth Station Standards,
Intelsat for links within Australia and between the Continental
Document IESS-207 (Rev. 3) (30 November 1998).
United States (CONUS) and Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico.
83. “Standards C, E and K: Antenna and Wideband RF In February 1974, the United States transferred CONUS-
Performance Characteristics of Ku-band Earth Stations Hawaii traffic to a leased transponder, which was the first use
Accessing the Intelsat Space Segment for Standard Services,” of an Intelsat lease. This lease was terminated in 1976 when
Intelsat Earth Station Standards, Document IESS-208 (Rev. the traffic was transferred to the AT&T domestic satellite.
4) (30 November 1998). The links to Alaska and Puerto Rico were also transferred to
84. “Intelsat Space Segment Leased Transponder domestic satellites.
Definitions and Associated Operating Conditions,” Intelsat The common leased bandwidths are 9, 18, 36, 54, or 72 MHz.
Earth Station Standards, Document IESS-410 (Rev. 6) (30 The service is available on a preemptible or nonpreemptible
November 1998). basis, which relates to the priority of restoration in case of
satellite failure. Nearly all current leases are for preemptible
85. “Standard G: Performance Characteristics for Earth service because of the proven reliability of the satellites
Stations Accessing the Intelsat Space Segment for International (<3 hr outage/yr) and the lower cost (about one-half the
and Domestic Services Not Covered by Other Earth Station nonpreemptible rate). Several countries (either the national
Standards,” Intelsat Earth Station Standards, Document IESS- government or a commercial entity within the country) began
601 (Rev. 9) (30 November 1998). with a lease of one transponder or less and added capacity
86. Intelsat, “About Us,” http://www.intelsat.com/aboutus/ over several years as they expanded their systems. Some are
(1 November 2004). transponders connected to global coverage antennas, others
87. C. L. Kullman, “INTELSAT — Redefining Global to hemispheric or spot-beam antennas. The latter have more
Communications,” Earth Space Review, Vol. 9, No. 1 (2000). radiated power, and the lease rate is somewhat higher. Most
leased transponders are in the 4 and 6 GHz band, but the use
88. J. C. Hsing, J. D. Anderson, and E. L. Main, “ADCS of 11 and 14 GHz leases is growing.
Operations of Satellites Intelsat Operates,” paper 2000-1106, Algeria was the first country to use an Intelsat lease for
AIAA 18th International Communication Satellite Systems a nationwide system. Operations started in 1975 with 15
Conference (April 2000). terminals and greatly improved the availability and reliability
89. M. E. Battikha and A. Salonico, “Intelsat & Telespazio of communications in the 80 percent of Algeria that lies in
Upgrade of Ground Facilities to Support the Launch of the Sahara. Three other countries started using Intelsat leases
Satellites in Ku and BSS Frequency Bands,” 2000 IEEE in 1975. Seven others had started by the end of 1977, and the
Aerospace Conference Proceedings, Vol. 2, pp. 293–298 number has grown to a few dozen since then. A few countries
(March 2000). had leases in the past but terminated them when their traffic
90. M. Wheeler, M. Robusto, and R. Ames, “Intelsat’s was transferred to new domestic satellite systems.
Traffic Monitoring: From Concept to Implementation,” 2000 In 1985, Intelsat announced that it would sell transponders
IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings, Vol. 2, pp. 513–523 that constitute excess capacity on some of their satellites.
(March 2000). The purchaser owns the transponder for the remainder of
its life, while Intelsat continues to provide satellite control
and maintenance. Within the first 10 years, more than 60
Intelsat Leases and Sales transponders had been purchased by more than 20 nations
(either the national government or a commercial entity within
The Intelsat Definitive Agreements, which came into force in the country). About half are in the 4 and 6 GHz band and half
February 1973, made provision for leasing satellite capacity in the 11 and 14 GHz band.
for domestic systems [1–16]. Interest in this use of Intelsat The reasons for using an Intelsat lease or purchase are
satellites was small for a few years but began to grow varied. Some countries use the satellite to open communications
rapidly in 1977. Many countries need to improve internal to undeveloped areas where it would be difficult to install
communications and have situations well suited to the use of
100
 PanAmSat

terrestrial facilities. Examples are Algeria (desert) and Brazil 5. T. M. Kelley, “Domestic Satellite Communications
(jungle). Other countries use the satellite to communicate with Using Leased Intelsat Transponders,” Paper 2.3, International
points separated by oceans. Examples are Colombia (off-shore Conference on Communications: ICC ’78 (June 1978).
island) and Norway (oil-drilling platforms and Arctic islands). 6. T. M. Kelley, “The Present Status and Future
Some countries, (e.g., Brazil and Mexico) used the Intelsat Development of the Intelsat Leased System,” Paper 80-0546,
capacity as a step toward a national satellite system. Other AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April
countries have selected leasing as the quickest or lowest-cost 1980).
way to expand the national communications network. The
United Nations leased capacity to maintain communications 7. A. K. Bairi, “The Algerian Domestic System,” Paper 74-
between New York, Geneva, and its peacekeeping forces. 493, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
Ground antenna sizes, signal quality, and satellite power (April 1974).
are three main factors that determine the capacity of a leased 8. A. Bairi and J. Leonhard, “A Domestic Satellite
or purchased transponder. The choice is up to each country Communications System for Algeria,” International Con-
to determine its own balance between cost and capacity. The ference on Communications: ICC ’75 (June 1975).
number of ground terminals in a country varies from 2 to more
9. J. R. Veastad, “The Norwegian Domestic Commu-
than 100. In total, more than 1000 terminals are in use with
nication Satellite System,” Paper 78-615, AIAA 7th
leased Intelsat transponders.
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978).
Beginning in 1982, Intelsat started leasing capacity for full-
time international television transmission. The most common 10. W. P. Osborne, “Sudosat—The National Domestic
use of this service is for transmission from one country to Satellite Communications System for the Government of the
another; the first use was the United States to Australia. There Democratic Republic of the Sudan,” Paper 13-5, EASCON ’77
are also one country-to-multiple-country transmissions and a Conference Record (September 1977).
United States-to-United Kingdom use where the direction of 11. T. M. Kelley, “Leased Services on the Intelsat System:
transmission alternates. Domestic Service and International Television,” International
Originally, Intelsat provided the leased transponders from Journal of Satellite Communications, Vol. 2, No. 1 (January–
excess capacity on its spare satellites. This is still true, but March 1984).
in addition, some older satellites not needed as spares have
been devoted to leased service. Because of the rapid growth 12. S. L. Gordon, “Meeting Requirements at Home:
of leases and purchases, Intelsat has now included them in its Intelsat’s Domestic Service Offerings,” Journal of the British
traffic forecasts to ensure that adequate satellite capacity will Interplanetary Society, Vol. 43, No. 8 (August 1990).
continue to be available. 13. J. I. Geiling and K. E. Rasmussen, “Cote d’Ivoire
Satellite Transmission System,” Paper 90-0820, 13th AIAA
****** International Communication Satellite Systems Conference
1. L. Perillan and R. Eftekhari, “System Considerations (March 1990).
in Intelsat Domestic Network,” Paper 30.2, National 14. S.-C. Lu et al., “Domestic Satellite Communications
Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’80 (November 1980). System in Taiwan, R.O.C.,” Paper 92-1872, AIAA 14th
2. J. N. Pelton, “Intelsat: Making the Future Happen,” International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
Space Communication and Broadcasting, Vol. 1, No. 1 (April (March 1992).
1983). 15. “Intelsat Space Segment Leased Transponder
3. P. H. Schultze, S. Itohara, and J. L. Dicks, “Use of the Definitions and Associated Operating Conditions,” Intelsat
Intelsat Space Segment for Domestic Systems,” Paper 76-305, Earth Station Standards, Document IESS-410 (Rev. 6), (30
AIAA/CASI 6th Communications Satellite Systems Conference November 1998), http://www.intelsat.com/isdocs/ iess/e/
(April 1976). iess410e.pdf (30 June 1999).
4. R. Parthasarathy and T. M. Kelley, “Leasing of 16. Intelsat,“AboutUs,” http://www.intelsat.com/ aboutus/
Intelsat Transponders for Domestic Services,” EASCON ’78 (1 November 2004).
Conference Record (September 1978).

PanAmSat
In 1984, Pan American Satellite, now PanAmSat [1–11], was through 1989 were to get approval for its operations, first from
one of several companies requesting FCC permission to operate the U.S. Government, then from foreign governments, and then
a private international satellite communications system. In to complete the Intelsat coordination process required through
contrast to the other applications, which were for transmissions U.S. membership in Intelsat. PanAmSat’s first customer was
between the United States and western Europe, Pan American in Peru. In compliance with its FCC license, this service
Satellite’s application was for services within Latin America was coordinated technically and economically with Intelsat
and between the United States and Latin America. It received in 1987. Later that year, the company received its final FCC
preliminary FCC approval in 1985. authorization and launched its satellite in 1988. The satellite that
PanAmSat’s goal was to break the Intelsat monopoly was launched, however, was not limited to the Latin American
on international satellite communications. Although its first service originally envisioned. It also has the capability to
satellite was launched in 1988, its primary activities in 1984 provide services between the United States and Europe.

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Table 2.3. PanAmSat Satellites

Satellite Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status
PAS-1 1988 RCA Astro Electronics C, Ku Retired first quarter 2001, moved
above geostationary orbit
PAS-2 ORBX 1 1994 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku In use
tions
PAS-3 ORBX 2 1994 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku Destroyed by launch vehicle failure
tions
PAS-3 PAS-3R 1996 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku In use
tions
PAS-4 ORBX 3 1995 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku In use
tions
PAS-5 1997 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku Limited use, C-band only
tions
PAS-6 1997 Space Systems/Loral Ku Moved above geostationary orbit
2004
PAS-6B 1998 Hughes Space and Communica- Ku In use
tions
PAS-7 1998 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku In use
PAS-8 1998 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku In use
Galaxy* 8i 1997 Hughes Space and Communica- Ku Moved above geostationary orbit
tions 2004
Galaxy* 8iR Hughes Space and Communica- Ku Not completed, contract termi-
tions nated 2002
Galaxy* 11 1999 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku In use
tions
Galaxy* 3C 2002 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku In use
tions, later Boeing Satellite Sys-
tems
PAS-1R 2000 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku In use
tions, later Boeing Satellite Sys-
tems
PAS-9 2000 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku In use
tions, later Boeing Satellite Sys-
tems
PAS-10 2001 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku In use
tions, later Boeing Satellite Sys-
tems
PAS-12** Europe*Star 1 2000 Space Systems/Loral Ku In use
*Galaxy satellites not listed here are described in chapter 6. Galaxy satellites formerly had Roman numerals.
**Described in chapter 7

This change was the result of three astute business deals. satellites have PAS names; a few have Galaxy names. Other
The first was the purchase, in 1985, of a partially built but PanAmSat satellites, most with Galaxy names, emphasize
unwanted satellite ordered by American Satellite Corporation service to North America and are described in chapter 6.
(ASC). This satellite, which was completed for Pan American In August 2005 Intelsat and PanAmSat signed a merger
Satellite, had 12 and 14 GHz transponders in addition to 4 agreement under which Intelsat acquired PanAmSat. The
and 6 GHz transponders. The latter already had been planned acquisition was completed in July 2006, and integration of the
for Latin American service; the former were well suited to two systems has begun. However, given the lateness of this
transatlantic service. The primary change in the satellite was date relative to this book, descriptions of the two systems are
an antenna redesign to provide the beam shapes and locations separate and reflect their situations prior to July 2006.
required by Pan American Satellite. This technical capability to
serve Europe was complemented by the second business deal:
the purchase, in 1987, of Cygnus Satellite Corporation, which PanAmSat 1
had preliminary FCC approval for transatlantic services. The Except for its antenna beam patterns, the satellite purchased
purchase of the ASC satellite and the third deal—to launch it in 1985, now called PAS-1, was similar to many built for U.S.
on the demonstration flight of Europe’s new Ariane 4 launch domestic communication systems. It had a box-shaped body
vehicle—put a PanAmSat satellite in orbit at least a year earlier with solar panels that deployed in orbit. The antennas were
than would have been possible with the order of a new satellite. fixed on the Earth-viewing face of the satellite. The 4 and 6
The PanAmSat satellites that are used primarily for GHz part of the communication subsystem was used for Latin
international services are described below. Most of these American service. The transponders could be switched between

102
 PanAmSat

a broad Latin beam, which covered Central and South America

and the Caribbean, and three spot beams, which together
covered the same parts of the globe. The 12 and 14 GHz part
of the communication subsystem was for transatlantic service.
For transmission, three transponders were connected to the
European beam and three to the U.S. beam. Uplinks from
either continent could be routed to any transponder. Additional
PAS-1 satellite and payload details are as follows.
Satellite
RCA series 3000 bus
Box body, about 5 ft on a side; height Fig. 2.36. PAS-1 satellite.
including antenna and feeds about 10 ft; 52
ft span across deployed solar panels
1560 lb in orbit, beginning of life
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, approximately Life
1300 W after 10 years Ten-year nominal design life, 13 years expected
Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels and magnetic
torquers, approximately ±0.2 deg accuracy Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, liquid propulsion for
on-orbit use Orbital history
Configuration Launched 15 June 1988, 45°W longitude until retirement early
2001, then moved above geostationary orbit
4 and 6 GHz: twelve 36 MHz bandwidth and six 72 MHz
bandwidth single conversion repeaters, dual-polarization Ariane launch vehicle
frequency reuse
Management
12 and 14 GHz: six 72 MHz bandwidth repeaters
Developed by RCA Astro Electronics (now Lockheed Martin)
Transmitter for Pan American Satellite
4 and 6 GHz: 3700–4200 MHz Operated by PanAmSat
8.5 W transistor amplifiers for 36 MHz transponders in two After its satellite launch in 1988, PanAmSat reached
sets of seven amplifiers for six transponders agreements with customers in many nations. The successes
16 W TWTAs for 72 MHz transponders in two sets of four between mid-1988 and the end of 1990 were a sharp contrast
amplifiers for three transponders with the near total lack of success in prior years. In those early
Beam center EIRPs: 37.5/39.5 dBW for Latin beam, years, marketing was done by PanAmSat’s corporate alter ego,
40/42.5 dBW for spot North and Central beams (36/72 Alpha Lyracom Space Communications, but in the 1990s all
MHz transponders), 1.5 dB lower for South beam activities were consolidated under the PanAmSat name. In
the early 1990s PanAmSat provided both public and private
12 and 14 GHz: 11.45–11.7 GHz (to Europe), 11.7–11.95 GHz
(to United States) domestic communications in many Central and South American
and European countries. The communications were primarily
Seven 16 W TWTAs for six transponders television. It also had, and still has, many customers for
Beam center EIRPs: 45.5 dBW (United States), 47.5 dBW international television distribution and exchange of television
(Europe) programs between broadcasters in various countries. Other
services are international business networks and international
Receiver data distribution. PAS-1 operated as planned until it was
4 and 6 GHz: 5925–6425 MHz replaced by PAS-1R in the first quarter of 2001.
Two active receivers plus two spares
Peak G/T –0.5 dB/K
PanAmSat 2, 3, 4
12 and 14 GHz: 14.0–14.5 GHz
In the fall of 1991, PanAmSat awarded a contract for the
One active receiver plus one spare development of three satellites; a fourth was added in 1993 and
Peak G/T 0 dB/K was used to replace one destroyed by a launch failure. Briefly
known as ORBX 1, 2, and 3, they are now PAS-2, -3, and -
Antenna 4. The original PAS-3 was destroyed during launch and was
4 and 6 GHz: Latin beam covers Central and South America replaced by another satellite also named PAS-3 or occasionally
and the Caribbean; North spot beam covers northwestern PAS-3R. The three have the same design, with both C-band
South America, Central America, and the Caribbean; Central and Ku-band transponders. The primary difference between
spot beam covers central and west-central South America; the three is the antenna patterns, generated by six antennas.
South spot beam covers southern South America
In Fig. 2.37, the three C-band antenna reflectors are the large
12 and 14 GHz: United States beam covers the United States, rectangles deployed from each side of the body and one of the
except for the Pacific time zone, plus southeastern Canada; circular reflectors on the Earth-viewing face of the body. The
European beam covers western and eastern Europe smaller rectangular reflectors and the other circular reflector
103
Global Systems Satellites

are for Ku-band. Each of these reflectors

is shaped to form beams suited to the
geography under the designated satellite Fig. 2.37. PAS-2,-3,-4 satellite.
location. The shaping, a distortion from
a simple parabolic reflector, eliminated the
weight and signal loss associated with an array of feed
horns that would be required by a simple parabolic reflector.
The beams are shown in Fig. 2.38. The contours in the figure
show the edges of the beams; the satellite EIRP decreases 4 to
9 dB from the center portion of the beam to the edge. In the
center portions of the beams, television transmissions can be
received with 2.5 to 3.5 m antennas at C-band and 0.6 to 1 m
antennas at Ku-band.
All three satellites have 16 C-band transponders. They
all started with 16 Ku-band transponders, but PAS-4 was
modified in 1994 by replacing eight of these with 16 of half the
bandwidth. The objective of this change is to improve television transponders to beams so that their capacity may be adjusted to
broadcasting in the three smaller Ku-band beams, especially the market demands. The following satellite details apply to all of
South African and Indian beams. In each satellite up to eight PanAmSat 2, 3, and 4, unless marked specifically.
transponders may be cross-strapped, having the uplink in either Satellite
C-band or Ku-band and the downlink in the other. The Ku-
Hughes HS 601 bus
band portion of the payload includes multiple down-conversion
frequencies to accomplish the cross-strapping and the differing Rectangular body, approximately 1.8 x 1.8 x 2.2 m, span of
Ku-band downlink frequencies in different continents. Besides deployed solar arrays 26 m, span of deployed antennas 7 m
this, the satellites have some flexibility in the assignment of 2920 kg at launch, 1727 kg in orbit, beginning of life

P anAmSat 1 PanAmSat 2

P anAmSat 3 PanAmSat 4

K u-Band
C-Band

Fig. 2.38. PAS-1 to PAS-4 coverage areas.

104
 PanAmSat

Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries; 4700 W,

beginning of life; 4300 W, end of life
Three-axis-stabilized using gimballed momentum wheels Fig. 2.39. PAS-5 satellite.
and thrusters
Integrated liquid bipropellant propulsion for perigee maneuver
augmentation, apogee maneuver, and on-orbit use

Configuration
C: twelve 54 MHz and four 64 MHz bandwidth transponders,
dual-polarization frequency reuse
Ku: sixteen 54 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual-polarization
frequency reuse (PAS-2, 3); sixteen 27 MHz bandwidth and
eight 54 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual-polarization fre-
quency reuse (PAS-4)
Up to eight C-band uplinks can be cross-strapped to Ku-band
downlinks; up to eight Ku-band uplinks can be cross-strapped
to C-band downlinks

Transmitter
C: 3700–4200 MHz
Two groups of ten 30 W (PAS-4) or 34 W (PAS-2, 3)
linearized FET solid-state power amplifiers for eight Orbital history
transponders PAS-2: launched 8 July 1994, in use, 169°E longitude
Typical EIRP 36 to 38 dBW PAS-3: destroyed by launch vehicle failure 1 December 1994
Ku: 12.25–12.75 GHz (PAS-2), 11.7–12.2 and 12.5–12.75 GHz PAS-3: launched 12 January 1996, in use, 43°W longitude
(PAS-3), 11.45–11.7 and 12.25–12.75 GHz (PAS-4)
PAS-4: launched 3 August 1995, in use, initially 68.5°E longitude,
Two groups of ten 63 W linearized TWTAs for eight moved to 72°E in 2001 after PAS-10 began operations
transponders (PAS-2, 3); three groups of ten 60 W
linearized TWTAs for eight transponders (PAS-4) Ariane launch vehicle
Typical EIRP 44 to 51 dBW Management
Developed by Hughes Space and Communications Co. for
Receiver PanAmSat
C: 5925–6425 MHz
Operated by PanAmSat
Three active, one spare receiver
By 1996 PanAmSat had three satellites in service. Because
Ku: 14.0–14.5 GHz
PAS-3 was destroyed at launch in 1994, the PAS-3 launched
Two active, two spare receivers successfully in 1996 is sometimes called PAS-3R. All were
fully used. About 60 percent of the traffic was television
Antenna distribution or broadcasting, 36 percent data networks, and 4
C: two 1.27 x 1.78 m (one transmit and receive, one transmit) percent voice. The mix of traffic was a result of both the 1985
and one 1.02 m diam (transmit and receive) shaped parabolic
prohibition (since reduced in several steps, then eliminated)
reflectors, orthogonal linear polarizations, one feed horn per
polarization per reflector against public voice traffic on private international satellites
and PanAmSat’s original plans, which emphasized video
Ku: two 0.91 x 1.07 m (transmit) and one 1.02 m diam (transmit service to Latin America.
and receive) shaped parabolic reflectors, orthogonal linear
polarizations, one feed horn per polarization per reflector; one
Earth coverage horn for a beacon PanAmSat 5, 6, 6B, 7, 8
Telemetry and command By the beginning of 1996, PanAmSat satellites PAS-5 to PAS-8
Telemetry: in 3700–4200 MHz band; via communication were on order. PAS-6 and PAS-6B share a distinct design solely
subsystem TWTA and bicone antenna during early orbit and as for very high-power Ku-band television broadcasting to Latin
backup; via Earth coverage horn during normal operations America. PAS-5 operates with PAS-1 and PAS-3 with Ku-band
Command: in 5925 to 6425 MHz band transponders for direct-to-home television broadcasting and
C-band transponders for television distribution for networks,
Beacons: 4198.5, 4199.5 MHz (PAS-2), 4198.5, 4199.0 MHz cable operators, and international exchanges. PAS-7 and
(PAS-3), 4199.0, 4199.5 MHz (PAS-4), linear polarization;
PAS-8 have similar functions in the Indian and Pacific Ocean
12.5 GHz (PAS-2, PAS-4), 11.699 GHz (PAS-3), circular
polarization regions, operating respectively with PAS-4 and PAS-2.
PAS-6, PAS-7, and PAS-8 were built by one contractor
Life and PAS-5 and PAS-6B by another. Nonetheless, their basic
Fifteen-year design life characteristics are similar. They have three-axis-stabilized
box-shaped bodies with deployed solar arrays and both
Orbit deployed and body-mounted antennas. Improvements in
Geostationary satellite technology allow these satellites to have at least
105
Global Systems Satellites

PanAmSat 5 PanAmSat 6

PanAmSat 7 PanAmSat 8

K u-Band
C-Band

Fig. 2.40. PAS-5 to PAS-8 coverage areas.

50-percent increases in both number of transponders reduce its capacity as time went on. When PAS-6B was
and power per transponder compared with PAS-2, PAS- launched, it replaced PAS-6, and the latter became a backup
3, and PAS-4. The increase in transponders increases for the former. In the spring of 2004 there were further failures
their capacity, and the increase in power reduces the required in PAS-6’s power subsystem, and the satellite was moved out
antenna diameters on the ground; the latter is especially of the geostationary orbit.
important for television broadcasting and other applications PAS-6B, PAS-7, and PAS-8 continue in service. PAS-6B
that flourish when very large numbers of inexpensive receive and PAS-3 operate at the same longitude by using different
terminals with small antennas are sold. segments of Ku-band. PAS-7 lost 25 percent of its solar-array
PAS-5 was launched in 1997. In 1998 battery degradation power in 2001. It is now operating at reduced capacity a few
began; PanAmSat estimated that by the next year the battery tenths of a degree of longitude from PAS-10 using different
might not be able to support all transponders during eclipses. segments of C-band and Ku-band. Details of the satellites are
By mid-2000 PAS-9 had been launched and replaced PAS-5. as follows. Details applicable only to specific satellites are
In 2001 PAS-5 was drifting, but by 2003 it was at 26.15°E identified in parentheses.
longitude where all its C-band transponders are leased by Satellite
Arabsat. The Ku-band transponders are not used. Hughes HS 601 HP bus (PAS-5, PAS-6B), Loral series FS 1300
After PAS-6 was launched, a problem with the solar array bus (PAS-6, PAS-7, PAS-8)
was detected during in-orbit testing. This problem would
Rectangular body

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 PanAmSat

Span of deployed solar arrays 26.2 m (5, 6B), span of deployed Orbit
antennas 7 m (PAS-5, PAS-6B) Geostationary
2520 kg (PAS-5) 2110 kg (PAS-6B) in orbit, beginning of life
Orbital history
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries; 9700 W, beginning
of life; 7700 W, end of life (PAS-5); 10,000 W, beginning of life; PAS-5: launched 27 August 1997, in use, initially 58°W
8700 W, end of life (PAS-6B); more than 10,000 W (PAS-8) longitude, replaced by PAS-9, moved several times until located
at 26.15°E by early 2003, C-band in use
Three-axis-stabilized
PAS-6: launched 8 August 1997, in use initially at 43°W
Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and longitude, backup after PAS-6B begin operations, moved above
on-orbit use, ion propulsion for north-south stationkeeping (PAS- geostationary orbit in 2004
5, PAS-6B); liquid bipropellant propulsion (PAS-6, PAS-7, PAS-8)
PAS-6B: launched 21 December 1998, in use, 43°W longitude
Configuration PAS-7: launched 16 September 1998, in use, 68.5°E longitude
C: twenty-four (PAS-5, PAS-8), fourteen (PAS-7) 36 MHz band- PAS-8: launched 4 November 1998, in use, 166°E longitude
width transponders, dual-polarization frequency reuse
Proton launch vehicle (PAS-5, PAS-8), Ariane launch vehicle
Ku: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth transponders (12 for Mexico, (PAS-6, PAS-6B, PAS-7)
6 for United States, 6 for steerable beam), dual-polarization
frequency reuse (PAS-5) Management
Thirty-six 36 MHz bandwidth transponders (12 for Brazil, Developed by Hughes Space and Communications Co. (PAS-
12 for Argentina, 12 for other parts of South America), 5, PAS-6B) and Space Systems Loral (PAS-6, PAS-7, PAS-8)
dual-polarization frequency reuse (PAS-6) for PanAmSat
Thirty-two 36 MHz bandwidth transponders (16 for Brazil, Most operated by PanAmSat, PAS-4 operated by Optus (of
16 for other parts of South America), dual-polarization Australia) for PanAmSat
frequency reuse (PAS-6B)
Thirty 36 MHz bandwidth transponders (0–12 for Europe
and Middle East, 6-18 for South Africa, 0–12 for India, 0– Galaxy 8-i, 11, 3C
12 for China), dual-polarization frequency reuse (PAS-7) In 1996, PanAmSat and Hughes Electronics announced, and in
Twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth transponders (6–12 for 1997 completed, a merger of their satellite operations, including
northeast Asia, 6-12 for southeast Asia, 0–12 for Australia), all the PanAmSat satellites and the Hughes Galaxy satellites.
dual-polarization frequency reuse (PAS-8) The Galaxy satellites were primarily for service to the United
States, but some also had coverage of Latin America. The latter
Transmitter are described here, the former in chapter 6 on North American
C: 3700–4200 MHz (PAS-5, PAS-8), 3400–3700 MHz (PAS-7) satellites. (PanAmSat changed the numbering of Galaxy
50 W TWTAs, one per transponder satellites from Roman numerals to Arabic numerals near the
Ku: 10.7–10.95 GHz and 11.2–11.7 GHz (PAS-5); 10.7–10.95 end of 2003.) The combined constellation is controlled from
GHz and 11.2–11.45 GHz (PAS-6, PAS-6B); 10.95–11.2 GHz an operations center in Long Beach, California, via TT&C
and 11.45–11.75 GHz (PAS-7); 12.25–12.75 GHz (PAS-8) antennas at teleports near Atlanta, Georgia; Caste Rock,
Six 60 W and eighteen 110 W TWTAs (PAS-5), 100 W Colorado; and Napa, California.
TWTAs (PAS-6), sixteen 105 W and sixteen 140 W TWTAs Galaxy 3R, also called 3H, was the first Hughes satellite
(PAS-6B), 100 W TWTAs (PAS-7, PAS-8) with coverage of Latin America. It was used for Ku-band
television broadcasting to Latin America for the first 2 years
Receiver of its life, until the service was transferred to Galaxy 8-i after
C: 5925–6425 MHz (PAS-5, PAS-8), 6425–6725 MHz (PAS-7) it had been launched. After the transfer, the Ku-band coverage
Ku: 12.75–13.25 GHz and 14.0–14.25 GHz (PAS-5), 12.75– of Galaxy 3R was switched to coverage of the United States
13.25 GHz and 13.75–14.0 GHz (PAS-6, PAS-6B), 13.75–14.25 and was used for domestic communications. It is described in
GHz (PAS-7), 14.0–14.5 GHz (PAS-8), chapter 6.
Galaxy 8-i, or 8(I), was the first Galaxy satellite dedicated
Antenna to Latin American service; the “i” in its designator apparently
Multiple shaped parabolic reflectors,
linear polarization

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: 11.451 and 11.452 GHz; linear Fig. 2.41. Galaxy 8-i satellite.
or circular polarization (PAS-5)
Command: 13.999 GHz, circular
polarization and 14.498 GHz, linear
polarization (PAS-5)
Beacons 11.2005, 11.201 GHz (PAS-6B);
3698 MHz, 11.453, 11.457 GHz (PAS-7,
PAS-8); all linear polarization

Life
Fifteen-year design life

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Global Systems Satellites

K u-Band Ku-Band
-Band
C
Fig. 2.42. Galaxy 8-i coverage areas. Fig. 2.43. Galaxy 11 coverage areas.

is for “international,” in contrast to the domestic orientation the satellite’s capacity later in its life. In mid-2004 PanAmSat
of the Hughes Galaxy system at the start of the Galaxy 8-i ordered Galaxy 17. This satellite will be an on-ground spare
development (prior to the PanAmSat merger). This satellite had for Galaxy 11 or for use in case of a launch failure of Galaxy
only Ku-band transponders, which were dedicated to Galaxy 16 (described in chapter 6).
Latin America for television broadcasting throughout Latin Galaxy 3C was ordered in August 1999, launched in
America. Galaxy 8-i was put into service in 1998, but by 2000, June 2002, and put into service in October 2002. Following
problems with its ion propulsion required greater use of the launch and testing, traffic was moved from Galaxy 3R and 8-i
bipropellant propulsion, thereby significantly shortening its life. to Galaxy 3C. It has C-band and Ku-band transponders with
It was replaced by Galaxy 3C and thereafter had limited use coverage of CONUS plus most of Canada, Alaska, Mexico, and
until removed from geostationary orbit in 2004. the Caribbean. It has sets of 12 and 16 Ku-band transponders
A Galaxy 8-iR satellite was ordered in 1998, but the with coverage of Latin America. These transponders are for
contract was terminated in 2002. television broadcasting. The set of 16 transponders can be
Galaxy 11 has higher power than Galaxy 8-i and both C- reconfigured to eight transponders with twice the power.
band and Ku-band transponders. The C-band coverage extends Galaxy 11’s solar-array wings each have 5 panels, 4-1/2
from Central America and the Caribbean to Canada and most of filled with dual-junction solar cells, and concentrators each
Alaska. Ku-band coverage is in two beams: one extends from side of the wings to reflect additional sunlight onto the cells.
southern Canada through all of Mexico, and the other covers To avoid the concentrator problems experienced on Galaxy 11
all of South America except the southern half of Argentina and to provide higher power, Galaxy 3C’s solar-array wings
and Chile. The power distribution in the South American each have 6 panels with more efficient triple-junction solar
beam emphasizes service to Brazil. The 36 MHz bandwidth cells but no concentrators (compare Figs. 2.44 and 2.45).
transponders have 14 to 14.5 GHz uplinks and 11.7 to 12.2 Details of these Galaxy satellites are as follows.
GHz downlinks. These transponders are for various types of Satellite
communications. The 27 MHz bandwidth transponders have Hughes HS 601 HP bus (8-i), HS 702 bus (11, 3C)
uplinks in 13.75 to 14 GHz from North America or 14 to 14.25
GHz from Brazil; downlinks are in 10.95 to 11.2 GHz to either Rectangular body; span of deployed solar arrays 26/31/48 m
continent. These transponders are for video distribution. As (8-i/11/3C), span of deployed antennas 7/9/9.4 m (8-i/11/3C)
of 2006, PanAmSat did not yet have authorization to use the 3537/4488/4860 kg (8-i/11/3C) at launch, 1962/2775/2873 kg
latter set of transponders in the United States. (8-i/11/3C) in orbit, beginning of life
Galaxy 11 was the first launch of a new, larger satellite Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries; 9900 W, beginning
model with the ability to support payloads with increased mass of life (8-i); 8600 W/10.4 kW/15 kW, end of life (8-i/11/3C) but
and power consumption. Features included ion propulsion to see text above for Galaxy 11
reduce propellant mass; solar arrays with concentrators and Three-axis-stabilized
high-efficiency GaAs cells to increase power generation;
Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and on-
and larger, deployable thermal radiators to improve thermal orbit use, ion propulsion for north-south stationkeeping (and for
control. Less than 2 years after launch the reflectivity of the some orbit raising on 11 and 3C)
solar-array concentrators, visible on both sides of the solar
panels in Fig. 2.45, had begun decreasing, thereby reducing the Configuration
power output of the solar arrays. By early 2006 this problem C: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual-
had not affected service, but it has the potential for reducing polarization frequency reuse (11, 3C)

108
 PanAmSat

Fig. 2.44. Galaxy 3C satellite. Fig. 2.45. Galaxy 11 satellite.

Ku: thirty-two 24 MHz bandwidth transponders and one 36 MHz Receiver

bandwidth transponder, dual-polarization frequency reuse and C: 5925–6425 MHz (11)
dual-beam uplink frequency reuse (8-i)
Ku: 13.75–14.0 GHz (8-i); 13.75–14.5 GHz (11); 14.0–14.5
Twenty-four 36 MHz and sixteen 27 MHz bandwidth GHz for North America, 13.75–14.0 and 14.248–14.5 GHz for
transponders (11) South America (3C)
Eight 54 MHz and sixteen 27 MHz bandwidth transponders
for North America, 28 24 MHz bandwidth transponders for Antenna
South America (3C) Two Gregorian antennas with deployed 2.72 m diam shaped
parabolic reflectors (transmit), two antennas with body-
Transmitter mounted 1.27 m diam shaped parabolic reflectors (receive),
C: 3700 to 4200 MHz (11, 3C) circular polarization (8-i)
20 W amplifiers, one per transponder and six spares; 30– Two 2.4 m diam and two 1.8 m diam offset-fed, shaped
40 dBW EIRP (11) reflectors, linear polarization (11)
24 active and 6 spare 34 W SSPAs, EIRP 39–41 dBW over Telemetry and command
CONUS and southern Canada, 32 dBW minimum over
Telemetry: near edges of 11.7–12.2 GHz band (11), 11.702
most of Canada, Alaska, Mexico, and the Caribbean (3C)
and 11.703 GHz (3C)
Ku: 11.45–11.7 GHz and 11.7–11.95 GHz (8-i); 10.95–11.2
Command: near edges of 14.0–14.5 GHz band (11), 13.753
and 11.7–12.2 GHz (11); 11.7–12.2 GHz for North America,
and 14.001 GHz (3C)
11.45–11.7 and 11.948–12.2 GHz for South America (3C)
Beacons: 10.951, 11.701, 11.702, and 12.195 GHz (11), 11.704
Thirty-two 118 W TWTAs and six spares plus one 50 W
and 12.199 GHz (3C)
TWTA and two spares (8-i), twenty-four 75 W TWTAs and
six spares plus sixteen 140 W TWTAs and four spares Life
(11); EIRP 40 to 50 dBW over North America, 48–52 dBW
over Brazil, 40 dBW minimum over South America Fifteen-year contract life but see text for 8-i

24 active and 6 spare 120 W linearized TWTAs, EIRP 47 to Orbit

50 dBW over most of CONUS, 40 dBW minimum over most Geostationary
of Canada, Alaska, Mexico, and the Caribbean, 44–46 dB
over Hawaii, 42 dBW minimum over Puerto Rico (3C) Orbital history
12 active and 3 spare 127 W and 16 active and 4 spare Galaxy 8-i: launched 8 December 1997, 95°W longitude until
120 W TWTAs, peak EIRP above 51 dBW
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Global Systems Satellites

replaced by Galaxy 3C in second half of 2002; moved above 32–41 dBW over Europe and Africa, 30 to 34 dBW in
geostationary orbit early in 2004 global beam
Galaxy 11: launched 21 December 1999, in use, 99°W longitude Ku: 10.95–11.2 GHz and 11.45–11.95 GHz
initially then 91°W 24 active and 6 spare 125 W TWTAs and 12 active and
Galaxy 3C: launched 15 June 2002, in use, 95°W longitude 4 spare 140 W TWTAs; EIRP 43 to 49 dBW over North
Atlas IIAS launch vehicle (8-i), Ariane launch vehicle (11), Sea America, 40–52 dBW over South America, 43–52 dBW
Launch Zenit launch vehicle (3C) over Europe and North Africa

Management Receiver
Developed by Hughes Space and Communications Co., later C: 5925–6425 MHz
Boeing Satellite Systems for PanAmSat Ku: 13.75–14.5 GHz
Operated by PanAmSat
Antenna
Two 2.4 m diam shaped parabolic reflectors, two 1.78 m diam
shaped parabolic reflectors
PanAmSat 1R
Linear polarization
PAS-1R (R for replacement) was developed to replace PAS-
1, which reached the end of its life and was retired in 2001. Telemetry and command
PAS-1R is a C-band and Ku-band satellite with coverage of the Beacon: 11.699 GHz, right and left circular polarization
Americas, Caribbean, Europe, and Africa.
The satellite has three C-band antenna beams: Americas, Life
Europe and Africa, and global. There are 24 transponders, 12 Fifteen-year contract life, but see text
on each polarization available in the Americas beam. There are
12 transponders on one polarization in Europe/Africa beam and Orbit
12 on the opposite polarization in the global beam. Use of each Geostationary, 45°W longitude
global beam transponder requires turning off the cofrequency,
copolarization transponder in the Americas beam. The satellite has Orbital history
four Ku-band beams: United States and Mexico, Europe and North Launched 15 November 2000, in use
Africa, and two for South America. Among the 36 transponders, Ariane 5 launch vehicle
six are connected to the U.S./Mexico beam, 12 to the South
American beams, 12 may be switched between the Europe/North
Africa and U.S./Mexico beams, and six may be switched between
the Europe/North Africa and South American beams.
PAS-1R was the third launch of a large satellite model,
which introduced solar-array concentrators to increase power
generated. However, like Galaxy 11, the concentrators have
suffered decreases in reflectivity, thereby reducing solar-
array power output, which has the potential for reducing the
satellite’s capacity later in its life. Additional information
about PAS-1R is as follows.
Satellite
Boeing 702 bus, rectangular body, span of deployed solar
arrays 40.8 m, span of deployed antennas 8.2 m
4792 kg at launch, 3059 kg in orbit, beginning of life
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries; 14.3 kW end of
life, but see text
Three-axis-stabilized
Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and on-
orbit use, ion propulsion for orbit raising and north-south
stationkeeping

Configuration
C: thirty-six 36 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual-beam, dual-
polarization frequency reuse
Ku: thirty-six 36 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual-polarization
frequency reuse

Transmitter
C: 3700–4200 MHz
Ku-band
12 active and 3 spare 38 W SSPAs and 24 active and 6 C-band
spare 55 W TWTAs; EIRP 32 to 42 dBW over the Americas,
Fig. 2.46. PAS-IR coverage areas.

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 PanAmSat

Management over India/China/Korea/Japan, 40–49 dBW over Europe/

Developed by Hughes Space and Communications Co., later Middle East (PAS-10)
Boeing Satellite Systems
Receiver
Operated by PanAmSat C: 5925–6425 MHz
Ku: 14.0–14.5 GHz
PanAmSat 9, 10 Antenna
PAS-9 was ordered in October 1998. It was developed and Two 2.4 m diam shaped parabolic reflectors, two 1.78 m diam
launched to take the place of PAS-5. The early replacement shaped parabolic reflectors
of PAS-5 was due to a battery problem, which limits the Linear polarization
number of transponders that can operate during eclipses. After
the replacement, PAS-5 was moved to a new location, where Telemetry and command
the available capacity is put to use. PAS-9 has C-band and Telemetry: 12.7475 and 12.7485 GHz (PAS-10)
Ku-band coverage of the Americas, Caribbean, and western
Command: 14.0005 and 14.4995 GHz (PAS-10)
Europe. It also has higher power Ku-band transponders for
direct television transmissions to homes in Mexico. Beacons: 11.699, 11.7005, 11.702, 11.703 GHz, linear
PAS-10 was ordered in September 1999 as a replacement polarization (PAS-9)
for PAS-4. After the replacement, PAS-4 was moved a few Beacons: 11.699, 12.7495 GHz, linear polarization (PAS-10)
degrees east and continues in service. PAS-10 has a single
C-band beam that covers most of Africa, Europe, Asia, and Life
Australia. It has multiple Ku-band beams with 60 percent Fifteen-year contract life
higher power than PAS-4. Considerable flexibility exists in
Orbit
assigning Ku-band transponders to the beams.
Geostationary
Additional details of PAS-9 and PAS-10 are as follows.
Details refer to both satellites unless marked specifically. Orbital history
Satellite PAS-9: Launch 28 July 2000, in use, 58°W longitude
Boeing 601HP bus, rectangular body, span of deployed solar PAS-10: Launch 15 May 2001, in use, 68.5°E longitude
arrays 26 m, span of deployed antennas 7 m
Sea Launch Zenit launch vehicle (9), Proton (10)
3659/3739 kg at launch, 2389/2510 kg in orbit, beginning of life
(PAS-9/PAS-10) Management
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries; 9.9/9.6 kW Developed by Hughes Space and Communications Co., later
beginning of life, 8.9/8.5 kW end of life (PAS-9/PAS-10) Boeing Satellite Systems
Three-axis-stabilized Operated by PanAmSat
Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and on-
orbit use, ion propulsion for north-south stationkeeping
PanAmSat 12
Configuration In July 2005 PanAmSat purchased Europe*Star and renamed
C: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual- Europe*Star 1 as PAS-12 [14]. This satellite is described in
polarization frequency reuse (PAS-9), eight 54 MHz and sixteen chapter 7.
27 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual-polarization frequency
reuse (PAS-10) ******
Ku: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual- 1. R. Rodriguez, “Pan American Satellite Corporation:
polarization frequency reuse New Opportunities for Latin American Telecommunications
Development,” New Directions in Satellite Communications,
Transmitter
H. E. Hudson, ed. (Artech House, Dedham, MA, 1985).
C: 3700–4200 MHz
2. B. Lacoste, “APEX—Ariane 4: Les Passagers du
24 active 55 W TWTAs; EIRP 34–41 dBW over Americas,
34–36 dBW over Europe (PAS-9)
Premier Vol,” ESA Bulletin, No. 56 (November 1988).
24 active and 8 spare 55 W TWTAs; EIRP 32–41 dBW 3. C. Bulloch, “PAS: A Punchy Privateer,” Space Markets,
Europe/Africa/Asia/Australia beam, (PAS-10) Vol. 5, No. 3 (July–August 1989).
Ku: 11.45–12.2 GHz (PAS-9), 11.45–11.7 and 12.25–12.75 4. W. L. Morgan, “Pan American Satellite (PAS-1),”
GHz (PAS-10) Satellite Communications (August 1990).
24 active 108 W TWTAs; EIRP 45–48 dBW over CONUS 5. G. M. Stephens, “PanAmSat: Fighting the Good Fight,”
and adjacent parts of Mexico and Canada, 51–53 dBW Satellite Communications (November 1990).
over Mexico, 45–47 dBW over Brazil (PAS-9)
6. PanAmSat Global Satellite System, a brochure of
24 active and 8 spare 98 W TWTAs; EIRP 41–46 dBW PanAmSat (undated, circa 1993 to 1995).
over Europe, 41–46 dBW over sub-Saharan Africa, 49–51
dBW over India with 42 dBW minimum on some adjacent 7. P. A. Rubin, M. E. Neuman, and W. F. Phillips, “The
countries, 46–48 dBW over western Asia with 40 dBW PanAmSat Satellite System,” Paper 94-1121, AIAA 15th
minimum over Europe and western Russia, 40–48 dBW International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(February 1994).
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Global Systems Satellites

8. Aviation Week & Space Technology (20 June 1988), p. .com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/702/702fleet.html

18; (27 June 1988), p. 36. (10 December 2004).
9. Satellite Communications, (January 1987), p. 11; 12. Intelsat, “Intelsat Completes Acquisition of PanAm-
(September 1987), p. 12; (December 1987), pp. 15, 47; Sat” (3 July 2006), http://www.intelsat.com/pdf/press_
(March 1988), p. 12; (August 1988), p. 8; (April 1989), p. releases/2006/20060703.pdf (19 July 2006).
36; (May 1989), p. 8; (June 1989), p. 48; (October 1989), p. 13. Intelsat, “Intelsat and PanAmSat to Merge, Creating
42; (September 1989), p. 8; (December 1989), p. 8; (October World-Class Communications Solutions Provider” (29 August
1990), p. 13; (November 1990), pp. 8, 64. 2005), http://ww2.intelsat.com/press/releases.aspx?year=2005
10. “Global Network,” http://www.panamsat.com/global_ &lang=en (19 July 2006).
network/satellites.asp (10 December 2004). 14. PanAmSat, “PanAmSat Expands its Global Coverage
11. “Boeing 601 Fleet,” and “Boeing 702 Fleet,” Galaxy to Europe through Acquisition of Europe*Star” (19 July 2005),
and PAS sections of http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/ http://www.panamsat.com/news/pressview.asp?article=1407
space/bss/factsheets/601/601fleet.html and http://www.boeing (19 July 2006).

Columbia Communications
The NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), a change from fixed payments by Columbia to NASA to
which is described in chapter 6, has a C-band (4 and 6 GHz) a revenue sharing agreement between the two. After that
communication payload. This payload was designed into the Columbia concentrated on gaining additional customers,
satellite from the beginning as part of the joint TDRS and and by the start of 1996, 20 of the 24 transponders were
Advanced Westar mission, described in chapter 6. Later, NASA providing revenue.
and Western Union, the owner of the Westar system, decided
that shared use of the TDRS was no longer a beneficial idea,
and the Advanced Westar mission was terminated. However,
the C-band equipment was not removed from the satellites.
The C-band equipment can operate simultaneously with
the NASA TDRS equipment without any interference. The
original C-band design had an antenna pattern that covered
the United States from a satellite longitude near 100°W. The
operational TDRS locations at that time were 41°W and 171°W
longitude, where the original antenna pattern was not useful.
The pattern was modified, beginning with the third TDRS, to
provide east and west beams. These beams allow use of the
C-band equipment for communications between the United
States and Europe (from the Atlantic TDRS) and between the
United States and Asia (from the Pacific TDRS).
Given this capability, NASA looked for the best way to
use it. The challenge to Intelsat from the initial proposals for
private international systems, which had been ongoing since
1983, and a 1988 inquiry from Intelsat led NASA to offer the
C-band service to private companies. In mid-1989, NASA
requested bids for a 6-year C-band lease on one satellite
over each ocean. Later that year, NASA awarded the lease to
Intelsat, but a protest was lodged by another bidder. In 1990,
the protest was judged valid, and the lease award was turned to
Columbia Communications [1–5]. The 6-year lease ended in
1997, but it contained an option for 4 more years; these 4 years
were added to the lease period at the end of 1995.
Columbia began a frequency coordination process with
Intelsat in fall 1990 and finished in fall 1991 with an agreement
that lasted until the end of 1997, whereupon FCC granted final
authorization, and the 6-year lease period began. Columbia
marketed the satellite capacity for international video, voice,
and data services.
The announced beginning of operations for the Columbia
system was January 1992; however, legal problems continued
to thwart Columbia through 1993 and restricted its ability to
gain revenue. This resulted in a financial penalty for a missed
payment to NASA. The settlement of this problem included Fig. 2.47. Columbia TDRS (C-band) communication subsystem.

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 Columbia Communications

In the early part of 1996, NASA agreed to let Columbia this satellite was in use until late 2003 or early 2004. Columbia
also use the C-band transponders on TDRS 6 at 47°W. During 515 coverage was North America from the Rocky Mountains
the second half of 1996 and all of 1997 there was a contention east plus all of Central America and the Caribbean and most
between Columbia and Intelsat about the use of C-band at 41°W of South America, Europe west of Russia, and all of Africa.
after 1997. Intelsat claimed that its 1991 agreement gave it the Columbia 515 satellite details are in the foregoing Intelsat V
rights beginning in 1998 and was planning to launch a satellite subsection of this chapter. This satellite was in use into 2002
to 41.5°W in that year. Columbia, with support from FCC, but was not in use by late 2003. It was replaced at 37.5°W
contended that Intelsat was using the frequency coordination by GE’s Satcom C1, which was replaced by Worldsat 2 in
to block a competitor. At the end of 1997 an agreement was 2005. Satcom C1 is described in chapter 6 and Worldsats are
reached in which Columbia would stop using TDRS 4 at 41°W described later in this chapter. TDRS details, as they apply to
in May 1998, would purchase Intelsat’s 515 satellite, rename this use, and C-band performance are as follows.
it Columbia 515, move it to 37.5°W, and use it there. The Satellite
capacity in use is only C-band because Ku-band would cause Hexagonal prism body, 8 ft across, 5 ft in height; 57 ft span
interference to an adjacent satellite; some C-band capacity is across solar arrays
for Intelsat, the remainder for Columbia. This satellite was in
Approximately 5000 lb in orbit, beginning of life
use into 2002 but removed from geostationary orbit in 2003.
Columbia’s 1999 system included TDRS 5, TDRS 6, Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiCd batteries, 1700 W end of life
Columbia 515, and some leased transponders on Intelsat 605. Three-axis-stabilized, +0.1° in pitch and roll, +0.25° in yaw
Columbia had a monitoring and control facility in Las Cruces,
New Mexico, but NASA operated the TDRS satellites and Configuration
Intelsat operated Columbia 515. In 1999 FCC issued a license Twelve 36 MHz bandwidth, single-conversion transponders
for Columbia to build two new satellites, one each to be used
over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In October 1999 GE Transmitter
Americom announced that it had made an agreement to acquire 3702–4178 MHz
Columbia. This acquisition was completed in September 2000. One 5.5 W TWT per transponder
At that time GE Americom announced a contract for four EIRP 36 dBW per transponder maximum, approximately 28
satellites presumably including the two licensed to Columbia. dBW minimum over coverage area
In November of the next year GE Americom, including the
Columbia assets, was acquired by SES Global and renamed Receiver
SES Americom. In January 2004 SES announced the formation 5927–6403 MHz
of Worldsat, and transferred this use of TDRS to it. One active and one spare receiver
TDRS 6 coverage is approximately North America and the
G/T –2.7 dB/K maximum, approximately –12 dB/K minimum
Caribbean from mid-Mexico through the middle latitudes of
over coverage area
Canada and all of Europe west of Russia. The C-band payload
on this satellite remained in use through 2004. TDRS 5 C-band Antenna
coverage was approximately the United States and Canada west One 58 x 65 in. reflector with multiple offset feed horns to form east
of the Mississippi River, as well as Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong and west beams in the northern hemisphere, linear polarization
Kong, and the coastal parts of China. The C-band payload on

Contours on Asia-Pacific and eastern North America are 34.2, 31.9, 29.9 and 26.9 dBW
Contours on western North America and Europe are 35.4, 32.8, 30.9, and 28.9 dBW
Contours are truncated at 5 degree elevation angle
Fig. 2.48. Columbia communications coverage areas.

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Global Systems Satellites

Telemetry and command Management

Beacons: 3700.5 and 4199.5 MHz Developed by TRW for NASA
Operated by Contel Federal Systems for NASA
Life
Ten-year design life ******
Orbit 1. Satellite Communications (July 1990), p. 11; (August
Geostationary 1990), p. 11; (November 1991), p. 8; (March 1992), p. 8.
2. Space News (February 7–13, 1994), p. 16; (January
Orbital history
29–February 4, 1996), p. 22; (May 13-19, 1996), p. 1; (January
TDRS 3: launched 29 September 1988, later replaced by TDRS
4 at 41°W longitude
5–11,1998), p. 2; (February 2-8, 1998), p. 16.
TDRS 4: launched 13 March 1989, 171°W longitude, moved to 3. D. W. Harris and K. Gross, “Commercial Use of
41°W longitude NASA’s TDRSS for International Communications,” Acta
Astronautica, Vol. 37 (October 1995).
TDRS 5: launched 2 August 1991, 174°W, then 171°W longi-
tude, replaced TDRS 4 for Columbia’s Pacific service, service 4. “Welcome to Columbia Communications Corporation,”
ended late 2003 or early 2004 http://www.tdrss.com/ (2 July 1999).
TDRS 6: launched 13 January 1993, 47°W longitude, in use as 5. “TDRS-6 AOR Satellite,” http://www.worldsat.net/
of late 2004 content/tdrs6.pdf (13 December 2004).
Shuttle/IUS launch vehicle

Rimsat
In the 1980s the nation of Tonga submitted applications half of 1993 and was used to initiate Rimsat operations in July
to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) for 1993. This satellite continued in service until the end of 1994.
geosynchronous orbit satellites at 27 longitudes, often called Gorizont 29, launched in November 1993, and Gorizont 30,
slots. There was a worldwide reaction because the number of launched in May 1994, were dedicated to Rimsat. The primary
satellites was far beyond what Tonga needed for its own use. users of these satellites were Indian commercial television
Later, with ITU encouragement Tonga reduced the request to broadcasters using uplinks from the Philippines (because the
six slots. By this time it was known to all that Tonga intended to Indian national satellites were limited to use by the national
lease these slots, for financial gain, to non-Tongan operators of broadcaster). The first Express satellite was launched in
communication satellite systems. This was against international October 1994, but was not used by Rimsat.
practice and generally considered contrary to the intent, if not In the first half of 1994 both management and financial
the letter, of ITU’s Radio Regulations. Nevertheless, Tonga difficulties surfaced at Rimsat. The company stopped payments
persisted. Two U.S. companies, Rimsat and Unicom, leased to Informcosmos either because of a lack of funds or a complaint
slots. Unicom never used its slots. about the application of the funds by Informcosmos. Creditors
In 1992 the Russian Space Agency licensed Informcosmos filed some claims in bankruptcy court, even though Rimsat was
to enter into lease agreements for Russian communication not then in a bankruptcy proceeding. In addition, two different
satellites with non-Russian companies. The purpose was to groups were struggling in courts for the control of the company.
bring money into the Russian space program to counter the In January 1995 Rimsat was put into involuntary bankruptcy,
decline in funding since the end of the Soviet Union. In that and continued not making payments to Informcosmos. In July
same year Informcosmos and Rimsat signed a lease for three 1995 Informcosmos received permission from the Russian
Gorizont satellites and four Express satellites, described Space Agency to take control of the transponders of two
in chapter 5. Rimsat, an Indiana company, then leased the Gorizont satellites. Informcosmos asked the users of these
transponders on these satellites to others for communications transponders to come to Russia to renegotiate their leases with
in Asia and the western Pacific. The satellite manufacturer, payments made to them instead of to Rimsat. That was the
NPO-PM of Russia, controlled the satellites for Rimsat. end of Rimsat’s business operations, although court actions
Gorizont 17, already in orbit when the Rimsat lease was continued for several more years.
signed, was moved to one of Rimsat’s Tonga slots in the first

Loral Skynet
The Loral Global Alliance is an association of satellite owners others were sold to Intelsat in 2004 as part of the restructuring
led by Loral Skynet [1]. The satellites of this association are of Loral Space and Communications, the corporate parent
Telstar 10, also known as APStar IIA; Telstars 11 and 12, of Loral Skynet. These satellites are now known as Intelsat
formerly known as Orion 1 and 2; Telstar 14, also known Americas 5 to 8 and 13 [2] and are described in chapter 6.
as Estrela do Sul; and Telstar 18, also known as APStar V. The Stellat company was formed in 2001 by France
These satellites are described here. Telstars 4 to 8 and 13 were Telecom, Alcatel, and Loral Space and Communications
formerly assets of Loral Skynet. Telstar 4 failed in 2003, and the as part of the Loral Global Alliance, but about the time the

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 Loral Skynet

Table 2.4. Loral Skynet Satellites

Satellite Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status
Orion 3 1999 Hughes Space and Communica- C, Ku Launch failure
tions
Telstar 10* APStar IIR* 1997 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku In use
Telstar 11 Orion 1 1994 British Aerospace Ku In use
Telstar 12 Orion 2 1999 Space Systems/Loral Ku In use
Telstar 14 Estrela do Sul 2004 Space Systems/Loral Ku In use
Telstar 18* APStar V* 2004 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku In use
* These satellites are described in the APT section of chapter 8.

satellite entered service, the satellite was sold to Eutelsat. The to refuse authorization to systems, even if Intelsat claimed that
Stellat company ceased, and the satellite is no longer a part of it would suffer economic harm.
the Loral Alliance, but is in operation as Eutelsat’s Atlantic In mid-1985, FCC authorized the first three private systems
Bird 3 (see chapter 7). to proceed, and authorized Orion a few months later. Orion
completed coordination with Intelsat in 1989 and awarded a
****** contract for satellite construction in the same year. Final FCC
1. “Loral Skynet Fleet.” http://www.loralskynet.com/glb_ approval, to launch and operate satellites, was given in 1991.
fleet.asp and http://www.loralglobalalliance.com/glb_fleet.asp Ironically, to begin developing a customer base for this satellite,
(14 December 2004). in 1989 Orion began offering international communications
2. “Intelsat Completes Acquisition of Loral’s North services using Intelsat satellites.
American Satellite Assets.” http://www.intelsat.com/aboutus/ Construction of two satellites began in 1989 by British
press/release_details.aspx?year=2004&art=20040317_01_ Aerospace, a minority investor in Orion Satellite. In 1991, the
EN.xml&lang=en&footer=54 (14 December 2004). Orion Atlantic partnership was announced, with Orion Satellite
Corporation as the general partner. There were seven other
partners including the satellite builder, British Aerospace, and
Orion-Telstar the launch provider, General Dynamics. Later, Orion Network
Systems, the parent of Orion Satellite, purchased the shares of
Beginning in 1965, Intelsat provided international satellite
the other investors. It also formed Orion Asia Pacific to pursue
communications. By the early 1980s, other international
business in that part of the world. In 1997, Loral announced it
communications via satellite were minor expansions of
would buy Orion Network Systems; this was completed in the
domestic systems. For example, U.S. and Canadian domestic
spring of 1998. In November 1999 Loral changed the names of
satellites provided some transborder services, and the
Orion 1 and 2 to Telstar 11 and 12.
Indonesian Palapa satellite was used by neighboring nations.
A reconsideration of the original business plan in the early
No satellite system, however, besides Intelsat was focused
1990s led to a cancellation of the as-then limited work on
on international communications. Against this background,
the second satellite. The remaining satellite, called Orion 1,
in 1983 Orion Satellite Corporation [1–9] submitted an
was developed and launched to provide transatlantic service
application to FCC for a private transatlantic system.
between Europe and North America as well as regional
The Orion application was followed by several others.
service within each of the two continents. A new contract
Reaction within Intelsat was strong opposition, based on the
for the second Orion satellite was awarded in late 1995 to
expectation that such systems would divert traffic from the
Matra Marconi, the successor of the space business of British
most profitable Intelsat routes, thus reducing Intelsat’s ability
to offer economical services worldwide. The concern was
particularly strong among the less developed nations, which
are the majority of Intelsat members. Within the United States,
both the executive branch and Congress debated whether
the Government should be guided by free enterprise or its
obligation as an Intelsat member (even more, the leading
founder and biggest investor in Intelsat) not to do anything
that would cause technical or economic harm to Intelsat.
This obligation was clearly stated in the Intelsat
Agreements signed by every member.
By the start of 1985, U.S. policy
had been settled in favor of free
enterprise, yet with some restrictions
on what services the private systems
Fig. 2.49. Telstar 11 satellite.
could offer. FCC also required that the
private systems complete the technical
and economic coordination with Intelsat,
although the United States did not promise

115
Global Systems Satellites

Aerospace. Work proceeded slowly, however, Northeast

5°
and the contract was switched to Loral in 5°
mid-1998. A contract for the third satellite,
the first for Asia Pacific use, was awarded in
1997. A launch vehicle failure stranded this
satellite in a low orbit; the altitude was too
high for atmospheric drag to cause a quick North
reentry, but too low for onboard propulsion
Central
to boost it to a useful orbit. Loral replaced it
by leasing all 43 transponders on APStar IIR,
using them under the name Telstar 10.
Each of the three Orion satellites is based South
on a design used by its manufacturer for other North American broad beam North American spot beams
satellites. Externally, each satellite body is a
rectangular box with solar arrays deployed 5° 5°
from the north and south faces and two large
antennas deployed from the east and west
North
faces. Multiple antennas are used to generate
beams both east and west of the ocean over
which the satellite is located. Satellite and
communication characteristics for the three
Central
Orion satellites are listed below.
Orion Satellite
British Aerospace, later Matra Marconi,
Eurostar 3000 series bus (1); Loral FS 1300
bus (2); Hughes HS 601 HP bus (3) South
European broad beam European spot beams
Rectangular body; approximately 1.5 x 1.5
x 2.4 m, span across solar arrays >18 m Fig. 2.50. Telstar 11 coverage areas.
(1), span across solar arrays 26 m, across
deployed antennas 9.3 m (3) Transmitter (2)
1140 kg dry (1); 1600 kg dry (2); 4300 kg at launch, 1935 kg 11.7–12.2 GHz (to the Americas), 10.95–11.2, 11.45–11.7 and
dry, 2190 kg beginning of life (3) 12.5–12.75 GHz (to Europe); 125 W TWTAs; four rings of 10 for
Sun-tracking solar arrays, NiH2 batteries; 3100 W minimum (1); eight transponders and one ring of eight for six transponders
9000 W end of life (2); 10.6 kW beginning of life, 7800 W end EIRP 44–52 dBW (Europe), 46–49 dBW (South Africa), 40–50
of life (3) dBW (the Americas)
Three-axis-stabilized
Transmitter (3)
Bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and on-orbit use C-band: 3400–3600 MHz
with ion propulsion for north-south stationkeeping (3)
55 W TWTAs; two rings of seven for five transponders
Configuration EIRP 33 to 39 dBW
Thirty-four Ku-band transponders, 28 with 54 MHz bandwidth Ku-band: 11.45–11.7 and 12.25–12.75 GHz
and six with 36 MHz bandwidth, dual-polarization and dual-
beam frequency reuse (1) 50 W TWTAs; one ring of 11 for eight transponders; 80
W TWTAs; one ring of 11 for eight transponders; 140 W
Thirty-eight 54 MHz bandwidth Ku-band transponders, dual- TWTAs; one ring of 11 for eight transponders and one ring
polarization and some dual-beam frequency reuse with 16 of 13 for nine transponders
transponders transmitting to the Americas and 22 to Europe
and Africa (2) EIRP 50–53 dBW (northeast Asia), 48–50 dBW (southeast
Asia), 52 dBW (Korea), 50 53.7 dBW (India), 36–45.5 dBW
Ten 36 MHz bandwidth C-band transponders, dual-polarization (Oceana), 43.6–44.9 dBW (Hawaii)
frequency reuse (3)
Thirty-three Ku-band transponders, 23 with 54 MHz bandwidth, Receiver
two with 27 MHz bandwidth and eight with 36 MHz bandwidth, 14.0–14.5 GHz (1)
threefold frequency reuse with dual polarizations and dual
HEMT preamplifiers
beams (3)
Typical G/T 6 to 12 dB/K (Europe), 4–8 dB/K (North
Transmitter (1) America)
11.7–12.2 GHz (to North America), 11.45–11.7 and 12.5–12.75 13.75–14.5 GHz from Europe, 14.0–14.5 GHz from the
GHz (to Europe) Americas (2)
15 W solid-state amplifiers, one per transponder plus six Typical G/T –5 to 0.5 (Europe), –2 to 0 dB/K (Americas)
spare amplifiers; EIRP 45–52/43–48 dBW (Europe, spot/
broad beams), 45–52/42–45 dBW (North America, spot/broad 6425–6625 MHz, G/T –5 to –11 dB/K (3)
beams) 13.75–14 GHz from Korea, 14.0–14.5 GHz from other
beams (3)
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 Loral Skynet

5° 5° The Orion 1 communication subsystem

46.7 dBW design is the result of a trade-off between
maximizing performance via narrow beams
and minimizing switching complexity via
41.6 dBW 40.7 dBW
a few broad beams, and weight and power
45.6 dBW 48.7 dBW considerations. Fourfold frequency reuse
47.6 dBW
maximizes capacity with good spectral
46.7 dBW efficiency. The design has eight 54 MHz
transponders on one polarization and six
40.7 dBW 54 MHz plus three 36 MHz transponders
on the other polarization of each of two
antennas. One antenna provides beams for
North America, the other for Europe. The
uplinks all use the same frequencies, but
the downlinks use different frequencies,
Fig. 2.51. Telstar 12 coverage areas.
because allocations differ between Europe
and the Americas.
G/T 7.4 dB/K maximum (northeast Asia); 3.3 dB/K The communication subsystem incorporates considerable
maximum (southeast Asia); 8.4 dB/K maximum, 6 dB/K switching to afford flexibility in routing signals. The 34
typical (India), –2 to –12 dB/K (Oceana), –3.2 to –3.9 dB/K transponders are paired. All 34 can be assigned to transatlantic
(Hawaii) traffic, with one transponder of a pair for Europe to North
America transmissions and the other for the opposite direction.
Antenna
Ten pairs can be individually switched to regional service,
Two 2.1 m diam parabolic reflectors, each with multiple feed horn;
with one transponder for Europe to Europe transmissions and
two broad beams (one per linear polarization) per continent for
reception; one broad beam (one linear polarization) and three the other for North America to North America. Five pairs can
(Europe)/four (North America) spot beams (opposite linear be individually switched to dual-continent service, combining
polarization) for transmission (1) uplinks from both continents and transmitting them to both
continents.
Two 2.4 m diam, one 1.2 m diam, and one 1.3 m diam reflectors (2)
Traffic using Orion 1 includes TV distribution, telecon-
Two 2 by 2.5 m and one 1.8 diam parabolic reflectors for Ku- ferencing, voice and data networks, and satellite news
band and one 1.3 m diam parabolic reflector for C-band (3) gathering. In Europe, networks with many terminals and
Telemetry and command transportable terminals are served by downlinks in the 12.5 to
12.75 GHz band, which is dedicated to satellites. The 11.45
Telemetry and beacon: 11.4505 and 11.4510 GHz, 4.5 dBW
minimum EIRP (1) to 11.7 GHz band, shared with terrestrial services, is used
for services typically having few or larger terminals. This
Life combination of services and bands will minimize frequency
Ten and a half years (1), 15–16 years (2), 15 years (3) design life coordination requirements.
The Orion 2 communication subsystem has a few more
Orbit transponders and similar EIRPs but broader coverage than
Geostationary Orion 1; however, it does not have the spot beams. The European
beam includes North Africa and has an auxiliary spot beam for
Orbital history South Africa. The Americas beam includes almost all of South
Orion 1, Telstar 11: launched 29 November 1994, in use as of America, Central America, the Caribbean, and the eastern part
mid-2006, 37.5°W longitude, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and of the United States and Canada. The frequency plan allows 16
E-W, name changed from Orion to Telstar in November 1999, transponders to be connected to the Americas beam and 22 to
north-south stationkeeping stopped spring 2004
be connected to the European-African beam.
Orion 2, Telstar 12: launched 19 October 1999, in use as of The Orion 3 communication subsystem had both C-band
mid-2006, 15°W longitude, name changed from Orion to Telstar and Ku-band. The C-band section had a broad Asian beam.
in November 1999 The Ku-band section had four beams. Eight transponders
Orion 3: launched 4 May 1999, intended to go to 139°E were connected to the northeast Asia beam, six transponders
longitude, left in low orbit by launch vehicle failure, reentered to the southeast Asia beam, eight transponders to the India
6 June 1999 beam, and three could be switched between the southeast Asia
Atlas IIA (1), Ariane 4 (2), Delta 3 (3) launch vehicle and Oceana beams. The northeast and southeast Asia beams
included coverage of Hawaii. Four uplink transponders in each
Management of the northeast Asia, southeast Asia, and India beams could be
Developed for Orion by British Aerospace (with subcontractors switched to a downlink in any of these three beams; the other
in France, Holland, the United States, Japan, Germany, transponders had uplinks and downlinks within the same beam.
Canada) (1) The Loral Orion system, now the Loral Skynet system,
Developed for Loral Orion by Space Systems/Loral (2) includes satellite operations and network management centers
Developed for Orion, later Loral Orion, by Hughes Space and at a Loral location in Rockville, Maryland.
Communications (3)
******
Operated by Loral Skynet, formerly Orion Satellite Corp.

117
Global Systems Satellites

1. C. J. Vizas and W. L. Morgan, “Advanced Transoceanic transponders. The service area includes several major Brazilian
Satellite Systems,” EASCON Conference Proceedings cities. Brasil 1(T) was replaced by Estrela do Sul [2].
(September 1986). The Estrela do Sul (Star of the South) satellite, also known
2. A. Hill and S. Shaw, “Orion Stalks Big Game,” Space as Telstar 14, has five coverage areas. The primary area is
Markets, Vol. 5, No. 5 (November/December 1989). Brazil; half of the transponders, which also are those with
the highest power, are connected to the Brazil beam. Other
3. D. J. Curtin and S. B. Salamoff, “The Orion coverage areas are Mercosul, the southern nations of South
Satellite System,” Paper 90-0821, 13th AIAA International America; Andes, the western and northern countries of South
Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1990). America; North America including the southern part of Canada
4. S. Chase, “Orion Ku-Band Capacity over the Atlantic,” through most of Central America and the Caribbean; and the
Via Satellite, Vol. 9, No. 2 (February 1994). North Atlantic Ocean. The last coverage area is designed for
communications with airplanes.
5. S. B. Salamoff and R. M. Sorbello, “System Operation
Estrela do Sul was launched at the beginning of 2004.
and Performance for Analog and Digital Video Transmission
After it was in geostationary orbit, one of the two solar panels
Using the Orion Satellite System,” AIAA 15th International
deployed properly, but the other deployed only partially.
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
Service began with the announced ability to operate at least 17
1994).
of the 41 transponders; in later months the capacity was stated
6. Satellite Communications (February 1984), p. 40; to be 15 to 17 transponders. It is likely that most or all of these
(March 1984), p. 20; (September 1989), p. 13; (December are devoted to Brazil. The solar-array problem also reduced
1989), p. 10; (October 1990), p. 19. the expected life of the satellite from 15 years to 7.
7. “Loral Orion’s Global Satellite System,” http://www. Estrela do Sul is controlled from a ground station in Rio de
loralorion.com/globlsat/glomain.htm (21 July 1999). Janeiro. Additional details are as follows.
8. “Loral Skynet Technical Information: Footprints and Satellite
Specifications,” http://www.loralskynet.com/tech_info/, (21 Space Systems/Loral FS1300 bus
July 1999). Launch mass 4694 kg
9. “Orion 3,” http://www.hughespace.com/factsheets/601/ Sun-tracking solar arrays, NiH2 batteries
orion3/orion3.html, May 1999 (21 July 1999). Three-axis-stabilized
Bipropellant propulsion
APStar-Telstar Configuration
Orion 3 was lost because of a launch vehicle failure in May 41 transponders, some with 28 MHz bandwidth, some with
1999. Loral replaced it by leasing 43 of the 44 transponders on 36 MHz bandwidth; beams for Brazil (18–21 transponders),
APStar IIR, which was already in orbit. Loral Skynet’s name Andean South America (0 to 3), southern South America (3 to
for this satellite is Telstar 10. It is described in the APT section 9), North America (8–13)
of chapter 8.
Loral Space and Communications owns both Space Transmitter
Systems/Loral and Loral Skynet. Space Systems/Loral built 11.45–11.7, 11.7–12.2 GHz
APStar V for APT Satellite Company. However, Loral could 130 W linearized TWTAs for 14.0–14.5 GHz in Brazil beam
not sell the satellite to APT because of U.S. Government and for one or two other transponders; 100 W linearized
restrictions on sales to China, which owns part of APT. transponders for other transponders
Therefore, Loral Skynet assumed ownership of the satellite Minimum EIRP: 42 dBW for Brazil, 48 dBW for coastal Brazil;
and leased part of it to APT. The satellite is named APStar V by 46 dBW for southern and Andean South America; 46 dBW
APT and Telstar 18 by Loral Skynet. The satellite was launched for CONUS, Mexico, western Caribbean; 48 dBW for North
in June 2004 and brought into use in August 2004. In the early Atlantic Ocean area
part of the satellite’s life, APT operates 37 transponders and
Loral operates 17; the APT portion will gradually decrease to
29 transponders. APStar V/Telstar 18 is described in the APT
section of chapter 8.

Estrela do Sul-Telstar
Loral Skynet do Brasil is a subsidiary of Loral Space and
Communications [1]. It was formed to pursue satellite
communications business in Brazil and also in other parts of the
Americas. In March 1999 the company won an auction conducted
by the Brazilian government for the right to use Brazil’s satellite
registration at 63°W longitude. In summer 2000 it acquired
Anik C1 from Canada, moved it to 63°W, and renamed it Brasil
1(T). This satellite, although well past its design life, was able
to provide service to southeastern Brazil with eight Ku-band
Fig. 2.52. Estrela do Sul satellite.

118
 New Skies Satellites

Receiver Orbital history

13.75–14.5 GHz Launched 11 January 2004, in limited use
Typical G/T approximately +5 dB/K for coastal Brazil, +3 to +5 Sea Launch Zenit launch vehicle
dB/K for southern and Andean South America; –2 to +2 dB/
K for CONUS, Mexico, western Caribbean; +2 dB/K for North Management
Atlantic Ocean area Built by Space Systems/Loral

Antenna Operated by Loral Skynet do Brasil

Deployed and body-mounted antennas
******
Life 1. “Loral Skynet do Brasil,” http://www.loralskynetdo
Fifteen-year design life, but see text brasil.com/ (14 December 2004).
Orbit 2. “Telstar 14/Estrela do Sul,” 1 http://www.loralskynet.
com/glb_fleet_14.asp (14 December 2004).
Geostationary, 63°W longitude

New Skies Satellites

Intelsat was formed in 1964 as an intergovernmental Netherlands. Although New Skies was independent of Intelsat
organization to provide satellite communications to all nations from its beginning, many Intelsat investors were also investors
of the world. By 1969, Intelsat satellites were in operation in New Skies. Since then, ownership of the two organizations
over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, thereby diverged, particularly as a result of the New Skies public stock
providing global coverage. In those years it was agreed that the offering in October 2000. In response to solicitations by New
monopolistic, governmentally protected status of Intelsat made Skies, an agreement with Blackstone Group was made in
sense because of the difficulty of providing global satellite June of 2004 to purchase all of New Skies. This purchase was
communications. Through the 1970s and 1980s, satellite completed in November 2004.
technology improved greatly, and provision of satellite service In November 1998, Intelsat transferred six of its satellites
developed into a commercial business. In the 1980s, a number to New Skies. Five of these satellites were already in orbit,
of U.S. companies requested permission to compete with one each over the Indian and Pacific Oceans and three over the
Intelsat. Those requests initiated a debate within the United Atlantic Ocean. Thus, with this transfer, New Skies became a
States over the status of Intelsat. This debate intensified in the global satellite service company. The sixth satellite involved
1990s as some competing systems came into operation. Legal in the transfer was being tested in preparation for launch. Two
actions were proposed in the U.S. Congress aimed at forcing of these six satellites, which have unique designs, are fully
a change in Intelsat. In addition, Intelsat began to realize that described below; the other four, which are members of series
its intergovernmental structure at times hindered fast response of satellites developed by Intelsat, are identified below with
to a changing marketplace. The combined pressures of reference to their full descriptions in the Intelsat section of this
political debate, competitive systems, and the need for market chapter. This section concludes with the description of the new
responsiveness set Intelsat on a course toward restructuring. satellites developed by New Skies.
The first major step in the restructuring of Intelsat was Among the five satellites transferred in orbit, Intelsat
the creation of New Skies Satellites (NSS) [1], which was operated two for their remaining life on behalf of New Skies.
formally approved by Intelsat’s Assembly in March 1998. Intelsat operated the other three until New Skies took over
New Skies was incorporated as a commercial company in the payload management in 2000 and full control in 2001 [2].

Table 2.5. New Skies Satellites

Satellite Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid 2006 Status
NSS 513 Intelsat 513, Intelsat 1988 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku Retired and moved above geosta-
V F-13, or Intelsat tionary orbit 2003
V-A F-4
NSS 703 Intelsat 703, Intelsat 1994 Space Systems/Loral C, Ku In use
VII F-3
NSS 803, NSS 5 Intelsat 803 1997 Martin Marietta Astro Space C, Ku In use
NSS 806 Intelsat 806 1998 Martin Marietta Astro Space C, Ku In use
NSS K Intelsat K 1992 GE Astro Space Ku Retired and moved above geosta-
tionary orbit 2002
NSS K-TV Intelsat K-TV Matra-Marconi Space Ku Not launched, contract terminated
2000
NSS-6 2002 Lockheed Martin Ku, Ka In use
NSS-7 2002 Lockheed Martin C, Ku In use
NSS-8 Boeing Satellite Systems C, Ku Launch late 2006 or 2007

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Global Systems Satellites

New Skies operates all the satellites that it has had developed
and launched.
In December 2005 SES Global of Luxembourg announced
that it reached agreement to acquire New Skies Satellites.
SES Global is the parent of SES Americom, which primarily
operates satellites with North American coverage, and SES
Astra, which primarily operates satellites with European
coverage. In addition, SES Global is a partial owner of other
satellite operators. Stockholder and regulatory approvals were
obtained and the acquisition of NSS was completed at the end
of March 2006 [3–4]. This acquisition included all of New
Skies’s in-orbit satellites and NSS-8, which is in development.
These and prior NSS satellites are the subjects of the following
descriptions. Later in 2006 New Skies’ name changed to SES
New Skies.
******
Ku-Band
1. “Welcome to New Skies Satellites” http://www.new C-Band
skies.com/newhome/home.asp (14 December 2004). Fig. 2.53. NewSkies 806 coverage areas.
2. New Skies Satellites, “2001 Annual Report,” New
Skies Satellites CD-ROM 2003 (2002). The EIRP at the edge of the coverage area shown is 35.5 dBW
for C-band and 46 dBW for Ku-band; the corresponding peak
3. SES Global, “SES Global to acquire New Skies
EIRPs are 39.7 dBW and 50.4 dBW.
Satellites” (14 December 2005), http://www.ses-global.com/
In 2003 New Skies and Intelsat made an agreement to share
ses-global/siteSections/mediaroom/archive/2005_pub/14_12_
the C-band capacity at 20°W longitude using Intelsat’s 603
05/index.php (23 January 2006).
satellite and New Skies frequency rights [2]. Although Intelsat
4. SES Global, “SES Global Completes Acquisition also uses the Ku-band capacity on this satellite, only the C-band
of New Skies Satellites” (30 March 2006), http://www. capacity is counted as part of the New Skies constellation.
ses-global.com/ses-global/siteSections/mediaroom/Latest_
News/06_03_30/index.php, and New Skies Satellites, “SES ******
Global Completes Acquisition” (30 March 2006), http://www. 1. “New Skies Satellites” http://www.newskies.com/
newskies.com/pressreleases_412.htm (19 July 2006). emptemp/new%20skies%20final/new%20skies/product1.
asp?nContentID=4 (14 December 2004).
2 New Skies and Intelsat Announce Arrangement to
NSS 513, 703, 803, 806 Expand Services in Atlantic Ocean Region, http://
NSS 513, 703, 803, and 806 [1] were transferred, in orbit, www.newskies.com/emptemp/new%20skies%20final/
from Intelsat to New Skies in November 1998. NSS 513 was new%20skies/newsdetail.asp?nContentID=590&cont_
formerly known as Intelsat 513, Intelsat V F13, or Intelsat V- id=1359, 26 February 2003 (14 December 2004).
A F4. The satellite description is in the foregoing Intelsat V-A
subsection. NSS 513 was operating over the Pacific Ocean at
177°W longitude. In December 2002 NSS 5, formerly named NSS K
NSS 803, arrived at this longitude and replaced NSS 513, which The Intelsat K [1–9] satellite was purchased as a supplement to
was then retired and moved above the geostationary orbit. the regular series of Intelsat satellites. It was a single satellite
NSS 703 was formerly known as Intelsat 703 or Intelsat VII used to provide additional capacity over the Atlantic Ocean for
F3. It is described in the foregoing Intelsat VII subsection. NSS leased services. Intelsat K was unique for Intelsat in several
703 is operating over the Indian Ocean at 57°E longitude. ways: it was Intelsat’s only single satellite purchase and the
NSS 803 was formerly known as Intelsat 803, one of the only satellite purchased after construction had started (in fact,
Intelsat VIII satellites. It is described in the foregoing Intelsat
VIII and VIII-A subsection. NSS 803 was operating over the
Atlantic Ocean at 21.5°W longitude along with NSS K at the
time of the transfer from Intelsat. In August 2002 it was replaced
by the newly launched NSS-7, described below, renamed NSS-
5, and moved to 177°W where it replaced NSS 513.
NSS 806 was formerly known as Intelsat 806, one of
the Intelsat VIII-A satellites. It is described in the foregoing
Intelsat VIII and VIII-A subsection. NSS 806 is operating over
the Atlantic Ocean at 40.5°W longitude. The Intelsat VIII-A
satellites were each designed with a specific landmass coverage
area, unlike all former Intelsats, which were designed with
hemispheric and zone beams that could provide transoceanic
coverage at many places around the Earth. The C-band and
Ku-band coverage areas of NSS 806 are shown in Fig. 2.53. Fig. 2.54. NSS K satellite.

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 New Skies Satellites

assembly had begun at the time of purchase), it operated only American beams or had their power split between North and
one of the two frequency bands used on the other Intelsat South America. Switching in the input and middle sections of
satellites, and it was designed only to be used in one ocean the payload allowed uplinks from Europe and North America
region. Intelsat K was used by Intelsat until November 1998, (there are no uplinks from South America) to be connected to
when it was transferred to NSS and renamed NSS K. any of the three transmit beams. Some switching was in blocks
NSS K was originally being developed as GE Satcom K-4 of four transponders; other switching was on a transponder-
for the U.S. company Crimson Satellite. About 2 years before by-transponder basis.
launch, Crimson dropped its plans for U.S. domestic service, NSS K had a rectangular body with deployed solar arrays.
and two partially built satellites were sold. One became Astra A large reflector deployed from the west face of the body
1A, the other Intelsat K. The change of satellite ownership, in was used to form the North American and European beams.
July 1989, required extensive changes to the payload, including A smaller reflector fixed on the body formed the South
antenna beam patterns, frequencies, and switching to provide American beams. Most of the communications payload was
the considerable routing flexibility that was in NSS K. However, mounted on the inside surface of the north and south faces
the arrangement of sixteen 54 MHz bandwidth transponders on of the satellite body. These faces had built-in heat pipes and
two polarizations was not changed. Minor changes were made thermal radiators on their outer surfaces to manage the heat
in the support subsystems and satellite test program. load from the TWTAs. Support subsystems were mounted in a
NSS K had 16 transponders. Eight outputs were per- central cylinder and on the east, west, and Earth-viewing faces
manently connected to the European beam. Four outputs were of the satellite body. This was the first Intelsat to incorporate
individually switchable to either European or American transmit command security.
beams. These four and the remaining four were individually Intelsat K was launched in June 1992 and was placed into
assignable to either the North American beam or the South service over the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the traffic on it is

Horizontal E Eu
rope
polarization NA NorthAmer ica
SA SouthAm
er ica
NA E

Vertical Vertical
BFN BFN Polarization Polarization
14.25–14.5 GHz
D NA E SA
14.0–14.5 GHz
D
14.0–14.5 GHz
BFN BFN BFN

T TW
11.45–
11.7,
12.5–
12.5–12.75 GHz 12.75
S 1.5 GHz S
GHz 11.45–
11.95 GHz

C 11.45–
S 11.95 GHz

S
T H T TW

T H

S H
11.45–
11.7 GHz
T H C

H T TW
S S V
T H
S S V
2.8GH z S S V

S S V
C
V

11.7–11.95 GHz V
S 2.3 GHz S
V

V
T TW
C
Fig. 2.55. NSS K communication subsystem..

121
Global Systems Satellites

Transmitter
11.45–11.95 GHz (to North and South
America), 11.45–11.7 GHz and 12.5–
12.75 GHz (to Europe)
60 W TWTA per transponder, three spares
for each group of eight transponders
EIRP 50–51 dBW near centers of
coverages; 47 dBW (North America), 45
dBW (South America), 42.7 dBW (North
and South America), 47 dBW (Europe) at
edge of coverage

Receiver
14.0–14.5 GHz
Two active, two spare receivers with cooled
Downlink only FET preamplifiers, 2.1 dB noise figure
G/T +3 dB/K (Europe), +3 dB/K (North
America), –0.3 dB/K (Europe, North
America combined)

Antenna
Downlink only One 2.13 m diam, offset-fed, dual-grid
parabolic reflector with 74 feed horns in
four groups, one for horizontal polarization
transmission and reception for Europe,
one for vertical polarization transmission
for Europe, one for horizontal polarization
transmission and reception for North
America, one for vertical polarization
reception for North America
One 0.91 x 0.79 m, offset-fed parabolic
reflector with four feed horns forming two
vertical polarization transmit beams for
Fig. 2.56. NSS K antenna patterns. South America

trans-Atlantic television transmissions. It operated properly Telemetry and command

until traffic was transferred to NSS 7 after that satellite was Telemetry and beacon: 11.452 and 11.699 GHz via
put into service in May 2002. The transfer was completed omnidirectional antenna at 1 dBW EIRP or communication
in August 2002, and soon thereafter NSS K was turned off subsystem antenna at <13.5 dBW EIRP
and moved above the geostationary orbit. Additional satellite Command: two frequencies near 14.25 GHz via omnidirectional
description is as follows. or communication subsystem antenna
Satellite Life
GE series 5000 bus Ten-year design life, estimated fuel life 13 years
Rectangular body, 2.85 x 2.26 x 2.19 m; height including
antenna tower 2.6 m; span of solar arrays 23.8 m Orbit
1550 kg in orbit, beginning of life, 1230 kg end of life Geostationary, 21.5°W longitude, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S
and E-W
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, 4800 W beginning
of life, 3500 W minimum after 10 years Orbital history
Three-axis-stabilized using a pivoted momentum wheel and Launched 19 June 1992, in use until August 2002 then moved
magnetotorquers, 0.1 deg accuracy in roll and pitch, 0.35 deg above geostationary orbit
in yaw Atlas IIA launch vehicle
Bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver, monopropellant
hydrazine for on-orbit use Management
Developed for Intelsat by GE Astro Space
Configuration
Operated by Intelsat for New Skies Satellites
Sixteen 54 MHz bandwidth transponders, single conversion,
dual-polarization frequency reuse
******
Capacity 1. T. Rush et al., “Intelsat-K: Intelsat’s First All K
Maximum of 65,000 voice circuits using digital circuit Band Satellite,” Paper 92-1944, AIAA 14th International
multiplication or 32 TV transmissions Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1992).

122
 New Skies Satellites

2. A. J. Herridge and P. T. Thompson, “The Intelsat K

Satellite,” International Journal of Satellite Communications,
Vol. 11, No. 3 (May–June 1993).
3. W. L. Morgan, “Intelsat K: A Unique Bird,” Satellite
Communications, Vol. 15, No. 11 (November 1991).
4. Intelsat Services and Marketing Division, Intelsat K Far East
China
(1992).
5. K. Raghunathan, T. Rush, and A. Ozkul, “Intelsat-
K Spacecraft Bus Performance Characteristics,” Comsat India
Technical Review, Vol. 24, No. 1–2 (1994/1995).
6. R. A. Peters, F. L. Khoo, and A. Ozkul, “The Intelsat-
K Payload,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 24, No. 1–2
(1994/1995). Southeast Asia
7. M. P. Brown et al., “Intelsat-K Communications
Performance Features,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 24,
No. 1–2 (1994/1995).
8. B. Teixeira, “Intelsat-K Transponder In-Orbit Tests and
Operational Considerations,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol.
24, No. 1–2 (1994/1995).
India (52, 51, 49 dBW)
9. A. M. Goldman, Jr. and A. Ozkul, “Intelsat-K Launch China (50, 45 dBW)
Vehicle Considerations,” Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 24, Far East (54, 50 dBW)
No. 1–2 (1994/1995). Southeast Asia (53, 51, 47 dBW)
Fig. 2.58. New Skies K-TV coverage areas.

NSS K-TV
In January 1997, Intelsat contracted for the development NSS-6, NSS-7, NSS-8
of a single satellite named K-TV for use in its Asia-Pacific In August 2000 New Skies signed a contract for the development
region. As the satellite name implied, the primary purpose of NSS-6 [1–2, 6–7] for use at 95°E longitude in place of the
of the satellite was video transmissions, including direct-to- canceled NSS K-TV satellite. This satellite was launched in
home video broadcasting. K-TV was the first Intelsat satellite December 2002 and is in use. Its appearance is similar to that
to be developed by a contractor outside the United States. of NSS-7 (Fig. 2.60).
In November 1998, the satellite, then in development, was NSS-6 has six uplink and downlink beams in Ku-band and
transferred to NSS. In spring 1999 solar-array problems were 12 uplink beams in Ka-band. The Ku-band beams cover India,
detected on a few satellites in orbit. Similarity of the K-TV China, southeast Asia, northeast Asia, Middle East and Southern
solar arrays indicated the possibility of the same problem on Africa, and Australia. A total of 50 Ku-band transponders may
it. The completed satellite, which had been shipped to the be operated simultaneously. Subject to the total limit of 50, up
launch site, was returned to the factory. Early in 2000, New to 20 uplinks may be assigned to each of three beams and up to
Skies terminated the contract for the satellite, which by then 15 to each of the other three beams. Likewise, subject to the total
sometimes had the name NSS 6. limit of 50, up to 15 downlinks may be assigned to each beam.
Onboard switching allows uplinks in any beam to be connected
to downlinks in any beam. The connections are switched for each
transponder individually; the number that may be connected
varies with the beam combinations. Figure 2.59 shows the 44
dBW EIRP downlink contour for each of the six beams.
The Ka-band uplink beams have coverage area diameters
of about 650 km. Each of the 12 beams is centered on a
metropolitan area; the areas were selected by market studies.
Four are in China, one each for Taiwan, South Korea, and
Japan, three are in India, and two in Australia. Some reports
say that only 10 of the 12 can be operated simultaneously. The
Ka-band uplinks are connected to the Ku-band downlinks.
Additional NSS-6 satellite information follows.
Satellite
Lockheed Martin A2100AX bus
Launch mass 4575 kg
Deployed, sun-tracking solar arrays, 11 kW end of life
Fig. 2.57. NSS K-TV satellite. Three-axis stabilized

123
Global Systems Satellites

In September 1999, New Skies awarded its first satellite

development contract for NSS-7 [2–3, 6–7]. It was launched
in April 2002 to 21.5°W longitude and entered commercial
service at the end of May. By the end of August, it had
replaced both NSS K and NSS 803. The former was retired,
the latter moved to 177°W longitude. Compared with the older
satellites, NSS-7 has more beams in order to provide high-
power coverage of all areas visible to the satellite.
At C-band NSS-7 has an east hemisphere beam covering
Europe, Africa, and the Middle East and a west hemisphere
beam covering the U.S. east coast, Central and South America,
and the Caribbean. It also has one zone beam for Europe,
North Africa, and the Middle East, and another zone beam for
sub-Saharan Africa. At Ku-band NSS-7 has spot beams for
the U.S. east coast; Europe and North Africa; the Caribbean,
Central America, and northern South America; the remainder
of South America; west Africa; and southern Africa. Some
cross-strapping is available between C-band and Ku-band.
Additional information about NSS-7 follows.
Satellite
Lockheed Martin, A2100AX bus
Launch mass 4700 kg
Sun-tracking solar arrays, 13.1 kW beginning of life
Three-axis stabilization
Fig. 2.59. NSS-6 coverage areas.
Configuration
Configuration C-band: 36 transponders
Ku-band: Twenty 54 MHz bandwidth and thirty 36 MHz Ku-band: 36 transponders
bandwidth transponders, six beams, dual-polarization and to
some extent dual-beam frequency reuse Total transponder bandwidth almost 3500 MHz
Ka-band: Twelve uplink spot beams Transmitter
C: 3625–4200 MHz
Transmitter
Ku: 10.95–11.2, 11.45–11.7, and 12.5–12.75 GHz Minimum EIRP for hemispheric beams: 39 dBW for U.S.
east coast and Caribbean, 38 dBW for South America, 39
Linearized TWTAs; peak EIRP near 54 dBW for India, 52 dBW dBW for Europe, Mediterranean, southern Africa, 38 dBW
for China, NE Asia, SE Asia, 51 dBW for Australia, Middle East, for all of Africa
46 dBW for South Africa
Minimum EIRP for zone beams: 43 dBW for Europe and
Receiver Mediterranean, 42 dBW for sub-Saharan Africa
Ku: 13.75–14.5 GHz, peak G/T >+5 dB/K Ku: 11.7–12.2 GHz to Americas; 10.95 to 11.20, 11.45 to 11.70,
and 12.5–12.75 GHz to Europe and Africa
Ka: 29.5–30.0 GHz, peak G/T >+14 dB/K
Minimum EIRP for spot beams: 49 dBW U.S. east coast
Antenna and Caribbean; 48 dBW for Europe, Mediterranean, North
Deployed and body-mounted reflectors
Ku: dual linear polarization
Ka: dual circular polarization

Life
14-year operational life, 17-year estimated maneuver life

Orbit
Geostationary, 95°E longitude, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S
and E-W

Orbital history
Launched 17 December 2002, in use
Ariane 44L

Management
Manufactured by Lockheed Martin
Operated by New Skies Fig. 2.60. NSS-7 satellite.

124
 New Skies Satellites

Africa, much of Middle East; 48 dBW for southern half

of South America; 48 dBW for the Caribbean, Central
America, and northern South America; 49 dBW for West
Africa; 49 dBW for southern Africa

Receiver Fig. 2.61. NSS-8 satellite.

C: 5850–6425 MHz
Ku: 14.0–14.5 GHz

Antenna
Deployed and body-mounted reflectors

Life
Twelve years

Orbit
Geostationary, 21.5°W longitude, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S
and E-W

Orbital history
Launched 16 April 2002, in use
Ariane 4 launch vehicle

Management
Manufactured by Lockheed Martin
Operated by New Skies
New Skies ordered NSS-8 [4–7] in March 2001. At that time it Launch mass 5950 kg, 3800 kg in orbit at beginning of life
was planned for use at 105°W longitude with coverage of all of Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, 18.6 kW beginning
the Americas. Two years later the design was changed for use of life, 17.6 kW end of life
at 57°E longitude with coverage of all of Europe, Africa, and Three-axis stabilized
Asia, plus part of Australia. The change was caused by demand
for satellite capacity in the Indian Ocean region. At 57°E Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and
stationkeeping; ion propulsion for orbit raising and north-south
longitude NSS-8 will replace NSS 703, which will be moved stationkeeping
and continue in operation at another longitude. Although the
originally announced launch date for NSS-8 was late 2003 or Configuration
2004, it is likely that the satellite will not be launched before C-band: fifty-six 36 MHz bandwidth transponders
2007, and at one time the contract was under consideration for
Ku-band: thirty-six 36 MHz bandwidth transponders
cancelation because of late delivery.
NSS-8 has C-band and Ku-band payloads. The C-band Transmitter
payload includes a global coverage beam, an east hemisphere C: 10 transponders in 3400–3700 MHz, 46 transponders in
beam with coverage from China and India through Australia, 3700–4200 MHz
a west hemisphere beam covering Europe and Africa, and a
Ten 53 W, thirty-four 55 W and twelve 63 W TWTAs, plus
central zone beam covering much of Europe and Asia and the 10 spares
Middle East. The Ku-band payload has five beams covering
Europe (six to 12 transponders), the Middle East (zero to EIRP near edge of coverage: hemispheres and zone, 36
12 transponders), East Africa (zero to six transponders), dBW; global 32.8 dBW
Central Asia (zero to 12 transponders), and India (six to 18 Ku: in portions of 10.95 to 12.75 GHz
transponders). A total of 36 Ku-band transponders can be Thirty-six 150 W TWTAs and six spares
operated simultaneously. The satellite includes considerable
EIRP near edge of coverage: Europe, 50 to 51 dBW (lower
flexibility to interconnect these nine coverage areas. in northern Scandinavia and Russia); the Middle East, 48
The satellite is very large. Fig. 2.61 shows the unusual dBW; East Africa, 48 to 49 dBW; Central Asia , 48 dBW;
solar-array layout to avoid the length of placing seven panels India, 50 to 51 dBW
end-to-end in each wing. The solar array is constructed with
triple-junction gallium arsenide solar cells, and power output Receiver
is at the upper limit of current satellites. The figure also shows C: in 5850–6725 MHz
the many antenna reflectors and the deployed thermal radiators Ku: in 13.75–14.5 GHz
beside each of the smaller reflectors. Additional NSS-8 satellite
details are as follows. Antenna
Satellite Earth-viewing face of body: two 2.2 m diam reflectors (C- and
Ku-band) and two horn antennas (C-band)
Boeing 702 bus, rectangular body, span of deployed antennas
10 m, span of deployed solar arrays 26.7 m Deployed: one 2.3 x 2.4 m (C-band) and two 1.1 m diam (Ku-
band) reflectors on each side

125
Global Systems Satellites

Life 2. Arianespace, “Launch Kit Archive (Mission 150 and

Sixteen-year operational life Mission 156),” http://www.arianespace.com/site/news/news_
sub_launchkit_index.html (17 December 2004).
Orbit
3. New Skies Satellites, “NSS-7: The Atlantic Broadband
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W
Neighborhood,” New Skies Satellites CD-ROM 2003 (2002).
Orbital history 4. New Skies Satellites, “NSS-8 at 57° East,” New Skies
Launch likely in late 2006 or 2007 Satellites CD-ROM 2003 (March 2003).
Sea Launch Zenit launch vehicle 5. Boeing Space Systems, “NSS-8 Fact Sheet,” http://
www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/702/
Management nss8/nss_8.html, September 2003 (23 December 2004).
Manufactured by Boeing Satellite Systems
6. New Skies Satellites, “Satellite Fleet—Worldwide
Operated by New Skies Connectivity,” http://www.newskies.com/emptemp/new%20
skies%20final/new%20skies/product1.asp?nContentID=4 (23
*****
December 2004).
1. New Skies Satellites, “NSS-6: The Asian Broadband
7. New Skies Satellites, “Press Releases,” http://www.newskies.
Neighborhood,” New Skies Satellites CD-ROM 2003
com/emptemp/new%20skies%20final/new%20skies/PressReleases.
(January 2002).
asp?nContentID=590, various dates (23 December 2004).

Lockheed Martin Intersputnik

Lockheed Martin Intersputnik (LMI) was formed in 1997
as a joint venture of Lockheed Martin and the Intersputnik LMI-AP1
International Organization of Space Communications LMI-AP1, with AP meaning Asia-Pacific, was announced
(short name Intersputnik). The objective of the organization near the end of 1998; various reports said that service began
was to develop a multisatellite system providing a variety in January 1999 or in August 1999 [1–2]. LMI-AP1 referred
of communication and broadcasting services. The basic to two Gorizont satellites leased to LMI by Intersputnik,
Intersputnik system and the Russian satellites it uses are which was no longer using them. The orbital locations were
described in the chapter on Russian satellites. coordinated by Tonga and were leased from a joint Tongan-
Russian company. The orbital locations were 130°E and
142.5°E. The Gorizont satellite is described in chapter 5. The
Gorizont satellites were at the AP1 longitudes in 2001 but were
not there by mid-2002 so presumably the service had ended.
******
1. “LMI-1 and LMI-AP1,” http://www.lmgt.com/lmgt/
products/satellite_LMI.html (22 July 1999).
2. “Gorizont Satellites,” http://www.intersputnik.com/
gorizont.shtml (11 October 1999).

LMI-1
LMI-1 is a satellite built by Lockheed Martin and operated
at an orbital location belonging to Intersputnik [1–4]. It was
the first of several large satellites that LMI planned to launch,
but plans for the others were dropped. In late 2001 Lockheed
Martin decided to drop out of the telecommunication services
business and attempted to sell all assets of the Lockheed Martin
Global Telecommunications subsidiary, including its stake in
LMI. A buyer for LMI was found in 2002, but by spring 2003
the deal fell through. Lockheed Martin says it is actively trying
to sell, but as of late 2005 it was still a partner in LMI [5]
The LMI-1 communication subsystem has both C-band
and Ku-band transponders. Fourteen C-band transponders,
seven per polarization, are connected to an antenna beam
with coverage of Africa, the Middle East, Europe, Asia, and
Australia. Each of the deployed antenna reflectors forms
this same beam, one for each polarization. Another 14 C-
Fig. 2.62. Lockheed Martin Intersputnik satellite.
band transponders, seven per polarization, are connected to

126
 Lockheed Martin Intersputnik

an antenna beam, formed by the reflector on the

Earth-viewing face of the satellite body, with
coverage of Russia, the Middle East, and Asia. 37 B
d W
Eight Ku-band transponders on one polarization
are connected to a “north” antenna beam, formed
by one of the deployed reflectors, with coverage
centered on Russia. Another eight transponders, 43 B
d W
on the opposite polarization, four with higher
transmitter power, are connected to a “south” 43 B
d W
antenna beam, formed by the other deployed 35 B
d W
reflector, with coverage from the Middle East
through China. Additional information about
LMI-1 is as follows.
Satellite
Lockheed Martin A2100AX bus
Rectangular body
1730 kg dry mass
36 B
d W
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, 7560 28B
d W
W beginning of life, 6850 W end of life
Three-axis-stabilized Ku
and
-B
C-B
and
Bipropellant propulsion
Fig. 2.63. Lockheed Martin Intersputnik coverage area.

TW
3400 –
3700
C D
H

6425 – 3025 (16 lines)

To receivers
6725 Receiver 2
3400 –
Receiver 3 3700
C D
V
Receiver 4
TW

TW
3700 –
4000
C D
H
5725 – 2025 (16 lines)
To receivers
6025 Receiver 2
3700 –
Receiver 3 4000
C D
V
Receiver 4
TW

TW
12.5 –
12.75 GHz
C D
(11 lines) V

13.75 – 1247
14.0 GHz Receiver 2 TW To receivers

12.5 –
Receiver 3 12.75 GHz
Same as above D
Receiver 4 H

Fig. 2.64. Lockheed Martin Intersputnik-1 communication subsystem.

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Global Systems Satellites

Configuration Beacon: 12.5005 and 12.7495 GHz

C: twenty-eight 36 MHz bandwidth transponders, single Command: 6724 MHz
conversion, dual-polarization frequency reuse
Ku: sixteen 27 MHz bandwidth transponders, single conversion, Life
dual-polarization frequency reuse Fifteen-year service life

Transmitter Orbit
C: 3700–4000 MHz (A beam) and 3400–3700 MHz (B beam) Geostationary, 75°E longitude, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S
and E-W
Two groups of sixteen 45 W TWTAs for 14 transponders
(one group per beam) Orbital history
Peak EIRP >37 dBW, edge of coverage EIRP about 34 Launched 27 September 1999, in use
dBW
Proton launch vehicle
Ku: 12.5–12.75 GHz
Two groups of 11 TWTAs for eight transponders; 90 W Management
(northern beam), 90 and 130 W (southern beam) Developed for LMI by Lockheed Martin
Peak EIRP >47 dBW Satellite operated by Lockheed Martin in California via the
Dubna Earth station in Russia and the Shipka Earth station in
Receiver Bulgaria; payload control and monitored by Intersputnik via
C: 6425–6725 MHz (B beam) and 5725 to 6025 MHz(A beam) the same stations
Two active, plus two spare receivers ******
Peak G/T 0 dB/K
1. “LMI-1 and LMI-AP1,” http://www.lmgt.com/lmgt/
Ku: 13.75–14.0 GHz products/satellite_LMI.html (22 July 1999).
Two active, plus two spare receivers 2. Intersputnik, “LMI-1 Satellite Specifications,” Inter-
Peak G/T >2 dB/K sputnik System Regulations, Document ISR-204, http://www.
intersputnik.com/docs/new/Isr-204.pdf, 1 January 1997 (23
Antenna December 2004).
Two 2.4 m diam, offset-fed, deployed parabolic reflectors, each
for C-band transmission and reception on one linear polarization 3. Intersputnik, “LMI-1, 75° East,” http://www.intersput
and Ku-band transmission and reception on the other nik.com/docs/LMI-1%20brochure_e.pdf, 2003 (23 December
2004).
One 1.27 m diam, offset-fed parabolic reflector, for C-band
(second band listed under transmitter and receiver) transmission 4. Intersputnik, “Satellites, LMI Joint Venture, LMI-1,”
and reception on both linear polarizations http://www.intersputnik.com/index.htm (23 December 2004).
30–31 dB cross-polarization isolation 5. Lockheed Martin Corporation, “2003 Annual Report,”
http://www.lockheedmartin.com/data/assets/3571.pdf, March
Telemetry and command 2004 (23 December 2004), pp. 38, 51.
Telemetry: 3400.5 and 3999.5 MHz

Worldsat
Worldsat was formed in January 2004 as a part of SES Global 3. The New WORLDSAT Global Fleet: Complete End-to-
[1–3]. Its main function is to provide interregional satellite End Service, http://www.worldsat.net/300.html, and Satellite
communications, thereby connecting the regional parts of SES PDFs, http://www.worldsat.net/502.html (23 Dec. 2004).
Global: wholly-owned SES Americom in North America and
SES Astra in Europe plus partially-owned companies such as
AsiaSat. As of late 2004, Worldsat had six satellites: Worldsat- Worldsat-1/AAP-1
1, Worldsat-2, Worldsat-3, Satcom-C1, Spacenet-4, and the C- In the early part of 1998, GE Americom announced that a
band payload on TDRS 6. At the time Worldsat was formed satellite was in construction for service to Asia. In August
it also included the C-band payload on TDRS 5. Satcom-C1 of that year, GE Americom and Lockheed Martin Global
and Spacenet-4 are described in chapter 6; the C-band part of Telecommunications announced a joint venture to provide
TDRS is described earlier in this chapter. satellite communication services to the Asia-Pacific region
***** [1]. The two companies each owned half of the new venture,
which took the name Americom Asia-Pacific (AAP). Two
1. About Worldsat, http://www.worldsat.net/200.html (23 satellites were planned. One was launched in October 2000
December 2004). and brought into use in January 2001. It was originally named
2. SES Global Increases International Focus With World GE-1A (A for Asia), then AAP-1. When Worldsat was formed,
sat, http://www.worldsat.net/610.html and http://www.ses- the satellite became Worldsat-1 [2–4]. Later, Worldsat was
global.com/media/index.shtml, 15 January 2004 (23 December absorbed in SES Americom, and the satellite name reverted
2004). to AAP-1.

128
 Worldsat

The satellite operates only in the Ku-band. It has three 2. “GE-1A,” http://www.lmgt.com/lmgt/products/satellite
antenna beams: China; south Asia, with the highest power on _GE1A.html (15 October 1999).
India; and northeast Asia, covering eastern China, Korea, Japan, 3. Satellite Feature: AAP-1 Satellite (formerly GE-1A),
and with the highest power on the Philippines. Zero to eight http://www.satnews.com/feature/satfeature-aap1-june2002b.
transponders can be connected to the south Asia beam, and htm (11 June 2002).
eight to 16 transponders can be connected to each of the other
two beams, subject to a limit of 28 operated simultaneously. 4. The New WORLDSAT Global Fleet: Complete End-to-
One interesting use of the satellite has been to link a base camp End Service, http://www.worldsat.net/300.html, and Satellite
for Mt. Everest expeditions at 5000 m (16,000 ft) elevation to PDFs, http://www.worldsat.net/502.html (23 December 2004).
the internet with the goal of bringing the benefits of internet 5. N. Gohring, “Because It’s There: Putting Everest
service to a nearby community [5–7]. Online,” 17 January 2003, http://www.linkingeverest.com/
Available details about AAP-1 are as follows. html/NewYorkTimes_1-23-03.htm (23 December 2004).
Satellite 6. “AAP-1 Used to Provide Internet Connection to the
Lockheed A2100AX Top of the World,” 23 April 2003, http://www.ses-americom.
27 m span of deployed solar arrays com/media/2003/04_23_03.html (23 December 2003).
3552 kg at launch 7. SES Americom, “AAP-1 Satellite,” http://www.
Sun tracking solar arrays and batteries
worldsat.net/americom/pdfs/aap_1_2005.pdf (19 July
2006).
Three-axis stabilization

Configuration
Worldsat-2/AMC-12
Twenty-eight 36 MHz bandwidth transponders, some dual-
polarization and some dual-beam frequency reuse In 2000, Americom contracted with Alcatel Space for several
satellites including GE-1i and GE-3i (i for international), which
Transmitter became AMC-12 and AMC-13 and later became Worldsat-2
12.25–12.75 GHz and Worldsat-3. When the Worldsat name was dropped, the
120 W TWTAs, groups of eight amplifiers with three spares, satellite names changed to AMC-12 and AMC-23.
peak EIRP 54 dBW AMC-12 [1–3] replaced Satcom C1 over the Atlantic Ocean.
It is a C-band satellite and has three beams with coverage of
Receiver North America except western United States and Canada, plus
14.0–14.5 GHz most of Mexico and some of the Caribbean; South America; and
Four active and two spare receivers Europe plus most of Africa. The beams may be interconnected
through onboard switching transponder by transponder. The 24
Typical G/T +1 to +5.5 dB/K
transponders on the Europe/Africa beam have been contracted
Antenna by SES Astra, which will market this capacity in Africa under
Linear polarization the name Astra 4A. Eighteen transponders on the South
American beam have been purchased by Star One, which will
Telemetry & command market them as Star One C-12.
Beacons: 12.4335 GHz (China beam), 12.7285 GHz (east AMC-12 looks much like AMC-23 (Fig.2.65), except that
Asia), 12.3335 GHz (south Asia) the former has two reflectors deployed to one side of the body
and one to the other side with none on the Earth-viewing face
Life of the body. Available details about AMC-12 are as follows.
Fifteen years
Satellite
Orbit Alcatel Spacebus 4000
Geostationary, 108.2°E longitude 5000 kg at launch
Sun tracking solar arrays, 10.8 kW
Orbital history
Launched 1 October 2000, in use Three-axis stabilization
Proton-K launch vehicle Configuration
Seventy-two 36 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual polarization
Management and triple beam frequency reuse
Manufactured by Lockheed Martin
Owned and operated by SES Americom Transmitter
3700–4200 MHz
****** 33 W TWTAs for North American beam, 67 W TWTAs for South
1. “GE American Communications and Lockheed Martin American beam and Europe/Africa beam; 24 active and six
Global Telecommunications Form Joint Venture to Bring spare amplifiers per beam
Advanced Satellite Services to Asia Pacific,” http://www. Peak/edge of coverage EIRP: 43/37 dBW for North America,
geamericom.com/news/pr_ge-lockheed.htm and http://www. 44/38 dBW for South America, 42/40 dBW for Africa, 42/39
shareholder.com/lmt/news/19980811-4365.htm, 11 August dBW for Europe
1998 (14 October 1999).
129
Global Systems Satellites

Receiver AMC-23’s antenna beams cover eastern and southeastern

5925–6425 MHz Asia south to Australia and New Zealand and across the Pacific
Six active and three spare receivers Ocean to Alaska and the west coast of CONUS and Canada.
It replaced Spacenet 4 in early 2006 with greater power and
Peak/edge of coverage G/T: +5/–3 dB/K for North America, the southern hemisphere coverage not provided by the older
+2/–8 dB/K for South America, +2/–4 dB/K for Africa, –2/–4
dB/K for Europe
satellite.
Available details about AMC-23 are as follows.
Antenna Satellite
Deployed reflectors, dual linear polarizations Alcatel Spacebus 4100
Life Approximately 5000 kg at launch
Fifteen years Sun tracking solar arrays, 13 kW beginning of life
Three-axis stabilization
Orbit
Geostationary, 37.5°W longitude Configuration
C-band: twelve 36 MHz and six 72 MHz bandwidth
Orbital history transponders
Launched 3 February 2005
Ku-band: twenty transponders with bandwidths switchable
Proton launch vehicle among 27, 36, 72 MHz
Management Transmitter
Developed by Alcatel Space C: 80 W TWTAs, 18 active and four spares
Owned by Worldsat EIRP 36–42 dBW
Ku: 138 W TWTAs, 20 active and six spares
******
EIRP varies between 40 and 52 dBW depending on
1. The New WORLDSAT Global Fleet: Complete End-to- beam
End Service, http://www.worldsat.net/300.html, and Satellite
PDFs, http://www.worldsat.net/502.html (23 December Receiver
2004). C: two active and two spare, G/T 0 to –6 dB/K
2. “AMC-12 Telecommunication Satellite,” undated, Ku: G/T varies between –6 and +8 dB/K depending on beam
http://www.alcatel.com/space/pdf/telecom/amc12gb.pdf (23
December 2004). Antenna
Deployed and body-mounted reflectors, dual linear
3. SES Americom, “AMC-12 Satellite,” http://www. polarizations
worldsat.net/americom/pdfs/amc_12_2005.pdf (19 July
2006). Life
Design life >15 years

Worldsat-3/AMC-23 Orbit
AMC-13 was part of the 2000 contract from Americom to Geostationary, 172°E longitude
Alcatel Space. At that time it was to be C-band only. At the
beginning of 2004, Worldsat and Alcatel Space announced a Orbital history
new contract for AMC-23 [1–4], which was a modification Launched 29 December 2005, in use
of AMC-13. The modification reduced the number of C-band Management
transponders and added Ku-band transponders. This change
Developed by Alcatel Space
required about 30 percent more power from the solar arrays
and increased the number of antennas on the satellite. The Ku- Owned by Worldsat
band payload is designed specifically for use by Connexion
by Boeing to provide communication services to commercial ******
airplanes on trans-Pacific air routes.

Fig. 2.65. Worldsat-3/AMC-23 satellite.

130
 Worldsat

1. The New WORLDSAT Global Fleet: Complete End-to- 3. “Alcatel to provide an in-orbit satellite to WORLDSAT,”
End Service, http://www.worldsat.net/300.html, and Satellite 15 January 2004, http://www.alcatel.com/vpr/?body=http://
PDFs, http://www.worldsat.net/502.html (23 December 2004). www.home.alcatel.com/vpr/vpr.nsf/DateKey/15012004uk (23
2. “AMC-13 Telecommunication Satellite,” undated, December 2004)
http://www.alcatel.com/space/pdf/telecom/amc13gb.pdf (23 4. SES Americom, “AMC-23 Satellite,” http://www.
December 2004). worldsat.net/americom/pdfs/amc_23_2005.pdf (19 July
2006)..

131
 3. Mobile Services Satellites

M
ost early communication satellites, having lim- military communication satellites provide service to both fixed
ited antenna size and transmitter power and us- and mobile users; these are described in chapter 4.
ing microwave (above 1 GHz) frequencies, re- By the end of the 1980s, the interest in mobile services
quired large ground terminals. Nevertheless, experiments via satellite had increased greatly, and much of the discussion
with lower frequencies soon began in an effort to extend focused on low orbits. The motive for the change in orbits is to
satellite communications to mobile ground terminals. These reduce the burden on the mobile ground terminals by placing
experiments were successfully conducted with several the satellite closer to them; the disadvantage is the need for
ATS (Applications Technology Satellite) and LES (Lincoln many more satellites to provide global coverage. As the many
Experimental Satellite) satellites (see chapter 1) and Tacsat concepts were discussed, they became grouped into two
(see chapter 4), all launched between 1966 and 1969. These categories, usually called Big LEOs and Little LEOs. LEO
experiments laid the foundation for the Marisat system, which stands for low Earth orbit, referring to altitudes under the peak
began to provide worldwide mobile services for both military of the radiation belts, typically less than 1300 km altitude.
and civilian customers in 1976. The Marisats, together with the However, the Big LEO category also includes systems using
European Marecs (Maritime European Communication Satel- medium Earth orbits (MEO), especially a 6-hour circular orbit
lite) satellites, were transferred to Inmarsat, the International near 10,500 km altitude. Big LEO systems emphasize voice
Maritime Satellite Organization, in 1982. These satellites, and data services, and use frequencies near 1.5 and/or 2.5 GHz
with the maritime subsystem on five of the Intelsat V satellites, for communications with the mobile users. Little LEOs, also
formed the initial space segment of the global Inmarsat system. known as nonvoice, nongeostationary mobile satellite systems,
This chapter includes descriptions of Marisat, Marecs, and the provide position determination and reporting or message
more recent Inmarsat satellites, and provides an overview of services or both, and use frequencies in 137 to 150 MHz and
the Inmarsat system. in 400 to 403 MHz for communications with the mobile users.
During the 1970s and 1980s, the geosynchronous orbit Some have a heritage in the amateur radio and educational
was used for all major communication satellites. As satellite satellites described in chapter 10. The satellites of both Big
capabilities increased, ever smaller ground terminals were LEO and Little LEO systems are described in this chapter.
employed, and mobile services applications were investigated. Mobile users refer to those who communicate while in
The OmniTracs system, using transponders on U.S. domestic motion, whether in the air, on water, or on land. Nevertheless,
satellites otherwise devoted to serving fixed terminals, began the satellite characteristics that are useful for service to mobile
providing location services to mobile terminals in the late terminals are also useful for communications with fixed
1980s. A similar service was to be provided by the Geostar terminals. Thus, many of the following system descriptions
packages (see chapter 6) on Spacenet and GStar satellites will, in addition to mobile users, also mention service to
launched in the same period; these packages were intended to transportable terminals, which are easy to move but only used
be the forerunners of a larger system using dedicated satellites. when stationary, and to fixed terminals, often placed in remote
EutelTracs is the European counterpart to OmniTracs. locations and operated unattended.
The MSat and Thuraya systems launched in 1995 and 2000 The descriptions of the mobile services satellites in this
respectively, and the L-band payloads on Australia’s Optus B, chapter are grouped as follows.
launched in 1992, Mexico’s Solidaridad, launched in 1993, • Geosynchronous orbit satellites
and Europe’s Italsat 2, launched in 1996, all provide mobile • Lower orbit data collection, message transmission, posi-
services to parts of the world from geosynchronous orbit. MSat tion determination and reporting satellites (Little LEOs)
and Thuraya are described in this chapter; the other payloads • Lower orbit voice and data satellites (Big LEOs)
and the Russian mobile services satellite are described in the Within each of these three groups, the systems are described
following chapters about various nations’ systems. Many in the order that their satellites have been or will be launched.

Marisat
Marisat [1–28] was developed to provide communications Marisat had a new communication subsystem. Three
between ships and shore stations. During its first years of UHF channels were provided for Navy use, two with 25 kHz
operation, the primary user was the Navy, for whom it filled part bandwidth and one with 500 kHz bandwidth. Each channel
of the gap between the end of Tacsat and LES-6 operations and had a redundant transistor amplifier. For commercial use, there
the beginning of FLTSATCOM (Fleet Satellite Communications) were two 4 MHz bandwidth channels, one for ship-to-shore
operations. For this reason, the satellite is sometimes called communications and one for shore-to-ship. These channels
Gapsat or Gapfiller. This service is described in chapter 4. used L-band frequencies between the satellite and ships and C-
Marisat also provided service for commercial shippers. band between the satellite and shore stations. Traveling wave
Marisat was a derivative of the Anik A satellite. The basic tube amplifiers (TWTA) were used for both L-band and C-band
structure and support subsystems were very similar to Anik transmissions, and the L-band TWTA could be commanded
A, but the solar-array diameter was 13 percent larger, thus to any of three power levels. The low-power level was used
increasing its output power. Marisat was heavier than Anik A when all Navy channels were operating; as Navy requirements
and used the larger payload capacity of the Delta 2914 launch decreased, the higher-power levels were used.
vehicle.

133
Mobile Services Satellites

Marisat had nine communication antennas. Three large UHF

helices backed by truncated cones formed a UHF array with ~306 ~254
a 30 deg beamwidth. A narrower beamwidth was not practical D
because of the larger antenna that would have been required. *
T H T
Four smaller cone-helix antennas formed an L-band array with
a 20 deg beamwidth. Two Earth coverage horns were used at *
T T H T
C-band, one for transmitting and one for receiving. All of
these antennas are visible in Fig. 3.1. Other Marisat details *
S T H T
are as follows.
Satellite Same as above, redundant
Hughes HS 356 bus * Redundant units not shown
Cylinder, 85 in. diam, 63 in. height (150 in. overall) L&C C Receiver L C Transmitter
1450 lb at launch, 720 lb in orbit, beginning of life
6420–6424 4195–4199
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 335 W at beginning of life, 305
W at end of life D
1638.5–1642.5 1537–1541
Spin-stabilized, 100 ±15 rpm, antenna pointing error, <±0.65 T TW
deg each axis
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, liquid hydrazine for S 2556.5 H S
on-orbit use TW
Same as above, redundant
Configuration
UHF: one 500 kHz channel and two 25 kHz channels T LIM TW
L- and C-band: two 4 MHz channels, one L to C, one C to L S H S
~6333 ~1450
Capacity TW
Same as above, redundant
500 kHz channel: approximately five 2400 bps links and
seventeen 75 bps links Fig. 3.2. Marisat communication subsystem.
25 kHz channel: 2400 bps link
4 MHz channel (L to C): nine voice circuits or 110 teletype circuits Transmitter
UHF: 248–260 MHz band
4 MHz channel (C to L): one, five, or nine voice circuits and
44, 66, or 110 teletype circuits, depending on EIRP (effective Redundant solid-state amplifiers
isotropic radiated power) 65 W, 28 dBW (500 kHz channel) edge of Earth
20 W, 23 dBW (per 25 kHz channel) edge of Earth
L-band: 1537–1541 MHz
Redundant three-level TWTAs
7, 30, or 60 W; 20, 26, or 29.5 dBW EIRP edge of Earth
C-band: 4195–4199 MHz
Redundant 5 W TWTAs, 18.8 dBW EIRP (specification)
edge of Earth (if at saturation; however, this transmitter will
always be operated linear), in-orbit EIRP 1–1.5 dB above
specification

Receiver
300–312 MHz band, 1638.5–1642.5 MHz, 6420–6424 MHz
Redundant receivers on each frequency
Noise figure: 4.2, 4.9, 8.8 dB
G/T (gain-to-noise temperature ratio) (edge of Earth): –18, –17,
–25.4 dB/K

Antenna
UHF: three cone-helix antennas, each 48 in. long; 30 deg
beamwidth, 12.1 dB gain (transmit), 12.6 dB gain (receive) at
±9.5 deg
L-band: four cone-helix antennas, each 15 in. long;
approximately 20 deg beamwidth, 14.4 dB gain at ±9.5 deg
C-band: two horns (one transmit, one receive), approximately
18 deg beamwidth, 16 dB gain at ±9.5 deg
Fig. 3.1. Marisat satellite. All circular polarization

134
 Marisat

Telemetry and command became spares for Inmarsat. The Pacific Marisat continued in
Telemetry: near 4200 MHz active service until 1985. For many years Inmarsat leased all
Command: near 6400 MHz three Marisats to serve as spares. As part of this lease, one
satellite was moved to a longitude centered on North America
Life to provide services for land mobile terminals.
Five-year design life The primary Marisat ground terminals were located
in Connecticut and California. They were both telemetry,
Orbit tracking, and command (TT&C) terminals and shore terminals
Geosynchronous equatorial, stationkeeping to ±0.5°E-W, initial for commercial communications for the Atlantic and Pacific
inclination <3.5 deg increasing to 11–13 deg by 1995 satellites, respectively. A TT&C terminal at Fucino, Italy,
served the Indian Ocean satellite. For the TT&C function,
Orbital history the terminals were connected to a system control center in
Marisat 1: launched 19 February 1976, initially at 15°W Washington, D.C., where telemetry and tracking data were
longitude, in use until 1983, Inmarsat spare from 1983 until the processed. Commands were normally initiated at the control
1990s, then moved above synchronous orbit
center but could have been initiated at the terminal.
Marisat 2: launched 9 June 1976, initially at 176.5°E longitude, The communication terminals were the link between the
in use until 1985, Inmarsat spare from 1985 until the 1990s, Marisat system and the regular terrestrial communication
then moved above synchronous orbit networks. The terminals handled duplex voice and telegraph
Marisat 3: launched 14 October 1976, initially at 72.5°E longitude, signals, data, and simplex ship-to-shore data and telegraphy.
in use until 1983, Inmarsat spare from 1983 until the 1990s A computer at each terminal kept traffic records, assigned
Delta 2914 launch vehicle satellite channels (i.e., transmission and reception frequencies)
to users, and controlled transmission path switching. Channel
Management assignments were made in response to calls initiated from
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Comsat General ships or through the terrestrial networks. In addition, the
Corporation (UHF capacity leased to the U.S. Navy, C/L-band shore station could transmit broadcast messages to all ships
capacity leased to Inmarsat since 1982) of a specific company or nationality, or to all ships in a certain
Operated by Comsat General Corporation geographic area. Signaling related to channel assignments
The first Marisat was launched in February 1976 and placed was handled through dedicated request (ship-to-shore) and
over the Atlantic Ocean. It began Navy service in March 1976, assignment (shore-to-ship) channels. Emergency requests
but the start of commercial service was delayed until July were handled with a priority above all other messages.
1976 because of problems with the C-band equipment. The Table 3.1 gives the basic characteristics of the shore and
second Marisat was launched in June 1976 and was providing ship terminals that were in use with the initial Marisat system.
both naval and commercial service over the Pacific Ocean The ship terminal was capable of receiving and transmitting
by August. The third satellite was launched in October 1976 one voice channel or 2400 bps data. Approximately 160
to provide service to the Navy in the Indian Ocean region. of the larger ship terminals were in use by December 1978,
Commercial service with this satellite began in November increasing to 600 in early 1981 and 1000 by January 1982.
1978 with a terminal in Japan. Signal-quality reports for These terminals operated within the Inmarsat system since it
both types of service were good as soon as the system began came into being. The Inmarsat System subsection describes
operating; the expected improvements relative to terrestrial the evolution of terminal sizes and numbers since then.
transmission links were fully realized. The coverage areas of The Navy provided its own ship and shore terminals for use
the three satellites, as they were during their early lives, are with the UHF channels. These terminals were also being used
shown in Fig. 3.3. with the FLTSATCOM satellites but could be tuned to Marisat
Commercial service started on
a limited basis because of the small
number of terminals and because most
of the satellite power was required for
the Navy channels. Gradually, Navy use
decreased and commercial use increased.
Commercial services included telex,
voice, facsimile, and data (up to 4800
bps) in both directions. These services
were used by tankers, cargo, passenger
and fishing vessels, offshore oil
platforms, and private yachts. In 1981, 56
kbps ship-to-shore service was initiated,
primarily for data transmissions from
seismic survey vessels. On 1 February
1982, control of the three Marisats was
transferred to Inmarsat. By the summer
of 1983, Inmarsat had newer, more
capable satellites in the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans, and those two Marisats Fig. 3.3. Marisat coverage areas (1976 to 1982).

135
Mobile Services Satellites

Table 3.1. Marisat Terminal Characteristics 11. D. W. Lipke and D. W. Swearingen, “Communication
System Planning for Marisat,” International Conference on
Parameter Shore Stations Ship Stations
Communications: ICC ’74 (June 1974).
Frequency band Ca L
12. F. Giorgio, I. Knight, and R. Matthew, “A Maritime
Antenna diameter (ft). 42 4
Mobile Terminal for Commercial Communications Satellite
Transmit gain (dB) 56.0 23.5b Application,” International Conference on Communications:
Transmitter power (W) 3000 40 ICC ’74 (June 1974).
ERP (dBW) 72–85 36–38 13. D. Swearingen and D. Lipke, “Marisat Multiple Access
Receive gain (dB) 53.2 23.5b Capabilities,” International Conference on Communications:
ICC ’76 (June 1976).
G/T (dB/K) 31.4 >-4
14. D. W. Swearingen, “Marisat Commercial Communi-
Beamwidth 0.26/0.4 10–11
(transmit/receive) (deg) cations System Status,” EASCON ’75 Convention Record
(September 1975).
Polarization Circular Circular
a The store stations can operate at L-band for testing.
15. T. O. Calvit, “Marisat—Prelude to a Global Commercial
b Nominal ERP and G/T are the controlling specifications.
Maritime Satellite Communications System,” WESCON
Technical Papers (September 1975).
frequencies. The shore terminals had both communications 16. C. DeVore, “Marisat: Launching a New Era in Marine
and network control functions. Communications,” Signal, Vol. 30, No. 6 (March 1976).
****** 17. D. W. Lipke, “Marisat Program Status,” Paper 75-281,
AIAA 11th Annual Meeting and Technical Display (Feb. 1975).
1. G. E. LaVean and E. J. Martin, “Communication
Satellites: The Second Decade,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, 18. C. Dorian, T. O. Calvit, and D. W. Lipke, “Marisat:
Vol. 12, No. 4 (April 1974). Design and Operational Aspects,” Journal of the British
Interplanetary Society, Vol. 29, No. 5 (May 1976).
2. G. H. M. Gleadle, “Maritime Satellites—A Survey,”
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 27, No. 10 19. D. W. Swearingen, “Multiple Shore Station Interworking
(October 1974). in Marisat,” Paper 78-550, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite
Systems Conference (April 1978).
3. J. L. Boyes and T. H. Harden, “Navy’s Fleet Satellite
and Gapfiller Satellite Communication Programs,” Signal, Vol. 20. D. W. Swearingen, “Marisat Program,” EASCON ’76
28, No. 7 (March 1974). Conference Record (September 1976).
4. L. M. Keane and E. J. Martin, “Marisat,” Signal, Vol. 21. C. Dorian, “The Marisat System,” Acta Astronautica,
29, No. 3 (November–December 1974). Vol. 5, No. 3–4 (March–April 1978).
5. L. M. Keane and E. R. Martin, “The Marisat Spacecraft,” 22. R. Cooperman and J. Kasser, “A Receive-Only Marisat
International Conference on Communications: ICC ’74 (June Terminal,” EASCON ’78 Conference Record (September 1978).
1974). 23. E. J. Martin and D. W. Lipke, “Performance of the
6. E. J. Martin and L. M. Keane, “A Satellite System for Marisat Communications System,” Conference on Maritime
Maritime Mobile Communication Services,” EASCON ’73 and Aeronautical Satellite Communication and Navigation,
Convention Record (September 1973). IEE Conference Publication No. 160 (March 1978).
7. Aviation Week & Space Technology (22 January 1973), 24. R. Svensson and A. Synek, “Swedish Experience
p. 12; (12 March 1973), p. 16; (18 June 1973), p. 77; (10 from the Marisat System,” Conference on Maritime and
September 1973), p. 23; (10 June 1974), p. 22; (12 August Aeronautical Satellite Communication and Navigation, IEE
1974), p. 56; (18 August 1975), p. 17; (29 March 1976), p. Conference Publication No. 160 (March 1978).
14; (30 August 1976), p. 41; (17 October 1977), p. 138; (11 25. D. W. Lipke and E. R. Slack, “First Year Operation
February 1985), p. 73. of Marisat,” IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference Record
8. A. J. E. vanHover and W. J. Gribbin, “Design of a (March 1978).
Ground Control System to Operate Domestic and Maritime 26. K. Komuro et al., “The KDD Yamaguchi Shore
Satellites,” Paper 74-483, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite Station for the Marisat System,” Paper 80-0477, AIAA 8th
Systems Conference (April 1974). Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980).
9. W. J. Gribbin and D. J. Lee, “Technological 27. G. V. Kinal and B. Total, “Pre-Operational Tests of
Development in Spacecraft Command and Control Systems,” High-Speed (56 kbps) Transmission Over Marisat,” Paper
Paper 32.2, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC B9.2, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’81
’77 (December 1977). (November 1981).
10. W. J. Gribbin and R. S. Cooperman, “Comsat General 28. Boeing Satellite Systems, “Marisat” (July 1986), http://
Satellite Technical Control Network,” Comsat Technical www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/376/
Review, Vol. 7, No. 1 (Spring 1977). marisat/marisat.html (24 December 2004).

136
 Marecs

Marecs
The European Space Research Organization’s Marots Antenna
(Maritime Orbital Test Satellite) program [1–14] was One L-band (1500–1700 MHz) parabolic antenna, 80 in. diam,
approved in 1973 with the objective to obtain experimental beam shaped to give 1.4 dB more gain at edge of coverage
data and preoperational experience in the maritime satellite than on axis
environment. The program included communications tests Two horns (one transmit, one receive) for 4 and 6 GHz
and evaluation of operational techniques and ship terminals All antennas are Earth coverage
of various designs. Basic characteristics of the system were
consistent with the available guidelines for future operational Telemetry and command
systems. Telemetry: 4188.72 MHz
The Marots satellite design was based on the Orbital Test
Command: 6417.13 MHz
Satellite (OTS) design (see chapter 7), and the development of
the two satellites overlapped in several aspects such as person- Life
nel, components, and testing. The Marots mission was basically Seven-year design life
experimental; during its development, however, international
discussions were proceeding on the deployment of an op- Orbit
erational, global maritime system. In 1976, the European Space Geosynchronous, stationkeeping to ±0.2°E-W, initial inclination
Agency (ESA) offered Marots for use as part of an interim <3 deg, Marecs A, B2 inclinations 8, 6 deg at end of 1995
global system. As a result of many discussions with potential
major participants in an international system, several changes Orbital history
were made in the Marots design. These changes caused a sig- Marecs A: launched 20 December 1981, operational until March
nificant delay in the development program, and as a result, ESA 1992, experimental use for years, moved above synchronous
decided to switch from an OTS-type spacecraft to the more altitude
capable European Communication Satellite (ECS) spacecraft. Marecs B: launch vehicle failure, September 1982
Therefore, the name of the satellite was changed to Marecs [15– Marecs B2: launched 10 November 1984, 177.5°E longitude
23]. Also, the emphasis of its use was changed from experimen- into 1986, 26°W longitude from 1986 to 1989, 56°W longitude
tal to operational. The satellite details are as follows. from 1990 to 1992, 26°W longitude for several years, moved
Satellite above synchronous altitude early 2002
Hexagonal prism body, 86 in. diam, 77 in. height; 45 ft tip to tip Ariane launch vehicle
of deployed solar arrays, overall height approximately 100 in.
Management
1260 lb in orbit, beginning of life
Developed by MESH (west-European industrial consortium)
Sun-tracking solar array and NiCd batteries, 955 W beginning (prime contractor, Hawker-Siddeley Dynamics, later British
of life, 790 W end of life Aerospace Dynamics Group) for ESA
Three-axis stabilization, antenna pointing accuracy ±0.2 deg Operated by ESA for Inmarsat
(pitch and roll), ±0.35 deg (yaw)
The Marecs communication subsystem had three channels. The
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, liquid hydrazine forward channel (shore-to-ship) had a 5 MHz bandwidth, and
propulsion for on-orbit use the return channel had a 6 MHz bandwidth. A shore-to-shore
Configuration channel for network coordination had a 0.5 MHz bandwidth.
All links with ships used L-band, and all links with shore
Three repeaters: 4.75 MHz bandwidth for shore-to-ship, 5.9
MHz bandwidth for ship-to-shore, 0.5 MHz for shore-to-shore stations used 4 and 6 GHz. The return channel provided up to
50 voice channels at all times. The forward channel handled
Capacity up to about 40 voice channels, depending on the ship terminal
Thirty-five voice channels each direction plus search-and- G/T, except during eclipse when the capacity was less than 10
rescue channel in ship-to-shore direction channels. All amplifiers were operated in a near-linear state,
so that FDMA (frequency division multiple access) operation
Transmitter could be used with acceptable intermodulation levels. The L-
4194.6–4200.5 MHz (to shore), 1 W TWTA plus spare, EIRP band power amplifier was composed of 10 parallel modules
16.6 dBW measured, 14.5 dBW specified in two groups of five; in normal operations, three modules in
1537.75–1542.5 MHz (to ships); 10 each group were active.
transistor amplifiers available, up to
six can be on, maximum output 75 Fig. 3.4. Marecs satellite.
W; minimum measured EIRP over
coverage area is r35 dBW

Receiver
6420.25–6425 MHz (from shore), G/T –12 to –13 dB/K
measured, –17 dB/K specified
1638.6–1644.5 MHz (from ships), G/T –11 dB/K minimum
measured over coverage area

137
Mobile Services Satellites

6420.25– 4194.6–
6425 4200.5
1638.6–1644.5 1537.75–1542.5
D

T T T T C T T TW

S 1288.1 322 H 301.9 3864.2 H S

T T T T C T T TW

T
60.4 H
60.4 T

*
T T T T T P T C

S 6052.6 282.5 1452.6 H S H H

*
T T T T T P T C
*Five amplifiers in parallel in each side

Fig. 3.5. Marecs communication subsystem.

The Marecs development program included two flight 3. D. McLauchlin and R. Stainforth, “MAROTS
model satellites. Discussions on the role of Marecs in the Communication Satellite,” Journal of the British Interplanetary
Inmarsat system continued from about 1978 to 1981, when Society, Vol. 29, No. 5 (May 1976).
Inmarsat decided to include two Marecs in its first-generation 4. “The MAROTS Programme,” ESRO Bulletin, No. 23
space segment. Marecs A was launched in December 1981 and (November 1973).
went through testing until it was switched into the Inmarsat
system in February 1982. Marecs B was lost in a launch 5. T. F. Howell, “Marots—The Mission,” Paper 76-258,
vehicle failure in September 1982. It was replaced by Marecs AIAA/CASI 6th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
B2, launched November 1984. Because of problems with the (April 1976).
Marecs A solar array, the positions of the two satellites were 6. J. A. Vandenkerckhove, “The ESRO MAROTS
switched in 1986, thus placing Marecs B2 in the Atlantic area, Programme,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
where Inmarsat traffic is heaviest. Continuing solar-array Vol. 27, No. 10 (October 1974).
degradation caused Marecs A to be removed from service
7. J. A. Vandenkerckhove, “MAROTS—A European
in 1992, after exceeding its design life by two and one-half
Satellite for Maritime Communications,” World Telecom-
years. It then provided no more than one-third of its design
munication Forum Conference Proceedings (October 1975).
communications capacity and was used for experimental and
developmental testing activities. 8. P. J. Conchie, “The Adoption of OTS to the MAROTS
In 1990, Inmarsat split its Atlantic area into two areas, in Role,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 27,
order to increase services, and Marecs B2 was moved to become No. 10 (October 1974).
the primary western Atlantic satellite. It was moved again 9. W. M. Lovell, “The Marots Communications Payload,”
when the Inmarsat II satellites were brought into operation. Proceedings of the Conference on Satellite Communication
In 1994, north-south stationkeeping was necessary to prevent Systems Technology, IEE Conference Publication No. 126
the inclination from exceeding the 5 deg limit specified in the (April 1975).
Inmarsat lease.
10. Flight International (9 August 1973), p. 282; (23 August
Additional information on the use of these satellites is in
1973), p. 363; (7 March 1974), p. 293; (24 September 1977), p.
the Inmarsat System subsection.
911; (13 August 1983), p. 427; (14 December 1985), p. 44.
****** 11. A. Steciw, T. F. Howell, and J. L. de Montlivault,
1. G. H. M. Gleadle, “Maritime Satellites—A Survey,” “Europe’s Programme of Maritime Satellites—A Contribution
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 27, No. 10 to a Worldwide System,” ESA Bulletin, No. 16 (November
(October 1974). 1978).
2. C. Wearmouth, “The Current Status of the Orbital 12. T. F. Howell, “The Marots Maritime Satellite
Test Satellite Programme,” World Telecommunication Forum Programme,” International Conference on Communications:
Conference Proceedings (October 1975). ICC ’77 (June 1977).

138
 Inmarsat

13. G. R. Stette, “A Multiple Access and Access Control 15. S. Armstrong, “The Marecs Payload,” Journal of the
System for Marots,” European Conference on Electrotechnics: British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 32, No. 5 (May 1979).
EUROCON ’77, Conference Proceedings on Communications 16. R. Morris, “ECS Maritime Communications Satellite—
(May 1977). The Marecs Spacecraft,” Satellite Communications, Vol. 5,
14. Conference on Maritime and Aeronautical Satellite No. 5 (May 1981).
Communication and Navigation, IEE Conference Publication 17. J.-J. Dumesnil, “The ESA Maritime Communications
No. 160 (March 1978): Programme (Marecs),” ESA Bulletin, No. 28 (Nov. 1981).
a. S. R. Temple, “The Role of the Marots Experimental 18. R. Rogard, “The Marecs Communications System,”
Programme in the Future Development of Maritime ESA Bulletin, No. 28 (November 1981).
Satellite Ship Equipment.”
19. E. Jurkiewicz, “The Marecs Space Segment,” ESA
b. R. F. Hoskyns, “Multiplexing, Multiple Access
Bulletin, No. 28 (November 1981).
and Signalling in the Marots Maritime Mobile Satellite
System.” 20. D. E. Campbell, “The Marecs Communications
c. L. Melis and A. Curiel, “Channel Assignment in the Payload,” ESA Bulletin, No. 28 (November 1981).
Marots System.” 21. D. Campbell, “Major Contribution of Marecs-A to
d. R. F. Hoskyns, “Telex Procedures in the Marots the Maritime Communications,” International Cooperation
Maritime Satellite System.” and Space Mission, L. G. Napolitano, ed., AIAA, New York
(1984).
e. A. Curiel and L. Melis, “Frequency and Power
Control in the Marots System.” 22. J. M. Bayley, “Marecs: Experimental (1972) to
f. A. I. Naylor, M. G. Nunn, and W. R. Wignall, “The Operational (1984),” Journal of the British Interplanetary
Marots Satellite Communications Payload and Its L-Band, Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August 1985).
Solid State Multicarrier Power Transmitter.” 23. G. G. Fuller and J.-J. Dumesnil, “ECS-2 and Marecs-
g. A. E. Baker and J. A. Vandenkerckhove, “Outline of B2—First Impression of In-Orbit Performance,” ESA Bulletin,
a Forward-Looking Maritime Mobile Satellite System.” No. 41 (February 1985).

Inmarsat
In order to begin operating as early as possible, Inmarsat L-band transmit array, visible in Fig 3.6 as a hexagonal plate,
leased capacity on three separate types of satellites: Marisat, is fixed to the satellite body. The satellite and payload details
Intelsat V, and Marecs. These satellites constituted the first- are as follows.
generation Inmarsat space segment. The Intelsat V and Marecs Satellite
satellites, which were the primary operating satellites, were
British Aerospace (later Matra Marconi) Eurostar bus
expected to reach both capacity (in the Atlantic) and lifetime
limitations beginning in 1988. Hence, Inmarsat made plans for Rectangular body, with antenna 8.4 x 5.2 x 4.9 ft, 50 ft across
a second-generation space segment, Inmarsat II, with the first tips of deployed solar array
satellite launch in 1988. These were followed in the 1990s by 1685 lb in orbit, beginning of life
the third generation, Inmarsat III. Two satellites of the fourth Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiCd batteries, approximately
generation were launched in 2005. These satellites and the 1100 W after 10 years
Inmarsat system are described here.
Three-axis stabilization
Bipropellant apogee and on-orbit propulsion
Inmarsat II
Configuration
Inmarsat sent requirements for the Inmarsat II satellites [1–14]
to a large number of European, U.S., and Japanese companies One C-band-to-L-band (C/L) channel for shore to ship; 16 MHz
bandwidth
in the fall of 1983. Besides basic satellite characteristics,
compatibility with at least two of six specified launch vehicles Four L-band-to-C-band (L/C) channels for ship to shore; 4.5,
(four U.S., one European, one Soviet) was required. Inmarsat 4.5, 7.3, and 3.2 MHz bandwidths
was willing to consider either lease or
purchase of the satellites. Bids were Fig. 3.6. Inmarsat II satellite.
received from two contractor teams, both
with British prime contractors, in April
1984, and a contract was signed with one
a year later.
The Inmarsat II satellites are derived
from the same basic design used for ECS
and Marecs. The rectangular body houses all
the satellite equipment, except for the solar arrays and the
antennas. The solar arrays are deployed in orbit, but the large

139
Mobile Services Satellites

Capacity Life
250 two-way voice circuits Ten-year design life, 16-year maneuver life

Transmitter Orbit
C/L: 1530–1548 MHz Geosynchronous; <3 deg inclination for most of life, <5 deg for
Six TWTAs, about 30 W each, four active summed together, 10 years
two spare, 39 dBW at edge of Earth
Orbital history
L/C: 3600–3604.5 MHz, 3605–3609.5 MHz, 3610–3617.3 MHz, Inmarsat II-1 (or 2-F1): launched 30 October 1990; initially
and 3617.8–3621 MHz 179°E longitude, a primary Inmarsat satellite; later 143.5°E
24 dBW per channel at edge of Earth longitude, leased services
Inmarsat II-2 (or 2-F2): launched 8 March 1991, in use, 98°W
Receiver longitude, initially a primary Inmarsat satellite, later leased
C/L: 6425–6443 MHz services and Inmarsat spare
–14 dB/K G/T Inmarsat II-3 (or 2-F3): launched 16 December 1991; initially
L/C: 1626.5–1631 MHz, 1631.5–1636 MHz, 1636.5–1643.8 65°E longitude, a primary Inmarsat satellite; later 142°W
MHz, and 1644.3–1647.5 MHz longitude, leased services and Inmarsat spare
–12.5 dB/K G/T Inmarsat II-4 (or 2-F4): launched 15 April 1992, in use, 109°E
longitude, initially a primary Inmarsat satellite, later leased
Antenna services and Inmarsat spare
L: 61-element array, beam shaped to give increasing gain Delta 2 launch vehicle (1, 2)
from center to edge of Earth (transmit); nine-element array
Ariane launch vehicle (3, 4)
(receive)
C: two seven-element arrays (one transmit, one receive) Management
All antenna elements are cup-backed crossed dipoles. Developed for Inmarsat by British Aerospace (prime) with
Hughes Aircraft Company (payload) and other subcontractors
All antennas are Earth coverage, circular polarization. in France, Japan, West Germany, and Canada
Telemetry and command Operated by Inmarsat
Telemetry: 3947.0, 3949.4, 3950.6, 3953.0 MHz The support subsystems are similar or identical in design
Command: 6173.7 and 6178.7 MHz to flight-proven hardware, but the payload was a new
design. Relative to the first-generation
Inmarsat satellites, the payload provides a
significant capacity increase and operation
C-BAND TO L-BAND on frequencies allocated for distress and for
aircraft communications. The payload has one
64
–
5
2 T TW 0–
3
5
1 channel for shore-to-ship transmission and
64
4 1 6
4
5
1 four channels for ship-to-shore transmission.
/ 3
2 T TW / 2
3 The four channels allow a better matching
Receiver T of each channel to the characteristics of
T TW
different classes of ship stations, all of which
S S S S P C are moderately to severely limited in radiated
T TW power. The first ship-to-shore channel is for
Receiver T
high-speed data, the second for low-power ship
/ 3
2 T TW / 2
3 stations, the third for standard A ship stations,
T TW
and the fourth for very low-power stations,
including standard C, emergency beacons, and
aircraft. Standard stations are described later
L-BAND TO C-BAND in the Inmarsat System subsection.
The satellite uses L-band (1.5 to 1.6 GHz)
12
6 6.5 – 600–
3 for communication with ships and C-band (4
64
1 .
7 5 Channel 62
3 1 and 6 GHz) for communication with shore
Receiver filters T TW stations. The L-band transmit antenna is a
S S S hexagonal array of 61 elements. The array is
designed so that the gain is lower toward the
Channel
Receiver filters T TW subsatellite point and increases toward the
edge of Earth. This gain taper compensates
Notes for losses, which increase as the ship terminal
a. Receivers include downconverters elevation to the satellite decreases. The L-
b. Channel filters’ center frequencies near 60 MHz
c. Driver amplifiers include predistortion circuits
band transmitter uses any four of six available
TWTAs. Linearizers precede each TWTA
to increase channel capacity by reducing
Fig. 3.7. Inmarsat II communication subsystem. distortions; outputs of the four active TWTAs
140
 Inmarsat

are coherently summed. The other transmit-and-receive by choice and gradually because of governments’ requirements
antennas use smaller arrays of similar cup-dipole elements. that ships be equipped for satellite communications. In addition,
The Inmarsat II contract included three satellites and since 1990, Inmarsat has provided service to airplanes as well
options for six more. One of these options was converted to as ships. Besides requiring increased satellite capacity, the
a firm order in 1988. The first three satellites were owned by airplanes also require more of the satellites’ power because of
a group of British banks and leased to Inmarsat; the fourth their smaller antennas.
was owned by Inmarsat. They were all successfully launched Planning of the Inmarsat III series began about 1988.
between fall 1990 and spring 1992 and are in operation. When Proposals were received early in 1990; that summer, negotiations
they were the primary Inmarsat satellites, one was in each of with a contractor began in parallel with a 5-month technology
the Inmarsat regions: western Atlantic, eastern Atlantic, Indian, validation program. The technology program concentrated on
and Pacific Oceans. Their locations changed as the Inmarsat the L-band multibeam antennas and the L-band transmitter
III satellites were launched and brought into use but all four power amplifier. The final contract was signed early in 1991; it
Inmarsat II satellites remain in use. included four satellites and options for more. In March 1994,
one option was changed to an order for a fifth satellite.
****** The capacity increase relative to the foregoing Inmarsat
1. D. W. Lipke, “Inmarsat Second Generation Space satellites is achieved by the use of spot beams at the L-band
Segment,” IEEE National Telesystem Conference (November transmit-and-receive frequencies used between the satellites
1983). and the mobile terminals. The main requirements on the
2. A. F. Ghais, “Future Development of the Inmarsat 140 Inmarsat III payload are
System,” Paper 84-0750, AIAA 10th Communication Satellite • reconfigurable spot beams so that each satellite can pro-
Systems Conference (March 1984). vide the desired coverage from any of the five operating
locations
3. O. Lundberg, “The Inmarsat System and Its Future,” • flexible allocation of the total L-band power among the
Space Communication and Broadcasting, Vol. 2, No. 3 spot beams and the global beam to adapt to changing
(September 1984). traffic loading
4. T. Pirard, “On Land, In the Air, On the Seas,” Satellite • channelization matching the international L-band alloca-
Communications, Vol. 9, No. 11 (October 1985). tions and switchable to adapt to Inmarsat needs and to
5. Aviation Week & Space Technology (8 August 1983), ensure compatibility with other L-band satellites
p. 20; (30 July 1984), p. 18; (11 March 1985), p. 27; (22 April The Inmarsat III payload consists of five sections. The C-
1985), p. 30; (29 July 1985), p. 24; (7 October 1985), p. 55; band-to-L-band forward channel is for communications from
(28 July 1986), p. 25. fixed terminals to mobiles and is matched to the L-band-to-
C-band return channel for communications in the opposite
6. Spaceflight, Vol. 27, No. 7/8 (July/August 1985), p. 295. direction. These two channels are the main part of the payload.
7. Flight International (13 August 1983), p. 422; (10 There is also a C-band-to-C-band channel for administrative
August 1985), p. 34. traffic between fixed terminals and an L-band-to-L-band
channel for direct traffic between mobile terminals in limited
8. P. Berlin, “Inmarsat’s Second Generation Satellites,”
circumstances such as during search and rescue efforts.
IEE Proceedings, Vol. 133, Part F, No. 4 (July 1986).
The final section of the payload is a navigation channel that
9. J. Williamson, “The Links in the Chain,” Journal of the augments the U.S. Global Positioning System and the Russian
British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 42, No. 7 (June 1989). Glonass system. When Inmarsat III was developed, the L-
10. P. Berlin, “A New Satellite for Shipping,” Journal of band-to-L-band and navigation capabilities were new features
the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 42, No. 7 (June 1989). in mobile services satellites.
Inmarsat III planning studies looked for a balance of spot
11. C. C. Huang and C. A. McDonach, “Antenna Design for beams with coverage areas small enough to allow frequency
the Inmarsat Second Generation Communication Satellites,” reuse and large enough to moderate the payload complexity,
Microwave Journal, Vol. 33, No. 2 (February 1990). which grows with the number of coverage areas. (All the
12. W. L. Morgan, “Inmarsat II,” Satellite Communications spot beams are for L-band transmission and reception;
(August 1991). global coverage beams are used at C-band.) The resulting
13. D. K. Banks, E. Gambaruto, and B. Krinsky, “The specification defined four to six coverage areas for each of the
Inmarsat Second Generation Communications Payload,” 19th five satellite locations. Many of these coverage areas have the
European Microwave Conference Proceedings (September same geometry at more than one location, or differ only by a
1989). rotation of the coverage areas about the subsatellite point. As
a result, the Inmarsat III design has seven spot beams, each
14. “Our Satellites,” http://about.inmarsat.com/satellites. generated by four- or six-element subarrays of the 22-element
aspx?top_level_id=3&language=EN&textonly=False(6 feed array. The feed array can be rotated 21 deg about its axis
January 2005). to change the coverage geometry at the time of a satellite
relocation. Adjacent beams overlap, but some separated beam
combinations have sufficient isolation to allow frequency reuse
Inmarsat III (i.e., use of the same frequencies in two different beams).
The Inmarsat III [1–10] development was not paced by a The limited L-band spectrum available for use with mobile
lifetime limitation of Inmarsat II, but by its capacity limitation. terminals is reused twice in the Inmarsat III design. Each L-
The number of ships using Inmarsat increases every year, both band reuse is coupled with one of the two polarizations on

141
Mobile Services Satellites

the C-band links with the fixed terminals. The

Inmarsat III frequency plan includes 30.5 and 33
of the 34 MHz L-band spectrum allocation on Fig. 3.8. Inmarsat III satellite.
the two C-band polarization and L-band beam
combinations. Only 29 MHz of spectrum is
used in each C-band polarization, with 4 MHz
being switched to either of two 4 MHz wide channels
in each of the two L-band beam combinations. The 2.5 MHz
difference in total bandwidth in the two polarization and beam
combinations is due to cutouts in one of the two to provide for
the C-band-to-C-band channel and to protect a global beam
search and rescue channel in the other combination. These
factors leave 26.5 and 29 MHz of L-band spectrum available.
A further three MHz must be shared between a global beam
in one combination and a spot beam in the other, leaving 52.5
MHz available for simultaneous use. When Inmarsat III was
developed, the L-band allocation was subdivided for maritime, on opposite sides of the navigation antenna. Except for the
land, aeronautical, and general mobile applications. To match antennas and solar arrays, all equipment is mounted within the
this, the Inmarsat III frequency plan has 10 bands with 1 to satellite body, which has radiators on its north and south faces.
4.5 MHz bandwidths. All except the narrowest band have Additional payload and satellite details follow.
switchable surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters that can divide
Satellite
the band into two or three subbands separated by 200 kHz
Lockheed Martin series 4000 bus
guard bands for use in different antenna beams, or combine
the subbands with the intervening guard bands for use in the Rectangular body, 6.9 x 5.9 x 5.6 ft, 55 ft span across deployed
same beam. The frequencies of the guard bands are different solar arrays
in the two reuses of the spectrum in order to maximize the 860 kg dry mass, 1145 kg in orbit, beginning of life
ability to adjust spectrum usage. More recently most of the Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, 2800 W at end
allocations have been generalized to allow any application. of life
Nevertheless, the Inmarsat III channelization is still good for
Three-axis stabilization
efficient spectrum utilization.
The combination of many frequency bands and multiple Solid-propellant apogee motor, monopropellant liquid propul-
antenna beams would typically imply a very complex switching sion for on-orbit use
network on the satellite to provide flexible interconnections; this Configuration
has been avoided by using a multiport amplifier. This amplifier C-band-to-L-band forward channel, 19 bands with a total 64.5
is composed of a beam-forming matrix followed by 22 parallel MHz bandwidth
solid-state amplifiers followed by an output filtering and
routing network. The beam-forming matrix has eight inputs, L-band-to-C-band return channel, 19 bands with a total 64.5
MHz bandwidth
corresponding to seven spot beams plus one global beam. The
output network has 22 output ports, corresponding to the 22 C-band-to-C-band administrative channel, 0.9 MHz bandwidth
antenna feeds. The combination of the matrix and the network L-band-to-L-band mobile channel, 1 MHz bandwidth
allows the power of all 22 amplifiers to be routed to any one C-band-to-C-band and L-band navigation channel, 2.2 MHz
beam or to be distributed among many beams, both spot and bandwidth
global. The distribution of power is controlled by the signal
phasing set in the beam-forming matrix. All the amplifiers Transmitter
operate at high efficiency regardless of the distribution of C-band: 3600–3629 MHz (L to C, and C to C), 3629.4–3631.6
signals among the spot and global beams. Even if the total MHz (Nav)
power is routed to one beam, it is spread over the four or six Solid-state power amplifiers
feeds that generate that beam, thereby avoiding excessive
EIRP 27 dBW (L to C, and C to C), 0 dBW (Nav)
power at any one feed. Two global channels, and the L-band-
to-L-band channel (when used), are always transmitted through L-band: 1525–1529 MHz and 1530–1559 MHz (C to L, L to L),
global beams; all other channels in the L-band frequency plan 1574.4–1576.6 MHz (Nav)
may be routed to either spot or global beams. Twenty-two solid-state power amplifiers, 440 W total output
The two deployed reflectors seen in Fig. 3.8 are for L- (C to L, L to L); redundant 17 W solid-state amplifiers
band transmission and reception. The circular feed array (Nav)
for one of the reflectors is visible on the side of the satellite EIRP 48 dBW split in any proportion between spot and
body. The small circular antenna on the Earth-viewing face global (C to L, L to L), nominally 39 dBW global; 27.5 dBW
of the satellite body is for the L-band navigation signal. It has (Nav)
a separate amplifier and antenna in order to satisfy the very
stringent phase and delay stability requirements necessary to Receiver
provide an accurate navigation signal. The same signal is also C-band: 6425–6454 MHz (C to L, C to C), 6454.4–6456.6 MHz
transmitted at C-band. All C-band transmission and reception (Nav)
are via the two horn antennas visible as circular openings G/T –13 dB/K

142
 Inmarsat

L-band: 1626.5–1630.5 MHz and 1631.5–1660.5 MHz (L to C,

L to L)
One low-noise amplifier per antenna feed
G/T –11.5 dB/K (global beam), –5.5 dB/K (spot beam)

Antenna
C-band: two global coverage horns (1 transmit, 1 receive), each
with dual circular polarizations
L-band: two offset fed deployed reflectors for global and spot
beams (one transmit, one receive), approximately 7.5 ft diam,
each with 22 cup-helix feeds, >24.3 dB edge of coverage gain
for spot beams (C to L) and >19.2 dB peak gain for global beam
(C to L, L to L), circular polarization; one 27 in. diam center-fed
parabolic reflector (Nav), 15.8 dB edge of coverage gain

Telemetry and command (a)

Telemetry: 3947.0, 3949.4, 3950.6, 3953.0 MHz
Command: 6339.5, 6341.5, 6421.5, 6423.5 MHz

Life
Thirteen-year design life

Orbit
Geostationary

Orbital history
Inmarsat 3-1: launched 3 April 1996, 64°E longitude, Indian
Ocean active satellite
Inmarsat 3-2: launched 6 September 1996, 15.5°W longitude,
Atlantic Ocean East active satellite
Inmarsat 3-3: launched 18 December 1996, 178°E longitude,
Pacific Ocean active satellite
Inmarsat 3-4: launched 3 June 1997, 54°W longitude, Atlantic (b)
Ocean West active satellite
Inmarsat 3-5: launched 3 February 1998, 25°E longitude, spare
satellite and used for leased service until early 2003 when the
Indian Ocean West region was established with this as the
active satellite
Atlas 2A launch vehicle (F1, F3), Proton (F2), Ariane 4 (F4,
F5)

Management
Developed for Inmarsat by Martin-Marietta (formerly GE and
now Lockheed Martin) with the payload supplied by Matra
Marconi Space
Operated by Inmarsat

******
1. D. R. Mullins, M. El Amin, and P. Poskett, “Inmarsat 3
Communications System Requirements,” IEE Colloquium on (c)
Inmarsat-3 (November 1991).
2. R. A. Perrott and J. M. Griffin, “L-Band Antenna Sys- (a) 15.5° W, (b) 55° W, (c) 179.5° W
tems Design,” IEE Colloquium on Inmarsat-3 (Nov. 1991).
Fig. 3.9. Inmarsat III L-band spot beams.
3. C. Edwards, F. Bayle, and B. Pirollo, “L-Band Output
Network,” IEE Colloquium on Inmarsat-3 (November 1991).
4. G. G. Cox, “Development of L-Band Feed Arrays for 6. A. Howell and G. V. Kinal, “Inmarsat’s Third Generation
Inmarsat-3,” IEE Colloquium on Inmarsat-3 (Nov. 1991). Space Segment,” Paper 92-1815, AIAA 14th International
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1992).
5. M. Winser and K. Parnell, “L Band Forward Beam-
Forming Matrices,” IEE Colloquium on Inmarsat-3 (November 7. C. Simpson, “Inmarsat-3,” Spaceflight, Vol. 35, No. 1
1991). (January 1993).

143
Mobile Services Satellites

160

Output network
1300 T C 15:1 T To

Filter bank

3:9 switch
T 1:16 15X L-band
T antenna
feeds
Nav 8X
T

Beam forming matrix

8X 8X 8X 22X 5X 22X
160 T

Filter bank

3:9 switch
From
C-band
antenna T

8X
T C

Output network
15X To
L-band
1300 antenna
T 1:16 15X Same as above 15:1 T feeds

C to C
1:N 1 input split to N outputs

N:1 N inputs combined to 1 output

NX Function replicated N times, including those shown

Fig. 3.10. Inmarsat III C-band to L-band section of the communication subsystem.

8. R. C. Peach et al., “The Design and Implementation of below). This service has data rates to 144 kbps and is available
the Inmarsat 3 L-Band Processor,” Paper 94-0916, AIAA 15th in the countries that have licensed Thuraya operations.
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference Inmarsat 4, like prior Inmarsat generations, uses L-band
(February 1994). for links between the satellite and mobile terminals and C-
9. K. A. Schuerholz, “The Third Generation of Inmarsat,” band for links between the satellite and large, fixed gateway
Via Satellite, Vol. 11, No. 6 (June 1996). stations. The satellite (Fig. 3.11) has a 9 m diameter L-band
reflector. This is used, with a 120-element feed on the adjacent
10. “Our Satellites,” http://about.inmarsat.com/satellites. face of the satellite body, to form up to 228 spot beams that
aspx?top_level_id=3&language=EN&textonly=False cover Earth. This antenna is used for both transmission and
(6 January 2005). reception. In addition, for compatibility with Inmarsat 3
satellites there is a global coverage beam and a 19-beam array
of wide spots that cover Earth, both in L-band. The satellite also
Inmarsat 4 has a dual-polarization Earth coverage C-band antenna beam.
In the latter half of the 1990s Inmarsat studied its future Each satellite has the capacity for 630 channels each with a
system under the name Horizons. That program ended because data rate up to 432 kbps. Onboard processing can dynamically
Inmarsat was not sure that the market demand justified the reassign channels among the beams to satisfy user requests.
investment. However, by 1999 worldwide demand for Internet Inmarsat 4 has a two-channel navigation payload, each
services was increasing, and Inmarsat had changed from an with wider bandwidth than the single channel on Inmarsat 3.
intergovernmental organization to a private company. This Navigation data is transmitted to the satellite at C-band and
led to a decision to develop the Inmarsat 4 satellites [16]. The transmitted from it on two frequencies. These signals augment
contract was awarded in May 2000 with a planned service Global Positioning System (GPS) and other navigation satellite
start in 2004. Satellite development difficulties and slower systems by transmitting integrity and correction data that can
than expected service demand delayed the start of service to improve the accuracy of users’ position determination. Other
2005. The contract has two satellites for placement over the information about Inmarsat 4 follows.
Atlantic and Indian Oceans and a third for a ground spare. The Satellite
two were launched in March and November 2005 and, after Eurostar 3000 bus, body 2.3 x 2.9 x 7 m, solar array span 45 m
testing, placed into service over the Indian Ocean and over the
Atlantic Ocean. 5945 kg at launch, 3300 kg dry
The focus for the Inmarsat 4 satellites is what Inmarsat Sun-tracking solar arrays, 14 kW beginning of life, 9 kW end
calls the Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN) with of life
communication speeds to 432 kbps for Internet access and Three-axis stabilized
multimedia transmissions, as well as traditional voice and data
Chemical propulsion for most uses; electric propulsion for
services. As a prelude, Inmarsat started Regional BGAN at north-south stationkeeping
the end of 2002 with capacity leased from Thuraya (described
144
 Inmarsat

Configuration
Comm: 630 channels of 200 kHz bandwidth, 126 MHz total
bandwidth with up to 20-fold frequency reuse
Nav: two C/L transponders, 4/20 MHz bandwidth at GPS L1/L5
frequencies

Transmitter
Comm: in 1525–1559 MHz (L-band), in 3600–
3650 MHz (C-band)
L-band: 120 active and 30 spare SSPAs, Fig. 3.11. Inmarsat 4 satellite.
EIRP 67 dBW in spot beams
C-band: 4 active and 2 spare SSPAs per
polarization, 40 W combined output power
Nav: L1 is 1575.42 MHz, L5 is 1176.45 MHz; 28.1 dBW at L1,
26.2 dBW at L5, both at edge of coverage

Receiver
Comm: in 1625.5-1660.5 MHz (L-band), in 6425-6460 MHz
(C-band
Nav: 6534.42 MHz (C1 channel, 4 MHz bandwidth) and
6548.45 MHz (C2 channel, 20 MHz bandwidth)

Antenna
Comm: 228 spots, 19 regional beams, 1 global beam (L-band),
1 global beam with RHCP and LHCP (C-band) 4. C. Soddu and O. Razumovsky, “Inmarsat’s
L-band: 9 m diam reflector, 2.5 m diam feed with 120 cup- New Navigation Payload,” GPS World (1 November 2001),
helix feed elements http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.
Nav: global beams jsp?id=3107 (26 January 2005).
5. A. Kiyohara et al, “Superior Tracking Performance of
Life
C-Band Solid State Power Amplifier for Inmarsat-4,” Paper
Ten-year design life 2003-2383, 21st AIAA International Communications Satellite
Orbit Systems Conference (April 2003).
Geostationary 6. Inmarsat Regional BGAN (July 2003), http://
Inclination starts at 3 deg, decreases to 0 deg, then increases regionalbgan.inmarsat.com/media/inmarsat_rbgan_
to and is limited at 3 deg by N-S stationkeeping information_sheet.pdf, (26 January 2005).

Orbital history
Inmarsat 4-1: launched 11 March 2005, in use, 64.5°E Inmarsat System
longitude In 1972, the Intergovernmental Maritime Organization (IMO)
Inmarsat 4-2: launched 8 November 2005, in use 54°W began serious studies of an international maritime satellite
longitude system for which it had issued a statement of requirements
Atlas V (1), Sea Launch Zenit (2) launch vehicle in 1970. These studies covered institutional, operational,
technical, and economic aspects of the system. The primary
Management benefits of such a system, relative to terrestrial radio links,
Developed by Astrium for Inmarsat were and are higher quality, fewer delays, more reliability and
Operated by Inmarsat privacy, and higher data rates for communications between
commercial ships and the international public communication
****** networks. Provisions for handling distress messages were
included. In addition, the possibility of providing a position
1. “Our Satellites,” http://about.inmarsat.com/satellites.
determination service was studied.
aspx?top_level_id=3&language=EN&textonly=False (6 Jan-
IMO had then about 80 member nations, of which about 20
uary 2005).
were active in the initial studies. In April 1975, IMO convened
2. A. Violaris, “INMARSAT—Latest Developments an international conference to begin establishing the system;
and Future Plans,” Digital Ship Cyprus Conference (27–28 48 nations were represented. It was unanimously agreed that
January 2004), http://www.thedigitalship.com/powerpoints/ such a system was necessary and that a new organization,
cyprus/Adonis%20Inmarsat.pdf (26 January 2005). the International Maritime Satellite Organization (Inmarsat),
3. P. Cunningham, “Inmarsat 4—The Next Generation,” should be formed to operate the system. In 1976, the Inmarsat
Digital Ship Hong Kong Conference (7–8 September 2004), Convention and Operating Agreements were opened for
http://www.thedigitalship.com/powerpoints/hk2004/piers%2 ratification by interested governments, and an international
0cunningham%20inmarsat.pdf (26 January 2005). preparatory committee was established to work on technical,
economic, marketing, and organizational matters.
145
Mobile Services Satellites

The Inmarsat Convention entered into force in July 1979. became the primary Inmarsat satellite in the Indian Ocean in
The first membership of Inmarsat included 26 nations; that January 1983. Marecs B was lost because of a launch vehicle
number increased to 79 by mid-1995 and to 84 by 1998. The failure. Marecs B2 was launched in late 1984 and became
investment share of each nation was related to both the tonnage the primary Pacific Ocean satellite in January 1985. In the
of ships registered with it and the volume of communications spring of 1986, the positions of the two Marecs satellites were
to and from it. (For the United States, these factors are far from reversed to place the older satellite in the ocean area with less
equal, as many ships registered in other countries are U.S. traffic. Intelsat V satellites had the primary and spare roles
owned and communicate mostly with the United States.) The in the Indian Ocean. There was also one Intelsat V in each
investment shares were adjusted yearly to reflect actual use of the other ocean areas. Inmarsat had the Marisats available
of the system. In the mid-1990s, the major shares were about in reserve and leased capacity on one for use by land mobile
25 percent for the United States, 14 percent for the United terminals in North America; this service was later transferred
Kingdom, 12 percent for Norway, and 9 percent for Japan. to an Inmarsat II satellite made available by the launch of the
Comsat Corporation was the U.S. representative in Inmarsat. Inmarsat III satellites.
The Inmarsat organization was very similar to that of In 1990, Inmarsat switched to a four-region system. The
Intelsat. It had an assembly, composed of representatives operational satellites were Marecs B2 (Atlantic West), Intelsat
from all member states, to review activities and consider Vs (Atlantic East and Indian), Marecs A (until June 1991), and
long-term policies. The assembly met once every 2 years, and an Intelsat V (Pacific). The three Marisats remained available
each member had one vote. The council met three times per as spares. At the end of 1990, the first Inmarsat II satellite was
year and was composed of the 18 largest members and four launched. Three more were launched by April 1992 to provide
representatives of the other members. It provided direction one for each region, with the older satellites as spares.
to the Directorate, which carried out the day-to-day activities Inmarsat III satellites came into service from 1996 alongside
of Inmarsat. Voting in the council was weighted according to the Inmarsat II satellites. In March 2003 Inmarsat switched to
investment percentages. a five-region system, adding the Indian Ocean West region.
In 1998, Inmarsat agreed to change from a treaty In the late 1990s, Inmarsat started a separate entity, funded
organization to a private company. This privatization occurred by Inmarsat and its members, to develop a medium-altitude
in 1999; initial shareholders were the same as the investors in satellite system, named Inmarsat P, which would provide
the former treaty organization, but investment shares were no global service to people carrying mobile telephones compatible
longer fixed by a formula. with both terrestrial cellular systems and Inmarsat P. This
The Inmarsat system [1–46] is composed of four elements. later became a separate system and company named ICO
Satellites are either leased or owned by Inmarsat. Second, land (intermediate circular orbit) described later in this chapter.
Earth stations are owned and operated by telecommunications Initially, Inmarsat provided only service between coast
companies that provide services to end users through Inmarsat stations and ship stations. Communications between coast
satellites. At the end of 2004 there were about 40 land Earth and ship stations are of three general categories: safety, ship
stations in 30 countries. Third, there is a satellite control center management, and public correspondence. Gradually, the
and a network control center at Inmarsat headquarters in London interest in other uses increased. In 1982, Inmarsat began
with backups for both in a London suburb. The satellite control investigating service to aircraft. In 1985, the Inmarsat
center is responsible for the position of the satellites in orbit, Convention was amended to allow such service. Initial tests
monitoring the functioning of the satellites, and controlling the were conducted that same year, and further demonstrations
satellites. It is connected to the satellites through TT&C stations continued through 1988. In 1990, operational service began
in Fucino, Italy; Beijing, China; Lake Cowichan in western with aircraft having production (rather than demonstration)
Canada; and Penant in eastern Canada. A backup site is at Eik, equipment. Testing and demonstrations of service for mobile
Norway. The network control center monitors communication or transportable stations on land were also conducted in the
links and assigns capacity in response to requests from users. 1980s. The Inmarsat Convention was amended in 1989 to
It communicates with users through network coordination include these services on an operational basis.
stations in Goonhilly, U.K., Eik, Norway, Sentosa, Singapore, The growth in coast and mobile station population is shown
and Yamaguchi, Japan. The network operations center controls in Fig. 3.12. Numbers prior to 1982 refer to the Marisat system.
the Regional BGAN service through a satellite access station Early coast station locations included the United States, Japan,
in Fucino, Italy, and will control BGAN service on Inmarsat 4 Norway, the United Kingdom, Singapore, France, Brazil,
satellites through the station at Fucino and another at Burum, Russia, Kuwait, Italy, Denmark, and Greece.
Netherlands. Fourth, mobile Earth stations are owned or leased Inmarsat services are categorized according to the type of
and operated by the users. mobile station used. The mobile stations are manufactured in
For its initial space segment, Inmarsat chose to lease various countries and sold and leased throughout the world. A
satellites already existing or in development in order to begin manufacturer must complete Inmarsat type certification testing
operations as early as possible. Several configurations were for each model before it may be used with Inmarsat satellites.
studied. The one chosen was a combination of Marisat and Beginning from 1982, only the standard-A service and
Marecs satellites and a maritime communication subsystem mobile station were available. Initial uses were primarily on
(MCS) on the fifth through ninth Intelsat V satellites. On 1 large oil tankers and cargo and container ships. Other users
February 1982, Inmarsat took over the use of the three Marisat included research ships, fishing vessels, passenger liners,
satellites and began providing service. A few months later, and yachts. Gradually, the diversity of applications increased
the first Marecs satellite was added to the system and became as transportable versions of the standard-A mobile station
the primary Atlantic region satellite. The first Intelsat V with were developed. These new applications include Antarctic
the maritime subsystem was launched in September 1982 and surveys, arctic weather stations, oil production platforms,

146
 Inmarsat

Coast Earth stations 40 a smaller size and lower cost. Called standard C, it began
commercial operation in 1991 and provides half-duplex
30 (one direction at a time) service for short to moderate-length
messages, position reporting, and safety communications,
20 but no voice communications. Applications of standard C
include ships that do not need or cannot afford standard A
10 and many mobile and transportable uses on land. The station
has a hemispherical coverage antenna that does not need any
0 pointing mechanism. The transmissions have a data rate of 600
75 80 85 90 95 00 05
Year end bps, BPSK modulation, and use rate 1⁄2 convolutional coding
1000,000 and interleaving. About 70,000 standard-C terminals were in
use in 2004.
Standard D is a simpler version of standard C for basic
Mobile Earth stations

100,000
position reporting and short messages. Position information
10,000 can be obtained from a GPS receiver in the terminal. This has
evolved to standard D+, primarily used from sites on land.
1000 Standard E, introduced in 1997, is an emergency position
indicating radio beacon, which is now required by IMO on all
100 ships of 300 tons and larger. The equipment includes a GPS
receiver for determination of the location of the beacon. The
10
beacon can be activated by command or automatically upon
immersion in water, and is used for notification of emergencies
75 80 85 90 95 00 05
and for assistance in the ensuing search and rescue process.
Year end
Land stations are equipped for automatic transmission of
Fig. 3.12. Inmarsat shore and ship stations. messages from these beacons to rescue coordination centers.
Standard M, which also began in 1992, is aimed at land
and temporary use at many locations on land where other mobile applications, with a performance between those of
communication facilities were unavailable. By mid-1991, standard B and standard C, or as a complement to standard A.
about 12,000 ship stations and 2000 other stations were in use. The outdoor equipment is much smaller than for standards A
By 1999, about 18,000 ship stations were in use. Standard-A and B, with a weight of about 20 kg. It provides voice, data,
services include voice, fax, data, email, and slow-scan images. and fax services at a 2.4 or 4.8 kbps data rate with BPSK
In the 1980s, data rates up to 9.6 kbps were common, with modulation and rate 1⁄2 coding. Smaller mini-M terminals,
56 kbps and higher rates available only in the ship-to-shore made possible by the high-power spot beams on Inmarsat III
direction. Modulation formats were FM, QPSK (quadriphase satellites, were introduced in 1997 and are used as portable
shift keying), and FSK (frequency shift keying). Standard-A land-based applications and on vehicles, ships, and airplanes.
service will be discontinued in December 2007. The outdoor equipment weight is only 4 kg. By 2003 more
Standard B, which began in 1992, is a second generation, than 100,000 of these terminals were in use.
all-digital equivalent of standard A. It provides similar services The Fleet F33 terminals were introduced in the late 1990s
and performance at somewhat lower station cost. The typical for larger ships. The data rate is 64 kbps from satellite to user
transmission rate is 9.6 kbps, but higher-quality voice can and 28 kbps in the reverse direction. Fleet F77 terminals,
be provided at 16 kbps and data can be transmitted at rates introduced in 2001, operate at 64 kbps in both directions,
up to 64 kbps. QPSK and BPSK (binary phase shift keying) increasing to 128 kbps in 2005.
modulation are used. Both the A and B terminals require an There are also several types of aeronautical stations. Aero
outdoor unit with an antenna, antenna positioning mechanism, C is similar to standard C, providing packet data transmissions
and radome that weighs about 100 kg, which limited use of at 600 bps through a nondirectional antenna with BPSK
these terminals. modulation, rate 1⁄2 coding, and interleaving. Standard H or
Increasing diversity in standard applications led to the Inmarsat aero H, provides voice and continuous or packetized
development of a service and associated mobile station with data. The data rate is up to 9.6 kbps with QPSK modulation, rate

Table 3.2. Inmarsat Station Characteristics

Mobile Stations
Parameter Land Stations A B C M Aero Aero-H
Transmit band C L L L L L L
Receive band C L L L L L L
Transmit EIRP (dBW) <_70 36–37 33 13 25–27 14 26
Receive G/T (dB/K) _>32 –4 –4 –23 –10 to –12 –26 –13
Typical antenna type parabolic parabolic parabolic helix various helix phased array
reflector reflector reflector
Typical antenna size 10 to 13 m diam 1 m diam 1 m diam 2.5 x 10 cm 6 to 8 cm 2.5 x 10 cm 8 cm square
Typical gain (dB) 48–56 20 20 1 12–14 0 12

147
Mobile Services Satellites

1⁄2 coding, and interleaving. The higher power on Inmarsat III 13. O. J. Haga, “Inmarsat: An Example of Global
satellites led to the introduction of smaller aeronautical units: International Cooperation in the Field of Telecommunications,”
aero I, which supports both voice and data communications at Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 47, No. 8 (August 1980).
4.8 kbps; aero L which is data only, at 600 bps; and mini-M 14. T. Satoh, A. Ogawa, and Y. Hirata, “A Survey
aero with voice, fax, and data service at 2.4 kbps. The Swift-64 on the Techniques Applicable to the Future Maritime
terminals are based on the BGAN technology for high quality Satellite Communications System,” Paper 62.1, National
voice, fax, and data; each terminal can support up to four links Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’80 (November 1980).
at 64 kbps.
15. T. Takahashi, “The Inmarsat System and its Future
****** Development,” Paper 82-0472, AIAA 9th Communications
1. D. W. Lipke, “Inmarsat Second Generation Space Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982).
Segment,” IEEE National Telesystem Conference (November 16. K. Komuro et al., “The KDD Ibaraki Coast Earth
1983). Station and Network Coordination Station for the Inmarsat
2. A. F. Ghais, “Future Development of the Inmarsat System,” Paper 82-0531, AIAA 9th Communications Satellite
System,” Paper 84-0750, AIAA 10th Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982).
Systems Conference (March 1984). 17. E. Nicolaidis, “Inmarsat: A New Global Maritime
3. O. Lundberg, “The Inmarsat System and Its Future,” Satellite Communications System,” Satellite Communications,
Space Communication and Broadcasting, Vol. 2, No. 3 Vol. 6, No. 7 (July 1982).
(September 1984). 18. H. H. M. Sondaal, “The Current Situation in the Field
4. T. Pirard, “On Land, In the Air, On the Seas,” Satellite of Maritime Communication Satellites: Inmarsat,” Journal of
Communications, Vol. 9, No. 11 (October 1985). Space Law, Vol. 8, No. 1 (1980).
5. G. H. M. Gleadle, “Maritime Satellite—A Survey,” 19. Yu. S. Atzerov, “The Inmarsat International Maritime
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 27, No. 10 Satellite Communication System,” Telecommunications and
(October 1974). Radio Engineering, Vol. 36/37, No. 12 (December 1982).
6. R. E. Fenton, “Operational Marisat—An Evolving 20. A. DaSilva Curiel, “The First Generation Inmarsat
Concept,” Paper 75-282, AIAA 11th Annual Meeting and System,” Satellite Systems for Mobile Communications and
Technical Display (February 1975). Navigation, IEE Conference Publication No. 222 (June 1983).
7. T. M. Zinner and T. O. Calvit, “A Future Global Satellite 21. J. A. Chambers, “Providing and Operating an
System for Commercial Maritime Services,” EASCON ’75 Inmarsat Coast Earth Station,” Satellite Systems for Mobile
Convention Record (September 1975). Communications and Navigation, IEE Conference Publication
No. 222 (June 1983).
8. Aviation Week & Space Technology (27 November
1972), p. 16; (1 January 1973), p. 22; (10 February 1975), p. 22. P. A. Noekleby, “Inmarsat System Limitations,”
63; (21 April 1975), p. 26; (26 May 1975), p. 46; (1 March Satellite Systems for Mobile Communications and Navigation,
1976), p. 23; (8 March 1976), p. 15; (7 February 1977), p. IEE Conference Publication No. 222 (June 1983).
23; (17 October 1977), pp. 138, 139; (14 November 1977), p. 23. A. Ghais and P. Branch, “Future Development
51; (10 April 1978), p. 18; (22 May 1978), p. 21; (9 October of the Inmarsat System,” Satellite Systems for Mobile
1978), p. 20; (8 January 1979), p. 17; (21 May 1979), p. 63; Communications and Navigation, IEE Conference Publication
(15 February 1982), p. 132; (15 November 1982), pp. 25, 79; No. 222 (June 1983).
(20 June 1983), p. 18; (1 August 1983), p. 16; (11 February
24. R. Khadem, “Planning the Inmarsat System,” Paper
1985), p. 73; (11 March 1985), p. 13; (26 August 1985), p.
13.4, First Canadian Domestic and International Satellite
15; (7 October 1985), p. 55; (25 November 1985), p. 22; (28
Communications Conference (June 1983).
April 1986), p. 133; (8 December 1986), pp. 86, 87, 89; (7
December 1987), p. 47; (21 December 1987), p. 38; (9 January 25. O. Lundberg, “Inmarsat: The First Year and Next
1989), p. 54; (21 August 1989), p. 81; (19 November 1990), Decade,” Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 50, No. 9
p. 76. (September 1983).
9. W. T. Adams, “Inmarsat: The International Maritime 26. O. Lundberg, “Inmarsat Expands Its Horizons,”
Satellite Organization—Its Genesis, Development and Status,” International Journal of Satellite Communications, Vol. 2, No.
Paper 78-552, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems 2 (April–June 1984).
Conference (April 1978). 27. A. F. Ghais, P. Branch, and A. DaSilva Curiel,
10. J. B. Lagarde, “Setting Up a Worldwide Maritime “Broadening Inmarsat Services,” Aerospace America, Vol. 23,
System,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 30, No. 6 (June 1985).
No. 4 (April 1977). 28. “Inmarsat News,” in most issues of Space
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MSat
In 1980, the Canadian government undertook a study of a was considerable variation among the 12. All were intended
communication satellite system to provide service to mobile to serve mobile users and fixed users who are remote from
terminals, including land vehicles, ships, and airplanes. In terrestrial communications. Services included one or more of
1982, the idea evolved into a joint Canada-NASA effort. At the voice; low-rate, short textual or numeric messages; and position
same time, NASA asked the FCC to set aside a portion of the determination. Proposed frequencies were either the 800 MHz
806 to 890 MHz band for this type of system. In 1983, two U.S. band or L-band (approximately 1.5 GHz) or both between
companies submitted applications to the FCC for permission satellites and mobile terminals. Other variations included the
to develop and operate mobile communication systems using number of antenna beams, the number of channels, and power
satellites. As a result of this commercial interest, in 1984 levels.
Canada and NASA agreed to support separate, but coordinated, The 12 applications emphasized several policy questions
commercial systems in each nation. The Canadian name for that took the FCC over a year and a half to resolve. The
this system was MSat; in the United States, the generic term primary questions were which frequencies to use, how many
MSS (mobile satellite service) was commonly used [1–13]. competing systems to allow, and whether to distinguish
The goal of such MSS system was to provide voice, between various types of services and between services to air,
message, and data communications, and perhaps position land, and maritime users. The FCC decision was announced
determination, to mobile users. In urban areas, these services at the end of 1986. The key points were that the United
can be provided by terrestrial systems, but they cover less than States should have an MSS system, that this system serve all
15 percent of the North American land mass and even less of types of mobile users, that L-band be used for links between
ocean areas near the continent. Satellite systems can cover mobile users and satellites and Ku-band between fixed ground
all areas of interest and afford distance-insensitive prices and sites and satellites, that the satellites be provided by a single
flexible call routing regardless of the mobile user’s location. consortium, and that services be offered by any qualified
However, satellite signals are severely attenuated by large entity using satellite capacity provided by the consortium.
buildings in urban centers, so satellite and terrestrial systems This decision was generally accepted by the interested parties,
do have complementary roles. and the main effort through 1987 was to form the consortium.
As a result of the early applications, the FCC started an Some of the original applicants dropped out, but by the end
inquiry into the appropriate national policy for these systems. of 1987 eight companies had reached an agreement, and the
In the spring of 1985, 12 companies (including the original two) consortium was formally incorporated in the spring of 1988 as
submitted proposals in response to an FCC invitation. There American Mobile Satellite Corporation (AMSC).

149
Mobile Services Satellites

In the same year, Telesat Canada, the

designated satellite owner for the Canadian
Fig. 3.13. MSat satellite.
part of the system, formed Telesat Mobile
Inc. (TMI) to manage its MSat work. AMSC
and TMI continued the intergovernmental
cooperation on the system and reached agreement
on a fully coordinated approach. Their system [14–
53] consists of two satellites, identical in design, with
multiple spot beams covering all of North America.
In 1988, AMSC filed a formal application with the FCC
and was granted approval in 1989. In 1990, AMSC and TMI
put out a request for proposals for their two satellites and
chose a contracting team near the end of the year. The team
has a U.S. contractor building the spacecraft and a Canadian
contractor building the communications payload and
integrating the spacecraft and payload.
Some legal challenges to the FCC direction to form
a consortium were resolved in 1992 in a reaffirmation
of the decision with allowance for others to join
the consortium. In 1993, TMI filed for bankruptcy
because several banks withdrew financial support. Later
in the year, a Bell Canada investment led to a restructured
TMI. Development activities then proceeded without further are of two types; one provides a gateway between the mobile
complications. In 1997, there were reports that the two terminals and terrestrial public, private and cellular networks;
companies would combine services in some manner. At the the other, typically located at a customer’s site, is connected
end of 1997, AMSC announced a 5-year lease of its satellite only to that customer’s private network. Links between the
to African Continental Telecommunications (Actel) for use Feederlink Earth Stations and the satellites are at Ku-band;
in the southern part of Africa. At the same time, AMSC and links between the mobile terminals and the satellites are at L-
TMI announced joint use of MSat. The FCC gave approval for band. There is no provision for direct links between mobile
both of these actions in March 1998, but more than a year later terminals; such links must be routed through a Feederlink
neither action had taken place because Actel had not yet raised Earth Station.
the money needed to take over the AMSC satellite. By 1998 Additional system elements are data hubs, remote
AMSC had become a part of Motient Corporation. The actual monitoring stations, and a system test station. The data hub is an
combination of the two companies was not completed until Earth station that is a gateway to and from terrestrial networks
2001; the combination has the name Mobile Satellite Ventures for packet data services. The remote stations monitor the L-
(MSV). band downlink spectrum and do performance analyses. The
The MSat system provides circuit switched voice, data, test station mimics a mobile terminal in initial commissioning
and fax services between mobile terminals and other mobile and periodic validation testing of Feederlink Earth Stations.
terminals, public terrestrial networks, and private terrestrial, The two satellites are identical and were procured together
cellular, and radio networks. It also provides packet data even though each belonged to a different company. The
services between mobile terminals and public and private packet common design allows each satellite to serve as a backup to
networks. The system serves four classes of mobile terminals: the other, eliminating the cost of an in-orbit spare satellite,
land mobile, maritime, aeronautical, and transportable (used and allows sharing of capacity between the satellites. The
only when set up at some location). Potential customers appearance of MSat is dominated by the two large antenna
include people desiring extension of cellular telephone service; reflectors. These reflectors, plus multiple feed elements on the
transportation, aeronautical, and maritime companies wanting satellite body, form the multiple L-band beams. One antenna
continent-wide coverage; companies with operations in remote is for transmission and one for reception. An antenna on the
areas; and federal and local governments. satellite body forms a single Ku-band pattern shaped to match
The primary elements of the MSat system are the Network the North American land mass. The deployed solar arrays and
Operations Center, Network Communications Controller, the support subsystems within the spacecraft body are similar
satellites, Feederlink Earth Stations, and mobile terminals. The to those used on Aussat B and the Galaxy IV and VII satellites.
operations center provides administrative management in areas The satellite is assembled in two modules, bus plus propulsion,
of configuration control, performance assessment, accounting, and payload. Satellite and payload details follow.
security, and fault prevention, detection, diagnosis, and control.
Satellite
The communications controller is in charge of setting up and
Hughes HS601 bus
terminating all calls using knowledge of the configuration
and status of the satellites and the mobile terminals. The two Rectangular body approximately 1.8 x 2.1 x 2.1 m, span across
operations centers were located in Reston, VA, and Ottawa, solar arrays 21 m, span across large reflectors 16.2 m
Canada. Some consolidation of functions occurred as a result 2850 kg at launch, 1720 kg in orbit, beginning of life, 1330 kg dry
of the merger of the two companies. The Feederlink Earth Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 battery, 3300 W/2480
Stations communicate with each other and with the mobile W available in sun/eclipse (L-band EIRP reduced to 60% in
terminals through the satellites. The Feederlink Earth Stations eclipse)

150
 MSat

Three-axis stabilization using gimballed momentum wheels Life

and magnetic torquers Ten-year design life, 12-year service life
Bipropellant liquid propulsion for perigee augmentation, apogee
maneuver, and on-orbit use Orbit
Geostationary, 101°W longitude (AMSC), 106.5°W longitude
Configuration (TMI)
Five Ku-band uplink channels coupled to six L-band downlink
beams (four channels each to one beam, one channel to two Orbital history
beams) for communications to mobile terminals AMSC (MSat-2) launched 7 April 1995, Atlas 2A launch
Six L-band uplink beams coupled to five Ku-band downlink vehicle
channels (four channels each to one beam, one channel to two TMI (MSat-1) launched 20 April 1996, Ariane launch vehicle
beams) for communications from mobile terminals
Management
29 MHz bandwidth with eight subbands available in each Ku-
band channel but shared among all the beams with frequency Developed for AMSC and TMI by Hughes Aircraft Company
reuse possible in east and west beams (spacecraft) and Spar Aerospace (payload)
One Ku-band-to-Ku-band channel for communications between Operated by AMSC, and by Telesat Canada for TMI; from 2003
Feederlink Earth Stations, 5 MHz bandwidth Telesat Canada operated both satellites for MSV
The payload design is dominated by the needs to flexibly
Capacity allocate power and spectrum among the beams to match daily
Approximately 1800 full duplex voice channels per satellite and seasonal fluctuations and long-term growth of demand for
services, and to provide high L-band gain to minimize the size
Transmitter
of the mobile terminals. The large antennas are the answer to
L-band: 1530–1559 MHz
the latter need. They form six beams, as shown in Fig. 3.15,
Two matrix amplifiers each composed of 10 (8 active, 2 with the Alaska/Hawaii beam having two separated parts. The
spare) 80 W solid-state amplifiers in parallel, operated east and west beams have sufficient isolation so that the L-band
backed-off to 36 W per unit amplifier, 288 W per matrix spectrum can be reused in them; otherwise, each of the eight
amplifier
subbands, into which the MSat spectrum has been divided, is
EIRP 57.3 dB total over all signals in all beams used only in one beam. The coverage area is stated to include
Ku-band: 10.75–10.95 GHz ocean areas up to 300 km from shore.
Three linearized TWTAs (one active, two spares), 120 W The forward link begins with five uplink channels
saturated output, typically operated at 35 W output transmitted to the satellite. Each has eight subbands, seven of
3.5 MHz and one of 4.5 MHz bandwidth. One of the channels
EIRP 36 dBW minimum over Canada, CONUS, Caribbean,
feeds each of the east, central, mountain, and west beams. The
Puerto Rico, and most of Mexico; 35 dBW over Hawaii
fifth feeds both the Alaska/Hawaii beam and the Caribbean/
Receiver Puerto Rico beam. Because the downlink frequencies in
L-band: 1631.5–1660.5 MHz each beam must be distinct, except for reuse in the east and
west beams, not all of the subbands are active in each uplink
Seven receivers, six active, one spare
channel. The activity at any one time is the result of gradual
System noise figure 2.1 dB adjustments by the communications controller in response to
G/T 2.7 dB/K minimum over 95% of land area, 1.8 dB/K over the evolving traffic demand.
100% of service area In the satellite all the channels are downconverted to L-
K-band: 13.0–13.15 and 13.2–13.25 GHz band, then to a common IF (intermediate frequency), filtered,
routed, upconverted, and fed to two matrix amplifiers. Each
Two receivers, one active, one spare
matrix amplifier uses eight of 10 available unit amplifiers.
G/T –3 dB/K over 95% of land area Each unit amplifier has four 20 W devices in parallel in the
output stage, operated backed-off to provide 36 W output
Antenna per unit amplifier. Each matrix amplifier has four inputs and
L-band: two offset fed, unfurlable reflectors, projected aperture four outputs. Each signal is amplified by all eight active unit
5.2 x 6.8 m, one transmit, one receive, each with 23 cup-dipole
amplifiers and appears at the output port that corresponds to
feeds to form six beams covering Canada, the United States,
and their coastal waters, plus the Caribbean and Puerto Rico, the input port for that signal. One matrix amplifier is connected
31.1/30.4 dB transmit/receive gain, 23 dB minimum isolation to the east and central downlink beams; its other two ports
between east and west beams, circular polarization are unused. The other matrix amplifier is connected to the
other four beams. The beams are formed by a beam-forming
Ku-band: one offset-fed shaped reflector, 30 in. diam, one feed
horn for North America, one for Hawaii, linear polarization network which couples the matrix amplifier outputs to the 23
feeds of the transmit antenna; some of the feeds are used for
Telemetry and command more than one beam.
Telemetry: in 11.7–11.704 GHz The return link begins with uplinks transmitted by mobile
terminals on frequencies assigned by the communications
Beacon: 10.751 GHz
controller. They are received through the six beams formed by
Command: near 14 GHz the receive antenna and beam-forming network. Each beam is
connected to one receiver where the signals are downconverted,
filtered, and upconverted to an L-band frequency plan matching

151
Mobile Services Satellites

L-band L-band
receive Ku-band transmit

BFN BFN BFN

D
13.0–13.15 and 13.2–13.25 GHz
1530–1559 MHz

Matrix
IF unit 1 amplifier
• 1
S 14.4 GHz H •
•
• Matrix
IF unit 1 amplifier
2

1631.5–1660.5 MHz 10.75–10.95 GHz

L-band receiver 1 TW

•
• C H S 12.1 GHz S S TW S
•
L-band receiver 7 TW

IF unit: L-band receiver:

Subband 1 Subband 1
filter filter

A
• 1827 1928.5
• B
• • • C
• • • C
• • • • • •
• • • •
Subband 8 Subband 8
filter filter

A 1827 1928.5 B

Matrix amplifier

T
Frequencies:
T LO “A” LO “B” K-band Uplink
Beam (MHz) (MHz) (GHz)
Output hybrid network

T
Input hybrid network

East 900 900 13.203–13.232

Central 990 930 13.113–13.142
T
Mountain 1020 960 13.083–13.112
West 1050 990 13.053–13.082
T
AK/HI&Carib 1080 1020 13.023–13.052
T Filtering in IF unit and L-band receiver is at 268
to 297 MHz.
T K-band downlink is 2.3 GHz lower than uplink
for east beam, 2.24 GHz lower for other beams.
T

Fig. 3.14. MSat communication subsystem.

152
 MSat

the Ku-band downlink. The signals from the

six beams are then combined, upconverted,
amplified, and transmitted through the Ku-
band antenna.
Less than 5 percent of the satellite
capacity is used for control channels.
One is a TDM (time division multiplexer)
channel continuously broadcast to all
mobile terminals. It contains both a bulletin
board with general information needed by
all and control signals addressed to specific
mobile terminals. There is a TDMA (time
division multiple access) channel for
mobile terminal responses to these control
signals, which usually indicate that a call
is being placed to the mobile terminal.
There is also a random-access channel
for mobile terminals to use to make a call
request. Finally, there are pilot tones used (a)
for Doppler correction.
Whenever a call request is made,
the communication controller assigns
frequencies and does a validation check;
it also assigns a Feederlink Earth Station
or data hub when the request is made by
a mobile terminal. The total call setup
sequence requires about 2 to 5 s. Once a
call is in progress, any further signaling
takes place in-band instead of in the control
channels, so that the mobile terminal does
not need to process more than one signal at a
time. Voice transmissions are single channel
per carrier with QPSK modulation at a 6.75
kbps rate. The voice coder operates at 4.2
kbps and adds 2.2 kbps of error correction (b)
coding; the remaining bits are for framing
and synchronization. Circuit switched data Fig. 3.15. MSat antenna beams; (a) L-band, (b) Ku-band
may be transmitted at 1.2 or 2.4 kbps using
rate 1/2 encoding or at 4.8 kbps using rate
3/4 encoding. Packet switched data is transmitted at rates In January 2005 the FCC authorized MSV to develop and
between 2.25 and 5 kbps. launch a new satellite to 63.5°W longitude for service to South
AMSC and TMI began limited service in 1991 using America and between South America and the United States.
satellite capacity leased from Inmarsat. The AMSC satellite Communication services will be like those offered on the
was launched in April 1995, and commercial service started in MSats. The frequency bands authorized for the new satellite
January of the following year. The TMI satellite was launched are 1525 to 1559 and 1626.5 to 1660.5 GHz for user links and
in April 1996. All traffic was transferred from the Inmarsat in the range 10.7 to 13.25 GHz for gateway links.
lease to these satellites. However, both satellites had problems In June 2005 the FCC authorized MSV to develop and
in their early months in orbits. AMSC suffered a power loss in launch a second-generation satellite to operate at 101°W
its eastern beam but was able to compensate by reconfiguring longitude. In January 2006 MSV announced that Boeing had
its beams; TMI suffered a total loss of its western beam. In been selected to build three satellites, MSV-1 and MSV-2 to
1997, allegations that the failure was caused by negligence in serve the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean,
satellite testing led to a lawsuit. The suit was withdrawn when and MSV-SA to serve South America. These satellites are to be
negotiations between the manufacturer and insurers resumed, launched in 2009 and 2010. They will have a launch mass near
but the matter was not settled until 1999. 5500 kg, generate over 10 kW of power, and have a projected
In November 2004 the FCC authorized MSV to build an life of 15 years. The L-band (1500–1600 MHz) antenna will
Ancillary Terrestrial Component (ATC)—repeaters to enhance be 22 m diam.
the MSV’s coverage in urban areas where buildings block
******
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(satellite-ATC) terminals. nications Conference (June 1983).

153
Mobile Services Satellites

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Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994).
50. “FCC Grants License Modifications for AMSC’s
41. R. H. McCauley and J. O. Pike, “Feederlink Earth Satellite System,” (13 March 1998), http://www.fcc.gov/
Station to Provide Mobile Satellite Services in North America,” Bureaus/International/News_Releases/1998/nrin8008.html (2
Paper 94-0943, AIAA 15th International Communications November 1999).
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994).
51. A. Pedersen, “MSAT Dispatch Radio Service: 2-
42. G. A. Johanson, N. G. Davies, and W. R. H. Tisdale, Way Trunked Radio Service Throughout North America,”
“Implementation of a System to Provide Mobile Satellite Proceedings of the Sixth International Mobile Satellite
Services in North America,” Proceedings of the Third Conference (June 1999), p. 366.
International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1993).
52. “TMI/MSAT,” http://www.msat.tmi.ca/tmimsat/index.
43. F. G. Karam et al., “Design and Implementation html (2 November 1999).
Considerations of a MSat Packet Data Network,” Proceedings of
the Third International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1993). 53. “MSV Network,” http://www.msvlp.com/about/msv_
network.cfm (5 February 2005).

ASEAN Cellular Satellite System (ACeS)

The ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) Cellular funding after the Asian economic problems; in contrast, a lack
Satellite System, or ACeS, was developed to provide voice, fax, of funding has been a major cause of delay for other satellite
data, and paging communications to mobile subscribers and programs.
to fixed subscribers who might not have a
connection to terrestrial communications
networks. The ACeS concept began in
1993, and the PT Asia Cellular Satellite
joint venture was formed in 1995 by PT
Pasifik Satelit Nusantara of Indonesia,
the Philippine Long Distance Telephone
Company, and Jasmine International of
Thailand. In 1999, Lockheed Martin,
through its since-dissolved Global
Telecommunications subsidiary, made an
investment, becoming the fourth partner
in the joint venture; this investment
compensated for promised loans that could
not be provided because of the economic
weakness in Asia. These four remain the
partners owning ACeS. A strength of the
ACeS program is that full funding was
committed early in the program life and
that the Lockheed investment restored full
Fig. 3.16. ACeS Garuda satellite.

155
Mobile Services Satellites

In 1995, a contract was awarded for the ACeS satellites, for reception and one for transmission, that each form 140 spot
which have the name Garuda [1–11]. The next year a contract beams that fill the coverage area. Separate L-band frequencies
was awarded for development and production of 100,000 are used in each of a group of seven beams; the seven-beam
user terminals. These terminals are dual-mode—able to pattern is repeated 20 times to produce 20-fold frequency
communicate through either terrestrial cellular systems or reuse. Separate transmit-and-receive antennas are necessary,
ACeS. Four types of terminals were being sold in 2005. One because of the small separation between transmit-and-receive
is a handheld telephone. Another is a variant of this telephone frequencies, to prevent transmit-to-receive interference. The
adapted for fixed use. The third is a maritime terminal. These antennas deployed after the satellite reached geostationary
three types each support a single voice channel or low-rate orbit, but a problem was detected during testing. The company
data. The fourth type is a high-speed data terminal that weighs reported that this problem will only limit performance in later
about 7 kg and has speeds up to 256 kbps. years when the user population grows to near system capacity.
The ACeS service area extends from Pakistan and India The multiple L-band beams are created by beam-forming
through the Himalayan countries and China to Korea and networks. The transmit network is followed by 11 multiport
Japan and southward to Indonesia and Papua, New Guinea, amplifiers, each with eight inputs and eight outputs, which
and includes the ocean areas adjacent to these countries. distribute power among the beams in proportion to the number
The satellite control facility and the network control center of signals present at any given time. The transmitter power is
are located on Indonesia’s Batam Island (near Singapore). sufficient for simultaneous voice links to 11,000 user terminals
The initial ACeS gateways, which interconnect ACeS with with 10 dB margin or to more than double that number with
terrestrial communications, are near Jakarta, Manila, and lower margin. The receive beam-forming network has 88
Bangkok. Additional gateways can be added as needed. inputs, each fed by a low-noise amplifier connected to one
The satellite contract included the satellite control facility, of the antenna feeds. The satellite has a single C-band beam
network control center, the first three gateways, launch for the whole coverage area. Additional ACeS information
services, and training, operations, and maintenance. One follows.
satellite was launched in February 2000, and portions of a Satellite
second were built for future expansion of the system. Testing Lockheed Martin A2100AX bus
with handheld telephones began the month after launch, and
commercial service began in September 2000 in Indonesia, Rectangular body
November 2000 in the Philippines, and 2001 in Thailand. Approximately 4500 kg at launch
The satellites use C-band for communications with Solar cells and NiH2 batteries, 14 kW at beginning of life, 9 kW
gateways and L-band for communications with user terminals. at end of life
ACeS users can communicate directly with each other through
Three-axis-stabilized
the satellite using L-band; gateways and the network control
center communicate with each other through the satellite Configuration
using C-band. C-band links with gateways and L-band links with users coupled
The most prominent features of the satellite are the two 12 m through a digital signal router; dual-polarization frequency
diameter reflectors. These are part of the L-band antennas, one reuse in C-band, 20-fold multibeam frequency reuse in L-band

6425–6725 3400–3700

1 1 1 1–8 1
MPA
Channelizer
and router

1624.5–1660.5 8
B B 1525–
F F 1559
N N
88 140 140 81–88 81
MPA
88

BFN Beam Forming Network

MPA Multiport Amplifier (also called Matrix Power Amplifier)

Fig. 3.17. ACeS communication subsystem.

156
 Thuraya

Management
Developed by Lockheed Martin for ACeS
Operated by ACeS

******
1. S. C. Taylor and A. R. Adiwoso, “The Asia Cellular
Satellite System,” Paper AIAA-96-1134, AIAA 16th
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(February 1996).
2. N. P. Nguyen, P. A. Buhion, and A. R. Adiwoso, “The
Asia Cellular Satellite System,” Proceedings of the Fifth Inter-
national Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1997), p. 145.
3. M. Forest, S. Richard, and C. A. McDonach, “ACeS
Antenna Feed Arrays,” Proceedings of the Fifth International
Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1997), p. 387.
4. M. T. Schiavoni, “Communication Performance
Fig. 3.18. ACeS coverage areas. Simulation for the Asia Cellular Satellite System,” Paper 3.4,
IEEE Military Communications Conference: Milcom ‘97
(November 1997).
Transmitter
C: 3400–3700 MHz 5. “Indonesia: Lockheed Takes 30% Stake in ACeS,”
http://www.ita.doc.go/aerospace/j-indonesia.htm, 29 January
L: 1525–1559 MHz, 11 multiport amplifiers each consisting of 8 1999 (14 September 1999).
active and 2 spare 24 W solid state power amplifiers, aggregate
EIRP at least 73 dBW 6. L. Dayaratna et al., “Design And Development Of The
Frequency Generation System For The ACeS Spacecraft,”
Receiver 1999 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium
C: 6425–6725 MHz Digest, Vol. 3 , pp. 1051-1054 (June 1999).
L: 1626.5–1660.5 MHz, G/T at least 15 dB/K 7. L. Dayaratna, L. Walshak, and T. Mahdawi, “ACeS
Communication Payload System Overview ,” Paper 2000-
Antenna
1252, 18th AIAA International Communications Satellite
C: one offset-fed reflector, dual linear polarizations Systems Conference and Exhibit (April 2000).
L: two 39 ft diam reflectors (one transmit, one receive); 88 feeds
8. N. V. Jespersen, “Satellite-Based Cellular Communica-
per reflector, each feed is crossed dipoles in a hexagonal cup;
left-hand circular polarization tion,” IEEE Microwave Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 2 (June 2000).
9. ACeS Business Development Team, “ACeS, Asia
Life Cellular Satellite Enhancing Mobility and Providing
Twelve-year service life Connectivity,” Pacific Telecommunications Review (2nd
Quarter 2001).
Orbit
Geosynchronous, 123°E longitude 10. “ACeS System,” http://www.acesinternational.com/
corporate/index.php?fuseaction=System.coverage (4 February
Orbital history 2005).
Launched 12 February 2000, in use 11. “ACeS Profile,” http://www.acesinternational.com/
Proton launch vehicle corporate/index.php?fuseaction=Profile.idea (4 February
2005).

Thuraya
Thuraya is a private company established in 1997 in the United is a spare that might be launched a few years after the first
Arab Emirates (UAE) to develop a regional mobile satellite to increase on-orbit capacity, the launch and in-orbit testing
system [1–4]. “Thuraya” is the Arabic name for a cluster of of the first satellite, the ground control centers, and 235,000
stars. The investors are 16, later 19, telecommunications and handheld terminals.
investment organizations in the Arab world plus one German The Thuraya system has a satellite segment, a ground
company and the satellite developer. In 1998, a bank loan segment, and a user segment. The main part of the ground
completed the financing of the project. This was an important segment is the primary gateway at Sharjah, UAE. This gateway
event since lack of funding is a major cause of delay for includes the satellite operation center, the payload control
satellite programs. point, antennas for communicating with the satellites, and
A contract for system development was signed in September the uplink beacon station used as a pointing reference for the
1997. The contract includes two satellites, the second of which satellite. A second uplink beacon station in Egypt is also part

157
Mobile Services Satellites

of the ground segment. In the future the ground segment

could include regional gateways in other countries.
The user terminal segment includes handheld, vehicular,
and fixed user terminals. The handheld and vehicular terminals Fig. 3.19. Thuraya satellite.
are dual-mode: the Global System for Mobiles (GSM)
terrestrial cellular telephone signal structure used in the
countries served by Thuraya and the satellite mode. The
fixed terminals have only the satellite mode. By fall
2003, 170,000 subscribers were using the system
through these terminals, and Thuraya had placed
an order for an additional 100,000 terminals to be
manufactured. By the end of 2005 Thuraya had
250,000 subscribers. The number is expected
to grow as regulatory changes and granting of
licenses open markets in more countries within
their coverage area.
Thuraya services are voice, fax, message,
and data transmissions at rates up to 9.6 kbps. GPS
is used to determine user locations. Thuraya uses C-band
for communications between gateways and the satellite and
L-band for communications between user terminals and the
satellite. User terminals will communicate directly with each Configuration
other through the satellite using L-band. A digital processor C-band links with gateways and L-band links with
on the satellite controls allocation of L-band transmit power users coupled through a digital signal processor
among the antenna beams and can reconfigure the number and
shape of the beams, subject to a lower limit of 0.7 deg beam Transmitter
diameter. A maximum of about 300 beams is possible. The C: 3400–3625 MHz
processor can also use or exclude any portion of the 34 MHz L- Two active and two spare 125 W TWTAs
band spectrum for which the system is designed. Considerable
L: 1525–1559 MHz
frequency reuse is achieved by using the identical frequencies
in multiple, nonadjacent beams. The system is able to support 128 17 W solid-state power amplifiers (one per antenna
13,750 simultaneous two-way links through one satellite. feed element)
The first Thuraya satellite was launched in 2000 and brought Receiver
into commercial operation in 2001. Service introduction was
C: 6425–6725 MHz
gradual, limited by delays in getting licenses to serve the
various countries in the service area. The late 2004 service L: 1626.5–1660.5 MHz
area for the satellite at 44°E longitude, which is larger than the
Antenna
original service area, is shown in Fig. 3.20.
The first satellite (Fig. 3.19) was one of six from the L: 12.2 x 15.8 m deployed reflector with 12.2 m diam effective
aperture, 128 cup-dipole feed elements
manufacturer that had a solar array problem. The reflectors
along both sides of the solar arrays were designed to con- C: 1.27 diam shaped reflector, dual polarizations
centrate additional solar energy on the arrays to increase their
Life
power output, but their reflectivity degraded much faster than
expected. The second satellite does not have these reflectors. Twelve-year service life
It was launched in 2003. After in-orbit testing, all traffic
was transferred to it. The first satellite was moved to 98.5°E
longitude where it will be put into use if Thuraya can obtain
licenses to serve countries in the part of the world shown by
the dashed line in Fig. 3.20. The power degradation will be
accommodated by using a limited number of antenna beams
on this satellite. A third satellite was authorized in 2002; it is
being built and will be launched in 2007. Additional Thuraya
information is as follows.
Satellite
Boeing Geomobile (GEM) bus
Rectangular body, 38.5 m across deployed solar array
5250 kg at launch, 3200 kg in orbit, beginning of life
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, 13 kW beginning
of life, 11 kW end of life
Three-axis stabilization
Bipropellant liquid apogee and on-orbit propulsion Fig. 3.20. Thuraya coverage area.
158
 TerreStar

Orbit 1. “Technology” (with links for Architecture, Space

Geosynchronous, initial inclination near 6 deg Segment, User Segment, Ground Segment coverage). http://
www.thuraya.com/tech/index.htm (4 February 2005). (3
Orbital history November 1999).
Thuraya 1: launched 21 October 2000, in use, was at 44°E
2. “Thuraya-1,” http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/
longitude, now at 98.5°E longitude
space/bss/factsheets/geomobile/thuraya/thuraya.html, June
Thuraya 2: launched 10 June 2003, in use at 44°E longitude 2002 (7 February 2005).
Thuraya 3: launch scheduled early 2007 3. B. Miller, “Flying High with Thuraya,” Launchspace
Sea Launch Zenit launch vehicle (June/July 1998).
Management 4. “View from the Top, Yousuf Al Sayed, CEO, Thuraya
Developed by Hughes Space and Communications, later Satellite Telecommunications Co.” Via Satellite, Vol. 21, No. 1
Boeing Satellite Systems for Thuraya (January 2006).
Operated by Thuraya

******

TerreStar
TerreStar Networks is developing a satellite to provide mobile Management
communication services to the United States and Canada [1–4]. Developed by Space Systems/Loral for TerreStar
This program was initiated by TMI of Canada; in 2001–2002
TMI, Motient and other partners in the MSat/MSV system ******
formed TerreStar to manage this new system. One satellite is 1. TerreStar Networks, http://www.terrestarnetworks.
in development to be brought into operation by the end of 2008 com/ (11 April 2005).
with a contract option for a second satellite. The option for the
second satellite became a firm contract in August 2006. The 2. FCC, “Memorandum Opinion and Order,” (21 June
satellites (Fig. 3.21) have a large S-band antenna said to be 2004), hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-04-
capable of generating hundreds of beams covering the 50 U.S. 144A1.doc, document 04-144, (11 April 2005).
states, Canada, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The 3. “Space Systems/Loral Begins Construction of
systems plan includes an ancillary terrestrial component for TerreStar Satellite System,” http://ssloral.com/html/pressrel/
communications in places where the satellite signal is blocked pr20050411.html (11 April 2005), (12 April 2005).
by structures. Available details about these satellites are as
4. Loral Space and Communications, “Space Systems/
follows.
Loral Awarded Contract to Build Terrestar-2 Satellite”
Satellite (15 August 2006), http://investor.loral.com/releasedetail.
Space Systems/Loral 1300 bus cfm?ReleaseID=207388 (4 September 2006).
Configuration
S-band links with users and Ku-band links with gateway

Transmitter
S: in 2180–2200 MHz
Ku: near 11 or 12 GHz

Receiver
S: in 2000–2020 MHz Fig. 3.21. TerreStar satellite.
Ku: near 13 or 14 GHz

Antenna
S: deployed mesh reflector approximately 18
m diam

Life
Fifteen-year service life

Orbit
Geosynchronous, 107.3°W longitude

Orbital history
1. Launch planned for 2008
2. Delivery planned for 2009

159
Mobile Services Satellites

Other Geosynchronous Orbit Mobile Services Satellites

Afro-Asian Satellite Communications (ASC) [1–3], an Indian contract was announced to build a geostationary orbit satellite
organization, signed agreements in 1995 and 1998 with Hughes [7-8]. The satellite will operate in the 2180 to 2200 MHz band
and Lockheed Martin, respectively, for geosynchronous orbit for downlinks and 2000 to 2020 MHz band for uplinks. Launch
satellites to serve mobile users. Work did not proceed on either is planned for 2007. The ICO system will include an ancillary
contract; apparently lack of financing was a major hindrance. terrestrial component similar to MSat and TerreStar.
By 1999 the name Agrani was associated with the project. In
******
1999 and 2000 there were reports about further initiatives but
nothing has resulted. 1. B. A. Smith, “HS 601 to Link Handheld Phones,”
Asia Pacific Mobile Telecommunications (APMT) [4], was Aviation Week & Space Technology (30 January 1995).
formed by companies in China and Singapore to develop a 2. C. Bulloch, “Afro-Asian Satellite Communications
mobile services system. A contract was given to Hughes early Ltd,” Via Satellite, Vol. 10, No. 10 (October 1995).
in 1996 but little progress was made. By 1998 APMT still had
obtained only a small part of the total financing necessary, and 3. Space News (20 April 1998), p. 3; (19 October 1998),
there was U.S. Government resistance to transfer of technical p. 1; (22 February 1999), p. 30; (20 September 1999), p. 4; (6
data from Hughes to APMT and to the export license for the December 1999), p. 6; (28 February 2000), p. 4.
satellite to be launched by China. At the same time there was 4. Space News (12 February 1996), p. 1; (6 October 1997),
a Congressional review of technology transfer to China. In p. 3; (13 April 1998), p. 1; (6 July 1998), p. 2; (17 August
February 1999, the Government denied the export license, and 1998), p. 3; (8 March 1999), p. 1.
APMT terminated its contract with Hughes. 5. “Alcatel Space Signs Satellite System Contract With
In 2000 AirTV announced a contract with Alcatel Space AirTV” (13 March 2000), http://www.alcatel.com/vpr/ (23
to build four satellites, which would be launched to provide December 2004).
global communications service to aircraft in flight [5]. The start
of service was said to be 2003. However, this did not happen. 6. “AirTV Signs With Arianespace to Launch its First
In 2004 AirTV was still working to develop a system. In Broadband In-Flight Entertainment/Communications Satellite
September 2004 it announced an agreement with Arianespace in 2007” (23 September 2004), http://www.airtv.net/press_
to launch its first satellite in 2007 [6], even though no satellite release_092304.html (23 December 2004).
development contract had been announced. Nothing more had 7. “Space Systems/Loral to Build Advanced Mobile Satel-
been announced by mid-2006. lite for ICO Satellite Management, LLC,” (26 April 2005), http://
ICO developed a medium altitude mobile services system ssloral.com/html/pressrel/pr20050426.html (16 May 2005).
and launched two satellites (see below). Although it had 8. P. B. de Selding, “ICO Global Reinvents Itself with
apparently gone out of business, in April 2005 a new ICO Ground-Based Repeater Plan,” Space News (9 May 2005), p. 16.

Peole and Eole

Eole was a satellite developed by the French national space formation was used to compute the sensor platform location.
agency for communication with, and data collection from, The satellite details are as follows.
remote balloon-borne meteorological sensors [1–3]. It was
Satellite
a cooperative program, which NASA called CAS-A. Peole
(Preparation for Eole) was an experimental satellite with a Octagonal cylinder, 28 in. diam, 21.5 in. height, approximately
46 in. overall height excluding gravity-gradient boom
similar payload. The basic function of Eole was to interrogate
the sensors and to relay data from them to a ground station. 186 lb in orbit
During the first five months after Eole was launched, 500 Solar cells
weather balloons were released from Argentina. Eole relayed Gravity-gradient stabilization
pressure and temperature data from them to a station in France.
Eole also was used to determine the location of the balloons to Transmitter
provide data on wind velocity. 464 MHz (interrogation of sensors), 4 W output, 48 bps
Eole (Fig. 3.22) was gravity-gradient-stabilized using a
136.35 MHz (to ground station), 250 mW output, 1536 bps
mast deployed in the anti-Earth direction with a weight on
top of the mast. Antennas were on the end of the satellite, Receiver
which was oriented toward Earth. Solar cells were mounted 401 MHz (from sensors), 48 bps
both on the satellite body and on panels, which were de-
148.25 MHz (from ground station)
ployed in orbit. Eole had two communication subsystems:
one operated at 401 and 464 MHz for links with sensor plat- Antenna
forms, and the other used 136 and 148 MHz for links with Conical spiral for 401 and 464 MHz
ground terminals. The satellite had an onboard memory so
that it could collect sensor data even when it was not in sight Turnstile for 136 and 148 MHz
of a ground terminal. The links between Eole and the sensor Onboard storage
platforms were designed so that the satellite could collect Ferrite core memory, capacity 8192 16-bit words
data on the link range and range rate. On the ground, this in-
160
 Argos

Life
Six-month design life

Orbit
Peole: 270 x 386 nmi, 15 deg inclination Fig. 3.22. Eole satellite.
Eole: 365 x 478 nmi, 50 deg inclination

Orbital history
Peole: launched 12 December 1970, decayed 16 June 1980
Eole: launched 16 August 1971, operated more than 2 years
NASA Scout launch vehicle

Management
Developed by Laboratoire Central de Télécommunications
(France) for CNES (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales—
French national space agency)
Eole was launched in August 1971 by a NASA Scout vehicle.
Although the design life was 6 months, it operated for more
than 2 years. Following the initial balloon experiments, Eole
was used to relay data from a variety of other sensor platforms.
The Eole mission was followed by the Argos data collection
package built by France and flown on the U.S. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) meteorological
satellites in low-altitude polar orbits.
******
1. L. Mirabel and G. Cardona, “Eole Satellite: Weather
Balloon Location and Data Collection System,” Electrical 2. Flight International (26 August 1971), p. 343.
Communication, Vol. 47, No. 1 (1972). 3. “Spacecraft Details,” TRW Space Log, Vol. 10 (1972).

Argos
Argos is a system for locating and collecting data from transmit messages up to 32 bytes long at preset intervals of 45 to
environmental monitoring and scientific sensors (it has no 200 s. The Argos receivers on the NOAA satellites receive the
association with a U.S. Air Force satellite of the same name messages, measure the received frequency, and add a time tag
launched in 1999). Many of the sensors are located on ocean to the messages. The received frequency includes the Doppler
buoys; others are at fixed locations, on ships or balloons, or shift caused by the relative motion between the satellite and
attached to animals. The Argos system [1–7] is a cooperative transmitter. If at least four messages are received during a
activity of NOAA and France’s CNES. NOAA builds, satellite pass over a transmitter, then ground processing can
launches, and operates polar-orbiting weather satellites; CNES determine the transmitter position; accuracies can be better
builds the Argos space segments that are on these satellites. than 500 ft. Alternatively, the data-gathering equipment can
NOAA, and more recently government satellite operators in include a GPS receiver for greater accuracy.
other nations, provide satellite telemetry and ephemerides to NOAA-15, launched in 1998, was the first satellite to
CLS/Argos of France (and its U.S. subsidiary, Service Argos), have the Argos 2 package. This package has eight, rather than
which on behalf of CNES carries out the data processing and four, data recovery units, more sensitivity, and other design
dissemination to users in almost 40 nations. changes that enable it to receive more messages and to better
Argos operations began in 1978 with equipment on the discriminate between messages that overlap in time. NOAA-
TIROS-N weather satellite. Two satellites give a total of six to 16 and NOAA-17, launched in September 2000 and June 2002,
eight passes per day over equatorial locations, increasing with carry the two primary Argos payloads at the beginning of 2005.
latitude to 28 passes per day at the poles. Each pass is 8 to 15 Some data are also obtained through Argos payloads on older
min long. More than a dozen regional sites receive real-time satellites, and NOAA-18 launched May 2005. The Argos 3
transmissions from the satellites. Three main sites, in France, package, with increased throughput, improved sensitivity, and
Virginia, and Alaska, receive both real-time transmissions a link for transmissions to the platforms, will be on European
and replays of recordings of all information gathered in the low orbit Metop satellites to be launched beginning at the end
previous orbit of the satellite. of 2006 and a NOAA satellite to be launched in 2008.
Platform transmitter terminals are coupled to the equipment
******
gathering the environmental or science data. (There are
no transmissions from the satellites to the terminals until 1. N. Bériot, M. Giumera, and A. Beuraud, “Utilisation
the Argos 3 satellite payloads begin operations.) By 1999, des Communications Numériques par Satellites dans le Service
approximately 6000 were in operation, and by 2003 over 8000 Météorologique Français,” 8th International Conference on
were in operation. All transmitters operate at 401.65 MHz and Digital Satellite Communications (April 1989).
161
Mobile Services Satellites

2. D. A. Clark, “Enhancements to the Argos System,” Telemetry and Geo-positioning Services Company for North
Proceedings of the Twenty-First International Symposium on America,” http://www.argosinc.com/ (5 February 2004).
Remote Sensing of the Environment, Vol. 1, ERIM, Ann Arbor 5. “Basic Description of the Argos System,” http://www.
MI (1987) argosinc.com/docs/sysdesc.pdf (5 February 2004).
3. P. Lafuma and L. Ruiz, “Argos: a Modern and 6. E. Bouisson et al., “Argos 3—The New Generation of
Adaptable Space System,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 38, Nos. the Argos System,” 19th AIAA International Communications
4–8 (February–April 1996). Satellite Systems Conference and Exhibit (April 2001).
4. “Welcome to Service Argos, Inc. A Global Data 7. “The Argos System,” http://www.cls.fr/html/argos/
welcome_en.html (5 February 2005).

Sarsat-Cospas
In 1970 a plane carrying two U.S. congressional representatives is available. Civilian transmitters use 121.5 MHz, and western
crashed in a remote region of Alaska. Despite a massive search nation military transmitters use 243 MHz. More than 600,000
and rescue effort, no trace of them or their aircraft has ever 121 MHz beacons exist. Improved transmitters were made
been found. In reaction, Congress mandated that all aircraft available beginning in 1985; they transmit in the 406 to 406.1
in the United States carry an emergency locator transmitter MHz band. More than 300,000 of these were installed by
(ELT). This device was designed to activate automatically after 2003. They have improved frequency stability, which allows
a crash and transmit a homing signal. The frequency selected more accurate position information to be derived from the
for ELT transmissions was 121.5 MHz, the international received, Doppler-shifted frequency. In addition, they transmit
aircraft distress frequency. This system worked, but had many only a 440 or 520 ms burst approximately every 50 s. Thus,
limitations. The frequency was cluttered, there was no way to multiple transmitters within view of one satellite have a small
verify who the signal was originating from, and most important, probability of interfering with each other. Each beacon has a
another aircraft had to be within range to receive the signal. unique identification code built into it, which is automatically
The maritime equivalent of an ELT is an Emergency Positing part of the transmitted bursts. Finally, their burst transmissions
Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB); people traveling on land may contain data that will include the identity of the vessel in
may carry a Personal Locator Beacon (PLB). trouble and, if the beacon contains or is connected to a GPS
After several years, the limitations of ELTs began to receiver, its location.
outweigh their benefits. At that time, a satellite-based system The first Sarsat-equipped satellite was Cosmos 1383,
was conceived. Without the use of satellites, emergencies in launched in June 1982. The second was the U.S. NOAA 8
remote areas might remain unknown to rescue organizations, weather satellite launched in March 1983. The third was
or lengthy searches might be required because of lack of Cosmos 1447, launched in the same month. Another Cosmos
information about the location of the emergency. Because and NOAA 9 were launched in 1984. The nominal Cospas-
satellites can see a large portion of Earth, they have a much Sarsat constellation has four satellites in orbit. Through 2005,
better chance of receiving and localizing emergency signals. 10 Soviet/Russian satellites and 10 U.S. satellites equipped
Canada tested this concept in 1975 using an Oscar satellite. with Cospas-Sarsat payloads have been launched. In 2005
Satellite reception is now being used in a program called three of these satellites were fully operational and three more
Sarsat (search and rescue satellite-aided tracking) [1–25]. In were partially operational. Two more from Russia and one
Russia, it is called Cospas, from the Russian words for Space from the United States are to be launched through 2007. The
System for the Search of Distressed Vessels (Cosmicheskaya first three Soviet satellites were numbered in their Cosmos
Sistyema Poiska Avariynich Sudov). This program, a series. The next seven are civilian navigation satellites with
cooperative effort of the United States, Canada, France, and the name Nadezhda, meaning hope. The future launches will
Russia, formally began in 1979. After 2 years of successful be dedicated Cospas satellites. On the U.S. side, the satellites
demonstrations and use, the four countries signed an have been part of the NOAA series.
agreement in 1984 marking the start of an operational system. The Cospas satellites are in circular orbits at 1000 km
In 1988, a further agreement established the system. This altitude and 83 deg inclination; the Sarsat satellites are at 850
agreement emphasized the free use of the system for all search km altitude and 99 deg inclination. The polar orbit provides
and rescue efforts and established the Sarsat-Cospas council coverage of northern latitudes not visible to geosynchronous
to manage the system. The council has representatives from orbit, and the motion of the satellite over the beacon generates
the four countries, which provide all the satellite equipment; the Doppler shift used for position estimation. The Cosmos
30 other countries and several international organizations are satellites have 121 and 406 MHz receivers. The NOAA
associated with the system. Regular operations are managed satellites have Canadian-built 121 and 243 MHz receivers
by a Secretariat in London. The Sarsat-Cospas system is and a French-built 406 MHz receiver and processor. All the
described here with the “Little LEO” systems because it serves satellites retransmit received signals at 1544.5 MHz. Signals
mobile users from similar orbits with similar frequencies and received at 121 and 243 MHz are retransmitted in real time
provides the same service (transmission of locations and short only; if no ground station is in view, the signal is lost. In
messages). contrast, the 406 MHz signals are processed on the satellites;
The emergency transmitters, which were developed in the resultant data are retransmitted immediately and stored
the 1970s, transmit a distinctively modulated signal. The for later transmission to other ground locations. Even though
transmission is continuous from activation as long as power some of the satellites had failed 406 MHz processors, 1997

162
 Sarsat-Cospas

was the first year in which more emergency responses were 1. M. M. Blume, “Search and Rescue Satellite Aided
initiated by 406 MHz signals than by 121.5 MHz signals. Tracking (SARSAT),” Signal, Vol. 36, No. 5 (January 1982).
The Cospas-Sarsat Council decided in 2000 that use of 2. C. Bulloch, “SARSAT-COSPAS: Satellite Search and
121.5 and 243 MHz will be discontinued early in 2009. This Rescue,” Interavia, Vol. 38, No. 3 (March 1983).
decision included guidance from the International Maritime
Organization and International Civil Aviation Organization, 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (20 Sept. 1982),
United Nations agencies responsible for international standards p. 26; (11 Oct. 1982), p. 65; (28 Feb. 1983), p. 75; (29 Aug.
and safety for ships and aircraft. These same two organizations 1983), p. 28; (24 Sept. 1984), p. 22; (15 Oct. 1984), p. 24; (22
have been in consultation with Cospas-Sarsat throughout its Sept. 1986), p. 18; (30 Nov. 1987), p. 71; (10 Oct. 1988), p. 43;
history. (24 Oct. 1988), p. 41.
By 1986, there were three Sarsat ground stations (called 4. D. Ludwig, D. Levesque, and Ph. Goudy, “Sarsat: A
Local User Terminals, LUTs) each in the United States and the Satellite Aided Search and Rescue System for Location of
Soviet Union and one each in France and Canada. By 1999, Distress Radio Beacon,” Earth-Oriented Applications of Space
there were 38 distributed among 22 countries. Each station Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2 (1982).
can receive signals from any satellite whenever it is in view.
5. H. L. Werstiuk, “Cospas-Sarsat: A System Overview,”
The stations process the signal to determine the location of
1983 International Electrical, Electronics Conference
the transmission. Location accuracy is about 15 to 20 km with
Proceedings (September 1983).
the older transmitters, and about 2 to 3 km with the 406 MHz
transmitters. 6. N. Whittaker and J. Zacharatos, “The Sarsat
These LUTs are now called LEOLUTs since they work Transponder,” 1983 International Electrical, Electronics
with LEO satellites. By 2004 there were 43 located in 28 Conference Proceedings (September 1983).
countries, and several are being added each year. However, 7. J. V. King, E. J. Hayes, and G. J. Jutras, “Results
there are gaps in coverage. Even with the store and retransmit of Cospas-Sarsat System Performance Testing,” 1983
capability for 406 MHz signals, these gaps become time delays International Electrical, Electronics Conference Proceedings
in the rescue process. Therefore, geosynchronous satellites are (September 1983).
a supplementary resource. Each has constant visibility to about
one-third of the Earth. But being farther away, they require 8. B. W. Kozminchuk, R. C. Renner, and R. J. Bibby,
more beacon power, and because of the stationary geometry, “The Sarsat LUT Specification, Design and Operation,” Paper
cannot be used for Doppler processing estimates of the beacon 7.4, First Canadian Domestic and International Satellite
locations. However, this limitation is being nullified by the Communications Conference (June 1983).
increasing use of GPS receivers, which provide accurate 9. W. C. Scales and R. Swanson, “Air and Sea Rescue
position information to be transmitted by the beacon. via Satellite Systems,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 21, No. 3 (March
Tests began with GOES 7 in 1987–1988. Additional tests 1984).
were conducted with Inmarsat satellites and 1.6 GHz beacons. 10. F. Flatow and B. Trudell, “Sarsat—Using Space for the
A 406 MHz operated on the Russian Luch satellite launched Search and Rescue of Lives in Distress,” Paper 84-0752, AIAA
in 1994. By 1999 three and by 2004 five geosynchronous 10th Communication Satellites Systems Conference (March
satellites were equipped to receive and retransmit 406 MHz 1984).
signals. There are U.S. GOES satellites at 75°W, 135°W, and
155°E; a European Meteosat at 3.5°W; and an Indian Insat at 11. J. T. Bailey, “Satellite Search and Rescue Analysis,”
93.5°E. These countries will launch a few more satellites with IEEE 1985 EASCON Conference Record (October 1985).
406 MHz payloads to geosynchronous orbit by 2007. Twelve 12. P. Dumont et al., “406 MHz Geostationary SAR
GEOLUTs in 10 countries receive signals from these satellites. Experiment,” Space Safety and Rescue 1986–1987, Science
The GEOLUTs and LEOLUTs together are called LUTs. and Technology Series, Vol. 70, American Astronautical
Information received at a LUT is sent to a national mission Society (1988).
control center. These exist in most countries that operate 13. W. Goebel and H. Kesenheimer, “Advances in the
a LUT. The centers communicate with each other and with Preoperational Demonstration of the 1.6 GHz EPIRB System,”
rescue coordination centers belonging to the agencies that Space Safety and Rescue 1986–1987, Science and Technology
conduct rescues. Series, Vol. 70, American Astronautical Society (1988).
The Sarsat demonstration began with the Cosmos 1383
launch. The first rescue supported by the satellite occurred in 14. I. Bronitsky, “Experimental Evaluation of the Cospas-
Canada in September 1982. Since then, the system has aided Sarsat System Accuracy Performance at Low Elevation
many rescues. The speed of the Sarsat-aided rescues is credited Angles,” Space Safety and Rescue 1986–1987, Science and
with saving more than 100 lives by the end of 1983, more than Technology Series, Vol. 70, American Astronautical Society
3000 by 1993, more than 9000 by 1999, and more than 18,000 (1988).
the end of 2004. The rapidly increasing number of rescues is 15. B. Gallagher, “Cospas-Sarsat: A Beacon for Those in
attributed to the increasing use of beacons. In addition to the Distress,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol.
actual rescues, other benefits are increased survival rate for 42, No. 6 (June 1989).
victims, reduced risk to searchers, and reduced search costs by
16. P. Dumont, “Future Evolutions Related to the Cospas/
quick location of people needing rescue. Worldwide, Sarsat is
Sarsat Search and Rescue System,” Paper 90-0873, 13th AIAA
involved in an average of one rescue per day; for almost half
International Communication Satellite Systems Conference
of these, Sarsat provided the only alert.
(March 1990).
******
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Mobile Services Satellites

17. Yu. G. Zurabov and V. N. Terekhin, “Cospas-Sarsat 21. A. McDonald, “Demonstration and Evaluation of 406
System: Present Operation and Development,” The United MHz Geostationary Search and Rescue Systems,” Proceedings
Nations Workshop on Space Communication for Development of the Sixth International Mobile Satellite Conference (June
(November 1992). 1999), p. 37.
18. R. J. H. Barnes and J. Clapp, “Cospas—Sarsat: A Quiet 22. “Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking,” http://
Success Story,” Space Policy, Vol. 11, No. 4 (Nov. 1995). www.sarsat.noaa.gov/ (4 February 2005).
19. N. Sultan, R. Renner, and J. L. P. Dionne, “An Evolution 23. “Cospas-Sarsat: International Satellite System for
from COSPAS-SARSAT to New Global Search and Rescue Search and Rescue,” http://www.cospas-sarsat.org/MainPages/
Systems,” Space Technology, Vol. 18, No. 3 (May 1998). indexEnglish.htm (7 February 2005).
20. J. V. King, “Overview of the Cospas-Sarsat Satellite 24. J. V. King, “Cospas-Sarsat: an International Satellite
System for Search and Rescue,” Proceedings of the Sixth System for Search and Rescue,” Space Communications, Vol.
International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1999), p. 31. 18, No. 3–4 (2002).

VITA
Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA) is a nonprofit been launched in spring 1996. However, that launch was
organization in the United States [1–4]. VITA, in conjunction delayed until September 1997, and then the satellite had
with the University of Surrey in England, defined the digital power problems in orbit. In mid-1997 VITA announced an
communication experiment flown on the University-built agreement to use Portugal’s PoSat to fill the gap between the
UoSat-2, which was launched in 1984. This satellite provided recent failure of UoSat-3 and the upcoming launch of Faisat
a store-and-forward message service. Stations transmitted 2V. VITA identified its equipment on the Faisat as VITAsat-
messages to the satellite as it passed in view. The messages 1r. Characteristics included a receiver scanning 148 to 149.9
were stored in the satellite and transmitted to the recipient MHz, one active and one spare 15 W transmitter tunable over
when that station came in view. The goal of this service was 400 to 401 MHz, circular polarization, 9600 bps data rate to
not speed because a station might see a satellite for a short users, and 16 Mbytes of memory for messages.
period only twice a day, but to provide a service otherwise Faisat 2V-VITAsat-1r was launched in September 1997.
unavailable in many parts of the world. One example is to allow During the first months in orbit, the satellite had power
medical personnel in remote locations receive information problems. Since then, nothing has been announced about
from medical libraries. VITAsat-1r. Rather, in February 1998, VITA announced
UoSat-2 was used for some demonstrations. The success led a partnership with SatelLife and the operator of PoSat for
to the definition of a similar payload that was flown on UoSat- sharing of satellite resources. At the end of 2000, the FCC
3, launched in 1990. This store-and-forward payload was used granted VITA a license to operate the HealthSat-2 satellite
by VITA and by the similar SatelLife organization (see the and a transponder on UoSAT-12. These were described as a
Healthsat subsection in chapter 9). Given this background, in VITAsat virtual network. Since then no specific information
1992 the FCC granted VITA a “pioneer’s preference” in the Little has been released about VITA’s use of satellites.
LEO proceedings. By 1994, VITA had generated controversy
by affiliating with CTA, a commercial organization. Under this ******
agreement, CTA would provide financial support in exchange 1. VITA, “Low Earth Orbit Satellite,” http://pacific.vita.
for commercial use of the satellites in a manner complementary org/leo/satellit.htm (4 November 1999).
with VITA’s humanitarian uses. At the beginning of 1995, CTA 2. “FCC Grants VITA Authority to Operate Satellites”
also submitted an application for its own system. The first 22 December 2000, http://www.vita.org/leo/fcc-auth.htm (15
satellite built under the VITA-CTA agreement, VITAsat-1, was February 2005).
destroyed by a launch vehicle malfunction in August 1995. (In
1997, CTA was acquired by Orbital Sciences. Since the latter 3. VITA, “VITAsat: Low Cost Connectivity for the Rural
was also a Little LEO operator, by fall 1997 it withdrew CTA’s Poor,” http://www.vita.org/leo/summary.htm (15 February
application from FCC consideration.) 2005).
Later in 1995, VITA made an agreement with Final 4. VITA-CONNECT, “Low Earth Orbit Satellite Pro-
Analysis, another commercial Little LEO applicant, to make gram,” http://www.vita.org/leo/vitasat-online.htm (15 Febru-
use of capacity on a Final Analysis satellite that was to have ary 2005).

Orbcomm
Voice, video, and some data communications require circuits the latter market. In 1995, Orbcomm became a partnership
for minutes, hours, or continuous transmission. In contrast, of Orbital Sciences and Teleglobe Inc. of Canada. In 2000
other data communication needs are characterized by short and 2001 the ownership was changed through a bankruptcy
messages transmitted infrequently. The Orbital Sciences process. The new name is Orbcomm LLC. Investors
Corporation, through its Orbital Communication Corporation include Orbital Sciences Corp., Orbcomm subsidiaries in
(Orbcomm) subsidiary, began developing a system to serve other countries, and investment firms. In 2004 SES Global

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 Orbcomm

of Luxembourg and OHB Technology of Germany made satellites and up to 1000 subscriber terminals. In 1993, two
investments in Orbcomm. Orbcomm Capability Demonstration Satellites (CDS) were
Applications include tracking, periodic reporting from, and launched. They are being used to help the completion of the
messages to moving objects, such as long-distance trucking, engineering work for the operational satellites, to measure
rail containers, and shipping containers; periodic reporting performance of the system, to test prototype subscriber
from and possible control of environmental sensors or remote terminals, and to do spectrum scans to measure interference
equipment monitors; and messaging to and from work crews levels. In October 1993, the FCC issued its final rules for
in remote areas. The Orbcomm system [1–25] provides both messaging systems, also called Little LEOs, of which
this messaging service and a position determination service to Orbcomm is one. Near the end of 1994, Orbcomm was the
its subscribers, who may be either mobile or at fixed, usually first system to be licensed under these rules.
remote, locations. The two first operational satellites were launched in April
The Orbcomm system is composed of subscriber terminals, 1995. Each suffered an anomaly in its first week in orbit; these
called communicators, satellites, a network control center anomalies stopped user service although other portions of the
gateway control centers, and gateway Earth stations. The satellites are healthy. The anomalies on both satellites were
network control center, at Orbcomm headquarters in Virginia, cleared by June, and transmissions of test messages began. One
controls the satellites; this is also the satellite control center. Six of these two satellites remained in use in 2006. Four groups of
gateway control centers distributed around the Earth control eight operational satellites were launched in 1997 through 1999.
the gateway Earth stations, monitor system performance, and Each group is in one orbital plane; the orbital inclination is 45
connect the system with terrestrial communications. Gateway deg. Twenty-eight of these satellites remained in use in 2006.
Earth stations are the communications links between the In 1998 two satellites were launched into orbits with 108 deg
control centers and the satellites. In 2004 there were four in inclination; these provide polar coverage not possible with the
the United States and one each in eight other nations. other satellites. One remained in use in 2006.
The service is provided by a regional business using The operational Orbcomm satellite design is shown in Fig.
satellite capacity obtained from Orbcomm as part of a licensing 3.23. When stowed for launch, the long antenna is folded into
agreement. By 2004 Orbcomm had international service the middle of the satellite body, and the two circular solar arrays
partners covering 179 countries and territories. Orbcomm are folded onto the body. Eight of these compact cylinders are
is the service provider in the United States. The path for an stacked for launch together. The antenna and solar arrays are
inbound (subscriber originated) message is from the subscriber deployed in orbit. The solar arrays have a drive mechanism that
via a VHF uplink to the satellite, a VHF downlink to a gateway rotates them together about their common axis. The satellite
Earth station, a terrestrial link to the gateway control center, is stabilized with the antenna pointed toward the center of
and a terrestrial link to the destination. Outbound messages to Earth. The satellites have a GPS receiver to determine their
the subscriber follow the reverse path. location. This information is broadcast to the subscribers. Other
The subscriber terminals are small message processing information about the operational satellites, unless noted as
devices integrated with some radio frequency equipment. CDS or X (experimental satellite), is as follows.
They generate and/or receive messages. A terminal may be Satellite
packaged and include an antenna for stand-alone use, or may Cylindrical body, 41 in. (104 cm) diam, 6.5 in. (16.5 cm) tall;
be built into a larger set of equipment. deployed length 170 in. (432 cm); span of deployed solar arrays
Communications between gateways and satellites are at 56.7 88 in. (224 cm)
kbps. Satellite processors separate uplinks from gateways into
92 lb (42 kg) in orbit (operational satellites), 32 lb (14.5 kg)
individual downlink messages at 4800 bps to subscriber terminals. (CDS), 26 lb (12 kg) (X)
Individual message uplinks at 2400 bps from
subscriber terminals are combined in the satellite GaAs solar cells and NiH2 battery, 230 W beginning of life, 210
processors for transmission to the gateway. The W end of life
bands used by Orbcomm are heavily used for
other radio transmissions, so Orbcomm links could
be subject to interference. To minimize this, Orbcomm
developed a Dynamic Channel Activity Assignment System.
Each satellite scans the entire uplink band every 5 s with a 2.5 kHz
filter, like that used for subscriber terminal uplink data detection,
and records the power level in each slot in the spectrum. The
satellite computes weighted averages of these measurements.
These, combined with records of error rates on each slot in use,
are used to rank the quality of all slots. The satellite broadcasts to
subscriber terminals the top n slots in the list, where n is the number
of satellite receivers available for uplinks from subscribers.
Orbcomm filed an application with the FCC in 1990. While
waiting for the regulatory processes, Orbcomm conducted
studies and also built and launched an experimental satellite,
Orbcomm-X. The purpose of this satellite was to do a spectrum
survey and to test message transmission. Unfortunately, Fig. 3.23. Orbcomm satellite.
Orbcomm-X failed during its first day in orbit. In March 1992,
the FCC granted Orbcomm an experimental license for two

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Mobile Services Satellites

Three-axis-stabilized using gravity gradient and magnetic Orbcomm plane F: two satellites launched 3 April 1995,
control, pointing controlled to within 5 deg of nadir, onboard Pegasus launch vehicle; both in use initially, one in use in mid-
GPS receiver 2006
Gaseous nitrogen propulsion Orbcomm plane A: eight satellites launched 23 December
1997, Pegasus XL launch vehicle; all in use initially and in mid-
Configuration 2006
Multiple transmitters and receivers providing up to two 4800 Orbcomm plane G: two satellites launched 10 February 1998,
bps outbound (to subscriber terminals) and seven 2400 bps Taurus launch vehicle; both in use initially, one in use in mid-
inbound (from subscriber terminals) links simultaneously 2006
Capacity Orbcomm plane B: eight satellites launched 2 August 1998,
50,000 messages of 100 to 200 bytes each per hour per Pegasus XL launch vehicle; all in use initially and in mid-2006
satellite Orbcomm plane C: eight satellites launched 23 Sept. 1998,
Pegasus XL launch vehicle; all in use initially, six in use mid-
Transmitter 2006
137.0–138.0 MHz (VHF) Orbcomm plane D: seven satellites launched 4 Dec. 1999,
One transmitter for links to subscribers, one for links to Pegasus XL launch vehicle; all in use initially, six in use mid-
gateways 2006
3 to 10 W each Management
400.1 MHz (UHF) Developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation
One transmitter for timing signals Operated by Orbital Communications Corporation, later
Orbcomm LLC
Receiver
148.0–150.05 MHz (VHF) Orbcomm began limited commercial operations in February
1996 using the two satellites launched the prior year.
Seven receivers for links from subscribers, two for links from Incorporating lessons learned from the first two satellites and
gateways
other production delays delayed the following launches about
Antenna a year. Full commercial service began in November 1998 with
Three quadrifilar helix antennas in a line; 8 in. (20 cm) diam x 25 the 28 satellites launched from 1995 through 1998. Seven
in. (64 cm) long VHF for gateway links (closest to satellite body), more were launched in 1999. Orbcomm is licensed to use up
8 in. (20 cm) diam x 71 in. (180 cm) long VHF for subscriber to 32 satellites in 45 deg inclination orbits and up to 16 in
links and 6 in. (15 cm) diam x 17 in. (43 cm) long UHF (farthest 70 or 108 deg inclination orbits. The four orbital planes with
from satellite body); gain increases away from nadir 45 deg inclination are approximately equally spaced around
Earth; likewise the two planes with higher inclinations are
Telemetry and command approximately equally spaced around Earth.
Telemetry: in or near 137–138 MHz band In March 2005 Orbcomm announced the development
Command: in or near 148–150 MHz band of one more satellite [26–27]. This satellite will combine
standard Orbcomm capabilities with an additional receiver for
Life identification and position signals broadcast by ships. This is
Five-year design life also called the U.S. Coast Guard concept validation satellite.
The payload is being built by Orbital Sciences and the bus
Orbit by OHB-System of Germany. The satellite is expected to be
Orbcomm X: 420–425 nmi altitude, 98.5 deg inclination launched in 2006.
Orbcomm CDS 1: approximately 410 nmi altitude, 25 deg In July 2006 Orbcomm announced a contract with OHB-
inclination System for six replenishment satellites [28–29]. OHB will
Orbcomm CDS 2: approximately 400 nmi altitude, 70 deg obtain the satellite buses from Polyot of Russia and the
inclination communications payloads from Orbital Sciences. OHB will
Orbcomm operational satellites perform satellite integration and testing and Polyot will supply
the launch using a Cosmos 3M rocket. These satellites have
Planes A through D: 800 km altitude, 45 deg inclination more capacity than the earlier Orbcomm satellites and have a
Plane F: 710 km altitude, 99 deg inclination maritime identification payload the same as or similar to that
Plane G: 820 km altitude, 108 deg inclination on the satellite contracted in 2005.
Plane E is licensed but not launched ******
Orbital history 1. G. E. Hardman, “Engineering Orbcomm: A Digital
Orbcomm X: launched 16 July 1991, secondary payload on Satellite Communications System Exploiting a Range of Modern
Ariane launch vehicle, failed during first day in orbit Technologies,” Third IEE Conference on Telecommunications,
IEE Conference Publication No. 331 (1991).
Orbcomm CDS 1: launched 9 February 1993, Pegasus launch
vehicle 2. M. Deckett, “The Orbcomm System,” Small Satellites
Orbcomm CDS 2: launched 25 April 1993, Pegasus launch Systems and Services, Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales,
vehicle Cépaduès-Editions, Toulouse, France (1992).

166
 Tubsat

3. D. C. Schoen and P. A. Locke, “The Orbcomm Paper 98-1214, AIAA 17th International Communications
Data Communications System,” Proceedings of the Third Satellite Systems Conference (February 1998).
International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1993). 18. S. Mazur, “A Description of Current and Planned
4. T. Hara, “Orbcomm—Low Earth Orbit Mobile Satellite Location Strategies within the Orbcomm Network,”
Communication System US Armed Forces Applications,” International Journal of Satellite Communications, Vol. 17,
Milcom ’93 Conference Record, Vol. 3 (October 1993). No. 4 (July–August 1999).
5. M. Deckett, “Orbcomm—A Description and Status 19. Orbcomm, “Orbcomm Now in Full Commercial
of the LEO Satellite Mobile Data Communication System,” Service” (30 November 1998), http://www.orbcomm.com/
Paper 94-1135, AIAA 15th International Communications frames/frame7.htm, (4 November 1999).
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994). 20. Orbcomm, “Our Technology” (2004), http://www.
6. P. Chien, “Letter to a Beeper,” Popular Mechanics orbcomm.com/wwwroot/public/about/technology.html (22
(April 1994). February 2005).
7. A. Reut and T. Hara, “Remote Asset Monitoring Using 21. J. J. Stolte, K. Kubota and D. A. Steffy, “Manufacturing
Commercial LEO Satellites,” Paper 94-4592, AIAA Space the Orbcomm Satellites,” Paper SSC97-XI-1, 11th AIAA/USU
Programs and Technologies Conference (September 1994). Conference on Small Satellites (September 1997).
8. A. L. Parker, “Mobile Data-Simply Everywhere,” 22. A. W. Lewin, “Low-Cost Operation of the Orbcomm
unpublished paper available from Orbital Sciences Corporation Satellite Constellation,” Paper SSC97-VII-6, 11th AIAA/USU
(September 1993). Conference on Small Satellites (September 1997) and Journal
9. R. W. Kelly, “Navigation and Communications Systems of Reducing Space Mission Cost, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1998).
Integration,” Proceedings of the 1994 National Technical 23. B. T. Patel, S. Schroll, and A. Lewin, “On-orbit
Meeting, Institute of Navigation (1994). Performance of the ORBCOMM Spacecraft Constellation,”
10. News releases, Orbital Communications Corporation, Paper SSC99-IV-6, 13th AIAA/USU Conference on Small
various dates, February 1993 through June 1994. Satellites (August 1999).
11. P. J. Yarbrough, “Orbcomm Constellation Operations 24. F. Delli Priscoli and M. Neri, “Integration of the
Approach,” Paper 25.5, IEEE Military Communications Orbcomm Satellite Network with the GSM Short Message
Conference: Milcom ’95 (November 1995). Service,” Space Communications, Vol. 19, No. 1 (2003).
12. A. B. Reut and T. Hara, “Remote Monitoring of 25. M. Kassebom et al., “Orbcomm—System Status,
Military Assets Using Commercial LEO Satellites,” Paper Evolution and Applications,” Workshop Satelliten kommuni-
27a.3, IEEE Military Communications Conference: Milcom kation in Deutschland (March 2003), http://www.dlr.de/rd/
’95 (November 1995). fachprog/kommunikation/kassebom_orbcomm_ohb.pdf (22
February 2005).
13. T. Hara, “Orbcomm PCS Available Now,” Paper 27a.4,
IEEE Military Communications Conference: Milcom ’95 26. Orbcomm, “ORBCOMM Satellite Scheduled To
(November 1995). Launch” (16 March 2005), http://www.orbcomm.com/
wwwroot/public/news/readNewsArticle.jsp?ARTICLE_
14. D. Schoen and P. Locke, “Orbcomm—Initial ID=77 (28 March 2005).
Operations,” Proceedings of the Fourth International Mobile
Satellite Conference (June 1995), p. 397. 27. OHB-System, “OHB-System Awarded Contract for
ORBCOMM Satellite” (17 March 2005), http://www.ohb-
15. P. J. Yarbrough, “Operations Concept for the World’s system.de/News/presse/1703_05.html (28 March 2005).
First Commercially Licensed Low-Earth Orbiting Mobile
Satellite Service,” Paper 96-1049, AIAA 16th International 28. Orbcomm, “ORBCOMM Signs Agreements With
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (Feb. 1996). Orbital Sciences and OHB-System A.G. for Initial Phase of
Satellite Replenishment Program” (13 July 2006), http://www.
16. D. A. Steffy, “Orbcomm satellites Launch and Initial orbcomm.com/wwwroot/public/news/readNewsArticle.jsp?
Flight Operations,” 10th AIAA/USU Conference on Small ARTICLE_ID=240 (4 September 2006).
Satellites (September 1996).
29. OHB Technology, “OHB-System awarded contract
17. A. L. Parker, “Orbcomm’s Global Data and Messaging for the delivery and launch of six ORBCOMM Satellites”
Service Uses VHF Spectrum to Achieve Cost Objectives,” (7 July 2006), http://www.ohb-technology.de/english/news/
pressemitteilg/0707_06.html (4 September 2006).

Tubsat
Five satellites developed by the Technical University of Berlin communications payload that used frequencies in the 144 to
have been placed into orbit [1]. All were launched as secondary 146 MHz band. Users included people on Arctic and Antarctic
payloads with larger satellites. Tubsat-A was launched in expeditions. Tubsat-B, launched in January 1994, was slightly
June 1991 and continues to operate in 2005. The satellite taller and heavier. It tested reaction wheels and a star sensor.
was a 38 cm cube that weighs 35 kg. Its primary purpose is Tubsat-N and N1 were launched together in July 1998.
technology demonstration, for which it carries experimental The N stands for nanosatellite. Each was 32 cm square; Tub-
solar cells, a transputer, a star sensor, and a store-and-forward sat-N was 10.4 cm thick and Tubsat-N1 is 3.4 cm thick. They
167
Mobile Services Satellites

weighed about 8.5 and 3 kg, respectively. Tubsat-N tested DLR-Tubsat and Maroc-Tubsat have technology demon-
reaction wheels and had four communication channels of strations, Earth-imaging cameras, and attitude-control experi-
store-and-forward communications. Two used frequencies ments. Each weighs about 45 kg. They were launched in May
near 145 MHz, and the other two used frequencies near 435 1999 and December 2001; both continued to operate in 2005.
MHz. All used fast FSK modulation at 1200 and 2400 baud. Lapan-Tubsat is based on these two satellites; launch was de-
An additional transmitter operated at 9600 baud with GMSK layed from 2005 to late 2006.
(Gaussian minimum shift keying) modulation.
******
Tubsat-N1 had two communication channels of store-and-
forward communications using frequencies near 435 MHz with 1. “Tubsat-A, the first one,” http://tubsat.fb12.tu-berlin.
fast FSK modulation at 1200 and 2400 baud. Both satellite de/Tubsat-A.html and “Tubsat-N, the small one,” http://tubsat.
communications payloads were used for collection data from fb12.tu-berlin.de/Tubsat-N.html (5 November 1999).
remote sensors, tracking beacons on mammals, tracking and 2. Satellite System Section, “Tubsat Project Homepage,”
transmitting deactivation commands to stolen cars, and mobile http://www.ilr.tu-berlin.de/RFA/ (14 February 2005).
communications. Each satellite had several megabytes of
memory for messages.

Gonets and Other Soviet and Russian LEOs

Gonets (“Messenger”) is a low-orbit data communication are in view of the same satellite, and store-and-forward, where
system evolving out of a government communication system the message is stored on the satellite until transmitted to the
developed by the Soviet Union and continued by Russia [1–4, recipient or to a message handling center for retransmission.
8–9]. The government system and satellites are referred to The data rates are 2.4 kbps for Sextet and Gonets D and 9.6
as Sextets because the satellites were launched six at a time. kbps for Gonets D1 and beyond, with a possible increase to 64
Officially, the satellites in the Cosmos series are designated by kbps. Onboard storage is limited to 16 kbytes for Sextet and
numbers. Each Sextet launch dispensed the six satellites into a Gonets D, but increasing to about 2 Mbytes for Gonets D1,
polar orbit with slightly different velocities; thus, the satellites and growing to 16 Mbytes for later satellites. Frequencies near
were randomly, rather than evenly, spaced around the orbit. 260 and 400 MHz and a 10 W satellite transmitter power have
The first launch was Cosmos 1617 to 1622 in January 1985; been mentioned in connection with the system.
there were 20 additional launches through Cosmos 2352 to The Gonets D satellites are apparently identical to the
2357 in June 1998. The orbital planes of all of these launches Sextets. The Sextet satellites weigh about 225 to 240 kg; solar
are clustered in two groups with equatorial crossing separated cells generate a peak power of 160 W with an orbit average
by about 90 deg. The Sextets have altitudes of about 1400 to of 45 W. The body size is about 0.8 m diameter and 1.6 m
1440 km with an inclination of 82.6 deg. height. The satellites use gravity gradient stabilization with
The Smolsat (or Smalsat) Association was formed in an accuracy of about 5 deg. In the satellite diagram (Fig.
Moscow in 1991 to develop the Gonets system. The members 3.24), the boom and weight at the top, which point away from
include the major Russian manufacturer of communication the Earth, provide the stabilization; the conical appendages
satellites, a major manufacturer of electronics for space and are the communications antennas; the other appendages are
ground uses, and a marketing organization. Their goal is to command and telemetry antennas and a magnetometer. All
develop and operate a global data communication system based other equipment is inside the satellite body.
on low-orbit satellites, a “Little LEO” in western terminology.
The system began with the launch of two Gonets D (for
demonstration) satellites with four Sextets in July 1992; they Fig. 3.24. Gonets satellite.
were identified as Cosmos 2197 to 2202, with 2199 and 2201
being the Gonets Ds. The next planned step was the launch
of four or more Gonets D1 satellites, which was expected in
1994. After these, further satellites would be launched, with
higher data rates and into more orbit planes than the two
clusters used by the Sextets, to provide a complete system with
near-continuous coverage of Earth. Actually, three Gonets D1
satellites were launched with three Sextets in February 1996,
and another three were launched with three Sextets in February
1997. Three Gonets D1 satellites, and presumably three Sextets,
were destroyed in a launch vehicle failure in December 2000.
A year later three Gonets D1 satellites and Cosmos 2384 to
2386 were successfully launched. The only subsequent launch
was a Gonets D1M with Cosmos 2416 in December 2005.
The military Cosmos satellite also had the unexplained name
Rodnik.
The Gonets satellites can be used for a variety of data
services such as fax, email, and compressed images. Two
modes are possible: real-time, where the sender and receiver
168
 S80

Earlier than the Sextets, the Soviet Union fielded a low-orbit the control center are in 500 to 600 MHz. However, this system
communication system using satellites launched eight at a time is not mentioned in other references [9].
[3–7]. Officially, these were numbered in the Cosmos series,
but outsiders sometimes used the name Octets. The Octets had ******
altitudes of about 1400 to 1600 km with an inclination of 74 1. A. Parfenov, “Russian Lightsat System ‘Gonets’
deg. The first Octets, launched in April 1970, were Cosmos 336 (Messenger),” Small Satellites Systems and Services, Centre
to 343. Since then, there were 44 more launches. There were National D’Etudes Spatiales, Cépaduès-Editions, Toulouse,
two or three launches most years through 1986 and one a year France (1992).
from 1987 through 1992; apparently none occurred since then. 2. C. Bulloch, “Russat ’93, A Catalog of Assets,” Via
The satellites were estimated to weigh 100 lb each. Satellite, Vol. 8, No. 7 (July 1993).
A third system of Soviet low-orbit communication satellites
was numbered in the Cosmos series [3, 4, 6, 7]. These satellites 3. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in
were launched one at a time into three separate orbit planes Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation,
with about 800 km altitude and 74 deg inclination. The first Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque
launch was in 1970; about 50 were launched since then but (undated).
apparently none after 1994. The satellites were estimated to 4. W. L. Morgan and V. Riportella, “Russian LEO
weigh at least 1500 lb. Communication Systems,” Paper 94-0974, AIAA 15th
Cosmos 2408 and 2409 were launched together in September International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
2004. They are reported to be communication satellites. (February 1994).
The name Strela, meaning arrow, has been associated at 5. P. J. Klass, “Soviets Spur Military Space Net,” Aviation
times with each of the above satellite systems. Week & Space Technology (8 July 1974).
In January 1991, a Russian low-orbit communication
satellite, Informator-1, was launched into a 1020 km altitude 6. N. L. Johnson, “Estimated Operational Lifetimes
orbit with an inclination of 83 deg. The satellite was described of Several Soviet Satellite Classes,” Journal of the British
as weighing 1760 lb and having a design life of 3 years. The Interplanetary Society, Vol. 34, No. 7 (July 1981).
orbit and weight are the same as those of recent navigation 7. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal of
satellites, perhaps indicating a design heritage. The satellite the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (July 1985).
was announced as the first of a series whose purposes
8. M. N. Ermakov, G. M. Webb, and M. J. S. Quigley,
include gathering data from remote environmental sensors,
“Russian Non-Geostationary Communication Satellite Sys-
communicating with workers in remote areas, and assisting
tems,” Space Technology, Vol. 20, No. 5–6 (2001).
with communications after disasters. It operated until it was
turned off in 1994. Since the early announcements, no more 9. M. N. Ermakov, G. M. Webb, and J. V. Denisov,
has been said about further satellites in this series. “Russian Low Earth and Elliptical Orbit Communication
The Forpost system is said to have three communication Satellite Systems: The Competing Projects,” Paper IAF-
satellites in low Earth orbit [8]. This system is said to be based 01-M.4.03, 52nd International Astronautical Congress
on an existing military system. Links between satellites and (October 2001) and Acta Astronautica, Vol. 51, No. 1-9
users are in 225 to 250 MHz and links between satellites and (July–November 2002)

S80
S80/T was developed by France as a precursor to the S80 Satellite
[1–3] low-orbit satellite system, which was being planned Rectangular body, approximately 35 x 35 x 60 cm
to provide a position determination and reporting service to 50 kg in orbit
mobile users. The secondary mission of S80 was to provide
message transmissions to and from the mobile users. The Attitude control accuracy 1.5 deg
schedule for system deployment was uncertain, and it seems Transmitter
that this project has been dropped in favor of other projects, 137.5 MHz for messages, 401.715 MHz for telemetry
as there has been no news about it since the launch of S80/T
in 1992. Receiver
The S80 system was to have used the 148 to 149.9 MHz 148 to 149.917 MHz
uplink band and 137 to 138 MHz downlink band. In 1991,
France decided to launch S80/T, with T for technology, to Life
measure the interference in the 148 MHz band, to determine One-year design life
the effect of interference on message transmissions, and to test
the Doppler position determination, the CDMA (code division Orbit
multiple access) message transmissions, and the ground sta- Approximately 700 nmi altitude, 66 deg inclination
tion and system operation. This satellite was about one-third
the size expected for the operational satellites. The S80/T Orbital history
satellite bus was similar to other small satellites such as Launched 10 August 1992, Ariane launch vehicle
UoSATs 4 and 5 and KitSat; information on S80/T follows.

169
Mobile Services Satellites

Management Systems and Services, Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales,

Spacecraft developed by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. Cépaduès-Editions, Toulouse, France (1992).
(England), payload developed by Dassault Electronics (France), 2. A. Gautier and P. Dumont, “Taos (S80): Un
both under subcontract to Matra-Marconi Space (France) for
CNES (France)
Système LEO-MSS pour des Services de Localisation et de
Télégestion,” Small Satellites Systems and Services, Centre
Satellite operated by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. for National D’Etudes Spatiales, Cépaduès-Editions, Toulouse,
CNES France (1992).
****** 3. M. J. M. Moerman, “Overall Programmes at the
University of Surrey,” Proceedings of the 7th Annual AIAA/
1. J.-C. Llorens, “S 80/T: Un Micro-Satellite qui Combine
USU Conference on Small Satellites (September 1993).
Hautes Performances et Ressources Limitées,” Small Satellites

Satelites de Coleta de Dados

Late in the 1970s, the Brazilian government defined the Receiver
Brazilian Complete Space Mission with the responsibility Approximately 401 MHz (data from platforms)
assigned to the National Space Research Institute, Instituto
Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE). INPE activities Antenna
are in space sciences, Earth observations and environmental 401 MHz: Quadrifilar helix and monopoles
monitoring, and space technology. The Data Collection 2200 MHz: Quadrifilar helices
Satellite, Satelite de Coleta de Dados (SCD), program plays
a role in two areas: Construction in Brazil contributed to the Telemetry and command
development of indigenous space technology, and the data In 2025–2290 MHz band
collected through the satellites is part of the broad Earth
observation activity. Life
The purpose of the SCD program [1–5] is to provide direct Two-year design life
relay of environmental data from data collection platforms.
Orbit
The data may be transmitted in the Argos format for reception
and relaying by either SCD or Argos. The platforms may be SCD 1: 725 x 788 km initial altitude, 25 deg inclination
located in remote areas or difficult terrain or may be in motion SCD 2A: 740 km altitude intended
(e.g., drifting in water). The satellites relay the data from these SCD 2: 750 km initial altitude, 25 deg inclination
platforms to an Earth station at Cuiaba, which also performs
the satellite control function. The data relay is real time only; Orbital history
there is no data storage on the satellite. Cuiaba sends the data SCD 1: Launched 9 February 1993, still in use 10 years after
to a mission center in Cachoeira Paulista for processing and launch
entry into a database. Users access the database by computer SCD 2A: launched 2 November 1997, destroyed when the
network or other methods. The satellite can collect data seven launch vehicle went off course during ascent and was destroyed
times per day from platforms within 1200 km of Cuiaba; at by command
the maximum distance of 3050 km, data are collected at least SCD 2: launched 22 October 1998
once per day. This maximum distance allows coverage of 80
Pegasus launch vehicle (1), Brazilian VLS launch vehicle (2A),
percent of South America, including all of Brazil. Pegasus XL launch vehicle (2)
The SCD program includes two satellites. Each satellite is
capable of relaying data from up to 500 collection platforms. Management
At the time SCD 1 was launched, about 40 platforms were Developed and operated by INPE
in operation. This number grew to more than 200 at the time
SCD 2 was launched in 1998 and to 500 by 2003. ******
Other information about SCD 1 follows; SCD 2A and SCD
1. J. Fernandez and C. Santana, “Overview of the SCD1/
2 may or may not be identical.
Pegasus Mission,” Proceedings of the 7th Annual AIAA/USU
Satellite Conference on Small Satellites (September 1993).
Octagonal prism, approximately 64 cm tall, 102 cm diam,
2. F. De Oliveira, “Brazil in Space,” Spaceflight, Vol. 35,
overall satellite height 145 cm
No. 10 (October 1993).
115 kg in orbit
3. P. Bares, “A Slice of South America,” Space, Vol. 10,
Solar cells, NiCd battery, 110 W No. 5 (September–October 1994).
Spin stabilized at 120 rpm with nutation damping and magnetic
4. Florida Today Space Online, “First Brazilian-made
torquing for spin axis control
Rocket Fails During Launch” (2 November 1997), http://
Transmitter www.flatoday.com/space/explore/stories/1997b/110297d.htm
In the band 2200–2290 MHz (data from platforms to Earth (5 November 1999).
station and satellite telemetry) 5. INPE, “1° Satélite de Coleta de Dados . SCD11,” http://
www.inpe.br/scd1/site_scd/ (22 February 2005).
170
 Temisat

Temisat
In the early 1990s, the Italian company Telespazio was
studying the Temisat Constellation (Temicon) for automatic
collection of environmental data [1–4]. The full constellation
was to have 12 Temisats, Telespazio Micro Satellites plus
one operation and mission control center in Fucino, Italy,
and data collection centers and user terminals. User terminals
were to be very small and unattended, mounted with or near
the sensors whose data they would transmit to the satellites.
The sensors, which would not be part of the system, could
be gathering information such as meteorological data, stream
flows, or stress levels in structures. Telespazio ordered 50 sets
of data collection center equipment and 1000 user terminals
for lease to users of their system.
The full constellation was to have four satellites in each of
three orbit planes. The initial contract included the construc-
tion of two satellites. Less than 15 months elapsed between
the contract award and the launch. The second was con-
structed with the first then received minor modifications based
on the early orbital experience with the first; however, there
is no record of the second being launched. The first satellite
was put into orbit as a secondary payload on the launch of a
Russian weather satellite. Uplinks to Temisat had a 2400 bps
information rate plus rate 1⁄2 coding. The onboard processing
multiplexed uplink messages into downlinks with a 9600 bps
information rate plus rate 1⁄2 coding. Additional information
about the Temisats follows.
Satellite
Body is a 35 cm cube
42 kg
Solar cells on all six faces of the cube, 22 W maximum, NiCd
battery
Magnetic attitude control aligns satellite with local magnetic Fig. 3.25. Temisat satellite.
field
No propulsion
Management
Transmitter Developed by Kayser-Threde (Germany) for Telespazio
Three transmitters (two for data, one for telemetry) plus three Operated by Telespazio
spares in the 137–138 MHz band
******
Receiver
Nine receivers (eight for data, one for commands) in the 148 to 1. B. Pavesi and G. Rondinelli, “Autonomous
150.05 MHz band Environmental Monitoring Service Based on Microsatellite
System,” Small Satellites Systems and Services, Centre
One receiver in the 401–403 MHz band
National D’Etudes Spatiales, Cépaduès-Editions, Toulouse,
Antenna France (1992).
Three monopoles for transmit, two for receive 2. B. Pavesi, G. Rondinelli, and N. Balteas, “Temisat,
A Microsatellite System for Autonomous Environmental
Life Monitoring Service,” Proceedings of the 6th Annual AIAA/
Five-year design life USU Conference on Small Satellites (September 1992).
Orbit 3. B. Pavesi and G. Rondinelli, “Temicon-Global Data
945 x 980 km initial altitude, 82.5 deg inclination Transmission Based on LEO Microsatellite System,” Paper
94-1022, AIAA 15th International Communications Satellite
Orbital history Systems Conference (February 1994).
1: Launched 31 August 1993, in operation for about 1 year 4. NASA, “Temisat,” http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/
Russian Cyclon (or Cyclone or Tsyclon) launch vehicle tmp/1993-055B.html (22 February 2005).

171
Mobile Services Satellites

Eyesat
Interferometrics developed Eyesat-1 as the forerunner of a 24- Transmitter
satellite constellation of low-orbit satellites that were to provide C: 399.92 and 400.025 MHz, one transmitter per frequency, 4
position reporting and two-way messaging services [1–2]. The W maximum, 2/0.6 W typical (to tags/control station)
design of Eyesat-1 was based on the design of several amateur A: 436.7975 MHz, one transmitter, 4 W maximum
radio satellites, including Oscars 16 to 19. Eyesat-1, operated under
Usually only one transmitter on at a time
an experimental license for the FCC, combined an experimental
version of the digital store-and-forward payload to be used in Receiver
the operational satellites with an amateur radio transponder. In C: 145–150 MHz, one tunable and six fixed-frequency receivers
amateur service the satellite is known as Oscar 27 [2]. (12 receivers on operational satellites)
The satellite operated with a control station at
A: 145.85 MHz
Interferometrics in Virginia and multiple small, portable Earth
stations called tags. When the satellite was in view of the Antenna
control station, the station transmitted satellite commands and C, A: Quarter-wave monopole for receive, linear polarization
messages for the tags. The satellite transmitted telemetry and
messages from the tags to the station. The satellite transmitted C: four element turnstile for transmit, circular polarization
polling signals and messages to the tags and received position A: quarter-wave monopole for transmit, linear polarization
reports and messages from them. All messages were digital and
stored in memory on the satellite. Messages were retransmitted Life
when the recipient was in view. Tags produced position reports Five-year design life
from an internal GPS receiver; messages came from, or went Orbit
to, attached sensors or a user interface. The operational system
814 km initial altitude, 97 deg inclination
was planned to operate similarly. Although the experimental
Eyesat-1 was launched in 1993 and operated successfully, no Orbital history
further information about this system has been published, so Launched 26 September 1993, secondary payload on Ariane
apparently the concept and the satellite have died. launch vehicle; duration of commercial mode life uncertain,
Eyesat-1 was a stack of five electronics modules covered amateur mode continues in intermittent use in 2006
with plates holding the solar cells. The satellite spun to moderate
the temperatures of the cells. The receive antenna was on one Management
end of the satellite and the transmit antennas on the other. The Operated by Interferometrics
satellite and the communications traffic were controlled by a
microprocessor with 18 Mbytes of memory. Control software ******
was modified by transmission from the control station. Signals 1. “Eyesat,” unpublished paper by Interferometrics, Inc.
demodulated and remodulated on the satellite used GMSK (undated).
format; as an exception, one FSK modulator was available for
telemetry. The typical signaling rate for all the digital paths 2. “AMRAD-OSCAR 27,” http://www.amsat.org/amsat/
is 1200 baud, although the equipment can also operate at sats/n7hpr/ao27.html (31 January 1999), (5 November 1999
standard rates up to 9600 baud. and 31 May 2003), (22 February 2005).
Eyesat-1 operated in either its commercial
mode, described above, or an amateur
radio mode (see chapter 9). Typically the 145–150
commercial mode was used on weekdays and A
the amateur mode on weekends. In 2004, the
amateur transponder was still operational, so Discriminators Demodulators
Switching

perhaps the commercial mode was no longer

Microprocessor
in use. In the amateur mode, the satellite can Receivers and Memory
either transpond the uplink without storage or
Slicers
store uplink messages for later transmission.
Eyesat-1 characteristics follow.
Satellite
Body is a 15 cm cube C C A

12 kg in orbit Transmitter
399.92, 436.7975
Solar cells on all faces of the body, NiCd C 400.025
Switching

C
batteries
Modulators Transmitter
Aligned to Earth’s magnetic field, spinning
at less than 1 rpm
A
No onboard propulsion C: Commercial mode
A: Amateur mode Transmitter
Configuration (blank): Shared by both modes
A commercial mode (C) and an amateur Fig. 3.26. Eyesat-1 communication subsystem.
mode (A)
172
 SAFIR, IRIS, and Rubin

SAFIR, IRIS, and Rubin

The SAFIR (Satellite For Information Relay) program with remote terminals and with a hub station in Sweden. The
planned to use small satellites for collection and distribution hub station is located at a high latitude to achieve visibility
of environmental data [1–2]. The system was intended to have to the satellites on every orbit. Messages from terminals are
six satellites, a hub station to control the satellite and manage received by the satellite and stored until it is in view of the hub
data collection and distribution, and stations for use at data station. The hub station transmits to the satellite messages for
facilities and on environmental sensors. The system would those terminals that will see the satellite in the following orbit.
give users multiple opportunities per day to collect data from Users’ central offices are assumed to be in areas with good
and transmit commands to sensors. In addition, sensor location terrestrial communications, which they will use for direct
could be determined by Doppler measurements or by a GPS connection with the hub station or for an indirect connection
receiver located with the sensor. through an access host and operations center in Belgium.
Ground stations were to communicate with satellites at Communication links in the IRIS system were planned
rates between 300 bps and 9.6 kbps, with FSK modulation, to use spread spectrum modulation to minimize the effect of
using half-duplex links at 401 MHz. The hub station was to interference and to minimize interference to other systems.
communicate with satellites at 137, 148, and 401 MHz. Uplink data rates were to be 18 kbps from the hub station and
SAFIR entered its test phase using the SAFIR-R or 1200 bps from remote terminals. The downlink rate was to
SAFIR-1 satellite launched in 1994 as a secondary payload be 38.4 kbps to the hub station and 9600 bps to the remote
on the launch of a Russian Earth resources satellite. Data- terminals, both in the 400.15 to 401 MHz band.
collection sensors in the test phase were located on buoys, The IRIS demonstration phase used the payload launched
animals, and at an Antarctic meteorological station. Work on in July 1998 into an 850 km altitude polar orbit. This payload
SAFIR continued with the second satellite launch in 1998. The was attached to a Russian Earth resources satellite. No further
satellite design was based on the Bremsat satellite developed announcements were made about an operational system.
by the University of Bremen. Additional details are: The Rubin program [7–9] followed the path of SAFIR. Bird
Satellite Rubin, later sometimes called Rubin 1, was a payload attached
Body is a 45 cm cube
to a Russian satellite launched in July 2000. It was developed
by OHB-System and students from the University of Applied
55 kg Sciences in Bremen, Germany. The significant new feature
Solar cells and NiCd battery, up to 28 W from solar cells, up to was that communications between the control center and Bird
50 W with solar cells and battery Rubin were through the Orbcomm satellite constellation. Thus,
Gravity gradient stabilization with magnetic torquer, maintains communications could be established at any time rather than
pointing within 5 deg of nadir only during the short and infrequent periods when the satellite
No onboard propulsion was in view of the control center. During the five-day mission,
1600 email messages were sent through Bird Rubin
Transmitter Rubin 2 was a small satellite that continued the Rubin mission
137 MHz, 400 MHz and also carried the amateur radio payload Safir-M, also named
Oscar 49. The control center communicated with Rubin 2 via
Receiver the Orbcomm constellation. Users communicated with Rubin
148 MHz, 401 MHz 2 through the Safir-M payload. Data rates were in the range
1200 to 9600 bps. The satellite also had a technology payload
Life that included a lithium battery, electric propulsion thruster, GPS
Approximately 3 years antenna and receiver, and a mirror for laser tracking.
Rubin 2 was launched in December 2002. It operated for
Orbit about 6 weeks; then neither it nor the Safir payload would
SAFIR-R: 674 km initial altitude, 98 deg inclination operate. Additional details follow.
SAFIR 2: 817 x 845 km initial altitude, 98.8 deg inclination
Satellite
Orbital history Body is 34 x 34 x 20 cm
SAFIR-R: Launched 4 November 1994, operating life and 2005 Approximately 30 kg
status unknown Solar cells and NiCd battery, 20 W from solar cells
SAFIR 2: launched 10 July 1998, operating life and 2005 status Stabilization with magnetometer and sun sensor inputs and
unknown magnetic torquers
Russian Zenit launch vehicle No onboard propulsion except experimental electric thruster
Management Transmitter
Developed by OHB System of Germany In 148–150 MHz to Orbcomm satellites
IRIS (Intercontinental Retrieval of Information by Satellite), 148.825 MHz to users
also called LLMS (Little LEO Messaging Service), is a low-
orbit store-and-forward email concept derived from SAFIR. Receiver
IRIS [3–6] was developed under ESA sponsorship; SAIT of In 137–138 MHz from Orbcomm satellites
Belgium was the prime contractor. The basic IRIS system was to 435.275 MHz from users
have two satellites in low-altitude polar orbits communicating

173
Mobile Services Satellites

Antennas 1. A. Ginati and G. Lehmann, “SAFIR, A Small-Satellite

Four monopoles for communication with Orbcomm satellites Program for Two-Way Environmental Data Collection and
Four monopoles for communication with users Distribution,” Proceedings of the 6th Annual AIAA/USU
Conference on Small Satellites (September 1992).
Orbit 2. OHB System, Safir,” http://www.ohb-system.de/
Rubin 2: 630 x 670 km altitude, 64.6 deg inclination Satellites/Missions/safir_2.html (22 February 2005).
Orbital history 3. V. Larock and A. Ginati, “IRIS: Going Commercial with
Rubin 2: launched 20 December 2002, operated less than 2 High-Tech European LEO Microsatellites,” Acta Astronautica,
months Vol. 37 (1995).
Russian Dnepr launch vehicle 4. “First Belgian Telecommunications Space System
Successfully Launched” (10 July 1998), http://www.saitrh.
Management com/press/ pr980710e.asp (8 November 1999).
Developed by OHB System of Germany, Safir payload by
Arbeitskreis Amateurfunk in der Schule (Working Group for
5. “IRIS,” http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/SSC/SSHP/data_
Amateur Radio in Schools) and Pforzheim University of Applied iris.html (8 November 1999).
Sciences, technology payload by Carlo Gavazzi Space of Italy 6. ESA, “First European Payload for Worldwide e-mail
Rubin-3-DSI and Rubin-4-DSI were also built by OHB System. Service Launched,” http://www.esa.int/export/esaCP/Pr_25_
They were launched in November 2002 and September 2003, 1998_p_EN.html (22 February 2005).
respectively, and remained attached to the launch vehicle upper 7. OHB System, “RubinX Experimental Space
stage. Their purpose was to measure the launch vehicle environment Technology Program,” http://www.ohb-system.de/Satellites/
and transmit the data through the Orbcomm constellation. Missions/rubinx.html (22 February 2005).
Rubin 5, launched in October 2005, was another OHB-
8. OHB-System, “Rubin-2 Advanced Space Technology
built satellite [10]. It carried payloads gathering data on the
and Telematics Satellite,” (2001)
launch environment, images of launch vehicle separation,
and the space environment. Data was transmitted through the 9. AATiS, “Die AATiS-Sats,” http://amend.gmxhome.de/
Orbcomm constellation. (22 February 2005).
****** 10. OHB Technology, “High technology from Bremen Orbiting
the Earth” (27 October 2005) http://www.ohb-technology.de/
english/news/pressemitteilg/2710_05.html (4 September 2006).

Faisat
In November 1994, Final Analysis Communication Services, was to have five active and one spare satellite. In addition, the
Inc., applied to the FCC for permission to operate a Little LEO constellation was to have two satellites at the same altitude at
system. In January 1995, a single Faisat [1, 2] was launched 83 deg inclination for polar service.
as a secondary payload with a Russian navigation satellite on The operational satellite frequencies were to be in the bands
a Russian launch vehicle. It was authorized under an FCC 137 to 138 MHz (down), 148 to 150 MHz (up), 400 to 401
experimental license. The satellite body was an octagonal MHz (down), and 454 to 456 MHz (up); the choice of bands
cylinder approximately 18 in. diam and 35 in. height; a 10 ft depends on the spectrum regulations where a user is located.
boom provided gravity gradient stabilization. Faisat 1 weighed Final Analysis is working to improve the allocations near 1.4
about 250 lb and was in a 540 nmi orbit at 83 deg inclination. GHz and might use these also. Satellites were to be launched
Its communication payload had an uplink near 140 MHz and singly as secondary payloads, or in groups on Russian Cosmos
a downlink near 400 MHz; the maximum transmission rate launch vehicles.
was 9.6 kbps. It had an Air Force thermal control experiment In 1999 and 2000 Final Analysis announced partnerships
as a secondary payload. By the end of 1998, it was no longer with several large U.S. companies. However, in 2001 Final
in use. Analysis Communication Services entered bankruptcy and in
The second satellite Faisat 2V, was launched September 2002 was acquired by New York Satellite Industries, the major
1997. Its design was about the same as the earlier satellite. owner of which is the head and half owner of the bankrupt
Final assembly of the satellite was done in Russia, and as the company. The name Final Analysis Communication Services
first satellite, it was a second payload on a Russian launch. was retained. However, the company did not satisfy the
During the first months in orbit, Faisat 2V suffered a loss of satellite construction and launch milestones in its FCC license.
solar-array power; this reduced the satellite’s capabilities, but Although the company petitioned the FCC for relief from
it continued in use for a while. license conditions, in 2004 the FCC declared that the license
Faisat received an FCC license in March 1998. Its had become null and void.
licensing, and those of several competitors, was based on a
frequency-sharing agreement reached by all the applicants in ******
September 1997. The plan was to launch the first satellite of 1. J. R. Asker, “Russia Launches Its First U.S. Satellite,”
the operational system in 2000 and to have a full constellation Aviation Week & Space Technology (30 January 1995).
in place by 2004. The full constellation was to have six planes 2. Final Analysis, http://www.finalanalysis.com/home.
at 540 nmi or lower altitude and 51 deg inclination; each plane htm (22 February 2005).
174
 Aprize Satellite, LatinSat

CTA (GEMstar)
CTA was an applicant in the FCC’s second 1. B. K. Yi et al., “The GEMnet Global Data
round of Little LEO systems. It proposed Communication,” Proceedings of the Fourth International
a system with 38 satellites and a ground Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1995), p. 179.
segment consisting of user terminals, a network
operations center, gateway stations, and dedicated 2. R. E. Howard, “Low Cost Little LEO Constellation
terrestrial links between the operations center and the Control,” Paper AIAA-96-1050, AIAA 16th International
gateways. The system was called GEMnet (Global Electronic Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
Messaging network) [1–2]. It was being designed to do asset 1996).
(e.g., shipping containers) tracking, reading of utility meters
and environmental sensors, email, and paging.
In 1994, CTA conducted demonstrations of utility meter
reading and asset tracking using one of the satellites it had
previously built and launched for DOD use. In the same year,
CTA began building the first of two phase-one satellites. These
were built under an agreement with VITA and were to be shared
by both organizations. The GEMstar-1 satellite, also called
VITAsat-1, weighing 130 kg, was destroyed during ascent in
August 1995 on the first launch of the LLV-1 launch vehicle.
The intended altitude was 650 km. The second satellite was
never launched.
In 1996, Orbital Sciences acquired all of CTA. Since
Orbital was also a Little LEO operator, in the fall of 1997
Fig. 3.27. GEMstar satellite.
Orbital withdrew the CTA application from the FCC process.
******

Aprize Satellite, LatinSat

SpaceQuest, a U.S. developer of satellite equipment, formed GaAs solar cells and NiCd batteries
Aprize Satellite in 2001. This company, along with Latin Trade No onboard propulsion
Satellite or LatinSat, formed Aprize Satellite of Argentina. The
goal of these companies is to operate a Little LEO system for Transmitter
mobile asset tracking and fixed-site monitoring. The satellites In 389.0–389.5 MHz and/or 400.5–400.65 MHz
launched in 2002 and 2004 have the LatinSat name, but the
service is marketed as AprizeStar. Receiver
The design emphasizes minimizing cost in all segments of In 399.9–400.05 MHz and/or 455.0–455.5 MHz
the system. One example is that all satellites are launched as
secondary payloads on the launch of larger satellites. The full Orbit
system is planned to have 24 or 48 satellites. The ground segment Payloads: 640 x 644 km initial altitude, 64.6 deg inclination
consists of a single network operations center, regional nodes that Latin Sat A, B: 630 x 670 km initial altitude, 64.6 deg
communicate with the satellites, and a data center that collects inclination
and distributes data. Communication between these locations, Latin Sat C: 687 x 753 km initial altitude, 98.3 deg inclination
and communications with customers, is via the Internet. The Latin Sat D: 673 x 699 km initial altitude, 98.3 deg inclination
network operations center is in Virginia; regional nodes are in
the United States and Argentina. Other sites are planned. Orbital history
Each satellite has 10 receivers, two transmitters, and up Payloads: launched 26 September 2000
to 12 megabytes of onboard data storage. Transmissions to
Latin Sat A, B: launched 20 December 2002
and from the satellites are in some or all of the allocations at
389, 399 to 401, and 454 to 456 MHz. The first two Aprize Latin Sat C, D: launched 29 June 2004
satellites were payloads on SaudiSats 1A and 1B, also known Dnepr launch vehicle
as Oscars 41 and 42. Four dedicated satellites have been
launched. Although sometimes identified as Aprize satellites, Management
their names are LatinSats A to D. The first pair of LatinSats are Developed by SpaceQuest for Aprize Satellite
operated under a license from Argentina, the second pair under Operated by Aprize Satellite
a U.S. license. Little information about their design has been
published. Available details follow. ******
Satellite 1. Aprize Satellite, http://www.aprizesat.com/ (22 Feb.
Body is approximately a 25 cm cube 2005).
11.3 kg 2. SpaceQuest, http://www.spacequest.com/ (22 Feb. 2005).

175
Mobile Services Satellites

3. Latin Trade Satellite, http://www.latintradesatellite. Export Approval and Launch,” Paper SSC03-II-1, 17th Annual
com/eng/index.htm (22 February 2005). AIAA/USU Conference On Small Satellites, 2003, http://www.
4. D. A. Lorenzini, “Affordable Access to Space Using the spacequest.com/Articles/SSC03-II-1%20SpaceQuest.pdf (22
Russian Dnepr Launch Vehicle: Twists and Turns in the Road to February 2005).

Other Little LEO Satellites

Many other Little LEO systems have been proposed. Some in the United States. Later in the year Kitcomm’s Australian
received licenses from the FCC in the United States or from licenses were offered for sale; the notice stated that the licenses
other nations. However, they have not launched satellites, expire in October 2005 [13].
and it is not clear if they will. The announced functions of
these systems were similar to those announced for the systems ******
described above. 1. A. Kaveeshwar and R. Rodriguez, “Starsys: A View
Starsys Global Positioning Inc. proposed the Starsys system After WARC-92,” Small Satellites Systems and Services,
to provide message service and position determination [1–8]. Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales, Cépaduès-Editions,
The full system included 24 satellites. In 1992, Starsys received Toulouse, France (1992).
an experimental FCC license. Starsys began testing in 1992 2. A. Kaveeshwar, “The Starsys Data Messaging
using the Argos transponders in trials of its proposed system. and Geographic Position Determination System,” Space
Starsys also used the French S80/T satellite to measure the Communications, Vol. 11 (1993).
interference environment in the planned operating spectrum
and to test its spread spectrum transmission format. 3. A. B. Renshaw, “The Starsys Global Positioning and
Starsys provided limited service through the Argos Messaging System,” Proceedings of the 7th Annual AIAA/USU
transponders for several years. Late in 1995, the FCC granted Conference on Small Satellites (September 1993).
a license to Starsys and also approved GE Americom’s request 4. A. Kaveeshwar, “The Starsys Data Messaging and
to acquire 80-percent ownership. A contract for the first six Geo-Positioning System,” International Journal of Satellite
satellites was awarded. However, by mid-1997 GE could not Communications, Vol. 12, No. 1 (January–February 1994).
find partners to share the cost of the system and terminated 5. B. Serene and L. Dribault, “The ‘Starsys’ System
its plans. It returned the license to the FCC and told the FCC and Satellite Concept, to Provide World-Wide Commercial
that it withdrew from the ongoing second-round Little LEO Services, Including Two-Way Messaging and Localisation,”
proceedings. Space Communications, Vol. 14, No. 3 (19960.
In October 1993, Leo One [9–10] became one of the
applicants in the FCC’s second round of Little LEO application 6. B. Serene et al., “The ‘Starsys’ System and Satellite
processing. It participated in the discussions leading to the Concept, to Provide World-Wide Commercial Services,
applicants’ spectrum-sharing agreement in September 1997 Including Two-Way Messaging and Localisation,” Space
and received its license from the FCC in February 1998. In Technology, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1997).
October 1999, Leo One announced the selection of contractors 7. J. Pla, G. Lesthievent, and P. Brousse, “The Starsys
for satellite development and launches. The system was Mobile Location Principle: Description and Performances,”
planned to be operational in 2002 but no launches occurred. Paper 98-1210, AIAA 17th International Communications
E-Sat was a joint venture of DBSI, or DBS Industries, Satellite Systems Conference (February 1998).
and Echostar Communications. In 1994, it became one of the
8. Space News (27 November 1995), p. 2; (17 June 1996),
applicants in the FCC’s Little LEO second round, and received
p. 2; (22 July 1996), p. 8; (18 August 1997), p. 1.
a license in March 1998. It planned to develop a system of
six satellites for data and message services primarily to utility 9. E. Goldman, “‘Little LEOs Serve an Unmet
facilities and environmental monitoring in remote locations Demand: Leo One System Architecture Optimized to Meet
[11]. Uplinks were to be in 148–148.905 MHz and downlinks Market Requirements,” International Journal of Satellite
in 137.0725–137.9725 MHz. In April 1999, E-Sat signed Communications, Vol. 17, No. 4 (July–August 1999).
contracts for spacecraft bus development and for satellite 10. Leo One Homepage, http://www.leoone.com/, (1999)
launches. In October 1999, E-Sat signed a system contract that (8 November 1999).
included satellites and ground facilities and user terminals.
Launches were planned for late 2001 but did not occur. 11. “E-Sat,” http://www.dbsindustries.com/investor. html#
Kitcomm is an Australian company planning a system esat, and “Press Releases,” http://www.dbsindustries.com/
for monitoring remote fixed sites (such as utility lines and whatsnew.html (8 November 1999).
environmental monitoring) and for tracking and monitoring 12. H. Millar, “Rockets for the Rest of Us,” Wired Magazine
mobile objects (such as in the transportation industry) [12]. (September 1996), also http://www.hotwired.com/ collections/
The system was to be composed of three planes of seven space_exploration/4.09_rockets1.html (8 November 1999).
satellites each and ground facilities. Remote terminals would 13. Deloitte, “For sale—Space Satellite System Radio-
transmit messages through the satellites to the Kitcomm communications Licences,” http://www.deloitte.com/dtt/alert/
ground facilities, which would forward the messages to users. 0,2296,sid%253D9464%2526cid%253D51734,00.html (22
Kitcomm was licensed by the Australian government. In 2004 February 2005).
the FCC rejected an application by Kitcomm to provide service

176
 Iridium

Iridium
The Iridium system [1–24] was proposed by Motorola through TT&C stations in Hawaii, Iceland, and northern Canada.
in 1990. The system provides worldwide voice and data A backup operations center is in Italy. The gateways connect
communications to mobile users and fixed sites lacking the satellites to terrestrial telephone and data networks.
terrestrial communications, via a constellation of low- Links between satellites and subscribers are in the 1616 to
orbit satellites. The original proposal had a constellation of 1626.5 MHz band (L-band), divided into many narrow channels.
77 satellites in seven orbit planes and was named after the Each channel is available in some of the up-to 48 beams
chemical element with atomic number 77, Iridium. In refining produced by the three flat antennas hinged from each side of the
the system concept, the constellation was reduced to 66 satellite. When the satellites are at high latitudes, their coverage
satellites in six orbit planes, but the Iridium name was retained overlap increases and some of the 48 beams are turned off to
(chemical element 66 is dysprosium). conserve satellite power. Uplinks and downlinks share the same
Motorola filed an application with the FCC at the end frequency separated in short time slots in a TDMA scheme.
of 1990. FCC rule-making on this and similar applications The satellites include considerable processing to activate the
extended from 1992 through 1994. International L-band and necessary L-band antenna beams, assign the frequencies for
S-band allocations for these Big LEO systems were settled at each, control TDMA synchronization, and determine message
an ITU (International Telecommunication Union) conference routing among L-band links, gateway links, and crosslinks.
in 1992. The FCC rules were published in October 1994, and Because Iridium’s TDMA signals were not compatible
the Iridium license was granted in January 1995. During the with the CDMA signals of other Big LEO systems, the
regulatory process, Motorola obtained many international FCC assigned 1621.35 to 1626.5 MHz to Iridium, with the
partners for Iridium. These partners shared in financing and remainder to be shared by the CDMA systems. In 2004,
obtained the permits for operation in their own countries. because of failure of some CDMA systems to materialize and
Iridium LLC, incorporated in 1991, was the owner of the because of a demonstration of spectrum sharing by Iridium
satellites and the control center; Motorola was the prime and Globalstar, the FCC allowed Iridium to use 1618.25 to
contractor and operated the system for Iridium. Gateways 1621.35 MHz subject to coordination conditions.
are owned by regional operating companies, most of which Links between satellites and gateways, feeder links, are at
include “Iridium” in their name. 19.5 GHz (downlinks) and 29.2 GHz (uplinks). Each satellite
In September 1998, Iridium began commercial testing has four feeder link antennas so that it can communicate with
with a limited number of customers who did not have to pay multiple gateways; these antennas are located on the bottom of
for the service. Full commercial service began in November the satellite. Crosslinks are at 23 GHz. Each satellite has four
1998. Call quality received mixed reports, and service growth crosslink antennas, also located on the bottom of the satellite.
was slowed by delays in both production and distribution of Two antennas maintain continuous and constant geometry
subscriber phones. The large size and cost of phones, the cost crosslinks with the adjacent satellites in the same plane. The
of service, and the rapid growth of terrestrial cellular networks other two antennas are for crosslinks with satellites in adjacent
were also cited as hindrances to growth. Through the first half planes. These crosslinks are maintained while the satellites
of 1999, Iridium was well behind its forecasts for number of are at equatorial and midlatitudes, but are disconnected when
customers. It had only 10,000 customers in March 1999. the satellites reach high latitudes because of the large changes
In August 1999, Iridium entered bankruptcy and in March in the inter-plane geometry. The use of crosslinks means that
2000 announced the end of commercial service, except for
customers in remote locations who might have no alternatives. Fig. 3.28. Iridium satellite.
Motorola continued to operate the satellites, but by summer
2000 there was talk of deorbiting all of them. Bids made by
potential new owners during the bankruptcy process were only
$25 to $60 million even though the system had cost $4 to $5
billion. By December 2000 the assets were transferred to a
new company named Iridium Satellite LLC. Service by this
company to the U.S. Government began that month,
and commercial service restarted in March 2001.
The U.S. Government contract, for 2 years of
unlimited service to 20,000 users, was the key to
reviving the system. Options in that contract have
been exercised to continue the service into 2006. By
the end of 2005 Iridium reported that services to the
U.S. Government accounted for about one-third of its
revenues and that it had a total of 140,000 subscribers.
The Iridium system has three segments: subscriber units,
satellites, and ground infrastructure. Subscriber units include
phones, pagers, and data units, either mobile or installed
in aircraft, ships, vehicles or remote fixed stations. The
ground infrastructure includes a control center and multiple
gateways. The control center in Virginia manages the flow of
communications, and monitors and commands the satellites

177
Mobile Services Satellites

users can be served by a satellite even if there is no gateway Command: in the band 29.1–29.3 GHz; right-hand circular
simultaneously in view of the satellite. As of early 1999 polarization
gateways were operating in Brazil, China, India, Italy, Japan, Both are independent links for satellites not in networked
Korea, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Thailand, and two in the operation and multiplexed into communication links for satellites
United States. in networked operation; for networked satellites, both may also
A subscriber unit either initiates a call or receives an alert be multiplexed into crosslinks
from a satellite that it has an incoming call. The subscriber
unit and the satellite achieve timing and frequency synchro- Life
nization with each other. Subscriber location and registration Five-year mission life
with the system are verified or renewed, and a gateway is Orbit
assigned for the call. After these steps, the call commences.
Six planes with 11 satellites equally spaced in each, 780 km
As the call continues, satellite motion requires that the call be mean altitude, 86 deg inclination; equatorial crossing of planes
transferred to another L-band antenna beam on the same satel- separated by 31.6 deg except first and sixth (counter-rotating)
lite or to a beam from another satellite. Because the same fre- separated by 22 deg
quencies are not used in adjacent beams to avoid interference,
the transfer requires a change of frequency. Orbital history
Production of the large number of satellites for the Iridium 5 May 1997, five satellites launched (4–8), Delta 2 launch
constellation required changes in manufacturing and test vehicle
techniques from traditional satellite building. A production 18 June 1997, seven satellites launched (9–14, 16), Proton
line was established and 88 were launched by mid-1999. launch vehicle
These launches established a full constellation with spares Iridium 11 not put into service
and replaced satellites that failed in orbit. Additional satellite
information follows. Iridium 9 reentered Earth’s atmosphere 11 March 2003
9 July 1997, five satellites launched (15, 17–18, 20–21), Delta
Satellite
2 launch vehicle
Triangular prism approximately 4.3 m tall and 1 m on a side, 8.4
m span of deployed solar arrays Iridium 20–21 not put into service
526 kg dry weight, 667 kg maximum with full fuel load, slightly 20 August 1997, five satellites launched (22–26), Delta 2
less in operational orbit launch vehicle
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 battery, more than 620 W Iridium 24 not put into service
daily average and more than 4000 W peak power at end of life 1 September 1997, two satellite models launched for a launch
Three-axis-stabilized, approximately 0.5 deg pointing vehicle test, Long March 2 launch vehicle
accuracy 13 September 1997, seven satellites launched (27–33), Proton
Liquid hydrazine propellant launch vehicle
Iridium 27 reentered Earth’s atmosphere 1 February 2002
Configuration
26 September 1997, five satellites launched (19, 34–37), Delta
K-band links between satellites and gateways, L-band links 2 launch vehicle
between satellites and users, and K-band crosslinks between
satellites, all connected through a processor 8 November 1997, five satellites launched (38–41, 43), Delta
2 launch vehicle
Transmitter 8 December 1997, two satellites launched (42, 44), Long March
K (to gateways): in 19.4–19.6 GHz 2 launch vehicle
K (intersatellite): in 23.18–23.38 GHz 20 December 1997, five satellites launched (45–49), Delta 2
L (to users): in 1610–1626.5 MHz (see text) launch vehicle
Iridium 48 reentered Earth’s atmosphere 5 May 2001
Receiver
18 February 1998, five satellites launched (50, 52–54, 56),
K (from gateways): in 29.1–29.3 GHz Delta 2 launch vehicle
K (intersatellite): in 23.18–23.38 GHz 25 March 1998, two satellites launched (51, 61), Long March
L (from users): in 1610–1626.5 MHz (see text) 2 launch vehicle
30 March 1998, five satellites launched (55, 57–60), Delta 2
Antenna
launch vehicle
K (to/from gateways): four antennas
7 April 1998, seven satellites (62–68) launched, Proton launch
K (crosslinks): two fixed antennas for crosslinks with satellites vehicle
fore and aft in same plane; two gimballed antennas for crosslinks
with satellites in adjacent planes 2 May 1998, two satellites launched (69, 71), Long March 2
launch vehicle
L: three planar arrays, each approximately 1 x 2 m
17 May 1998, five satellites (70, 72–75) launched, Delta 2
Telemetry and command launch vehicle
Telemetry: in the band 19.4–19.6 GHz; left-hand circular 19 August 1998, two satellites launched (76, 78), Long March
polarization 2 launch vehicle

178
 Iridium

8 September 1998, five satellites launched (77, 79–82), Delta 8. G. M. Comparetto and N. D. Hulkower, “Global Mobile
2 launch vehicle Satellite Communications: A Review of Three Contenders,”
Iridium 79 reentered Earth’s atmosphere 29 Nov. 2000 Paper 94-1138, AIAA 15th International Communications
6 November 1998, five satellites launched (83–87), Delta 2 Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994).
launch vehicle 9. T. N. Tadano, “Iridium—A Lockheed Transition to
Iridium 85 reentered Earth’s atmosphere 30 December Commercial Space,” Proceedings of the Fourth International
2000 Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1995), p. 90.
19 December 1998, two satellites launched (88–89), Long 10. J. Hutcheson and M. Laurin, “Network Flexibility of
March 2 launch vehicle the Iridium Global Mobile Satellite System,” Proceedings of
11 June 1999, two satellites launched (92, 93), Long March 2 the Fourth International Mobile Satellite Conference (June
launch vehicle 1995), p. 503.
11 February 2002, five satellite launched (90–91, 94–96), Delta 11. P. A. Swan and J. A. Zukowski, “Manufacturing
2 launch vehicle Technologies, the ‘Key’ to a 66 Small Satellite system,” Space
20 June 2002, two satellites launched (97–98), Rokot launch Technology, Vol. 15, No. 4 (July 1995).
vehicle 12. P. Armbruster, “Call Processing in the Iridium
Network,” Paper AIAA-96-1130, 16th AIAA International
Management
Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1996).
Developed by Motorola with subcontractors Lockheed (bus)
and Raytheon (phased-array antennas) 13. P. Brunt, “Iridium—Overview and Status,” Space
Operated by Motorola for Iridium through 2000; operated by Communications, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1996).
Boeing for Iridium Satellite since December 2000 or early 14. T. P. Garrison et al., “System Engineering Trades for
2001 the Iridium Constellation,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets,
By May 1998, Iridium had launched 72 satellites. Of these, five Vol. 324, No. 5 (September–October 1997).
failed, three because of attitude control problems, one from 15. C. E. Fossa et al., “An Overview of the Iridium Low
fuel depletion because a thruster did not turn off, and because Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite System,” Proceedings of the IEEE
of damage suffered in separation from the launch vehicle. Two 1998 National Aerospace and Electronics Conference (July
more satellites failed during the summer of 1998, but sufficient 1998).
replacements were launched later in the year. By the end of
16. Iridium, “Africa’s Wireless Telecomms Revolution,”
2001, besides the 66 operating satellites, there were 7 spares
Global Communications Africa ’98, Hanson Cooke Ltd.
in orbit and 7 on the ground. The ground spares were launched
(1998); also at http://www.globalcomms. co.uk/africa98/
in 2002. By late 2004 one more satellite had failed, but there
editorial/172.html (20 April 1999).
were still 13 spares available in orbit, and the constellation was
estimated to be able to support full service beyond 2010. 17. Space News (20 January 1997), p. 2; (28 July 1997),
p. 2; (1 September 1997), p. 22; (1 December 1997), p. 2; (4
****** May 1998), p. 4; (18 May 1998), p. 3; 27 July 1998), p. 1; (17
1. B. R. Bertiger, P. A. Swan, and R. J. Leopold, “Iridium August 1998), p. 18; (21 September 1998), p. 4; (19 October
is in the Works,” Aerospace America, Vol. 29, No. 2 (February 1998), p. 4; (11 January 1999), p. 8; 5 April 1999), p. 3; (31
1991). May 1999), p. 4; (12 July 1999), p. 14; (17 August 1999), p. 1.
2. D. E. Sterling and J. E. Hatlelid, “The Iridium System— 18. K. Maine, C. Devieux, and P. Swan, “Overview of
A Revolutionary Satellite Communications System Developed IRIDIUM Satellite Network,” WESCON/’95. Conference
with Innovative Applications of Technology,” Paper 21.3, Record. ‘Microelectronics Communications Technology
Milcom ’91 Conference Record (November 1991). Producing Quality Products Mobile and Portable Power
3. J. L. Grubb, “A Traveler’s Dream Come True,” IEEE Emerging Technologies’ (November 1995), pp. 483–490.
Communications Magazine, Vol. 29, No. 11 (November 1991). 19. P. W. Lemme, S. M. Glenister, and A. W. Miller,
4. P. A. Swan, J. E. Hatlelid, and D. E. Sterling, “Iridium— “Iridium(R) Aeronautical Satellite Communications,” IEEE
Covering the Globe with Personal Communications,” Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, Vol. 14, No. 11
Spaceflight, Vol. 34, No. 2 (February 1992). (November 1999).
5. M. Gercenstein, “Iridium, Covering the Globe with 20. S. R. Pratt et al., “An Operational and Performance
Personal Communications,” The United Nations Workshop on Overview of the IRIDIUM Low Earth Orbit Satellite System,”
Space Communication for Development (November 1992). http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/surveys/public/2q99issue/
raines.html, IEEE Communication Society Surveys and
6. P. A. Swan and P. N. Cloutier, “Global Personal Tutorials, Second Quarter 1999 (28 February 2005).
Communications This Decade With Iridium,” Space
Technology, Vol. 13, No. 4 (July 1993). 21. C. B. Christensen and S. Beard, “Iridium: Failures and
Successes,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 48, No. 5–12 (March–June
7. J. E. Hatlelid and L. Casey, “The Iridium System— 2001).
Personal Communications Anytime, Anyplace,” Proceedings
of the Third International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 22. P. D. Maley and J. C. Pizzicaroli, “The Visual
1993). Appearance of the Iridium Satellites,” Acta Astronautica, Vol.
48, No. 8 (April 2003)

179
Mobile Services Satellites

23. Iridium Satellite, http://www.iridium.com/ (28 February 24. Space News, “Profile, Carmen Lloyd, Taking Iridium to
2005). the Next Step,” Space News (30 January 2006), p. 22.

Globalstar
The Globalstar system [1–26] development was initiated by signal transmitted by a gateway through a satellite. When the
Loral Qualcomm Satellite Services, Inc. (sometimes called user equipment is turned on, it acquires this signal and obtains
LQSS), formed by satellite builder Loral and communication necessary information; then a user can initiate a call or respond
equipment builder Qualcomm. The system complements and to a call initiated through a gateway. Transmissions are all in
extends terrestrial cellular service to areas without terrestrial adjacent 1.23 MHz bandwidth channels within the available
service. Loral Qualcomm submitted an application to the satellite bandwidth, which, because of varying regulations
FCC in mid-1991. It was considered with related applications around the world, may be the same as or less than the 16.5
in regulatory proceedings that lasted through 1992 to 1994. MHz wide allocation. The information, at 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, or 9.6
International L-band and S-band allocations for these Big kbps, is encoded for error correction and spread by a 1.2288
LEO systems were settled at an ITU conference early in Mbps code. The overall technique is CDMA within each 1.23
1992. FCC rules were published in October 1994, and the MHz channel. The code properties allow many users to share a
Globalstar license was granted in January 1995. During these channel without causing interference to one another.
years, communications companies from other nations became The satellites are frequency-translating transponders to
partners with Loral Qualcomm; from 1994 they were known place the signal processing complexity on the ground. Links
as the Globalstar Partnership. By mid-1997 it had obtained from the satellites to users are in 2483.5 to 2500 MHz.
more than 90 percent of the funds it then estimated would Links from the users to the satellites are in 1610 to 1626.5
be required to put the system into operation; however, the MHz. The FCC assigned Globalstar and other systems with
required funding later grew, especially as a result of a launch CDMA signals to 1610 to 1621.35 MHz. In 2004, because of
failure in 1998. failure of other CDMA systems to materialize and due to a
The Globalstar satellite system is a wholesaler of capacity demonstration of spectrum sharing by Iridium and Globalstar,
to regional and local service providers, which may or may the FCC allowed Iridium to share 1618.25 to 1621.35 MHz
not be investors in the Globalstar partnership. These service with Globalstar subject to coordination conditions.
providers sell voice, messaging, positioning, fax, and data The forward link is from the gateway through the satellites
services to users. to the users. The uplink from the gateway has eight groups of
Users communicate through a satellite with a gateway signals in each polarization. These are received by a global-
station, which provides the interface with the desired terrestrial coverage antenna on the satellite. Each of the 16 groups of
communications system. All gateways are connected to the signals is routed to one of the 16 beams of the S-band transmit
ground operations control center, which allocates satellite array antenna. The routing consists of a 91-way power divider
capacity to the gateways and collects operational information. for each group of signals followed by 91 fixed phase adjusters,
This center is collocated with a satellite operations control center followed by a 91-way power combiner and a single power
at Globalstar headquarters in San Jose, California; a backup amplifier for each of the 91 elements of the transmit array (see
control center is located elsewhere in California. Gateways Fig. 3.30). The beams generated by the antenna are arranged
are owned by the service providers, not by Globalstar. A few with one in the center, pointing at nadir, surrounded by a ring
gateways transmit commands to and receive telemetry from of six and an outer ring of nine. The same frequency plan is
the satellites. User terminals are available in Globalstar-only used in each of the 16 beams.
models and models that can switch between Globalstar and The return link is from the users through the satellites to the
one or two of the terrestrial cellular formats. User terminals gateways. The users transmit to the satellites and are received
are handheld, fixed, or mounted in vehicles or boats. by one of the 16 beams formed by amplitude and power control
The full Globalstar constellation has six satellites in each of in the 61-element array. The beams are arranged with one in
eight orbital planes. There are also spare satellites, nominally the center, pointed at nadir, surrounded by a ring of 15. The 16
four, in lower altitude orbits. When a satellite fails, coverage groups of signals, one from each receive beam, are transmitted,
gaps are eliminated by shifting the phasing of satellites in the eight on each polarization, to a gateway. The signal structure is
orbital plane. Replenishment occurs when the orbital plane of like the forward link: The available spectrum is divided into 1.23
a spare satellite has precessed to be coincident with the plane MHz wide channels with multiple signals separated by CDMA;
of the failed satellite, at which time onboard propulsion is used the satellites have switchable filters for each beam that can
to boost the spare to the operational altitude. The constellation accommodate two, six, nine, or 13 channels. In the return link
provides good service with 40 satellites in operation. By early all the users have the same, very long code; they are separated
2006, 43 satellites were in operation and eight ground spares by time offsets computed from their user address.
were being prepared for launch in 2007. After these launches, The user and gateway sense the received power levels and
it is expected that the constellation will be adequate for service use them to control the transmitted power levels. In addition,
to 2011. Globalstar is studying both low orbit and geostationary the gateway can send power control commands to the users.
orbit options for a second generation constellation to be These features minimize the average transmitted power level,
launched beginning as early as 2010. and keep the powers balanced to maximize system capacity
The Globalstar transmission technique is an adaptation of while allowing increases as needed to combat atmospheric
a terrestrial cellular technique developed by Qualcomm. The fading and blockage due to thick vegetation or manufactured
starting point of any transmission is the pilot and synchronization structures.

180
 Globalstar

Both forward and return links are transmitted through Antenna

multiple satellites when visibility allows. The receivers in both C: Earth coverage horns, dual circular polarizations
the gateways and the user terminals are able to combine the S: 91-element array generating 16 fixed beams
signals received from the multiple satellites. This produces a
smooth transition from one beam to another or one satellite to L: 61-element array generating 16 fixed beams
another as the satellites move relative to the users. It also provides Life
diversity combining to combat the effect of blockage, such as 7.5 years; 10 years estimated for those that successfully begin
from buildings, on the path between a user and a satellite. To operating
support this diversity of paths, the satellite orbit was chosen to
maximize multisatellite coverage at 25 to 49 deg latitudes, and Orbit
most gateways are being built with four antennas so that they Eight planes with six satellites equally spaced in each, 1414
can communicate with four satellites at a time. Nevertheless, the km altitude, 52 deg inclination, planes separated by 45 deg
system will operate if only one satellite is in view of a user, and Spare satellites at 920 km altitude, 52 deg inclination
continuous service can be maintained between 25 and 49 deg
north latitude with as many as 12 of the 48 satellites failed. Orbital history
The satellite bodies are a trapezoidal prism for efficient 14 February 1998, four satellites launched (1–4), Delta 2
stowage in the launch vehicles. Four satellites are launched launch vehicle
together. The two hexagonal objects on the Earth-viewing 24 April 1998, four satellites launched (6, 8, 14, 15), Delta 2
face of the satellite (see Fig. 3.29) are the array antennas; the launch vehicle
larger is the L-band receive array. The satellites are steered
9 September 1998, twelve satellites destroyed (5, 7, 9, 10–13,
around their yaw axis (the line toward Earth center), and the 16–18, 20–21) by failure of a Zenit launch vehicle
solar arrays are rotated about their axis to keep the arrays
pointed toward the sun. During the portion of an orbit when 9 February 1999, four satellites launched (23, 36, 38, 40),
Earth blocks the sun, the battery is used to power the satellite; Soyuz launch vehicle
battery recharging is normally done while the satellite is over 15 March 1999, four satellites launched (22, 37, 41, 46), Soyuz
the ocean where there is less demand for power because of launch vehicle
fewer users. The satellites have GPS receivers for time and 15 April 1999, four satellites launched (19, 42, 44–45), Soyuz
frequency references and for attitude and orbit determination. launch vehicle
Additional satellite information follows. 10 June 1999, four satellites launched (25, 47, 49, 52), Delta
Satellite 2 launch vehicle
Trapezoidal prism body with deployed solar arrays 10 July 1999, four satellites launched (30, 32, 35, 51), Delta 2
450 kg with full fuel load, slightly less in operational orbit launch vehicle

Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 battery, 2200 W beginning 25 July 1999, four satellites launched (26, 28, 43, 48), Delta 2
of life, 1400 W end of life, minimum orbit average power (with launch vehicle
worst case eclipse) is 758 W 17 August 1999, four satellites launched (24, 27, 53–54), Delta
Three-axis-stabilized 2 launch vehicle

Liquid hydrazine propellant 22 September 1999, four satellites launched (30, 50, 55, 58),
Soyuz launch vehicle
Configuration
Sixteen forward-link C-band to S-band transponders
Sixteen return-link L-band to C-band transponders
Dual-polarization frequency reuse at C-band and
16 beam frequency reuse at S-band and L-band Fig. 3.29. Globalstar satellite.

Transmitter
C: 6898–7075 MHz
Total EIRP 32.6 dBW
S: 2483.5–2500 MHz
One 4.5 W solid-state power amplifier for each of the 91
antenna elements
EIRP per beam 29 dBW

Receiver
C: 5049–5225 MHz
G/T –29 to –24 dB/K depending on angle off nadir
L: 1610–1621.35 MHz
One low-noise amplifier for each of the 61 antenna
elements, 1.6 dB noise figure
G/T –18 dB/K minimum

181
Mobile Services Satellites

18 October 1999, four satellites launched (31, 56–57, 59), time 25 gateways were in operation, with full coverage of the
Soyuz launch vehicle Americas and coverage of much of Europe, Russia, China, and
22 November 1999, four satellites launched (29, 34, 39, 61), Australia.
Soyuz launch vehicle In February 2002 Globalstar entered bankruptcy. By the end
8 February 2000, four satellites launched (60, 62–64), Delta 2 of that year there were only 77,000 subscribers. In May 2003 it
launch vehicle was announced that Globalstar would be acquired by satellite
operator ICO, but that deal did not close. In November 2003
Four spare satellites to be launched in first half of 2007, Soyuz
launch vehicle Thermo Capital Partners acquired 81 percent of Globalstar for
$43 million. This is compared to about $4 billion to establish
Four spare satellites to be launched singly or in pairs or the system. The Thermo acquisition was completed in April
together, year unannounced, Soyuz or Rokot launch vehicle
2004, which substantially completed the bankruptcy process. In
Management February 2006 the number of subscribers reached 200,000.
Developed by Space Systems/Loral with Alenia, Dornier Separate from the existing system, in July 2001 Globalstar
Satellitensysteme, and Alcatel was one of eight companies that received FCC licenses for
mobile service satellite systems in the 2 GHz band. In July 2002
Operated by Globalstar
Globalstar announced a satellite contract, but by January 2003
System testing with early user terminals was conducted through the FCC decided that the contract did not meet its milestone
the first 9 months of 1999 by employees of various Globalstar requirements and declared the license null and void.
investors and service providers. Initial commercial service In March 2005 Globalstar applied for FCC authorization to
began in October 1999 in a limited number of countries in order operate an Ancillary Terrestrial Component (ATC)—terrestrial
to review and improve marketing, user terminal distribution, repeaters to enhance the Globalstar’s coverage in urban areas
and customer support. Full service began in the first quarter where buildings block signals to and from the satellites. These
of 2000 in 25 countries with 11 gateways in operation and six repeaters, authorized in January 2006, will use the same
more in commissioning. frequencies as the satellite links.
In January 2001 Globalstar suspended payment on its debts
to conserve sufficient funds for marketing and operations. ******
However, the number of subscribers grew much slower than 1. A. J. Navarra, “The Global Mobile Communication by
expected, reaching only 40,000 at the end of March. At that Globalstar System,” The United Nations Workshop on Space
Communication for Development (November 1992).

91 Way 91 Phase 16 Way 91-

91 power
power adjusters Element
lines combiner
divider (one per line) array
L R

5091- (16 parallel paths) (16 parallel paths) 2483.5-

2/3

3/2

5250 5500
91 Way 91 Phase 16 Way
power 91 adjusters power
divider lines (one per line) combiner

61 Element
array
16 Phase and 61 Way
16 Way 16 amplitude
power power
lines adjusters combiner
divider (one per line)
C L R

1610- 6875-
1626.5 7055
2/3

3/2

(61 parallel paths) (16 parallel paths)

16 Phase and 16 Way

16 Way 16 amplitude
power power
lines adjusters combiner
divider (one per line)

Fig. 3.30. Globalstar communication subsystem.

182
 ICO

2. R. A. Wiedeman and A. J. Viterbi, “The Globalstar 14. F. J. Dietrich, “The Globalstar Satellite Cellular
Mobile Satellite System for Worldwide Personal Com- Communication System: Design and Status,” Paper AIAA-
munications,” Proceedings of the Third International Mobile 98-1213, 17th AIAA International Communication Satellite
Satellite Conference (June 1993). Systems Conference (March 1998).
3. G. M. Comparetto and N. D. Hulkower, “Global Mobile 15. F. J. Dietrich, “The Globalstar Satellite Cellular
Satellite Communications: A Review of Three Contenders,” Communication System Design and Status,” Space Technology
Paper 94-1138, AIAA 15th International Communications and Applications International Forum-1998, AIP Conference
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994). Proceedings, No. 420, Part 1 (1998).
4. P. Monte and S. Carter, “The Globalstar Air Interface: 16. V. Costabile, P. Galassi, and R. P. Rippo, “New Satellite
Modulation and Access,” Paper 94-1153, AIAA 15th International Testing Strategy for Commercial Programs,” Paper U.402,
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994). 47th International Astronautical Conference (October 1997)
5. J. Schindall, “Concept and Implementation of the and Acta Astronautica, Vol. 42, No. 9 (May 1998).
Globalstar Mobile Satellite System,” Proceedings of the Fourth 17. T. Navarra, “Satellite Telecommunications: Expanding
International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1995), p. 19. Asia Pacific Markets,” Global Communications ’98, Hanson
6. E. Hirschfield, “The Globalstar System,” Applied Cooke Limited (1998).
Microwave and Wireless (Summer 1995). 18. R. Hendrickson, “Globalstar for the Military,” Paper
7. D. Smith and R. Hendrickson, “Mission Control for the 24.1, IEEE Military Communications Conference: Milcom ’98
48-Satellite Globalstar Constellation,” Paper 25.6, IEEE Military (October 1998).
Communications Conference: Milcom ’95 (November 1995). 19. E. Hirschfield et al., “Globalstar’s Performance,” Space
8. D. Smith, “Operations Innovations for the 48-Satellite Technology, Vol. 19, No. 1 (1999).
Globalstar Constellation,” Paper AIAA-96-1051, 16th AIAA 20. I. Parker, “Globalstar Marches On,” Space & Commu-
International Communication Satellite Systems Conference nications, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Spring 2000).
(March 1996). 21. E. Hirschfield, “Globalstar Quality of Service,”
9. E. Hirschfield, “The Globalstar System: Breakthroughs MILCOM 2000. 21st Century Military Communications Con-
in Efficiency in Microwave and Signal Processing Technology,” ference Proceedings, Vol. 15 (October 2000), pp. 251–25.
Space Communications, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1996). 22. R. Henrickson, “Globalstar for Military Applications,”
10. F. J. Dietrich, “The Globalstar Satellite Cellular MILCOM 2000. 21st Century Military Communications
Communication System Design and Status,” Proceedings Conference Proceedings, Vol. 1 (October 2000), pp. 247–250.
of the Fifth International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 23. L. Golovanevsky et al., “Globalstar Link Verification,”
1997), p. 139. 1999 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking
11. V. Kiernan, “Globalstar at the Starting Gate,” Satellite Conference, Vol. 3 (September 1999), pp. 1182–1187.
Communications, Vol. 21, No. 7 (July 1997). 24. P. L. Metzen, “Globalstar Satellite Phased Array
12. R. Hendrickson, “Globalstar for the Military,” Paper Antennas,” 2000 IEEE International Conference on Phased
31.4, IEEE Military Communications Conference: Milcom ’97 Array Systems and Technology (May 2000), pp. 207–210.
(November 1997). 25. A. E. Turner et al., “Globalstar Constellation Design and
13. E. Hirschfield, “Functional Decomposition, The Key to Establishment Experience,” Paper AAS 03-636, Astrodynamics
Globalstar Design,” Paper 3.6, IEEE Military Communications 2003, in Advances in the Astronautical Sciences, Part III, Vol.
Conference: Milcom ’97 (November 1997). 116 (2004).
26. Globalstar, http://www.globalstar.com/en/ (28 February
2005).

ICO
Outside the United States, the most prominent Big LEO awarded in 1995. The ICO system had 12 regional gateways
proposal in the 1990s was Inmarsat-P, with the P standing for called satellite access nodes, all connected by terrestrial links:
personal; studies had begun in the early 1990s. The Inmarsat- Australia, Chile, Germany, India, South Africa, United States,
P system concept had a constellation of 10 satellites plus two Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, South Korea, and the United
spares in 6-hr circular orbits for service to handheld dual-use Arab Emirates. In early 2001 it was reported that 11 had
terrestrial cellular and satellite telephones. In January 1995, been constructed. User terminals were being manufactured
ICO Global Communications, with ICO referring to these by several companies in both satellite-only and dual-mode
6-hr orbits, was formed as a private company to take over (satellite and terrestrial) versions in models for handheld,
development of this system [1–7]. ICO had 17 subsidiaries maritime, vehicular, aircraft, and remote fixed site use.
formed to conduct business in various regions of the world. By 1999, ICO had raised almost two-thirds of the money it
The ICO constellation was chosen to give high-elevation had budgeted for bringing the system into operation. When it
angles over large parts of the Earth, slow-moving satellites, sought additional funds, it fell short of its goal, and in August
and good double coverage to overcome blockage between 1999 it entered bankruptcy under U.S. law. The bankruptcy
users and satellites. The satellite development contract was concluded in May 2000 with the company taking the name
183
Mobile Services Satellites

New ICO. In 2000 to 2003 ICO made business agreements downconverted, digitized (but not demodulated), and combined
with Teledesic, Constellation Communications and Mobile into two groups. Each group of signals will be amplified by
Communications Holdings, and Globalstar. In 2005 ICO a TWTA before being transmitted on different polarizations
Global Communications announced a plan for a new system through an Earth-coverage horn to the gateway. Both user and
consisting of a single satellite in geostationary orbit and an gateway transmitter powers will be controlled on each call.
ancillary terrestrial component [8–11]. Other corporate names The satellite design is similar to one used on many
associated with this system are ICO Satellite Management, ICO geostationary orbit satellites, with changes because of the
Satellite Services, and ICO North America. Initial information different orbit used by ICO. Propulsion has been simplified,
about the new satellite is at the end of this section. since the launch vehicles will deliver the satellites to the
In 1995 ICO awarded a contract for 12 satellites, and in operational orbit. Attitude control was modified to rotate the
2000 New ICO added three more satellites to the contract. The satellite about the yaw axis (the line between the satellite
first satellite was destroyed by a launch vehicle failure in 2000, and Earth’s center) to keep the solar arrays pointed toward
and the second was successfully launched the next year. Since the sun. The two hexagonal units on the Earth-viewing face
2000 various modifications to the satellites were discussed and of the satellite (see Fig. 3.31) are the S-band array antennas.
some were put on contract, especially to move the focus from ICO planned to launch 12 satellites to achieve the desired 10-
voice to data communications and to increase the maximum satellite constellation. Additional details for the satellite design
user data rate. In mid-2003 the last three satellites were launched in 2000 and 2001 follow.
canceled, while a new contract slowly continued work on the Satellite
other 10. In spring 2004 the manufacturer announced a major Hughes, later Boeing, 601 bus modified for medium altitude
program cancellation; although the manufacturer refused to orbit
identify the program, it was assumed to be the 10 ICO satellites.
By 2005 it was publicly known that ICO and Boeing had each Rectangular body approximately 2 x 2.3 x 4.7 m, span of
deployed solar arrays 26.4 m
filed a legal action against the other regarding the cancellation
of this contract, which apparently had six satellites completed 2400 kg dry weight, 2750 kg on orbit, beginning of life
and four in construction. The following description reflects the Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 battery, 8900 W end of life
satellite design as it was in approximately 2000, the design of Earth-viewing face pointed toward nadir, solar arrays pointed
the satellite that is in orbit. toward sun, 0.4 deg pointing accuracy
The satellites communicate with gateways at C-band
Liquid hydrazine monopropellant propulsion
and with users at S-band. At C-band the satellite has Earth-
coverage antennas, and at S-band it has two array antennas, Configuration
one for transmit and one for receive, each with 163 beams. C-band links to and from gateways interconnected through
Uplinks from the gateways are received, downconverted, a digital processor and beamformer with S-band links to and
digitized (but not demodulated), and routed through 490 filters from user terminals;
with 170 kHz bandwidth. The output of any filter can be
C: dual-polarization frequency reuse
routed to any of the 163 S-band beams. The digital processor
sets the phase and amplitude for each of the 127 elements S: frequencies reused every fourth beam, 20-fold reuse
in the S-band antenna. The signals for each of the elements Transmitter
will be combined; then each of the 127 combinations will
C: 6975–7075 MHz, 43 W TWTAs, 25.6 dBW EIRP
be upconverted, amplified by a single solid-state amplifier,
filtered, and sent to the antenna for transmission to the user S: in 2170–2200 MHz band, 127 solid-state power
terminals. amplifiers (90 at 4.4 W output, 18 at 8.1 W output,
At S-band, the satellite can accommodate all frequencies 19 at 8.8 W output), one per antenna element,
total output power 709 W
spaced 150 kHz apart across the 30 MHz transmit and receive
bands. Interference, and regulations that vary in different
regions of the world, will reduce the number of frequencies
available. The whole set of frequencies is divided into 16
nonoverlapping groups. Eight groups are assigned to each
plane of satellites; this ensures that the planes do not interfere
with each other. Within a plane the beams of adjacent satellites
overlap. To prevent interference between adjacent satellites,
four frequency groups are assigned to the leading beams
(those in front of the subsatellite point) and a different four to
the trailing beams of all satellites in the plane. Each of the four
frequency groups assigned to the same plane and beams is
used in different but adjacent beams and reused in a four-
beam pattern. Therefore, within the approximately
80 leading or trailing beams, there is 20-fold
frequency reuse.
Uplinks from the user terminals are
received and amplified by the low-
noise amplifier that follows each Fig. 3.31. ICO satellite.
antenna element. The signals are

184
 Other Big LEO Satellites

Receiver 1. “ICO Global Mobile Satellite System,” http://www.

C: 5150–5250 MHz hughespace.com/factsheets/601/ico/ico.html (January 1997), (9
S: in 1985–2015 MHz band; 127 low-noise amplifiers, one per November 1999) and Boeing, “New ICO Global Mobile Satellite
antenna element; 3.7 dB/K G/T System” (February 2001), http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/
space/bss/factsheets/601/ico/ico.html (1 March 2005).
Antenna 2. F. Makita and K. Smith, “ Design and Implementation of
C: seven-horn clusters, one transmit and one receive, Earth- ICO System,” Paper AIAA-98-1216, 17th AIAA International
coverage, 11.4/11.6 dB gain (transmit/receive), dual circular Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1998).
polarizations
S: one transmit and one receive 127-element array, each with
3. L. Ghedia, K. Smith, and G. Titzer, “Satellite
163 beams, right-hand circular polarization PCN—The ICO System,” International Journal of Satellite
Communications, Vol. 17, No. 4 (July–August 1999).
Telemetry and command 4. N. Bains, “The ICO System for Personal
Telemetry: in or near 5150–5250 MHz band Communications by Satellite,” Proceedings of the Sixth Inter-
Command: in or near 6975–7075 MHz band national Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1999), p. 88.
Life 5. ICO, “Our System,” http://www.i-co.co.uk/system/
index.htm, and “Latest News,” http://www.ico.com/press/
Twelve-year mission life
index.htm (9 November 1999).
Orbit 6. Space News (12 January 1998), p. 16; (21 September
Two planes with five active satellites equally spaced in each 1998), p. 3; (23 August 1999), p. 3; (25 October 1999), p. 1;
plus one spare satellite in each, 10,390 km altitude, 45 deg (15 November 1999), p. 3; (22 November 1999), p. 1; (13
inclination, ascending nodes of planes separated 180 deg December 1999), p. 2; (25 August 2003), p. 36; (24 November
2003), p. 4; (3 May 2004), p. 1.
Orbital history
ICO F-1: launched 12 March 2000, Zenit SeaLaunch launch 7. K. Miyazaki et al., “S-Band Solid State Power Amplifier/
vehicle, launch failure Up-Converter for ICO Satellite,” 19th AIAA International
ICO F-2: launched 19 June 2001, Atlas IIAS launch vehicle,
Communications Satellite Systems Conference and Exhibit
successful launch, satellite status unknown (April 2001).
8. P. B. de Selding, “ICO Global Reinvents Itself with
Management Ground-Based Repeater Plan,” Space News (9 May 2005), p.
Developed by Hughes Space and Communications Group, 16.
later Boeing Satellite Systems
9. Loral Space and Communications, “Space Systems/
Operated by ICO Loral to Build Advanced Mobile Satellite for ICO Satellite
In April 2005 Space Systems/Loral announced that it had Management” (26 April 2005), http://investor.loral.com/
signed a contract to build the single geostationary orbit releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=183903 (17 May 2005).
satellite for the redesigned ICO system. This satellite will use 10. ICO Global Holdings, “ICO North America Closes
10 MHz of spectrum in each of the bands 1990 to 2025 and Sale of $650 Million of Convertible Senior Secured Notes,”
2165 to 2200 MHz; for these frequencies it will have a 12 m (15 August 2005) http://investor.ico.com/releasedetail.
diam deployable mesh antenna. The satellite is to be launched cfm?ReleaseID=204028 (22 August 2005).
in mid-2007 by an Atlas V launch vehicle. Licenses for the
terrestrial component will be issued by the FCC after the 11. ICO, “FCC Assigns 20 MHz of Spectrum to ICO
satellite is in orbit. Development of this system is funded by Satellite Services” (9 December 2005), http://investor.ico.
$650 million of notes sold in fall 2005. com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=204026 and “FCC Press
Release 9 Dec—FCC Spectrum Assignment Boosts 2 GHz
****** MSS Operators’ Ability to Provide Public Safety Services,”
(9 December 2005) http://investor.ico.com/releasedetail.
cfm?ReleaseID=204027 (4 September 2006).

Other Big LEO Satellites

TRW and Teleglobe of Canada were the initial partners in The name reflects the fact that the majority of the satellites were
a medium orbit system competing with ICO. The concept, to be in elliptical orbits. Ellipso [1–12] had two subconstella-
developed by TRW beginning in 1990, was called Odyssey. tions. Borealis had two planes of four or five satellites each in
This system had more trouble than some of its competitors 117 deg inclined, elliptical, 3-hr period, sun-synchronous orbits
in attracting financial backers. At the end of 1997, TRW with coverage focused on the northern temperate latitudes. Con-
terminated the Odyssey project, returned the FCC license it cordia had about seven satellites in a circular equatorial orbit, to
received in 1995, dropped its patent infringement suit against provide coverage of equatorial and southern latitudes.
ICO, and became an investor in the ICO system. Ellipso ground network included ground stations that commu-
Ellipso was a concept developed by Mobile Communications nicated with two or three satellites at a time; switching offices to
Holdings Inc. (MCHI). It received an FCC license in June 1997. handle call routing; regional network control centers for network
185
Mobile Services Satellites

planning, management, and accounting; and system coordination 3. J. W. Brosius, D. Castiel, and J. Draim, “The Ellipso
center. Handheld, vehicular, and fixed site user terminals were to Mobile Satellite System: Flexible and Affordable Mobile
be capable of dual-mode (satellite and terrestrial) operation. Satellite Communications Service,” Paper 94-1140, AIAA 15th
In mid-1997, a contract for the development of Ellipso’s sat- International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
ellites was announced, but an announcement in mid-1998 stated (February 1994).
that a different contractor, Boeing, was building the first two 4. D. Castiel, J. W. Brosius, and J. E. Draim, “Ellipso:
satellites based on the GPS design. The plan was to have four Coverage Optimization Using Elliptic Orbits,” Paper 94-1098,
launches in 2002, each with four satellites. However, MCHI’s AIAA 15th International Communications Satellite Systems
license was declared void in May 2001 for failure to meet re- Conference (February 1994).
quired FCC milestones, and no satellites were launched.
Constellation Communications Inc. was also licensed in 5. D. Castiel and J. E. Draim, “The Ellipso Mobile
June 1997 to develop a Big LEO system [13–15]. The primary Satellite System,” Proceedings of the Fourth International
market for the initial satellites, in a circular, equatorial orbit at Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1995), p. 409.
2000 km altitude, was customers in underdeveloped countries 6. J. Draim, “Elliptical-Orbit MEO Constellations: A
between 23°N and 23°S latitude. Later, 35 active and seven Cost-Effective Approach for Multi-Satellite Systems,” Space
spare satellites were to be in seven circular, 62 deg inclined Technology, Vol. 16, No. 1 (1996).
orbit planes near 2000 km altitude.
7. J. E. Draim and D. Castiel, “Optimization of the
Gateway terminals were to connect Constellation with ter-
Borealis and Concordia Sub-Constellations of the Ellipso
restrial communications facilities. User terminals would have
Personal Communications System,” Acta Astronautica, Vol.
handheld, vehicular, and fixed site forms. Gateway partner
40, No. 2–8 (January–April 1997).
companies were to own and operate the gateways, sell capac-
ity to service providers, coordinate billing, and handle regional 8. J. E. Draim et al., “Ellipso—An Affordable Global, Mobile
licensing and regulatory matters. Service providers were to Personal Communications System,” Proceedings of the Fifth
sell voice, data, fax, message, and position location services International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1997), p. 153.
to users. System operations were to be managed by a network 9. D. Castiel, “An Affordable Approach to Global Mobile
control center and a satellite control center. Telephony,” Global Telecommunications Africa ’98, Hanson
A contract for development of 12 satellites was announced Cooke Limited (1998).
in September 1998. By September 1999, less than half of
the financing for the system had been arranged, and further 10. J. E. Draim and C. S. Davidson, “The Ellipso
financing was slowed by the bankruptcies of Iridium and ICO. System—An Optimal Solution for the Canadian Mobile
By late 1999, Constellation was aiming to be in service before Satellite Communication Market,” Proceedings of the Sixth
the end of 2002. However, no satellites were launched. International Mobile Satellite Conference (June 1999), p. 76.
Both Ellipso and Constellation planned CDMA signalling 11. Space News (23 September 1996), p. 4; (12 May 1997),
with links from satellites to users in 2483.5 to 2500 MHz and p. 6; (7 July 1997), p. 3; (11 May 1998), p. 1; (13 July 1998),
links from users to satellites in 1610 to 1621 MHz. p. 25; (12 July 1999), p. 2; (13 September 1999), p. 1.
In July 2001 MCHI, Constellation, and ICO were among 12. “System Overview,” http://www.ellipso.com/overview/
eight companies licensed to provide mobile satellite services index.html (9 November 1999).
with links between satellites and users in 1990 to 2025 and
2165 to 2200 MHz. MCHI and Constellation then signed 13. J. D. Jancso and B. Kraselsky, “The Constellation LEO
agreements with the intent to merge their systems with ICO. Satellite System: A Wide-Area Solution to Telecom Needs
However, in January 2003 the FCC ruled that MCHI and Con- in Underserved Areas Worldwide,” International Journal of
stellation had failed to satisfy milestones in the licenses and Satellite Communications, Vol. 17, No. 4 (July–August 1999).
declared their licenses dead. 14. Space News (23 September 1996), p. 4; (12 May 1997),
p. 6; (16 June 1997), p. 32; (7 July 1997), p. 3; (11 May 1998),
******
p. 1; (7 September 1998), p. 22; (13 September 1999), p. 1.
1. D. Castiel, “The Ellipso System: Elliptical Low Orbits
15. “The Constellation System,” http://www.cciglobal.
for Mobile Communications,” Small Satellites Systems and
com/ new2/index.html (9 November 1999).
Services, Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales, Cépaduès-
Editions, Toulouse, France (1992).
2. J. W. Brosius and D. Castiel, “The Ellipso Mobile
Satellite System,” Proceedings of the 7th Annual AIAA/USU
Conference on Small Satellites (September 1993).

186
 4. Military Satellites

T
he first communication satellite experiments were regions of the globe and to reallocate system assets, hardening
conducted by the U.S. Army in 1958. Since then, of satellites and terminals to resist attacks, and satellite opera-
the Department of Defense (DOD) has continued to tion continuing through lengthy periods (e.g., several weeks)
develop technology and deploy operational satellites [1]. without command and telemetry support.
This chapter describes the various communication satellites For decades, DOD has had an office that handles commer-
developed by DOD and the programs of the North Atlantic cial communication service leases, including satellites. In the
Treaty Organization (NATO) and the British, French, and early 1990s, Congress, in an attempt to encourage greater use
Italian Ministries of Defence. The satellites developed by the of commercial communications by DOD, mandated a program
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lincoln Laboratory named the Commercial Satellite Communications Initiative
for DOD (the Lincoln Experimental Satellites—LES series) (CSCI) [2]. As of August 1999, CSCI’s primary service provi-
were described in chapter 1. Some European military sions included (a) transponders leased to support day-to-day
satellite communications programs are described in chapter Navy operation and extend the Defense Information Systems
7 because they share satellite resources with the commercial Network to the fleet; (b) a transponder used to satisfy com-
programs of those same nations. Soviet and Russian military mand, control, and other information needs of U.S. forces in
communications satellites are described in chapter 5. Bosnia; and (c) a transponder used to provide entertainment,
Within the United States, policy debates in the early 1960s news, and programming to sailors and marines at sea in the
addressed the question of whether there should be separate Pacific and Indian Oceans. However, nothing new was said
military communication satellite systems or whether military about CSCI after 2001.
needs could be satisfied by civilian systems. The outcome was
a government policy to establish and maintain distinct military ******
communication satellite systems to satisfy unique and vital na- 1. D. N. Spires and R. W. Sturdevant, “From Advent to
tional security needs that cannot be met by commercial facili- Milstar: The U.S. Air Force and the Challenges of Military
ties. On the other hand, the government will use commercial Satellite Communications,” chapter 7 in Beyond the Iono-
satellites whenever links of the required type and quality can sphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica,
be obtained in a timely manner at reasonable cost. In general, ed., NASA History Office, Washington, D.C. (1997); also
military command and control circuits are routed through Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 50, No. 6
military satellites, but administrative and logistics circuits may (June 1997).
use commercial satellites. Differences between military and 2. “Commercial Satellite Communication Initiative
commercial systems occur because of unique military require- (CSCI) Home Page,” http://www.disa.mil/d3/csci/aaacscihome
ments such as protection against jamming, secure command pagestart.html (16 August 1999).
and telemetry links, flexibility to rapidly extend service to new

IDCSP
No U.S. military communication satellites were launched and Advanced Defense Communication Satellite Programs
between October 1960 (Courier 1B, described in chapter 1) (IDCSP and ADCSP) [4–8].
and June 1966. Courier was a relatively simple program for IDCSP did not proceed quickly because of several non-
early experimental use. Concurrent with the Courier program, technical factors. One delay was caused by lengthy discus-
the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in April 1960 sions with Comsat Corporation concerning whether or not it
undertook the Advent program [1–4] to provide an operational could provide the satellite services required by DOD. By the
military communication satellite. Advent was to be a three- fall of 1964, when IDCSP entered the final design and fabri-
axis-stabilized, stationkeeping, synchronous altitude satellite cation phase, the Titan IIIC appeared to be a feasible launch
with sun-oriented solar arrays and an Earth-coverage antenna. vehicle. Therefore, the satellite designs were made compatible
The communications equipment was to have four repeaters, with either a medium-altitude polar orbit (Atlas-Agena launch
each with a capacity for 12 one-way voice links or one spread- vehicle) or a near-synchronous-altitude equatorial orbit (Titan
spectrum voice link. In addition, a secure command system was launch vehicle). The commonality requirement was dropped
intended. A number of problems resulted because the concept after the first successful Titan IIIC launch in June 1965, when
was far beyond available technology. The satellite weight it was selected as the IDCSP launch vehicle.
grew while the Centaur launch vehicle program slipped. After The basic design principle for IDCSP was simplicity. By
several major reviews, the program was canceled in May 1962. using spin-stabilized satellites in subsynchronous orbits, nei-
At that time, two programs were recommended. One was to ther stationkeeping nor active altitude control was required.
use proven technology to develop simple satellites to be placed The random nature of the individual satellite orbits provided
in random polar orbits at an altitude of about 5000 miles. The automatic replacement of failed satellites with acceptable
satellites were to be launched seven at a time by means of the outages. No command system was used because of previous
proven Atlas-Agena launch vehicle. The second program was experiences—command system failures terminated Courier
for later deployment of synchronous altitude stationkeeping and Telstar 1 operations, and command system problems
satellites. The programs later were referred to as the Initial contributed to the cancellation of Advent. Telemetry was not

187
Military Satellites

7985– 7266–
8005 TW 7286
90
T S

TW
7905 7186
Fig. 4.2. IDCSP communication subsystem.

Antenna
Two biconical horns (one transmit, one receive)
28 x 360 deg, 5 dB peak gain, circular polarization
DATS: electronically despun, antenna elements are mounted
on a cylinder placed along the spin axis at one end of the
satellite, 10 dB additional gain

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: in 400–401 MHz
Beacon: 7300 MHz
Command: the satellites did not have a command link

Life
Fig. 4.1. IDCSP satellite.
1.5 year design life required, 3-year goal

required but was added since performance data would be very Orbit
useful. Each satellite had two TWTAs (traveling wave tube 17,800–18,700 nmi altitude range
amplifiers), and an onboard sensor switched from one to the Initial inclination <1 deg for most satellites
other upon detecting a failure. The two TWTAs were of differ- Approximately 30 deg per day longitude drift
ent designs to reduce the chance of a common failure mode.
The satellite design details are as follows: Orbital history
Satellite IDCSP 1–7: launched 16 June 1966
Polyhedron, 36 in. diam, 32 in. height Eight unnumbered satellites lost in a launch vehicle failure 26
August 1966
100 lb, GGTS (gravity gradient test satellite) 104 lb, DATS
(despun antenna test satellite) 150 lb IDCSP 8–15: launched 18 January 1967
Solar cells, approximately 40 W initially (no batteries, no IDCSP 16–18: launched 1 July 1967
operation during eclipse) IDCSP 19–26: launched 13 June 1968
Spin-stabilized, 150 rpm GGTS: launched with 1–7
No onboard propulsion DATS: launched with 16–18
Configuration Operating lifetimes (excluding GGTS and DATS):
One 20 MHz bandwidth double-conversion repeater 5: 1-year operation before failure
1: 1- to 2-year operation before failure
Capacity
Two-way circuits: up to five commercial quality voice, or 11 2: 2- to 3-year operation before failure
tactical quality voice, or 1550 teletype 2: 3- to 4-year operation before failure
Approximately 1 Mbps digital data 2: 4- to 5-year operation before failure
2: 5- to 6-year operation before failure
Transmitter
7266.4–7286.4 MHz 2: 6- to 7-year operation before failure
Two TWTAs (one on, one standby) 1: 7- to 8-year operation before failure
3 W output, 7 dBW EIRP (effective isotropic radiated power) 6: turned off by the onboard timer after 6- to 8-year
maximum operation
3: operated 9–10 years
Receiver
Overall MTBF (mean time before failure) about 6 years
7985.1–8005.1 MHz
Titan IIIC launch vehicle
10 dB noise figure

188
 Tacsat

Management 1. Satellite Communications (Military-Civil Roles and

Developed by Philco (later Ford Aerospace and Communications Relationships), second report by the Committee on Government
Corporation, now Space Systems/Loral) for Air Force Space Operations, U.S. House of Representatives, House Report No.
and Missile Systems Organization (now Air Force Space and 178 (17 March 1968).
Missile Systems Center)
2. “The Advent Stationary Communications Relay
Operated by Defense Communications Agency (now Defense Satellite,” Interavia, Vol. 17 (June 1962).
Information Systems Agency)
3. W. M. Thames, “The Advent Communication Satellite
The first IDCSP satellites were launched in June 1966. Program,” ARS Paper 2177-61, American Rocket Society
Additional satellites were launched in 1967 and 1968; two Spaceflight Report to the Nation (a conference) (October
launches had a full load of eight IDCSP satellites and the 1961).
other had three in addition to three other satellites. In 1967,
increasing military activity in Vietnam led to the establishment 4. D. N. Spires and R. W. Sturdevant, “From Advent to
of an operational communication link using IDCSP. In this Milstar: The U.S. Air Force and the Challenges of Military
link, high-speed digital data were transmitted from Vietnam Satellite Communications,” chapter 7 in Beyond the
to Hawaii through one satellite and from there to Washington, Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication, A. J.
D.C., through another satellite. Butrica, ed., NASA History Office, Washington, D.C. (1997);
By the time of the 1968 launch, the system was declared also Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 50, No.
operational and the name changed to Initial Defense Satel- 6 (June 1997).
lite Communication System (IDSCS). The satellites operated 5. W. L. Pritchard, “The Initial Defense Communications
for periods ranging from a few thousand to more than 70,000 Satellite,” Microwave Journal, Vol. 9, No. 11 (November
hours (8 years). The satellites each had a device that was sup- 1966).
posed to deactivate them approximately 6 years after launch.
6. V. W. Wall, “Military Communication Satellites,”
Several satellites were turned off in this manner, although
Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April 1968).
others continued to operate well beyond 6 years. The overall
satellite reliability was much beyond the original expectations; 7. J. W. O’Neill, “Military Communication and Navigation
specifically, the actual MTBF achieved was more than double Satellites,” TRW Space Log, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Summer/Fall 1969),
the 3-year goal for design life. Three of the satellites were still p. 8.
being used in early 1976 to supplement the DSCS II satellites. 8. H. B. Kucheman, W. L. Pritchard, and V. W. Wall, “The
By mid-1977, only one was still useable. Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program,” Paper
****** 66-267, AIAA Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(May 1966).

Tacsat
The IDCSP satellites and the advanced satellites that were to
follow IDCSP were intended for strategic communications
using fixed, transportable, or shipborne terminals with
considerable electronics and large antennas. Tacsat [1–4] was
designed for a complementary function, namely, to operate with
small land-mobile, airborne, or shipborne tactical terminals.
The Lincoln Experimental Satellites (LES-1 to -6) were
predecessors to Tacsat and were used to investigate various
aspects of tactical communications. Strategic military com-
munication satellites at that time used frequencies between 7.2
and 8.4 GHz. At these frequencies, directional antennas are
required. These antennas have several drawbacks in tactical
use, including a problem with accurate pointing, especially
from aircraft. LES satellites proved that UHF (approximately
300 MHz) communication is possible with terminals that have
simple, low-gain (wide-beamwidth) antennas. Tacsat was de-
signed with both UHF and X-band (8 GHz) capabilities and
crossover modes (UHF receive and X-band transmit, or vice
versa) to permit operation with a wide variety of terminals.
Tacsat requirements resulted in a number of design features
not found in previous communication satellites. The nearly
1 kW of prime power required for the high-power transmit-
ters necessitated a very large cylindrical body to provide the
required solar-cell area. Tacsat was spin-stabilized as were all
previous communication satellites; however, because of the
large antenna structure and launch vehicle fairing constraints, Fig. 4.3. Tacsat satellite.

189
Military Satellites

D
303.4, 307.5 249.5

50 kHz
T LIM T
16.6 100 kHz 16 parallel
303.4 NB T T LIM S P amplifiers C

320 425 kHz

T LIM T
T
400
Up to 16 amplifiers on
92.5
307.5 WB T T LIM
10 MHz

425 kHz P Power divider

LIM NB Narrowband mode
7982.5 50 kHz WB Wideband mode
16.6
LIM S
1 MHz
TD 92.5 LIM
10 MHz 92.5
8075 S 7257.5
T LIM

LIM TW

S S TW S

TW

Fig. 4.4. Tacsat communication subsystem.

it did not spin about the axis with the maximum moment of Capacity
inertia. This potentially unstable condition was controlled by UHF: about 40 vocoded voice or several hundred teletype
special stabilizing elements. The stabilization worked in orbit, circuits to a terminal with 0 dB antenna gain
although at times a 1 deg nutation occurred, apparently the X-band: about 40 vocoded voice or 700 teletype circuits to a
result of destabilizing forces that were greater than expected. terminal with a 3 ft antenna
The stabilization techniques developed for Tacsat, called gy-
rostat by the manufacturer, were refined and applied to many Transmitter
subsequent satellites. Other design features of Tacsat follow. 249.6 MHz: all solid state, 16 parallel transistor amplifiers, up
to 16 on at a time (nominal 13 on), 18.5 W per amplifier, 230 W
Satellite maximum out of combiner
Cylinder, 9 ft diam, 11 ft height (25 ft overall)
7257.5 MHz: three TWTAs, two on at a time, 20 W per TWTA,
1600 lb in orbit, beginning of life 30 W out of combiner
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 980 W
Receiver
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, 54 rpm
303.4 and 307.5 MHz: transistor amplifiers, 3.7 dB noise
Cold gas propulsion for on-orbit use figure
Configuration 7982.5 MHz: tunnel diode preamplifier, 6.9 dB noise figure
Multiple channels, 50 kHz to 10 MHz bandwidths Antenna
UHF: five bifilar helices, 17.1 dB transmit gain, 17.6 dB receive
gain

190
 Skynet I and NATO II

X-band transmit: horn, 18.4 dB gain, 19 deg beamwidth Tacsat was launched in February 1969. Because of funding
X-band receive: horn, 19.3 dB gain, 17 deg beamwidth limitations, no flight model was assembled, and the
qualification model was the one launched. On-orbit testing was
Telemetry and command done with a large variety of terminals, including large ground
Telemetry: in 2200 to 2290 MHz band stations, mobile ground stations, aircraft, and ships. Some
Beacon: 254.1 and 7298.5 MHz multiple access testing was conducted. Tacsat was used for
operational support of Apollo recovery operations, connecting
Command: in 1761 to 1842 MHz band
the aircraft, their aircraft carrier, and ground stations. Military
Life use, especially of the UHF band, was extensive. Operations
2.4 years estimated life continued until an attitude control failure at the end of 1972.
******
Orbit
Synchronous equatorial, approximately 180°W longitude during 1. V. W. Wall, “Military Communication Satellites,”
operational life Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April 1968).
2. J. W. O’Neill, “Military Communication and Navigation
Orbital history Satellites,” TRW Space Log, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Summer/Fall
Launched 9 February 1969 1969).
Operated until December 1972
3. R. Brandes, “The Tactical Communications Satellite,”
Titan IIIC launch vehicle IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol.
AES-6, No. 4 (July 1970).
Management
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Air Force Space 4. J. M. Kuhn, “Operational Considerations for Tactical
and Missile Systems Organization (now Air Force Space and Satellite Communications Systems,” Signal, Vol. 30, No. 6
Missile Systems Center) (March 1976).
Operated by Air Force Communications Service

Skynet I and NATO II

The Skynet (United Kingdom) and NATO satellite programs the eastern coast of North America to Turkey. Skynet I and
[1–6] were both a result of a U.S. invitation to certain nations NATO II details follow.
to participate in the use of U.S. defense communication Satellite
satellites. In 1966, the United Kingdom indicated an interest Cylinder, 54 in. diam, 32 in. height (62 in. overall)
in participation, but the IDCSP satellites could not satisfy its
requirements. The primary difference was the need to service 285 lb in orbit
both ground stations with large antennas and shipborne Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 78 W
terminals with smaller antennas. In late 1966, the United Spin-stabilized, 90 rpm
States and United Kingdom signed an agreement whereby the
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine propulsion
United States would develop satellites that would satisfy U.K.
for on-orbit use
needs. The satellites were to be interoperable with the IDCSP
system, and the program was initially called IDCSP/A (for
augmentation). This program was called Skynet, later Skynet
I. NATO decided to participate directly in the use of IDCSP
satellites and operated two IDCSP ground stations from 1967
to 1970. That period, considered to be NATO Phase I, was
used to gain experience prior to operation of a NATO satellite
program called NATO II.
The Skynet I and NATO II satellites were nearly identical
and were derived from the IDCSP design, but there were cer-
tain notable improvements from IDCSP. Skynet I and NATO
II satellites were placed into a geostationary orbit and had
a stationkeeping capability. They had a despun antenna that
provided increased gain, relative to IDCSP, and both 2 and 20
MHz channels. These features permitted operation with both
large and small terminals. Also, the satellites were larger than
IDCSP satellites and had a command system. The only sig-
nificant difference between the two satellites was the antenna
pattern. The Skynet antenna provided a relatively uniform
Earth-coverage pattern centered at the equator. The NATO
antenna pattern was shaped to cover only NATO nations, from
Fig. 4.5. Skynet I satellite.

191
Military Satellites

Configuration
One 2 MHz and one 20 MHz bandwidth
double-conversion repeater 7976.0–7978.0 7257.3–7259.3
7985.1–8005.1 7266.4–7286.4
D
Transmitter
7257.3–7259.3 MHz and 7266.4 to
7286.4 MHz 20 MHz
Two TWTAs (one on, one standby), 3.5 LIM
W output
Skynet: 14.4 dBW EIRP per channel, C LIM
edge of Earth TW
LIM
NATO: 11 dBW (2 MHz channel) and 2 MHz
19 dBW (20 MHz channel) EIRP, edge S
of coverage
TW
Receiver Identical to above, redundant
7976–7978 MHz and 7985.1–8005.1
MHz Fig. 4.6. Skynet I communication subsystem.
Redundant receivers (one on, one
standby) Antenna sizes varied from 42 ft at the master ground station
8.8 dB noise figure to 3.5 ft shipborne terminals. The second Skynet satellite did
not achieve the intended synchronous orbit because of failure
Antenna of the apogee motor.
Skynet: mechanically despun horn, Earth-coverage 18.5 dB NATO IIA and IIB were launched in March 1970 and
peak gain February 1971. The former was used for communications be-
NATO: mechanically despun horn, NATO area coverage (North tween NATO headquarters and the capitals of NATO member
American east coast to eastern Turkey) countries. Planned use with shipborne terminals was delayed
because other traffic occupied nearly all of the satellite capac-
Telemetry and command
ity. NATO IIB was originally an orbiting spare that was used
Telemetry: below 500 MHz in tests of new ground stations. The communications traffic
Command: below 500 MHz was transferred to it after NATO IIA failed. Communications
traffic was transferred to NATO IIIA in April 1976, and NATO
Life IIB was turned off in August 1976.
Five-year design life, 3-year mean mission duration
******
Orbit
1. V. W. Wall, “Military Communication Satellites,”
Geostationary (inclination b3 deg) Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April 1968).
Skynet: 49 ±3°E longitude
2. J. W. O’Neill, “Military Communication and Navigation
NATO: 18±3°W, 26±3°Wlongitude (IIA/IIB) Satellites,” TRW Space Log, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Summer/Fall
Satellites now drifting at geosynchronous altitude 1969).
Orbital history 3. Proceedings of the Skynet Meeting, IEE Conference
Publication No. 63 (April 1970).
Skynet IA: launched 21 November 1969, operated 36 months
Skynet IB: launched 19 August 1970, apogee motor failure left
4. D. G. Dwyre, “IDCSP/A Satellite: Concept and
satellite in synchronous transfer orbit Performance,” Paper 70-492, AIAA 3rd Communications
Satellite Systems Conference (April 1970). Reprinted in
NATO IIA: launched 20 March 1970, operated 26 months Communication Satellites for the ’70s: Systems, Progress in
NATO IIB: launched 3 February 1971, operated until August Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 26, N. E. Feldman and C.
1976 M. Kelly, eds. (1971).
Delta launch vehicle 5. N. Simmons, “The United Kingdom Programme
Management of Communication Satellites,” Paper 72-548, AIAA 4th
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1972).
Developed by Philco (later Ford Aerospace and Communications
Corporation, now Space Systems/Loral) for Air Force Space
Reprinted in Communications Satellite Systems, Progress in
and Missile Systems Organization (now Air Force Space and Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 32, P. L. Bargellini, ed.
Missile Systems Center), acting for the United Kingdom and (1974).
NATO 6. D. R. Valentine, “NATO’s Communications Satellite
Operated by United States/United Kingdom and United States/ System,” NATO’s Fifteen Nations, Vol. 15, No. 5 (October–
NATO November 1970).
The first Skynet satellite was launched in November 1969
and operated for several years with a variety of terminals.

192
 DSCS II

DSCS II
The IDCSP satellites were the Phase I space segment of the
Defense Satellite Communication System. System testing was
undertaken immediately after the first launch in 1966, and the
Pacific part of DSCS was switched to operational status a year
later. The experiences of Phase I demonstrated that satellite
communications could satisfy certain DOD needs. Therefore,
in June 1968, DOD decided to proceed with development of
advanced satellites for DSCS Phase II [1–11].
DSCS II satellites (initially called the 777 satellites because
their development was named Program 777) were significantly
different from IDCSP satellites. DSCS II satellites had a com-
mand subsystem, attitude control and stationkeeping capa-
bility, and multiple communication channels with multiple
access capability. IDCSP had none of these features. However,
the DSCS II design was compatible with modified Phase I
ground terminals as well as new terminals specifically built
for Phase II.
The Phase II satellites had a dual-spin configuration. The
outer section (which included the cylindrical solar array, much
of the structure, and an equipment platform) was spun to stabi-
lize the satellite. The inner section (containing all the commu-
nications equipment and antennas) was isolated from the outer Fig. 4.7. DSCS II satellite.
section by a motor and bearing assembly. The motor despun
the inner section so that the antennas were always pointed at Satellites 7–12:
the Earth. The satellite had four antennas: two parabolic re- 28 dBW, Earth coverage
flectors and two horn antennas. Satellite details follow. 43 dBW, narrowbeam antenna
Satellite 31 dBW, area-coverage antenna
Cylinder, 9 ft diam, 6 ft height (13 ft overall)
40/28 dBW, using both narrowbeam and area coverage
1350 lb in orbit, beginning of life (50% of power to each)
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 520 W initially, 388 W minimum Satellites 13–16:
at 5 years
31 dBW, Earth coverage
Spin-stabilized, 60 rpm, 0.2 deg antenna pointing accuracy
46 dBW, narrowbeam antenna
Hydrazine propulsion for on-orbit use

Configuration NB NB
Four channels with 50–185 MHz 8125–8175 7490–7675
bandwidths, single conversion (see 8215–8400 7700–7750
text) C D S

Capacity D
1300 two-way voice circuits or * *
LA LA TW TW
approximately 100 Mbps digital data
*
Transmitter TD 725 H H S
7250–7375 MHz, 7400–7450 MHz, * *
EC LA LA TW TW EC
7490–7675 MHz, 7700–7750 MHz
Two independent transmitters, one 200
for the two Earth-coverage channels, * * 7250–7375
7900–7950 LA
one for the two narrowbeam channels; 7975–8100 7400–7450
20 W output per transmitter (40 W for *
satellites 13–16) TD 725 Same as above
EIRP per transmitter: satellites 1–6: * *
LA LA Limiter/amplifier
28 dBW, Earth coverage
725 EC Earth coverage
43 dBW, one narrowbeam
NB Narrow beam
antenna *Redundant units not shown
40 dBW, each of two narrowbeam
antennas Fig. 4.8. DSCS II communication subsystem.

193
Military Satellites

34 dBW, area-coverage antenna Management

40/33 dBW, using both narrowbeam and area coverage Developed by TRW Systems Group for Air Force Space
(75% of power to area coverage) Systems Division (formerly Air Force Space and Missile
Earth coverage specified at r7.5 deg Earth terminal elevation Systems Organization)
angle; narrowbeam and area coverage anywhere within Operated by Defense Information Systems Agency (formerly
beamwidth Defense Communications Agency); TT&C (telemetry, tracking,
and command) support by Air Force Satellite Control Network
Receiver
The DSCS II communication subsystem had four channels
7900–7950 MHz, 7975 to 8100 MHz, 8125 to 8175 MHz, 8215
to 8400 MHz with the characteristics described in Table 4.1. This selection
of channels provided the flexibility to handle a wide variety of
Tunnel diode preamplifiers and limiter/amplifiers links and to interface with many different sizes of terminals.
7 dB noise figure The subsystem included tunnel diode preamplifiers, single-
frequency conversion, tunnel diode amplifiers (TDA) and
Antenna driver and high-power TWTAs. The TDAs could be switched
Two Earth-coverage horns (one transmit and one receive), 16.8 to various gains to permit either linear or saturated operation
dB gain at edge of Earth of each channel. All the communication subsystem assemblies
Two narrowbeam parabolas, 44 in. diam, 2.5 deg beamwidth, were redundant.
36.5 dB gain on axis, steerable ±10 deg each axis; on satellites DSCS II satellites were launched in pairs. The first launch
7 to 16, one antenna has been defocused to a 6 deg beamwidth was in November 1971. At first, both satellites operated prop-
for area coverage erly, but major problems occurred in each in the year follow-
All antennas mounted on a despun platform and circularly ing launch, and they ceased to operate in September 1972 and
polarized June 1973. Analyses of these problems provided the basis for
design modifications for the subsequent satellites. The next
Telemetry and command pair was launched in December 1973. One failed in 1976;
Telemetry: in 2200–2290 MHz band the other was not turned off until 1993. The third pair was
Command: in 1762–1842 MHz band launched in May 1975, but because of a launch vehicle failure,
they did not achieve a useful orbit.
Life Late in 1974, a set of six replenishment satellites was or-
Five-year design life, 3-year MMD (mean mission duration) dered by the U.S. Government. Later, a third group of four
satellites was ordered. These four satellites had 40 W TWTAs
Orbit
instead of 20 W TWTAs, and all 10 had one narrowbeam
Geostationary, inclination <3 deg
antenna defocused to provide area coverage (6 deg nominal
Orbital history beamwidth). These 10 satellites were launched to establish and
DSCS II-1, 2: launched together 2 November 1971, operated maintain an orbital system of four active and two spare satel-
20 and 8 months lites. The first pair (satellites 7 and 8) was launched in May
1977. The next pair was launched in March 1978, but was lost
DSCS II-3, 4: launched together 13 December 1973, 3 operated
as the result of a launch vehicle malfunction. Satellites 11 and
30 months, moved above geostationary orbit; 4 was turned off
and moved above geostationary orbit December 1993 12 were launched in December 1978, and satellites 13 and 14
were launched in November 1979. Satellite 16 was launched
DSCS II-5, 6: launched together 20 May 1975, left in low orbit in October 1982 with the first DSCS III, and satellite 15 was
by launch vehicle failure, reentered 26 May 1975
launched in 1989 with the DSCS IIIA2. All are now out of
DSCS II-7, 8: launched together 12 May 1977, 7 taken out of service and have been moved above geostationary orbit.
service May 1979, 8 taken out of service by 1988, both moved
above geostationary orbit ******
DSCS II-9, 10: launched together 25 March 1978, launch
vehicle failure Table 4.1. DSCS II Communication Subsystem Channel Characteristics

DSCS II-11, 12: launched together 13 December 1978, both Channel Band- Receive Antenna Transmit
turned off and moved above geostationary orbit December width Antenna
(MHz)
1993
1 125 Earth coverage Earth coverage
DSCS II-13, 14: launched together 21 November 1979; 13 was
turned off and moved above geostationary orbit September 2 50 Narrowbeam (satellites 1–6), Earth coverage
1994; 14 was turned off and moved above geostationary orbit narrowbeam or area coverage
July 1995 (satellites 7–16)

DSCS II-15: launched 1989 with DSCS III-A2, was turned off 3 185 Narrowbeam (satellites 1–6), Narrowbeam (satellites
narrowbeam or area coverage 1–6), narrowbeam or
and moved above geostationary orbit, October 1998 (satellites 7–16) area coverage (satellites
DSCS II-16: launched 30 October 1982 with DSCS III-A1, was 7–16)
turned off and moved above geostationary orbit, June 1997 4 50 Earth coverage Narrowbeam (satellites
Titan IIIC launch vehicle (1–14), Titan 34D/Transtage (15), 1–6), narrowbeam or
area coverage (satellites
Titan 34D/IUS launch vehicle (16) 7–16)

194
 Skynet II

1. A. T. Finney, “A Phase II Satellite for the Defense 7. I. C. Wright and P. McLellan, “Defense Satellite
Satellite Communications System,” Paper 70-493, AIAA 3rd Communication System—An Operational System,” Paper
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1970). 31.1, International Conference on Communications: ICC ’77
Reprinted in Communication Satellites for the ’70s: Systems, (June 1977).
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 26, N. E. 8. B. E. Tyree, J. Bailey, and V. Chewy, “Ground Mobile
Feldman and C. M. Kelly, eds. (1971). Forces Tactical Satellite SHF Ground Terminals,” Paper 78-
2. W. D. DeHart, “Defense Satellite Communication 582, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
System—Phase II,” EASCON ’70 Convention Record (October (April 1978).
1970). 9. B. E. Tyree, “An Overview of the Small SHF Satellite
3. G. E. LaVean, “The Defense Satellite Communications Ground Terminal Development Program,” RCA Engineer, Vol.
System,” Paper 74-457, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite 22, No. 1 (June/July 1976).
Systems Conference (April 1974). 10. D. E. Kendall, “Development of the Defense Satellite
4 H. Wynne and D. E. Kendall, “Defense Satellite Communication System—Phase II,” EASCON ’78 Conference
Communications System in the 1980s,” WESCON Technical Record (September 1978).
Papers (September 1975). 11. D. N. Spires and R. W. Sturdevant, “From Advent to
5. V. W. Wall, “Military Communication Satellites,” Milstar: The U.S. Air Force and the Challenges of Military
International Telemetering Conference Proceedings (October Satellite Communications,” chapter 7 in Beyond the
1973). Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication, A. J.
6. V. W. Wall, “Satellites for Military Communications,” Butrica (ed.), NASA History Office, Washington, D.C. (1997);
Paper 74-272, AIAA 10th Annual Meeting (January 1974). also Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 50, No.
6 (June 1997).

Skynet II
Skynet is the name of the British military communication The Skynet II design was similar to that of Skynet I, except
satellite system. The first-generation satellites (Skynet I) that Skynet II satellites were larger and heavier. The main
were launched in 1969 and 1970. One of these satellites body of the satellite was a spinning cylinder, with the elec-
operated successfully for several years, but the other was lost tronic equipment mounted on the inside. A despun Earth-cov-
as the result of an apogee motor failure. Skynet II satellites erage antenna was mounted on one end of the satellite body.
[1–8], with greater power and reliability, permitted the The larger satellite allowed a bigger solar array than that on
resumption of Skynet operations. Although British and U.S. Skynet I. Because of the additional power available, a 20 W
requirements differed sufficiently to preclude a common TWTA was used rather than the 3.5 W TWTA on Skynet I.
military communication satellite system, the two systems were
designed for some measure of interoperability.

Fig. 4.9. Skynet II satellite. Fig. 4.10. Skynet II satellite details.

195
Military Satellites

7976–7978, 7985.1–8005.1 7257.3–7259.3, 7266.4–7286.4

D

2 MHz
T LIM

T C LIM T

T LIM TW
7905.9 7187.2
20 MHz
S S S S

TW

Identical to above, redundant

Fig. 4.11. Skynet II communication subsystem.

Skynet II also had more redundancy than Skynet I to increase Antenna

the design life from 3 to 5 years. Mechanically despun horn, Earth coverage, 18.7 dB peak gain
The Skynet II repeater was a double-conversion type with 2 (transmit), 19.9 dB peak gain (receive)
MHz and 20 MHz channels. There was no preamplifier before
the downconverter. Each channel was amplified separately Telemetry and command
before being summed, limited, and amplified by one of the Telemetry: in 2200–2290 MHz band
redundant TWTAs. The amplifier gains were set so that the Command: in 1762–1842 MHz band
narrowband channel, which was used by small terminals, re-
ceived 80 percent of the transmitter power. Other satellite and Life
communication subsystem details were as follows: Five-year design life
Satellite Orbit
Cylinder, 75 in. diam, 53 in. height (82 in. overall) Geostationary (inclination b3 deg)
517 lb in orbit, beginning of life
Orbital history
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 200 W
Skynet IIA: launched 18 January 1974 (unsuccessful because
Spin-stabilized of launch vehicle malfunction), decayed 25 January 1974
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine propulsion Skynet IIB: launched 22 November 1974, used until 1987, initial
for on-orbit use location about 49°E longitude, now drifting near geostationary
altitude
Configuration
Delta 2313 launch vehicle
One 2 MHz and one 20 MHz bandwidth double-conversion
repeater Management
Transmitter Developed by Marconi Space and Defence Systems Ltd. with
Philco (later Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation,
7257.3–7259.3 MHz and 7266.4–7286.4 MHz
Space Systems/Loral) as a principal subcontractor, for Air
Two TWTAs (one on, one standby) Force Space and Missile Systems Organization (now Air Force
20 W TWTA operated at approximately 18 W output Space and Missile Systems Center), acting for the U.K. Ministry
of Defence
EIRP: 26 dBW (2 MHz channel), 20 dBW (20 MHz channel),
edge of Earth Operated by U.K. Ministry of Defence
The Skynet II satellites were developed in Britain with U.S.
Receiver assistance. Launch and orbital injection were handled by the
7976–7978 MHz and 7985.1–8005.1 MHz United States, with Britain assuming control for on-orbit
9 dB noise figure operations. The first Skynet II launch, in January 1974, was

196
 Gapfiller/Gapsat

unsuccessful because of a launch vehicle malfunction. The 3. W. M. Lovell, “Design of the Skynet II Communications
remaining satellite was launched in November 1974. The Satellite,” Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 39, No. 1
command system failed early in 1977, and therefore, the (1972).
satellite longitude could not be controlled after that time; Earth’s 4. W. M. Lovell, “The Skynet System, The Satellite
gravitational field causes the satellite to oscillate between 0 Communications Network Built in Britain,” Journal of the
and 150 deg east longitude in 2-year cycles. Nevertheless, British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 29, No. 1 (January 1976).
the satellite was in use until 1987, and the communication
subsystem performed normally in a 1994 test. 5. “Skynet Tries Again,” Space Report Section,
Spaceflight, Vol. 16, No. 12 (December 1974).
******
6. C. Latour, “Skynet II,” NATO’s Fifteen Nations, Vol.
1. N. Simmons, “The United Kingdom Programme 20, No. 1 (February–March 1975).
of Communication Satellites,” Paper 72-548, AIAA 4th
7. Flight International (31 January 1974), p. 145; (7
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1972).
February 1974), p. 186; (1 August 1974), p. 104.
Reprinted in Communications Satellite Systems, Progress in
Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 32, P. L. Bargellini, ed. 8. “Skynet Anniversary,” Spaceflight, Vol. 36, No. 6 (June
(1974). 1994).
2. V. W. Wall, “Satellite for Military Communications,”
Paper 74-272, AIAA 10th Annual Meeting (January 1974).

Gapfiller/Gapsat
Tacsat and LES-6 were the first tactical communication service in the Indian Ocean. At the same time, the leases on all
satellites to be used by the Navy. However, they were both three satellites were extended into 1979. Additional extensions
experimental satellites put into operational status and thus continued Gapfiller service on some channels. The British
provided only a limited operational capability. The Navy Navy started leasing some capacity on the Atlantic satellite
started developing the Fleet Satellite Communications early in 1981. Gapfiller use continued into 1995.
(FLTSATCOM) system in 1971 to provide a full operational
capability with global deployment. Tacsat failed in 1972, and ******
LES-6 was deteriorating. Since the first FLTSATCOM launch 1. G. E. LaVean and E. J. Martin, “Communication
was not expected until 1977, the Navy faced a gap in satellite Satellites: The Second Decade,” Astronautics and Aeronautics,
availability. Therefore, in 1973 the Navy contracted for an Vol. 12, No. 4 (April 1974).
interim satellite service to fill this gap. This service was called 2. J. L. Boyes and T. H. Harden, “Navy’s Fleet Satellite
Gapfiller or Gapsat [1–8]; it is unrelated to the Wideband and Gapfiller Satellite Communications Programs,” Signal,
Gapfiller Satellite (WGS) program begun in 2001. Vol. 28, No. 7 (March 1974).
The Gapfiller service did not require the full capability of
the satellites, and, therefore, additional channels were included 3. L. M. Keane and E. J. Martin, “Marisat,” Signal, Vol.
for communications between shore stations and commercial 29, No. 3 (November–December 1974).
ships. This was called the Marisat system and is described in 4. L. M. Keane and E. R. Martin, “The Marisat Spacecraft,”
the previous chapter. International Conference on Communications: ICC ’74 (June
Each Gapfiller satellite had three UHF channels for the 1974).
Navy, one wideband (500 kHz) and two narrowband (25 5. E. J. Martin and L. M. Keane, “A Satellite System for
kHz). The wideband channel was chosen to have the same Maritime Mobile Communication Services,” EASCON ’73
bandwidth and frequency as the LES-6 channel, and the nar- Convention Record (September 1973).
rowband channel bandwidth was set equal to the FLTSAT-
COM channel bandwidth. The minimal Navy commitment 6. Aviation Week & Space Technology (22 January 1973),
was to lease, for at least 2 years, the wideband channels of p. 12; (12 March 1973), p. 16; (18 June 1973), p. 77; (10
two satellites. The first satellite was launched in February September 1973), p. 23; (10 June 1974), p. 22; (12 August
1976 and began operation the next month in the Atlantic area. 1974), p. 56; (18 August 1975), p. 17; (29 March 1976), p.
Concurrently, LES-6 was turned off. The second satellite was 14; (30 August 1976), p. 41; (17 October 1977), p. 138; (11
launched in June 1976 and began operations in the Pacific area February 1985), p. 73.
the same month. The wideband channels were divided into 7. W. R. Coffman, “Navy Leased Satellite Service,” Paper
subchannels with FDMA (frequency division multiple access) 43.2, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’76
operation with a capacity of five 2400 bps links, one 1200 bps (December 1976).
link, and thirteen 75 bps links. One narrowband channel was
8. C. E. French, “An Overview of the FLTSATCOM
also put into use by the Navy, and the second was subleased
Program,” International Conference on Communications: ICC
to the Army. In October 1976, the third Gapfiller, which was
’77 (June 1977).
primarily a spare for the other two, was launched to provide

197
Military Satellites

NATO III
The NATO communication satellite program started in 1967. Antenna
The first phase, NATO I, was the experimental use of the One widebeam (Atlantic coverage) receiving horn, 18.5 dB
IDCSP satellites with two ground terminals. The second phase peak gain, 17.0 dB gain over 9.2 x 16 deg field of view
began in 1970 with the launch of NATO IIA. NATO IIB was One widebeam transmitting horn, 23.0 dB peak gain, 19.3 dB
launched in 1971. These satellites were very similar to the gain over 9.2 x 16 deg field of view
Skynet I satellites. NATO III satellites [1–11] were larger and One narrowbeam (European coverage) transmitting horn, 27.5
had significantly greater capabilities than the earlier NATO dB peak gain, 24.5 dB gain over 5.4 x 7.7 deg field of view
satellites.
NATO III was a spin-stabilized satellite with a cylindri- All antennas circularly polarized
cal body and a despun antenna platform on one end (see Fig. (The gains given are specification values; measurements
4.13). All equipment was mounted within the body, and a indicate widebeam gains 1.3 to 2 dB higher and narrowbeam
three-channel rotary joint connected the spinning communica- gains 0.5 to 0.8 dB higher.)
tions subsystem with the despun antennas. The satellite had a Telemetry and command
design life of 7 years. The satellite details follow.
Telemetry: in 2200–2290 MHz band
Satellite Command: in 1762–1842 MHz band
Cylinder, 86 in. diam, 88 in. (1–3)/84.5 in. (4) height; overall
height 116 in. (1–3)/113.5 in. (4) Life
Approximately 740 lb (1–3)/790 lb (4) in orbit, beginning of life Seven-year design life
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 538 W maximum at beginning of
Orbit
life, 375 W minimum after 7 years
Geostationary (inclination b3 deg), stationkeeping to ±1⁄2°E-W
Spin-stabilized, 90 rpm; antenna pointing accuracy ±0.3 deg
azimuth, ±0.4 deg elevation Orbital history
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine propulsion NATO IIIA: launched 22 April 1976, retired, moved above
for on-orbit use geostationary orbit
NATO IIIB: launched 27 January 1977, retired, moved above
Configuration geostationary orbit
17, 50, and 85 MHz bandwidth, single-conversion repeaters
NATO IIIC: launched 18 November 1978, spare after NATO IVA
Transmitter became operational, then moved above geostationary orbit
Narrowbeam (European coverage):
7250–7267 MHz and 7352–7437
MHz 7975–7992,
20 W (1–3)/40 W (4) output power 8002–8052, 7250–7267, 7352–7437
8077–8162
35 dBW EIRP over field of view 7277–7327
(measured values have been >36.5
dBW); 38.3 dBW EIRP over field of 8002– TD (a)
view (4) 8052 No. 1 (a)
S 725 H TD TW
Widebeam (Atlantic coverage):
7277–7327 MHz TD
TD No. 2
20 W (1–3)/40 W (4) output power TD TW
29 dBW EIRP over field of view S S TD
(measured values have been >31 No. 3
TD S TD TW
dBW); 32.4 dBW over field of view 7975–
(4) (c) 7992 TD H
(b) No. 4 (b)
Receiver H TD TW
7975–7992 MHz, 8002–8052 MHz, and TD (c)
H
8077–8162 MHz S
Redundant tunnel diode preamplifiers 8077–
(1–3) 8162 TD
(c)
Redundant field effect transistors
preamplifiers (4)
(a) Widebeam channel may use TWTA 1, 2, or 3
–14 dB/K G/T (b) Narrowbeam channel may use TWTA 2, 3, or 4
(both channels do not simultaneously use the same TWTA)
(c) On Satellite IIID all TDs were replaced by FETs

Fig. 4.12. NATO III communication subsystem.

198
 NATO III

Operated by NATO, TT&C support by Air Force Satellite Control

Facility
NATO III had three communication channels with 17, 50, and
85 MHz bandwidths, all of which were useable simultaneously.
All channels were received through a horn antenna with a pattern
covering the North Atlantic region, including the east coast of
North America, all of western Europe, and the Mediterranean.
This was called widebeam coverage. After a common tunnel
diode preamplifier, the three channels were separated and
each amplified in a TDA. All these units were redundant.
The 50 MHz channel was transmitted through the widebeam
transmit path, whereas the other two channels were combined
in the narrowbeam path. Four TDA driver TWTA chains were
available. On satellite IIID, FET preamplifiers and amplifiers
replaced all the tunnel diode units. Each transmit path had a
choice among three chains, although both paths could not use
a TWTA simultaneously. The widebeam transmit antenna was
a horn with the same coverage as the receiving antenna. A
larger horn provided narrowbeam coverage of western Europe
only. The three antennas (one receive, two transmit) were each
connected to separate channels in the rotary joint.
A qualification model and two flight model satellites were
constructed. The first was launched in April 1976 and was
Fig. 4.13. NATO III satellite. put in operation after orbital testing was completed. NATO
IIIB was launched in January 1977 as an orbiting spare. It
was loaned to the United States to fill the east Pacific operat-
NATO IIID: launched 14 November 1984, spare, then moved
ing location of the DSCS system until at least four DSCS II
above geostationary orbit
satellites were available. This goal was realized as a result
Delta 2914 launch vehicle (1–3), Delta 3914 launch vehicle (4) of the DSCS II launch in December 1978. DSCS traffic was
removed from NATO IIIB in January 1979, and it was re-
Management
turned to its station over the Atlantic Ocean. NATO traffic was
Developed by Ford Aerospace and Communications
switched to NATO IIIB in December 1982, and NATO IIIA
Corporation (now Space Systems/Loral) for Air Force Space
Systems Division acting for NATO was used for ground terminal testing. The qualification model
was reworked into the third flight model and was launched
in November 1978 and put into a dormant
state, known as orbital storage. NATO IIIC
was reactivated and became the primary
NATO spacecraft in December 1986, and
NATO IIIB became a test vehicle. In 1980,
a follow-on contract was issued for a fourth
satellite, which was launched in November
1984. This satellite was put into orbit as
a spare. The NATO communications load
has been turned over to the newer NATO
IV satellites. The contract included an op-
tion for a fifth satellite, but the option was
not exercised. In 1991, NATO IVA became
the primary satellite, with NATO IIIC and
IIID as spares.
The NATO III satellites are part of the
NATO satellite communications system.
This system has a main control center and
an alternative control center. All transmis-
sions are digital and share the satellite
via FDMA. The satellite communication
system is a part of the NATO Integrated
Communications System, which also has
various terrestrial communications links
and switching and control nodes.
******
Fig. 4.14. NATO III terminal locations.

199
Military Satellites

1. G. E. LaVean and E. J. Martin, “Communication 7. M. Celebiler, J. Munns, and E. Turner, “The NATO
Satellites: The Second Decade,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, Digital Satellite Communication System,” Paper 80-0493,
Vol. 12, No. 4 (April 1974). AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April
2. V. W. Wall, “Military Communication Satellites,” 1980).
International Telemetering Conference Proceedings (October 8. L. K. Wentz and G. D. Hingorani, “NATO
1973). Communications in Transition,” IEEE Transactions on
3 V. W. Wall, “Satellites for Military Communications,” Communications, Vol. 28, No. 9 (September 1980).
Paper 74-272, AIAA 10th Annual Meeting (January 1974). 9. N. Sanli et al., “The NATO III Satellite Communications
4. H. A. Kissinger, “NATO Satellite Communications,” System Control,” Paper 82-0487, AIAA 9th Communications
Signal, Vol. 30, No. 6 (March 1976). Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982).
5. Aviation Week & Space Technology (23 August 1971), 10. R. Brand and D. Toy, “NATO Integrated Communications
p. 58; (17 July 1972), p. 14; (17 October 1977), p. 127; (13 System Network Control,” 1983 Military Communications
December 1982), p. 26. Conference: Milcom ’83 (October 1983).
6. E. T. Bobak and R. G. Clabaugh, “NATO Phase III 11. P. A. Kelly, The Evolving NATO Satellite Experience,
Satellite Design,” Paper 15-2, EASCON ’77 Conference Advisory Group for Aerospace Research & Development
Record (September 1977). (AGARD) Conference Proceedings, AGARD-CP-580 (June
1997).

FLTSATCOM and AFSATCOM

Tacsat and LES-5 and -6 were experimental satellites that for UHF transmissions and was a 16 ft diam paraboloid with
demonstrated UHF (225 to 400 MHz band) links with mobile a solid center section. The outer part of the surface was a
terminals. These satellites were used for numerous tests, and mesh that was attached to 12 ribs. The mesh was deployed,
Tacsat and LES-6 provided a limited operational capacity along with the solar arrays, after the satellite was injected into
for DOD. Tacsat ceased to operate at the end of 1972, and geostationary orbit. The separate UHF receiving antenna was
LES-6 operated into 1976, although its performance had a single helix about 1 ft diam by 11 ft length, deployed to the
degraded considerably since it was launched. The Gapfiller side of the large paraboloid. The initial FLTSATCOM design
satellites provided a limited operational capability beginning used the 16 ft antenna for both transmission and reception,
in 1976. This capability was significantly improved as the but elimination of interference between the two functions
FLTSATCOM satellites were deployed beginning in 1978. The was found to require a separate receiving antenna. The third
Gapfiller/FLTSATCOM system was DOD’s first operational, antenna was a horn that was used for reception of the X-band
rather than experimental, system for tactical users [1–28].
FLTSATCOM served Navy surface ships, submarines, air-
craft, and shore stations. Air Force Satellite Communications
(AFSATCOM) served Air Force strategic aircraft, airborne
command posts, and ground terminals. The two systems
shared a set of four FLTSATCOM satellites in geostation-
ary orbit. The Air Force also has communications equipment
packages on several satellites in high inclination orbits to pro-
vide coverage of the north polar region, which is not visible
from the equatorial satellites.
The FLTSATCOM satellites had a hexagonal body com-
posed of two modules. The last two satellites had a third mod-
ule for the extremely high frequency (EHF) communications
package described later in this section. This third module had
the same hexagonal shape as the other two but only half the
height; it was mounted behind the other two (i.e., the side of
the satellite facing away from Earth). The spacecraft module
contained the attitude control, power, and TT&C subsys-
tems as well as the apogee motor. The two solar arrays were
mounted on booms attached to this module. The satellite was
three-axis-stabilized by means of redundant reaction wheels
and hydrazine thrusters. This type of stabilization allowed
the antennas to face Earth continuously while being
directly attached to the satellite body. The solar-array
booms were always parallel to Earth’s axis; motors
kept the arrays oriented toward the sun.
The other module of the satellite contained the com-
munication subsystem. The antennas were mounted on the
Earth-viewing side of this module. The largest antenna was Fig. 4.15. FLTSATCOM satellite.

200
 FLTSATCOM and AFSATCOM

90

60

30

–30
5° 5° 5° 5° 0° 5°
0° 5° 0° 5°
5° 0° 0° 0° 0°
–60 0°

–90
–180 –140 –100 –60 –20 0 20 60 100 140 180

Fig. 4.16. FLTSATCOM communication coverage.

(super high frequency or SHF) fleet broadcast uplink and Initial in-orbit EIRP exceeded these specifications by
transmission of an X-band beacon. The satellite details follow. about 2 dB
Satellite EHF (satellites 7–8): 20 GHz band, 20 W TWTA plus spare,
Hexagon, 7.5 ft across, 4/5 ft in height (satellites 1–6/7–8), with onboard processor switches output between spot and Earth-
two deployed solar arrays (each approximately 9 x 13 ft) and coverage beam
a 16 ft deployed antenna, overall span 43.4 ft, overall height
21/22 ft (satellites 1–6/7–8)
Receiver
290 to 320 MHz (all satellites), 8 GHz (all satellites), and 44
2250 lb (2700 lb, 7 and 8) in orbit, beginning of life GHz (satellites 7–8)
Sun-tracking solar array and NiCd batteries, approximately
1570/2200 W (satellites 1-6/7-8) at beginning of life, Antenna
approximately 1210/1560 W (satellites 1–6/7–8) minimum after 16 ft deployable UHF parabola, Earth coverage, circularly
5 years polarized
Three-axis-stabilized using momentum wheels, accuracy better Deployable UHF helix, 1 ft diam, 12 ft long, Earth coverage,
than ±0.2 deg (pitch and roll) 99% and ±1 deg (yaw) 3 sigma circularly polarized
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine liquid X-band horn, Earth coverage, circularly polarized
propulsion for on-orbit use EHF (satellites 7–8): steerable 8 in. diam reflector providing a 5
deg spot beam with separate 20 and 44 GHz feeds, two Earth
Configuration
coverage horns (one each for 20 and 44 GHz)
Channel 1: X-band uplink to UHF downlink, 25 kHz bandwidth
Channels 2 to 10: 25 kHz bandwidth (UHF) Telemetry and command
Channels 11 to 22: 5 kHz bandwidth (UHF) Telemetry: in 2200 to 2290 MHz band
Channel 23: 500 kHz bandwidth (UHF) Beacon: in 7250 to 7750 MHz band
EHF (7 and 8): 32-channel processing Command: in 1762 to 1842 MHz band

Transmitter Life
240 to 270 MHz band (all satellites) Five-year design life, 3.1 years MMD predicted before first
launch; 7 years MMD expected from experience through 1986;
Twelve transistor power amplifiers, 25 to 43 W output per greater than 10 years MMD actual experience
amplifier, each with full redundancy
EIRP per channel (edge of Earth): 26 dBW, channels 1 to Orbit
3, 5, 7 to 10; 28 dBW, channels 4, 6; 16.5 dBW, channels Geostationary (inclination <3 deg for first 5 years), stationkeeping
11 to 22; 27 dBW, channel 23 to ±1°E-W

201
Military Satellites

Orbital history Management

FLTSATCOM 1: launched 9 February 1978, removed from Developed by TRW Systems Group for Air Force Space
service Systems Division (formerly Air Force Space and Missile
FLTSATCOM 2: launched 4 May 1979, removed from service Systems Organization)
January 1993, moved above geostationary orbit Operated by Naval Telecommunications Command until mid-
FLTSATCOM 3: launched 17 January 1980, removed from 1980s, Naval Space Command afterward, TT&C support by Air
service January 1991, drifting Force Satellite Control Network

FLTSATCOM 4: launched 30 October 1980, removed from The satellite had four types of communication channels.
service after 2001 The Navy used one fleet broadcast channel and nine 25
kHz bandwidth fleet relay channels. The Air Force used 12
FLTSATCOM 5: launched 6 August 1981, damaged at launch,
out of service, moved above geostationary orbit narrowband (5 kHz each) channels and one wideband (500
kHz) channel. All links, except the fleet broadcast uplink, were
FLTSATCOM 6: destroyed during launch 26 March 1987 in the 240 to 400 MHz band with the downlinks at the lower part
FLTSATCOM 7: launched 4 December 1986, removed from of the band. The fleet broadcast uplink frequency was about 8
service after 2001 GHz. Either processing or nonprocessing receivers could be
FLTSATCOM 8: launched 25 September 1989, removed from used with the fleet broadcast and some Air Force narrowband
service uplinks. Use of the processing receivers provided some antijam
Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle capability. The satellite had 12 power amplifiers, one for each of
the Navy channels, one for all Air Force narrowband channels,
and one for the Air Force wideband channel. A UHF command
channel was provided on FLTSATCOM for operational control
of the Air Force narrowband package and limited redundancy
switching of the fleet broadcast channel.
Frequency The fleet broadcast channel had an information rate of
synthesizer 1200 bps composed of 15 teletype and one synchronization
channel at 75 bps each. The initial use of each fleet relay
channel was a single 1200 or 2400 bps link. To make better
UHF UHF use of the channel capacity, the Navy changed to TDMA (time
command command division multiple access) transmissions with preassignment,
receiver decoder followed by automated demand assignment. Tests of TDMA
with demand assignment were conducted in 1978. By the
Frequency second half of the 1980s, operational equipment was in use on
synthesizer

UHF receive Processor AF Narrowband Channels UHF transmit

antenna receiver antenna
(helix) UHF (parabola)
Up Power
processor converter amplifier 11
Repeater
receiver
AF Wideband Channel

Filter/ Up Power
limiter converter amplifier 12 Multicoupler
Preamplifier
Navy Channels
Down Filter/ Up Power
converter/ limiter converter amplifier
amplifier
10 chains – 1 per channel
X-band
antenna
Filter/ Receiver Processor
diplexer

Beacon

Fig. 4.17. FLTSATCOM communication subsystem.

202
 FLTSATCOM and AFSATCOM

In 1982, three satellites were added to the

program. Only the last two had FEP. Satellite 7,
with FEP, was launched before satellite 6 to pro-
44 GHz 20 GHz vide the earliest possible EHF capability in orbit.
Satellite 6 was destroyed when lightning struck
T T TW the launch vehicle during ascent [29]. Both satel-
Output lites 7 and 8 operated as expected and exceeded
Demodulator processor
3.1 GHz 100 MHz and and H S S their 5-year design lives. They were removed
processor modulator
T T
from service and replaced by the UHF Follow-
TW
On satellites.
Transec ******
Dehopping Hopping
1. G. E. LaVean and E. J. Martin,
Fig. 4.18. FLTSATCOM EHF communication subsystem.
“Communication Satellites: The Second
Decade,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 12,
No. 4 (April 1974).
many ships. In 1996, the change to digital TDMA operation 2. V. W. Wall, “Military Communication Satellites,”
was completed and there was no further use of analog links on International Telemetering Conference Proceedings (October
FLTSATCOM. The TDMA format used burst rates between 1973).
9.6 and 32.0 kbps. Each narrowband Air Force channel was 3. V. W. Wall, “Satellites for Military Communications,”
used for a single 75-bps link. The wideband channel was used Paper 74-272, AIAA 10th Annual Meeting (January 1974).
for multiple FDMA links at 75 bps or a single higher rate link.
AFSATCOM does not have its own satellites for the polar 4. J. L. Boyes and T. H. Harden, “Navy’s Fleet Satellite
coverage orbits. Rather, UHF communications packages are and Gapfiller Satellite Communications Programs,” Signal,
placed on other DOD satellites. These packages have capabili- Vol. 28, No. 7 (March 1974).
ties similar to those of the 12 narrowband Air Force channels 5. C. E. French, “An Overview of the FLTSATCOM
on the FLTSATCOM satellites. In addition, AFSATCOM uses Program,” International Conference on Communications: ICC
a single-channel transponder with antijam improvements on ’77 (June 1977).
DSCS III satellites. 6. N. L. Wardle, “U.S. Navy Fleet Satellite Commu-
Satellites 7 and 8 had an EHF communications package nications,” Paper 74-458, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite
with a 44 GHz uplink and 20 GHz downlink. This package Systems Conference (April 1974).
was called the FEP (FLTSATCOM EHF Package). It used a
Milstar-compatible signal structure. Lincoln Laboratory de- 7. C. E. Reid, “A New Era in Worldwide Tactical
veloped the FEP to demonstrate the operational capabilities of Communications,” International Telemetering Conference Pro-
the EHF terminals and to prove key functions of the Milstar ceedings (October 1973).
system. 8. R. D. Greiner, “Air Force Satellite Communications
The EHF package was housed in a third hexagonal module Program,” Signal, Vol. 28, No. 11 (August 1974).
added to the satellite. The additional weight was accommo-
9. J. B. Wheeler, “Fleet Satellite Communications,”
dated by an improved launch vehicle and a new apogee motor.
Signal, Vol. 28, No. 6 (February 1974).
New solar cells, with higher efficiency than those used on
satellites 1 to 5, provided the added power with no increase in 10. J. L. Boyes, “A Navy Satellite Communication System,”
solar-array size. Signal, Vol. 30, No. 6 (March 1976).
The EHF package had both Earth-coverage and spot-beam 11. Aviation Week & Space Technology (20 November
antennas. It demodulated up to 32 received signals, processed 1972), p. 18; (22 January 1973), p. 13; (26 February 1973),
them, and reformatted and modulated them for downlink p. 19; (26 March 1973), p. 60; (20 August 1973), p. 21; (4
transmission. Twenty-six of the channels were for communi- March 1974), p. 39; (8 July 1974), p. 14; (21 July 1975), p. 21;
cations, each at rates from 75 to 2400 bps; the remainder were (18 August 1975), p. 17; (8 August 1977), p. 18; (17 October
for FEP control. The uplinks were FDMA with MFSK (mul- 1977), p. 123; (14 November 1977), p. 21; (8 February 1982),
tiple frequency shift keying) modulation; they were combined p. 22; (28 January 1985), p. 15; (15 April 1985), p. 11; (9
into a single TDM data stream for the downlink. The down- December 1985), p. 49; (21 March 1988), pp. 38, 46; (18
link modulation formats were MFSK and DPSK (differential September 1989), p. 30; (2 October 1989), p. 23.
phase shift keying). Both links were frequency hopped; the
downlink could be switched on a hop-by-hop basis between 12. A. Shostak, “Navy Telecommunications Past and
the spot-beam and Earth-coverage antennas. Present,” Navy Research Reviews, Vol. 28, No. 12 (December
The FLTSATCOM program started with five satellites. 1975).
Congress reduced the program to three, but the other two 13. M. J. Friedenthal and E. K. Heist, “Fleet Satellite
were restored later. The first satellite was launched in Febru- Communications Spacecraft,” Paper 9/5, WESCON Technical
ary 1978, and the fifth was launched in August 1981. The first Papers (September 1976).
four satellites formed a constellation with global coverage. 14. J. A. Nooney, “Demand Assignment for Narrowband
Each operated satisfactorily for more than twice its design Tactical UHF Satellite Channels,” EASCON ’77 Conference
life. They have now all been removed from service. The fifth Record (September 1977).
satellite was damaged during ascent and was not useable.
203
Military Satellites

15. J. A. Nooney, “UHF Demand Assignment Multi- 22. W. W. Ward and F. W. Floyd, “Thirty Years of Research
ple Access (DAMA) System for Tactical Satellite and Development in Space Communications at Lincoln
Communications,” Paper 45.5, International Conference on Laboratory,” The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1
Communications: ICC ’77 (June 1977). (Spring 1989).
16. F. S. McCartney and E. K. Heist, “FLTSATCOM 23. D. R. McElroy, “The FEP Communications System,”
Program Review: Requirements, Design, and Performance,” Paper 88-0824, AIAA 12th International Communication
EASCON ’78 Conference Record (September 1978). Satellite Systems Conference (March 1988).
17. P. S. Melancon and R. D. Smith, “Fleet Satellite 24. M. D. Semprucci, “The First ‘Switchboard in the Sky’:
Communications (FLTSATCOM) Program,” Paper 80-0562, An Autonomous Satellite-Based Access/Resource Controller,”
AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Spring 1988).
1980). 25. “A Brief Description of the FEP Communications
18. H. S. Braham, “FLTSATCOM—Current and Future,” System,” unpublished paper by MIT Lincoln Laboratory (26
Paper 6H.3, International Conference on Communications: July 1990).
ICC ’82 (June 1982). 26. M. Dankberg et al., “Next Generation Fltsat Tactical
19. L. E. Taylor and S. L. Bernstein, “TACS—A Demand Network Control,” Paper 23.3, Milcom ’91 Conference Record
Assignment System for Fleetsat,” Paper 16.1, International (November 1991).
Conference on Communications: ICC ’79 (June 1979). 27. B. Clair, “Navy Satellite Communications,” Paper 92-
Reprinted in IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 27, 1349, AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Conference
No. 10 (October 1979). (March 1992).
20. T. F. White, “Fleet Satellite Communications/ 28. “FLTSATCOM,” document number KSC 81-89,
Leased Satellite Communications Operations,” Paper 33.3, September 1989, http://solar.rtd.utk.edu/~jgreen/fltsatco. html
International Conference on Communications: ICC ’79 (June (16 August 1999).
1979).
29. A. F. Rivera, et al., “Two Struck by Lightning,” sidebar
21. J. M. Gutwein et al., “Air Force UHF Satcom DAMA to “Protecting Space Systems from Lightning,” Crosslink, Vol.
System Concept,” 1984 Military Communications Conference: 2, No. 2 (Summer 2001), also available at http://www.aero.
Milcom ’84 (October 1984). org/publications/crosslink/summer2001/05.html (14 March
2005).

DSCS III
The DSCS satellite constellation has 10 orbital slots consisting There are two Earth-coverage and one multibeam receiving
of five primary satellite longitudes and five supporting antennas. Four of the six transponders can be connected to the
longitudes. The five primary longitudes and their area names multibeam antenna (MBA). This antenna can form a beam of
are east Atlantic at 12°W, west Atlantic at 52.5°W, east variable size, shape, and location by means of a beam-form-
Pacific at 135°W, west Pacific at 175°E, and Indian Ocean ing network that controls the relative amplitudes and phases
at 60°E. DSCS was originally planned for long-distance of each of the 61 individual beams that together cover Earth.
communications between major military locations. However, This antenna can also form nulls in selected directions in order
as the system has evolved, there was an increase in both the to counter jammers. Two transmitters are always connected to
number and variety of terminals. By the 1990s, a majority of Earth-coverage antennas, but the other four may all be con-
DSCS terminals were small, transportable, or shipboard types. nected to one of two 19-beam transmit MBAs. These antennas
DSCS III satellites [1–16] were developed to operate in this have the same capabilities as the receive MBA (except null-
diverse environment. ing), although their resolution is lower. Three of the channels
The primary DSCS III communication subsystem has eight can also be switched to a gimballed dish antenna (GDA) that
antennas that can be connected in various ways to the six generates a single beam with high EIRP.
transponders. Each transponder has its own limiter, mixer, and The secondary communication subsystem on DSCS III is
transmitter and, thus, can be configured to serve a specific type the AFSATCOM single channel transponder (SCT). The SCT
of user requirement. The configuration includes the choices of has its own UHF transmitting and receiving antennas, but can
receiving antenna, transmitting antenna, and transponder gain be connected to the X-band Earth coverage or MBA receiving
level. Also, each transponder can be used with either FDMA antennas. The SCT demodulates the received uplink and re-
or TDMA transmissions. The receivers have low-noise, field- modulates it for transmission and can also store messages for
effect transistor preamplifiers. The midsections of the tran- repeated transmission. The X-band uplink has antijamming
sponders are limiter amplifiers with a gain commandable over protection. The SCT in the later block builds of the DSCS de-
a 24 dB range in addition to a 15 dB commandable attenuator. sign (B-series and multiyear-procurement: satellites B4–B14)
These amplifiers can be operated in either a linear, quasilinear, has an X-band downlink capability by means of the channel 1
or limiting mode. The transmitter drivers are field-effect tran- TWTA and MBA.
sistor amplifiers, and the power amplifiers are either 50 W, 40 The DSCS III satellite is three-axis-stabilized. All antennas
W or 10 W TWTAs or 10 W solid-state amplifiers. except the GDA are mounted on the Earth-viewing face of the

204
 DSCS III

body and do not require deployment. The sun-tracking solar

arrays are deployed in orbit from the north and south faces of
the satellite body. All support subsystems except the solar ar-
rays are contained within the body. The TT&C subsystem has
an S-band section for use with the Satellite Control Network
(SCN), which is common to nearly all DOD satellites, plus an
X-band section for use with the communications terminals.
This provides redundant command paths into the satellite and
allows the communications users direct control of the anten-
nas and transponders. Satellite and communications subsys-
tem details follow.
Satellite
Rectangular body, 1.8 x 1.8 x 2.1 m, overall span of
deployed solar arrays 11.5 m
1123 kg (A1), 1170 kg (most satellites), 1232
kg (A3, B6, B8, B11), in orbit at beginning
of life
Sun-tracking solar arrays and Fig. 4.19. DSCS III satellite.
NiCd batteries, 1240 W beginning
of life and 980 W after 10 years
(early launches), 1700 W beginning Receiver
of life (A3, B6, B8, B11) 7900 to 8400 MHz
Three-axis-stabilized using reaction wheels, 0.09 deg accuracy FET preamplifiers, 3.8 dB receiver noise figure, (2.5 dB
in pitch and roll, 1.0 deg in yaw, 0.2 deg antenna pointing noise figure for SLEP (service life enhancement program)
accuracy satellites)
Configuration Channels 1 to 6: G/T –1 dB/K (MBA, narrow coverage),
–16 dB/K (MBA, Earth coverage), –14 dB/K (horn), both
Satellites A1, A2, B4, B5 and B7 have channel bandwidths
at edge of coverage
of 60, 60, 85, 60, 60, and 50 MHz for channels 1 through 6,
respectively, satellites A3, B6 and B8 through B14 have 30 SCT (UHF): G/T –24.5 dB/K minimum at edge of coverage
MHz more bandwidth allocated as follows: 50, 75, 85, 85, 60,
and 50 MHz, respectively, for channels 1 through 6 Antenna
SHF
Transmitter Receive MBA: one 114 cm aperture, 61 beams, narrow-
7250 to 7750 MHz coverage performance defined for a 1 deg cone
Channels 1 and 2: 40 W TWTA and spare for each (50 W Transmit MBAs: two, each with 71 cm aperture, 19
TWTAs for last four launches); EIRP/channel 40 (41 for beams, narrow-coverage performance defined for a 1 deg
last four launches) dBW (MBA, narrow coverage), 29 (30) cone
dBW (MBA, Earth coverage), or 44 (44.9) dBW (GDA)
Transmit GDA: parabola, 84 cm diam, steerable, 3 deg
Channels 3 and 4: 10 W TWTA for each and a shared beamwidth
spare (the 1992 to 1995 launches had one solid-state
amplifier for each channel with one spare TWTA, 50 W Horns: two transmit, two receive, Earth coverage
TWTAs for last four launches); EIRP/channel, 34 (40.8) UHF: one transmit, one receive, crossed dipoles, approximately
dBW (MBA narrow coverage), 23 (29.8) dBW (MBA, 4 dB gain at edge of coverage
Earth coverage), 25 (31.8) dBW (horn), (channel 4 only)
All antennas circularly polarized
37.5 (44.2) dBW (GDA)
Channels 5 and 6: 10 W TWTA for each and a shared Telemetry and command
spare (gradual replacement with 10 W solid-state Telemetry: in 2200 to 2290 MHz band; 7600 and 7605 MHz
amplifiers beginning with the 1985 launch, all amplifiers
solid-state beginning with the November 1993 launch; all Beacon: 7600 and 7605 MHz
50 W TWTAs for last four launches); EIRP/channel, 25 Command: in 1762 to 1842 MHz band and in 7975 to 8025 and
(31.6) dBW (horn), (channel 5 only), (43.9) dBW (GDA) 8340 to 8400 MHz
Note: Numbers in parentheses apply to A3, B6, B8, B11
Life
SCT Ten-year design life, 7 years MMD
UHF approximately 70 W, 21.3 dBW minimum EIRP
Orbit
SHF commandable 0 to 100% of channel 1 TWTA
power (satellites B4 and up); EIRP depends on MBA Geostationary, capable of ±0.1 deg stationkeeping N-S and
configuration E-W

EIRPs defined at edge of coverage

205
Military Satellites

EC MB EC EC MB P MB EC

BFN Channel BFN BFN

3
S TD H T * S S C
8145–
8230 C
[8130–8215] 725 S S
T *
T C
4
S S S TD H T * S S S C
8255–
a 8315
T [8230–8315] 725

T 2 TD T C S
a *
S S S S H S S
725
T TD T *
8060–
8120
[8040–8115] 725

T 1 TD T *
S S S S H S S
725
T TD T *
7975–
8035
[7975–8025] 725

5
TD H T * S
8340–
8400
[8340–8400] 725 S S
T *
6
TD H T * S
7900–
7950
[7900–7950] 200
UHF UHF * See Transmitter
EC EC data in text
E C Earth coverage
M B Multibeam
B F N Beam forming network
P Parabola
a S AFSATCOM T FET amplifiers
single channel
transponder Channel 1 TWTA Frequencies for satellites
(on Satellite 4 8–14 shown in [ ]
and up)
Fig. 4.20. DSCS III communication subsystem.

Orbital history DSCS III-B6: launched 29 August 2003, in use, 52.5°W

DSCS III-A1: launched 30 October 1982 with DSCS II-16, was longitude
at 130°W longitude, moved to supersynchronous disposal orbit DSCS III-B7: launched 31 July 1995, was at 52.5°W, then
in April 2000 42.5°W longitude, in use as a residual satellite at 130°W
DSCS III-A2: launched 4 September 1989 with DSCS II-15, was DSCS III-B8: launched 20 January 2000, in use, 175°E
at 57°E, later 130°W longitude, moved to supersynchronous longitude
disposal orbit in mid-2005 and shut down
DSCS III-B9: launched 19 July 1993, in use, 180°E longitude
DSCS III-A3: launched 10 March 2003, in use, 60°E longitude
DSCS III-B10: launched 28 November 1993, in use, 60°E, later
DSCS III-B4: launched 3 October 1985 with B5, spare, 57°E longitude
was at 12°W, later moved to 42.5°W longitude, moved to
supersynchronous disposal orbit in June 2005, in use as a test DSCS III-B11: launched 19 October 2000, in use, 12°W
satellite longitude
DSCS III-B5: launched 3 October 1985 with B4, was at 52.5°W, DSCS III-B12: launched 2 July 1992, in use, 12°W, later 150°E
later 180°, then 150°E longitude, moved to supersynchronous longitude
disposal orbit in May–June 2005 and shut down

206
 Leasat

DSCS III-B13: launched 24 October 1997, in use, 175°E, later October 1977), p. 116; (14 January 1980), p. 20; (3 August
135°W longitude 1981), p. 25; (8 November 1982), p. 24; (17 January 1983), p.
DSCS III-B14: launched 10 February 1992, was at 135°W, then 111.
10°E longitude, moved to supersynchronous disposal orbit in 3. I. S. Haas and A. T. Finney, “The DSCS III Satellite—
March 2005
A Defense Communication System for the 80’s,” Paper 78-
Titan 34D/IUS launch vehicle (A1), Titan 34D/Transtage (A2), 580, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
space shuttle/IUS (B4 and B5), Atlas II/Integrated Apogee (April 1978).
Boost Subsystem (B7 to B14), Delta IV/Integrated Apogee
Boost Subsystem (A3, B6) 4. K. R. Swimm and J. A. Loftus, “DSCS III—Flexible
Communications,” Paper 5/3, WESCON ’77 Conference
Management Record (September 1977).
Developed by GE (later Martin Marietta, later Lockheed Martin) 5. A. W. Weinrich, A. Horvath, and A. Harcar, “DSCS
for Air Force Space Systems Division (now Air Force Space
III Communications Satellite Performance,” International
and Missile Systems Center)
Telemetering Conference Proceedings (November 1978).
Operated by Defense Information Systems Agency (formerly
Defense Communications Agency), TT&C support by Air Force 6. S. J. Gotkis, “Shaping Patterns With a 19 Beam
Satellite Control Network and Satellite Configuration Control Transmit MBA,” 1978 AP-S International Symposium (May
Elements (SCCE) 1978).
DSCS III design studies and breadboards of certain 7. T. D. Ellington, “DSCS III—Becoming an Operational
components, particularly the MBAs, were carried out in 1976. System,” IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 28, No.
Final development started in 1977 on a qualification model 9 (September 1980).
and two flight models, called the Block A satellites, the first 8. R. Donovan, R. Kelley, and K. Swimm, “Evolution of
of which was launched in 1982. The other 11 satellites, called the DSCS Phase III Satellite Through the 1990’s,” Paper C1.6,
Block B, have slight improvements. Five satellites occupy International Conference on Communications: ICC ’83 (June
the prime operating locations of the DSCS constellation. The 1983).
others are spares for the five primary satellites and are also in
use to augment the capacity of the constellation. 9. R. Cook, “DSCS: Past, Present, and Future,” Paper
In order to meet the ever increasing needs of the user com- 92-16, AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Conference
munity, the DSCS III program had a service life enhancement (March 1992).
program (SLEP) that greatly improved the communications 10. DSCS III fact sheet, Martin Marietta Astro Space
capacity of the last four satellites launched (B6, B8, B11, and (1993).
A3). The enhancements to these satellites include 11. D. N. Spires and R. W. Sturdevant, “From Advent to
• higher-power amplifiers (50 W TWTAs) in each of the Milstar: The U.S. Air Force and the Challenges of Military
six channels Satellite Communications,” chapter 7 in Beyond the
• improved gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells on the in- Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication, A. J.
board solar panels Butrica, ed., NASA History Office, Washington, D.C. (1997);
• variable gain step attenuation also Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 50, No.
• an improved low noise amplifier (LNA) with a 2.5 dB 6 (June 1997).
noise figure
• improved connectivity to the GDA 12. D. A. Dwayne, “Secret Shuttle Mission Revealed,”
• improved bandwidth on two of the satellites (B6 and Spaceflight, Vol. 40 (July 1998), pp. 256-7.
A3) 13. P. Chien, “Military Satellite Communications,”
SLEP improved satellite capacity by 200 percent as well as Launchspace, Vol. 3, No. 2 (April 1998).
providing up to a 700-percent increase in capacity available to 14. USAF, “Fact Sheet: Defense Satellite Communications
tactical users in certain scenarios. System Phase III” (February 2000), http://www.losangeles.
****** af.mil/SMC/PA/Fact_Sheets/dscs_fs.htm (7 March 2005).
1. H. Wynne and D. E. Kendall, “Defense Satellite 15. Air Force Link, “Defense Satellite Communications
Communications System in the 1980s,” WESCON Technical System” (May 2004), http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.
Papers (September 1975). asp?fsID=95 (7 March 2005).
2. Aviation Week & Space Technology (17 February 1975), 16. MILSATCOM Joint Program Office, “Defense Satellite
p. 18; (5 January 1976), p. 44; (28 February 1977), p. 57; (17 Communications System (DSCS),” http://www.losangeles.
af.mil/SMC/MC/docs/dscs_bw_200.pdf (7 March 2005).

Leasat
In the 1976 and 1977 Congressional reviews of the DOD 1977, the Defense Communications Agency (DCA), the Navy,
budget for communication satellite systems, Congress and the Air Force developed technical, programmatic, and
directed DOD to increase its use of leased commercial facilities. fiscal details for system alternatives that would satisfy DOD
This direction was specifically applied to the tactical satellite requirements within the Congressional guidelines. The result
system that would follow FLTSATCOM. In the second half of of that study was the Leasat program [1–13]. Leasat served the

207
Military Satellites

Navy primarily, plus Air Force and ground forces mobile users.
The FLTSATCOM terminal assets were used with Leasat.
Leasat had four types of communication channels with
characteristics very similar to the FLTSATCOM channels.
Channel 1 was for fleet broadcast use and had an X-band
uplink with spread-spectrum antijamming protection. The
spectrum spreading was removed by a satellite processor,
and the data were transmitted on a UHF downlink. Chan-
nels 2 through 13 had UHF uplinks and downlinks with
no satellite processing. Channel 2 had a 500 kHz bandwidth,
channels 3 to 8 had 25 kHz bandwidths, and channels 9 to 13
had 5 kHz bandwidths. Channels 9 to 13 shared a power am-
plifier; channels 1 through 8 each had a separate amplifier.
The Leasat satellite had a dual-spin configuration with a
cylindrical solar array 4.26 m in diameter and 9 ft in height.
The design was basically the same as the Syncom 4 design
developed by Hughes in an effort to optimally match a satel-
lite to the space shuttle launch system [2–4]. The central chal-
lenge in the Syncom 4 project was to find the combination of
satellite geometry and upper stages that minimizes the mission
cost for a given communications payload. This minimization
was affected by three main facts:
• The payload bay diameter of the shuttle was 4.6 m,
in contrast to the 2.4 and 3 m fairing diameters of the Fig. 4.21. Leasat satellite.
launch vehicles for which all previous communication
satellites were designed.
• The shuttle launch cost was proportional to the fraction Satellite
of the payload bay length used or the fraction of maxi- Hughes HS 381 bus
mum payload weight capacity used, depending on which Cylindrical body, 4.26 m diam, 9 ft height, stowed height 4.29
is greater. m, deployed height 6.17 m
• The basic shuttle orbit altitude was 280 km. An upper
6895 kg at separation from shuttle, 1388 kg in orbit, beginning
stage or stages were required to get the satellite into of life, 1255 kg after 10 years
geostationary orbit.
Leasat was a spinning satellite with a despun communica- Solar array and NiCd batteries, 1500 W beginning of life, 1238
W minimum after 7 years
tions and antenna platform. For the purpose of allowing space
for a cradle to hold the satellite in the shuttle and to eject it Spin-stabilized, 30 rpm, antenna pointing accuracy ±0.5 deg
properly, the satellite diameter was set at 4.26 m. The length Solid rocket motor for perigee maneuver, bipropellant liquid
of the satellite body was set by the required size of the solar propulsion for apogee maneuver, monopropellant hydrazine
array. All required upper stage propulsion fit inside the sat- propulsion for on-orbit use
ellite. In the bottom center of the satellite was a large solid
propellant perigee motor that boosted the satellite into an el- Configuration
liptical transfer orbit after it was ejected from the shuttle. In Channel 1: X-band uplink, UHF downlink, 25 kHz bandwidth
contemporary satellites, this position would be occupied by Channel 2: UHF, 500 kHz bandwidth
the apogee motor, if one were used. In the Syncom 4/Leasat Channels 3 to 8: UHF, 25 kHz bandwidth
design, the apogee boost function was provided by two liquid
Channels 9 to 13: UHF, 5 kHz bandwidth
motors. These motors and the fuel tanks that fed them were
mounted around the perigee motor. There was still sufficient Transmitter
volume within the satellite for the power supply electronics 244 to 270 MHz band, plus beacon at approximately 7300
and batteries and the attitude control subsystem. The com- MHz
munication subsystem was mounted on the despun platform
Nine power amplifiers, one each for channels 1 to 8, one for
at the forward end of the satellite body. The antennas were
channels 9 to 13
also mounted on this platform and were folded down against it
during launch, then deployed when the satellite was stabilized EIRP per channel, minimum at edge of coverage: 26 dBW (1, 3
at geostationary altitude. to 8), 28 dBW (2), 16.5 dBW (9 to 13)
Leasat had five antennas on the despun platform. Two were Receiver
X-band, Earth-coverage horns, one for receiving the channel 1
290 to 318 MHz band and in 7975 to 8025 MHz
uplink and one for transmitting a beacon. An omnidirectional
TT&C antenna was deployed in orbit. Two UHF helices were G/T, minimum at edge of coverage: –18 dB/K (UHF), –20 dB/K
also deployed in orbit. Each provided Earth coverage, one for (X-band)
transmission and one for reception. Additional satellite details
are as follows.

208
 Leasat

X-band
beacon

X-band Fleet Limiter/ Channel 1

receiver broadcast upconverter transmitter
processor

Channel 2 Channel 2
receiver transmitter

Channel 3
transmitter Multiplexer

UHF Channel 3–8

preamplifier receiver

Channel 8
transmitter

Channel 9–13 Channel 9–13

receiver transmitter

Fig. 4.22. Leasat communication subsystem.

Antenna Leasat 5: launched 9 January 1990 (deployed from shuttle 10

Two UHF helices each about 1 ft diam and 12.6 ft long (one January), moved to 156°E longitude in 1998, later moved to
transmit, one receive), 14 dB gain at edge of Earth 100°E longitude, in use mid-2006
Two X-band horns (one beacon, one receive), 17 dB gain at Management
edge of Earth Developed by Hughes Communication Services, Inc. (a
subsidiary of Hughes Aircraft Company), and Hughes Aircraft
Telemetry and command Company for Naval Electronics Systems Command
Telemetry: in 7250 to 7750 MHz band
Operated by Hughes Communication Services, Inc., and Naval
Command: in 7900 to 8400 MHz band Communications Command
Life The contract for Leasat development was awarded in September
Ten-year design life 1978 for 5 years of communication service to be provided at
each of four orbital locations. The first launch was scheduled
Orbit for 1982. However, delays in the shuttle program delayed the
Geostationary, inclination b3 deg for first 5 years, stationkeeping launch dates and resulted in a 2-year suspension of work on the
to ±1°E-W satellites. Work resumed early in 1983, and the first two launches
occurred in 1984. The delayed introduction of Leasat did not
Orbital history cause any problems, because the predecessor FLTSATCOM
Leasat 1: launched 8 November 1984 (deployed from spacecraft operated much longer than expected.
shuttle 10 November), failed September 1992, moved above The third Leasat was launched in April 1985, but the sat-
geostationary orbit
ellite failed to turn on. In the days following the launch, the
Leasat 2: launched 30 August 1984 (deployed from shuttle 31 shuttle crew carried out a rescue attempt, devised by NASA
August), no longer in service and contractor teams on Earth, but it was unsuccessful. The
Leasat 3: launched 12 April 1985 (deployed from shuttle 12 fourth Leasat was launched in August 1985. The same shuttle
April), failed to operate, repaired in low Earth orbit August– mission then rendezvoused with Leasat 3 and carried out
September 1985, then placed into geostationary orbit, no a successful repair, allowing ground controllers to turn the
longer in service satellite on and orient it. After a wait to ensure that the pro-
Leasat 4: launched 27 August 1985 (deployed from shuttle 29 pellants were warm, Leasat 3 was placed into geostationary
August), failed September 1985, moved above geostationary orbit in November 1985 and into operation the next month.
orbit

209
Military Satellites

Unfortunately, Leasat 4 failed shortly after arriving in geosta- 6. R. Rhoads, “Leasat: Contractor/Government Re-
tionary orbit, and the wideband channel on Leasat 2 failed in lationship,” Paper 33.1, International Conference on Com-
October 1985. The fifth and last Leasat launch took place in munications: ICC ’79 (June 1979).
January 1990. 7. D. J. Braverman and C. J. Waylan, “Leasat
The Leasat contract included an option for a 2-year service Communication Services,” Paper 33.2, International Confer-
extension beyond the basic 5-year service period, and an op- ence on Communications: ICC ’79 (June 1979).
tion for the Navy to purchase the satellites after the 2-year
extension. The 2-year option was activated for the first three 8. G. L. Dutcher and J. G. Lankford, “The Leasat
satellites. After the option period, Leasat 1 was purchased by Communications Satellite,” International Telemetering Confer-
the Navy. It failed in 1992. The leases on satellites 2, 3, and 5 ence Proceedings (November 1979).
were extended into 1996. In 1998 Leasat 5 was leased to the 9. T. C. Eakins and G. W. Durling, “Widebody Bus
Australian Navy. This satellite was still in use at the end of Extends Shuttle Economy to Synchronous Orbit,” Paper 80-
2004. The other four satellites had been moved above geosta- 0504, AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
tionary altitude by 1999. (April 1980).
****** 10. G. L. Dutcher, T. C. Eakins, and C. P. Rubin, “The
Leasat Communication Satellite,” Paper 6H.4, International
1. T. F. White, “Fleet Satellite Communications/
Leased Satellite Communications Operations,” Paper 33.3, Conference on Communications: ICC ’82 (June 1982).
International Conference on Communications: ICC ’79 (June 11. C. R. Jones, “Leasat,” Earth Oriented Applications of
1979). Space Technology, Vol. 1, No. 2/3 (1981).
2. H. A. Rosen and C. R. Jones, “An STS Optimized 12. Aviation Week & Space Technology (22 April 1985),
Spin Stabilized Satellite Concept,” Paper 25-5, EASCON ’77 pp. 18, 23; (29 April 1985), p. 40; (6 May 1985), p. 21; (8 July
Conference Record (September 1977). 1985), p. 24; (19 August 1985), p. 48; (9 September 1985), p.
3. H. A. Rosen and C. R. Jones, “STS-Optimized Satellite 21; (23 September 1985), p. 21; (7 October 1985), p. 23; (14
Concept,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 15, No. 6 (June October 1985), p. 13; (4 November 1985), p. 25; (9 December
1977). 1985), p. 27; (24 March 1986), p. 83; (21 March 1988), p. 46.
4. R. V. Swanson, “Syncom IV Status,” Paper 26.2, 13. Hughes Space & Communications Fact Sheet, “Leasat,
International Conference on Communications: ICC ’78 (June First Satellite Designed for Space Shuttle Launch” (June
1978). 1991), http://www.hughespace.com/factsheets/government/
leasat/leasat.html (21 July 1999) and Boeing Satellite Systems,
5. J. Edell, “A Leased Military Satellite Communication “Leasat, First Satellite Designed for Space Shuttle Launch”
System for the Early and Mid-1980’s,” EASCON ’78 Record (June 1991), http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/
(September 1978). factsheets/government/leasat/leasat.html (28 March 2005).

DOD Lightsats
For decades, DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects mission objectives. Atmospheric drag caused its altitude to de-
Agency) (named ARPA 1958–1972 and 1993–1996) has been crease, and its orbit decayed in December 1986, at which time
investigating small, low-cost satellites as a supplement to it was still working.
the large satellites currently used by DOD. The emphasis for The Multiple Access Communications Satellites (MAC-
these small satellites, called lightsats, is on survivable, quick- SAT) were two identical lightsats launched on a Scout in May
reaction launches and direct support to military forces in the 1990 [6]. They were put into the same orbit with a slight ve-
field. Many missions have been proposed for lightsats. Six locity differential that increased their separation to antipodal in
projects have produced lightsats for communications [1–11]. 2-1⁄2 years. After a short testing period, one or both were used
The satellite designs are summarized in Table 4.2. for logistics communications in support of a Marine air wing
The Global Low Orbiting Message Relay (GLOMR) was in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Other uses were in sup-
the first project, and the first of any type of DOD lightsat port of National Science Foundation activities in Antarctica,
[1–3]. The goal of the project was to show the feasibility of an Army special forces exercise in Thailand, and an ARPA
building a satellite in less than 1 year and to demonstrate a demonstration of remote sensor readout. They were controlled
digital communications capability in orbit. The communica- from a station in the Washington, D.C., area that loaded
tions payload capabilities included command and readout of commands into onboard storage linked to a microprocessor
unattended ground sensors, store-and-forward messaging for that managed satellite operations and communications. User
military users, and location of transmitters by the Doppler ground stations were standard military UHF radios coupled to
shift of the received signal. a formatter and an input-output device, such as a fax machine
The GLOMR satellite fit in a Shuttle Getaway Special or personal computer; in some cases an encryption device was
canister. In orbit, the canister lid opened and the satellite was part of the user station.
ejected. The ejection mechanism failed during an April 1985 The MACSATs had a store-and-forward communica-
shuttle mission, but the satellite was successfully ejected dur- tions payload. Uplinks were in the band 251 to 338 MHz and
ing an October 1985 mission. The initial orbit altitude was downlinks in the band 292 to 338 MHz. The standard trans-
326 km. GLOMR operated successfully and accomplished its mitter power was 10 W, but a 60 W mode was available. Most

210
 DOD Lightsats

Fig. 4.23. GLOMR, SECS satellite. Fig. 4.24. Microsat satellite.

Table 4.2. DOD Lightsats.

Project GLOMR MACSAT MICROSAT SECS RADCAL MUBLCOM
Shape Many-sided, 16-sided cylinder 12-sided cylinder Many-sided, Many-sided cylinder Cylinder
approximately approximately with appendages
spherical spherical
Size 16 in. diam 24 in diam, 14 in diam 19 in. diam, 14 in. tall 16 in. diam 41 in. diam, 7 in. tall
Weight 150 lb 145 lb each 49 lb each 150 lb 210 lb 105 lb
Solar array 8 W peak, 14 W average 23 W peak, 8 W peak, >100 W
output 4 W average 3 to 8 W average 4 W average
Battery type Lead acid NiCd NiCd NiCd
Stabilization Spin Gravity gradient Spin Spin Gravity gradient Gravity gradient
Frequency band UHF UHF UHF UHF UHF UHF
Transmitters 2 (1 spare), 2 (1 spare) 1, 10 W output 2 (1 spare) 2 (1 spare) 10 W,
10 W output 10 W output 10 W output 60 W output
Receivers 2 (1 spare) 2 (1 spare) 1 2 (1 spare) 1
Antennas 4 blades 4 blades, 1 helix 2 blades 4 blades 1 omni, 1 helix helix
Modulation BPSK, FSK BPSK, FSK FSK BPSK, FSK
Rates 1.2 kbps 1.2 or 2.4 kbps Up to 9.6 kbps 2.4 and 4.8 kbps 10 bps, 2.4 and
28.8 kbps
Design life 1 yr required, 3 yr goal 1 yr required, 3 yr goal 3 yr goal
Initial orbit 326 km, 905 km, 350 x 450 km, 487 x 661 km, 823 km, 776 km,
57 deg incl. 90 deg incl. 82 deg incl. 94 deg incl. 90 deg incl. 98 deg incl.
Launch date October 1985 9 May 1990 17 July 1991 5 April 1990 25 June 1993 17 May 1999
Launch vehicle Shuttle Scout Pegasus Pegasus Scout Pegasus XL
Result Operated until decay, 1: see text Operated until decay, Operated until Operational in 1999 Operational in 1999
December 1986 2: operated January 1992 late 1993
to September 1993
Sponsor DARPA DARPA DARPA Navy Air Force ARPA, Army
Contractor Defense Systems, Inc., Defense Systems, Inc., Defense Systems, Inc., Defense Systems, Inc., Defense Systems, Inc., Orbital Sciences Corp.
later part of CTA, Inc., later part of CTA, Inc., later part of CTA, Inc., later part of CTA, Inc., later part of CTA, Inc.,
now part of Orbital now part of Orbital now part of Orbital now part of Orbital now part of Orbital
Sciences Corp. Sciences Corp. Sciences Corp. Sciences Corp. Sciences Corp.

211
Military Satellites

communications used the 6 dB gain helix on the nadir face of also to demonstrate the viability of developing a LEO (low
the satellite; the satellite also had an omnidirectional antenna Earth orbit) constellation of up to 64 satellites.
composed of four blades. MACSAT 1 was reported to have Unlike most of the other light satellite experiments,
had attitude oscillations that prevented or hindered use for MUBLCOM was a sophisticated wideband frequency trans-
communications; however, the spacecraft was still operating lating relay/repeater and contained no store-and-forward capa-
in 1995. bility. It included processing to enhance capacity and maintain
The Microsats [5, 7–8] were smaller; seven were attached power balance between users with different uplink signal
to one dispenser for a Pegasus launch in July 1991. Because strengths. It supported data rates of 10 bps, 2.4 kbps, and 28.8
of a launch vehicle problem, they achieved a lower altitude kbps. The 10 bps rate supported a robust paging mode. The
than planned. Each satellite had a microprocessor-controlled 2.4 kbps was for digital voice using compression. The 28.8
digital communications payload. The payload was similar to kbps was for data files or compressed video. Coded frequency
that on the MACSATs but with less redundancy and with less hopping is used at all rates for jamming resistance and to re-
memory. Microsats were controlled from the same station duce the probability of link interception.
used for the MACSATs. Unlike the MACSATs, the Microsats MUBLCOM was a DARPA program, managed by the U.S.
had onboard propulsion used to establish and maintain a con- Army-CECOM. The spacecraft contractor was Orbital Sci-
stellation with fixed separations between satellites. Despite the ences Corporation, whereas the relay payload was developed
low orbit, which greatly reduced their lifetime, the Microsats by Torrey Science Corporation. By 2004 the satellite had
were used in many demonstrations with both fixed sites and completed its mission and was still functional. It is the target
mobile units to assess utility to military forces. for NASA’s Demonstration of Autonomous Rendezvous Tech-
Microsats were used for bent-pipe or store-and-forward nology (DART) satellite to be launched in 2005.
communications. Communications with each satellite was Small DOD satellites with secondary communications pay-
achieved within two days after launch. They used the same loads and small communication satellites developed by DOD
frequency bands as the MACSATs. During bent-pipe com- schools are described in chapter 9.
munications, either analog FM voice or digital FSK data were
transmitted with the downlink frequency 41 MHz above the ******
selectable uplink frequency. In store-and-forward communica- 1. Aviation Week & Space Technology (15 April 1985), p.
tions the two frequencies are independently selectable. 14; (6 May 1985), p. 20; (28 October 1985), p. 20; (4 November
Small Experimental Communications Satellite (SECS) was 1985), p. 20; (18 September 1989), p. 34; (13 November 1989),
a Navy satellite based on the GLOMR design. It was launched p. 29; (27 November 1989), p. 96; (16 April 1990), p. 24; (30
as a secondary satellite on the first Pegasus launch, attached to July 1990), p. 78; (22 July 1991), pp. 24, 25.
Pegsat, the primary satellite, and separated in orbit [4]. 2. G. S. Sebestyen and J. C. O’Neil, “Crisis Communi-
RADCAL (Radar Calibration) was launched on 25 June cations: The Promise of Low Cost Satellites,” Paper 11.2, IEEE
1993 by a Scout launch vehicle. The satellite weighed 197 lb Military Communications Conference: Milcom ’87 (October
and was in a 835 km orbit at 90 deg inclination. The satellite 1987).
was gravity-gradient stabilized and had a Doppler transmitter
for position determination, which operated at frequencies of 3. J. W. Rawles, “Lightsat: All Systems Are Go,” Defense
150 MHz and 400 MHz. Doppler data were collected from Electronics, Vol. 20, No. 5 (May 1988).
several ground stations. The data were combined and pro- 4. R. Pincus, J. Pownell, and J. Rast, “Pegsat—First
cessed for accurate orbit determination. The name of the sat- Pegasus Payload,” 4th Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small
ellite is derived from its primary mission, which was to be a Satellites (August 1990).
signal source for calibration of more than 70 radars operating 5. R. Bonometti et al., “Pegasus Flight 2 and the Launch
in the 5 GHz range (C-band). RADCAL also had a secondary of Microsats,” Proceedings of the 5th Annual AIAA/USU
payload for communications [9]; the Army Space Exploitation Conference on Small Satellites (August 1991).
and Demonstration Program used this payload to continue
demonstrations begun with the MACSATs and Microsats. 6. B. Steele et al., “Utilization of the Multiple Access
RADCAL was still operating in 1999. Communications Satellite (Macsat) in Support of Tactical
The RADCAL communications payload was similar to Communications,” Proceedings of the 5th Annual AIAA/USU
that of the MACSAT’s, with some improvements to its per- Conference on Small Satellites (August 1991), and Paper 92-
formance. Store-and-forward and bent-pipe communications 1565, AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Conference
were used by the Army as a proof-of-concept demonstration. (March 1992).
It was demonstrated that these types of communications were 7. W. K. Daniel and R. E. Bruninga, “Navy/Marine Corps
effective and useful. However, the communication events Demonstrations of the DARPA Microsats,” Proceedings of the
caused interference with the prime mission data and were dis- 6th Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites (August
continued. Communications was normally through the 6 dB 1992).
gain helix on the nadir side of the satellite.
8. K. W. Reiss, “Microsat Constellation Control
The launch of the Multiple Path Beyond-Line-of-Sight
Techniques,” Proceedings of the 6th Annual AIAA/USU
Communications (MUBLCOM) satellite occurred on 17
Conference on Small Satellites (August 1992).
May 1999 [10–11]. This satellite was for proof-of-concept.
The goal of the program was to demonstrate an approach for 9. C. O. Olmedo, “Army UHF Augmentation,” Paper 93-
beyond-line-of-sight battlefield communications for military 4267, AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Conference
forces without the need for a ground-based infrastructure and (September 1993).

212
 Skynet 4

10. J. Bravman et al., “Multiple Path Beyond-Line-of-Sight 11. “Orbital’s MUBLCOM Satellite Completes Preliminary
Communications (MUBLCOM),” Paper 1-6, IEEE Military In-orbit Checkout” (24 May 1999), http://www.orbital. com/
Communications Conference: MILCOM ’98 Proceedings OSC/Press_Releases/pr240.html, (7 July 1999).
(November 1998).

Skynet 4
Skynet is the British military communications network. Of F. Work on these satellites began in 1993, and they were
the four Skynet 1 and 2 satellites launched between 1969 and launched in 1998, 1999, and 2001 to replace the Stage 1 satel-
1974, only Skynet 2B provided long-term service, remaining lites, which had all operated beyond their 7-year design life.
in use until the latter part of the 1980s. These Skynet satellites The Stage 2 satellites feature several design improvements
were positioned over the Indian Ocean to connect Great over their Stage 1 counterparts, including higher-power ampli-
Britain with British military installations in the Middle East fiers and a steerable spot-beam antenna.
and Far East. Decision to withdraw from many of the Asian The communications subsystem operates in three fre-
installations contributed to the 1974 cancellation of plans to quency bands. The primary band is SHF (7 and 8 GHz) with
develop Skynet 3. four channels handled by three amplifiers. The channels are
A fundamental principle of the Skynet network was to normally received through an Earth-coverage antenna, but the
maintain interoperability with U.S. and NATO communication spot-beam antenna can be used, if required. The four channels
satellites. Because of this, Great Britain was able to obtain are normally transmitted through four separate antenna beams,
capacity from the other two satellite systems both in the early although any of the three not normally used for Earth cover-
1970s and from the late 1970s through the 1980s. However, age can be switched to it. Channel 1 is normally set on Earth
the increasing requirements for satellite communications, coverage. Channel 2 is normally connected to the narrow-
especially to mobile users and small transportable terminals, beam, or European coverage, antenna. This coverage zone is
plus the desire for direct control of the satellite segment, led to bounded by Iceland, Gibraltar, the Mediterranean coast of Af-
the revival of a Skynet program in 1980. rica, central Turkey, and Norway. Channel 3 is normally con-
The Skynet 4 satellite [1–16] development was intended nected to the widebeam, or North Atlantic-coverage, antenna.
to provide Great Britain with military communication satel- This coverage zone includes the European area coverage plus
lite capability through the 1990s; later satellites continued the Atlantic Ocean north of 23°N latitude, as far west as the
operations through most of the following decade. In 1980, coast of North America. Channel 4 is normally connected to
two British contractors, each teamed with a U.S. contractor, the spot-beam antenna, which covers most of western Europe.
conducted studies of the satellite concept. Early in 1981, these This antenna is steerable on the Stage 2 satellites. These cov-
two teams submitted proposals for satellite development. Af- erage zones reflect the shift in British military interests from
ter reviewing the proposals, the British Ministry of Defence the Indian Ocean centered scope of Skynets 1 and 2.
directed the two British companies to submit a joint proposal. The second band used by the communications subsys-
This was feasible, because one company had a strong back- tem is UHF. In this band only two channels are received and
ground in spacecraft platforms and the other in communica- transmitted through an Earth-coverage beam. These channels
tions payloads. The procurement of Skynet 4 was broken into are primarily for submarine communications, although they
two stages. Skynets 4A, B, and C were procured as Stage 1. can be used by land mobile units and aircraft. The third band
Development of Skynet 4 (Stage 1) started late in 1982. The used by the communications subsystem is an experimental
satellite is three-axis-stabilized with deployed solar arrays and EHF (44 GHz) uplink. The purpose of this equipment is to
is derived from the European ECS (European Communication test for increased jam resistance not obtainable with UHF and
Satellite) design. The UHF helix antenna is deployed in orbit, SHF. Signals received on this uplink are processed and routed,
but other antennas are fixed on the satellite body. The satellite through the onboard switching, to the SHF downlink.
has several survivability features including nuclear hardening, Additional description of the satellite and the communica-
onboard signal processing, spread spectrum on some links, tion subsystem is given below.
and secure telemetry and command via both the separate te- Satellite
lemetry and command links and the communications links. Rectangular body, approximately 1.5 x 1.8 x 1.8 m, approximately
All Stage 1 satellites were launched within a 2-year time pe- 16 m span across solar arrays
riod (December 1998 to August 1990) and were adequate to
support the constellation at that time.
Contracts were later awarded for Stage
2, which consists of Skynets 4D, E, and

Fig. 4.25. Skynet 4 satellite.

213
Military Satellites

Approximately 1600 kg at launch, 1

approximately 750 kg in orbit, T TW 1
beginning of life EC SB 725
2 EC
Sun-tracking solar arrays and bat- T TW 2
teries, approximately 1600 W at
beginning of life, 1200 W after 7 C T 4 725 3
years T TW WB
Three-axis-stabilized using 4 NB
momentum wheels, pointing 3 SB
Signal T
accuracy 0.07 deg in pitch and roll,
0.35 deg in yaw processing
equipment 725
Solid rocket motor for apogee EC Earth coverage antennas
maneuver, hydrazine propulsion for NB Narrow beam
SB Spot beam
on-orbit use WB Wide beam
Configuration
Fig. 4.26. Skynet 4 SHF communication subsystem.
UHF: two 25 kHz bandwidth channels
with onboard signal processing
SHF: four channels with bandwidths of 135, 85, 60, and 60 Life
MHz, with onboard processing Seven-year design life
EHF: one experimental uplink receiver
Orbit
Transmitter Geostationary, ±0.1° E-W stationkeeping, no N-S station-
UHF: in 254 to 258 MHz band keeping, inclination b3 deg over life by choice of initial orbit
parameters, longitudes 34°W, 1°W, 6°E, 53°E
40 W (4A 4C)/50 W (4D 4F) solid-state amplifiers, two
active plus spares Orbital History
26(27) dBW EIRP per channel at edge of Earth Skynet 4A: launched 31 December 1989, operational
SHF: 7250 to 7385, 7420 to 7505, 7530 to 7590, 7615 to 7675 Skynet 4B: launched 10 December 1988, drifting above
MHz geostationary altitude
40 W (4A-4C)/50 W (4D-4F) TWTAs, three active (one Skynet 4C: launched 30 August 1990, operational
each for channels 1 and 3, one shared by channels 2 and
Skynet 4D: launched 9 January 1998, operational
4) plus spares
Skynet 4E: launched 26 February 1999, operational
EIRPs at edge of coverage (4A-4C as stated, 4D-4F 1
dB higher) 31 dBW (channel 1, Earth coverage), 34 dBW Skynet 4F: launched 7 February 2001, operational
(channel 2, European beam, also called narrowbeam), 35 Titan III launch vehicle (4A), Ariane launch vehicle (4B, 4C, 4E,
dBW (channel 3, widebeam), 39 dBW (channel 4, spot 4F), Delta 2 launch vehicle (4D)
beam)
Management
Receiver Developed by British Aerospace (spacecraft) and Marconi
UHF: in 307 to 312 MHz band Space Systems (payload), later both became part of Matra
–18 dB/K G/T at edge of Earth Marconi Space, which became Astrium, for U.K. Ministry of
Defence.
SHF: 7975 to 8110, 8145 to 8230, 8255 to 8315, 8340 to 8400
MHz Operated by Ministry of Defence until May 2003, then by
Paradigm Secure Communications for the Ministry of Defence
FET preamplifiers
EHF: in 43.5 to 45.5 GHz band The SHF part of the satellite is used by many terminals on
land and on ships. About 40 ships have communications
Antenna equipment. Ground forces use large transportable terminals
UHF: one helix antenna approximately 0.3 m diam x 2.4 m with 21 ft diam antennas, smaller transportable terminals with
long, Earth coverage 1.8 m antennas, and manpacks with antennas smaller than 0.6
SHF: four horns (one receive, three transmit), Earth coverage, m. The largest of these can be set up by six men in 3 hours.
approximately 17 dB gain; two parabolic reflectors with multihorn The master satellite control station is at Oakhanger, England,
feeds to produce a widebeam with 21.7 dB gain, a narrowbeam and has 13 m antennas. The satellites were controlled by the
with 24.7 dB gain, and a 3 deg spot beam with 29.5 dB gain U.K. Ministry of Defence until May 2003 when direct control
(steerable on 4D-4F); all gains at edge of coverage; one special was assumed by Paradigm as part of its contract to develop and
services parabolic reflector to produce nulls (for uplink); all operate the follow-on Skynet 5 system.
circularly polarized
******
EHF: one horn antenna
1. C. H. Jones, “The Development of a Multi-Access
Telemetry and command Traffic Simulator for the Testing of the Skynet 4 System,”
Telemetry: in 2200 to 2290 MHz band Journal of the Institution of Electronic and Radio Engineers,
Command: in 1762 to 1842 MHz band Vol. 56, No. 2 (February 1986).

214
 UHF Follow-On

2. “Military Satellite Communications,” chapter 16 in 10. C. Bulloch, “European Military Space Assets,” Via
Satellite Communication Systems, B. G. Evans, ed., Peter Satellite, Vol. 14, No. 2 (February 1999).
Peregrinus Ltd., London (1987) 11. C. Hoyle, “Latest Skynet Satellite Move Into Position,”
3. P.Anson, “The Skynet Telecommunication Programme,” Internet Announcement (8 March 1999), http://jdw. janes.
GEC Review, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1989). com/sample/jbw0543.html (7 July 1999).
4. P. R. Miller, “The Skynet 4 Spacecraft Antenna 12. M. Wade “Encyclopedia Astronautics” (10 June 1999),
Farm,” 1989 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and http://www.rocketry.com/mwade/project/skynet.htm (7 July
Propagation (June 1989). 1999).
5. G. O. Graydon, “The Skynet 4 System,” Signal, Vol. 13. “Matra Marconi Space Wins Skynet 5 Design Phase
44, No. 2 (October 1989). Contract,” Defence System Daily (13 April 1999), http://
6. C. Bulloch, “Britain Spreads Its New Skynet,” Space defence.data.com/archive/page4150.htm (7 July 1999).
Markets, Vol. 5, No. 5 (November/December 1989). 14. “Skynet 5 Profile” (May 1999), http://lmms.external.
7. Flight International (27 September 1980), p. 1255; lmco.com/about/presskit/skynets.html(7 July 1999).
(7 March 1981), p. 622; (28 March 1981), p. 911; (1 August 15. “UK Plans Own Defense Satellite Program,” Space
1981), p. 313; (16 February 1985), p. 18; (19 April 1986), p. Daily (31 August 1998), http://www.spacer.com/spacecast/
21. news/skynet5-98a.html (20 July 1999).
8. R. L. Harris, “Military Satellite Communications in the 16. Paradigm Secure Communications, “Paradigm
UK,” Spaceflight, Vol. 37, No. 10 (October 1995). Awarded Skynet 5 Contract” (24 October 2003), http://www.
9. J. D. Morrocco, “U. K. Prepares for Skynet 4 Follow- paradigmsecure.com/?OBH=30&SCH=skynet%204&ID=27
on,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (October 6, 1997). (5 April 2005).

NATO IV
NATO IV satellites [1–4] replaced the NATO III satellites to December 1993, also on a Delta 2 launch vehicle. The satel-
continue communications support through the 1990s. In order lites are located near 18°W and 20°W longitude and are used
to avoid the cost of a new satellite development, NATO decided by the fixed-site terminals that were operating with NATO III
to obtain copies of an existing design. The two candidates satellites as well as by several dozen transportable terminals.
were the U.S. DSCS III and the British Skynet 4. The British
******
satellite was chosen at the end of 1986, and work on two NATO
IVs commenced in 1987. 1. P.Anson, “The Skynet Telecommunication Programme,”
NATO IV satellites are almost identical to the Skynet 4 GEC Review, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1989).
satellites. They do not include a receiver in the EHF band. The 2. C. Bulloch, “Britain Spreads Its New Skynet,” Space
Skynet 4 satellite drawing in Fig. 4.25 is a good representa- Markets, Vol. 5, No. 5 (November/December 1989).
tion of NATO IV. The descriptive information tabulated there,
except for launch dates, launch vehicles, and orbital locations, 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (26 January 1987),
should be the same for NATO IV. The British Ministry of De- p. 27; (14 January 1991), p. 24.
fence acting for NATO procured the satellites. 4. C. Bulloch, “European Military Space Assets,” Via
The first satellite, NATO IVA, was launched 7 January Satellite, Vol. 14, No. 2 (February 1999).
1991 on a Delta 2 launch vehicle. NATO IVB was launched 8

UHF Follow-On
The UHF Follow-On, or UFO, program [1–22] satellites have the 500 kHz bandwidth channel because it was found
replaced the Navy’s FLTSATCOM and Leasat satellites. The to be less useful than the narrower bandwidth channels. The
Navy’s requirements for UHF satellite capacity have grown UFO communication payload was designed to be compatible
considerably since the first FLTSATCOM was launched in with the more than 2000 UHF terminals formerly in use with
1978. At that time, four operational satellites plus one orbiting FLTSATCOM and Leasat. Beginning with the fourth UFO, an
spare were planned. The 1991 constellation was double that EHF communications subsystem compliant with the low data
size and included six FLTSATCOMs and four Leasats. These rate waveform used by Milstar and hence compatible with
satellites were functioning properly by the end of 1995. By Milstar terminals, was added. Onboard EHF payload process-
1999, all of them had exceeded their design lives (some had ing electronics were redesigned beginning with satellite 7 and
exceeded three times their design life) and have been removed doubled its capacity. The Global Broadcast Service (GBS)
from service. payload was added for satellites 8 through 10, replacing the
The Navy replaced the older satellites with a constellation SHF fleet broadcast uplink.
of eight UFOs, plus two in-orbit spares. UFO satellites have The UFO contract was awarded in July 1988 for one satel-
more channels than the earlier satellites. However, they do not lite, with options for nine more. Options for two additional

215
Military Satellites

Fig. 4.27. UFO satellites 1 to 3.

satellites were converted to firm orders in May 1990, for three Configuration
more in November 1990, and for three more in November One fleet broadcast channel, SHF (satellite 1 to 7)/EHF (4
1991. The option for the 10th satellite became a firm order in to 11) uplink to UHF downlink, 25 kHz bandwidth, onboard
January 1994. The contract is a fixed-price commercial type processing
rather than the cost reimbursement type usually applied to UHF: 17 relay channels, 25 kHz bandwidth; 21 narrowband
military satellite developments. The justification was that the channels, 5 kHz bandwidth ; two additional channels on satellite
contractor had considerable experience with UHF satellites, 11
which resulted in a low-risk development. The contract also EHF: 11 (4 to 6)/20 (7 to 10) processing channels, up to 2400
required the manufacturer to procure launch vehicles and de- bps each
liver the satellites in orbit. A contract for an 11th satellite was
GBS: four 24 MHz bandwidth transponders, 24 to 30 Mbps
signed in November 1999; this satellite has the UHF payload each (8 to 10)
and the Milstar-compatible EHF payload.
The satellite body is nearly a cube. Solar arrays with three Transmitter
panels (and a fourth panel added for satellites 8 through 10) UHF: 243 to 271 MHz (1 to 11), each satellite can be switched
each deploy from the north and south faces when the sat- to one of four frequency plans to avoid interference to other
ellite reaches orbit. A large UHF trans-
mit antenna is fixed on the Earth-viewing
face of the satellite. A smaller UHF re-
ceive antenna is deployed in orbit; it is 7 8 UHF UHF
the square to the side of the transmit ar- GHz GHz Narrowband Linear
receivers transmitters
ray in the satellite drawing. The satellite
has a bipropellant propulsion subsystem UHF Multiplexer
that provides capability for some of the receiver
perigee maneuvers, all of the apogee Relay Linear
maneuvers, and the on-orbit conrol. Other receivers transmitters
design information follows.
Broadcast
Satellite SHF Processors
Hughes HS 601/Boeing 601 bus receiver

Rectangular body 1.8 x 2.1 x 1.8 m, span SHF Satellite

across solar arrays 18 m (26 m for 8 to beacon commands
10)
2850 kg at launch, 1200 kg in orbit, No SHF on satellites 8 to 10; no EHF on satellites 1 to 3
beginning of life (1 to 3); 3000 lb (4 to 7);
3400 lb (8 to 10) 44 20
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 GHz GHz
batteries; silicon solar cells (1 to 7), gallium
arsenide cells (8 to 10); 2500 W minimum
at end of life (1 to 3); 2800 W (4 to 7); 3800 Low-noise
preamplifier Receiver, Processor
W (8 to 10) demodulator and TWTA S
Three-axis stabilization using momentum Low-noise and processor modulators
wheels, antenna pointing accuracy 0.31 preamplifier
Satellite
deg (rss of pitch and roll), 0.34 deg (yaw) commands
Liquid bipropellant propulsion for all
mission phases Fig. 4.28. UFO communication subsystem.

216
 UHF Follow-On

Fig. 4.29. UFO satellites 8 to 10 with GBS payload.

Navy UHF satellites Antenna

Eleven solid-state power amplifiers UHF: transmit antenna 10.5 ft x 10.5 ft, array of four short
backfire elements, 15.7 dB gain at 9.2 deg off axis; receive
EIRP at edge of Earth: 29 dBW (broadcast and two
antenna 2 in. x 5 ft x 5 ft, four-element microstrip patch array,
relay channels), 27 dBW (other relay channels), 21 dBW
12.5 dB gain at 9.2 deg off axis, circular polarization (1 to 11)
(narrowband channels)
SHF: two Earth-coverage horns: one for reception, one for
EHF: approximately 20 GHz (4 to 11)
transmission (1 to 7)
One active, one spare TWTA
EHF: two Earth-coverage horns: one for reception, one for
GBS: 20.295, 20.415, 20.475, 20.595 GHz (8 to 10) transmission; one mechanically steerable parabolic antenna, 5
One 130 W amplifier per transponder plus one spare, deg beamwidth (4 to 11)
each amplifier combines the power of two TWTAs GBS: two slotted array antennas, one each for the steerable
EIRP per channel, minimum at edge of coverage: 53.2 beam and the fixed beam; three transmit antennas with
dBW (narrow spot beams), 40.7 dBW (wide spot beam) steerable parabolic reflectors, one each for two narrow beams
and one wide beam, 925/3700 km diam coverage area at
Receiver subsatellite point (narrow/wide) (8 to 10)
UHF: 292 to 318 MHz (1 to 11), each satellite can be switched
to one of four frequency plans to avoid interference from links
Telemetry and command
to other Navy UHF satellites Telemetry: in 2200 to 2290 MHz band (1 to 11), in 7250 to 7750
MHz band (1 to 7), in 20.2 to 21.2 GHz band (4 to 11)
G/T: –14.3 dB/K, edge of Earth
GBS beacon: 20.7 GHz, Earth coverage, 18.5 dBW EIRP at
SHF: approximately 8 GHz (1 to 7) edge of Earth (8 to 10)
G/T: –17.2 dB/K, edge of Earth Command: in 1762 to 1842 MHz band (1 to 11), in 7900 to
EHF: 43.5 to 45.5 GHz (4 to 11) 8400 MHz band (1 to 7), in 44 GHz band (4 to 11)
GBS: 30.095, 30.215, 30.275, 30.395 GHz (8 to 10) Life
G/T, minimum at edge of coverage: 2.25 dB/K (fixed Fourteen-year design life
beam), 1.75 dB/K (steerable beam)

Fixed Steerable Narrow Wide

beam beam beams beam
TW

ALC +

TW
C

9.8 GHz 20.2 -

Receiver 2 20.7 GHz
(5 sets)

30 - 30.5 GHz C
Receiver 3
S
ALC Automatic level control

Fig. 4.30. UFO GBS communication subsystem.

217
Military Satellites

90°

45°

0°
F9 F10 F8

45°

90°
180° 135° 90° 45° 0° 45° 90° 135° 180°

Fig. 4.31. UFO GBS payload coverage.

Orbit The satellite is hardened against nuclear radiation and can

Geostationary, ±1°E-W stationkeeping, N-S stationkeeping operate for 30 days without ground commands other than for
only as needed to limit inclination to 5 deg; nominal longitudes payload reconfiguration and stationkeeping. The SHF fleet
15.5°W, 22.5°W, 100°W, 105°W, 177°W 172°E, 75°E, 72°E; broadcast uplink and the EHF links have spread spectrum
spare nominal longitude 29°E signals for jamming resistance. The EHF signal structure is
compatible with that of Milstar.
Orbital History
The UFO satellites offer increased communications chan-
UFO 1: launched 25 March 1993, placed in wrong orbit by nel capacity over the same frequency spectrum used by FLT-
launch vehicle malfunction, internal fuel used to place it above
geostationary orbit
SATCOM and Leasat. Each spacecraft has 11 solid-state UHF
amplifiers and 38 UHF channels with a total of 530 kHz of
UFO 2: launched 3 September 1993, became spare in 2001, bandwidth. The UHF payload comprises 21 narrowband chan-
then moved to support operations in Afghanistan nels at 5 kHz each and 17 relay channels at 25 kHz each.
UFO 3: launched 24 June 1994 The EHF payload accommodates 11 FDMA uplinks (20
UFO 4: launched 28 January 1995 uplinks for satellites 7 through 10), distributed between the
UFO 5: launched 31 May 1995
Earth-coverage antenna and the steerable spot-beam antenna.
Each uplink may be time shared by multiple users. The
UFO 6: launched 22 October 1995 downlink is a time-multiplexed combination of all 11 (or 20)
UFO 7: launched 25 July 1996 channels on a single carrier. Data rates between 75 and 2400
UFO 8: launched 16 March 1996 bps are possible in each channel, and any channel can be used
for satellite command and telemetry. A switch allows rout-
UFO 9: launched 20 October 1998
ing of signals from the EHF uplink to the EHF downlink or
UFO 10: launched 22 November 1999 to the UHF downlink for Fleet Broadcast or to both EHF and
UFO 11: launched 18 December 2003 UHF. This capability supersedes the need for the SHF Fleet
Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle for UFO 1 to 3 Broadcast uplink.
In April 1995, the U.S. Government validated the Mission
Atlas II-Centaur launch vehicle for UFO 4 to 10 Need Statement for GBS: to provide high bandwidth, one-way
Atlas IIIB for UFO 11 communication to the tactical forces in garrison, in transit, and
deployed. GBS is planned to enhance current MILSATCOM
Management capabilities by providing high-bit-rate delivery of intelligence,
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company, later Hughes Space imagery, map, and video data to users with small portable
and Communications, later Boeing Satellite Systems for Naval terminals.
Space Command, later the Space and Naval Warfare Systems
Command
GBS is being implemented via a three-phase evolutionary
approach taking maximum advantage of commercial products
Operated by Naval Space Command, later the Space and and technology [9–13]. Phase I established a testbed capabil-
Naval Warfare Systems Command with support from Air Force ity, utilizing single leased commercial transponders, commer-
Satellite Control Network
cial frequencies, and a limited number of commercial receive
terminals. Phase II established a near worldwide dedicated

218
 UHF Follow-On

DOD capability. Figure 4.31 shows the extent of Phase II cov- Network from launch through stabilization in geostationary
erage. The Phase II GBS payload has been incorporated on to orbit.
the UHF Follow-On satellites 8 though 10 by a March 1996 The first UFO was put into a transfer orbit with apogee
contract modification. This capability will be augmented by 4000 miles lower than planned because of a launch vehicle
commercial transponders, if necessary. Additional Phase II ca- problem. It was raised higher than geosynchronous altitude
pacity will be operational on the WGS. Further improvements but left at 27 deg inclination. The orbit raising demonstrated
in capacity and coverage are planned for the future Phase III. many features of the satellite’s design. The payload was also
Information to be disseminated through GBS is sent to a tested. However, this satellite was not used operationally.
broadcast manager via existing communications resources. The other 10 have been launched successfully. With all 10 in
The manager gathers the data and schedules their insertion orbit, the constellation has two UFOs at each operating loca-
into a broadcast stream based upon the direction and priorities tion (CONUS, Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian) and two in-orbit
provided by military commanders and adjusted as needed in spares, which can also be used for supplemental capacity.
response to the operational environment. The broadcast stream
is transmitted to the satellite via either an in-theater or fixed ******
uplink facility. The fixed facility, or Primary Insertion Point 1. Aviation Week & Space Technology (21 March 1988),
(PIP), can inject both national and theater-generated informa- p. 46; (8 August 1988), p. 22; (21 August 1989), p. 22; (4 June
tion. The in-theater uplink, or Theater Injection Point (TIP), 1990), p. 69.
provides the ability to manage both the broadcast and uplink 2. M. J. Hassien, “UHF Follow-On Program Status,” Paper
information directly from the theater. The TIP is served by the 92-1350, AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Conference
GBS steerable receive antenna, which allows the TIP to be lo- (March 1992).
cated anywhere within the satellite field of view.
The GBS payload has four transponders with two receive 3. F. W. Diederich, “The Ultra-High Frequency Follow-
spot beams and three independently steerable transmit spot On (UFO) Program,” Paper 93-4108, AIAA Space Programs
beam antennas. One of the receive beams is fixed, for recep- and Technologies Conference (September 1993).
tion from the broadcast management center’s PIP; the other is 4. P. Chien, “Military Satellite Communications,” Launch-
steerable, for reception from a TIP. Each of the four transpon- space, Vol. 3, No. 2 (April 1998).
ders can be accessed through either of the receive paths. Two 5. “UHF Follow-On, Evolving, Advanced Military
of the transmit spot-beam antennas are categorized as narrow- Communications” (19 March 1999), http://www.hughespace.
beam and one as widebeam. com/factsheets/ 601/uhf_followon/uhf_followon (21 July
The maximum information transmission rate into 22 in. 1999 and July 2000), http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/
ground receive antennas is 24 Mbps per transponder con- space/bss/factsheets/601/uhf_followon/uhf_followon.html (5
nected to a narrowbeam spot, which covers an area 500 nauti- April 2005).
cal miles in diameter at the subsatellite point, and 1.5 Mbps
per transponder connected to the widebeam spot, which cov- 6. “Navy-to-Hughes Video Link Demonstrates
ers an area of 3700 km in diameter (at the subsatellite point). Operational Ka-Band System” (22 December 1998), http://
Two transponders are nominally assigned to each narrow www.hughespace.com/hsc_pressreleases/98_12_22_navy (10
beam; one of the transponders (channel 4) is switchable by May 1999).
ground command to the wide spot beam. Each transponder 7. “Navy’s UHF F8 Successfully Launched” (16 March
has a control unit that provides automatic gain control, which 1998), http://www.hughespace.com/hsc_pressreleases/98_03_
eliminates variations in received signal strength because of 16_uhff8 (10 August 1999).
weather effects or ground transmitter EIRP changes and keeps
8. “Navy’s UHF F9 Successfully Launched” (20 October
the microwave power amplifier driven into saturation. Each
1998), http”//www.hughespace.com/hsc_pressreleases/98_
amplifier consists of two travelling wave tubes power com-
10_20_launch (21 October 1998).
bined and using a common power conditioner.
Phase II GBS payloads are flown on UFO satellites 8, 9. S. Archer and J. Loiselle, “Global Broadcast Service
9, and 10. They occupy space formerly utilized by the SHF Payload—Utilization of Commercial Technologies for
payload. The power subsystem, battery capacity, and thermal Military Applications,” Paper 24.2, Proceedings of MILCOM
radiator size were increased in order to support the high-pow- (November 1997).
ered GBS payload. GBS antennas, except the fixed receive 10. J. M. Delpino, C. L. Leonard, and A. D. Yarbrough,
beam antenna, which is on the Earth-viewing face of the satel- “The Global Broadcast Service: A System Overview and
lite body, are deployed to one side of the body. PIPs located in Acquisition Summary,” http://www.laafb.af.mil/ SMC/MC/
Hawaii, Virginia, and Italy transmit to these GBS payloads. GBS/ (15 June 1999).
Satellite control is exercised by the Navy. The primary
satellite command and telemetry for satellites 1 through 7 is 11. “UHF Follow-On Global Broadcast Service” (March
1999), http://www. hughespace.com/factsheets/601/gbs/gbs.
via the SHF uplink and SHF downlink beacon using the same
html (15 June 1999 and July 2000), http://www.boeing.com/
ground stations that controlled FLTSATCOM and Leasat
satellites. Beginning with satellite 4, command and telemetry defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/601/gbs/gbs.html (5 April
capability has also been available through the EHF subsystem, 2005).
using a Milstar terminal. S-band, Space-Ground Link Subsys- 12. “Hughes Selected to Develop Global Broadcast Service
tem (SGLS) command and telemetry, which is available on all System for U. S. Military Forces” (25 November 1997), http://
satellites, is provided through the Air Force Satellite Control www.hughespace.com/hsc_pressreleases/97_11_25_gbs (10
August 1999).

219
Military Satellites

13. MILSATCOM Joint Program Office, “Global Broadcast 18. M. Weekley and J. Loiselle, “The UHF Follow-On
Service (GBS) Joint Program,” http://www.losangeles.af.mil/ Program and the Phase II Global Broadcast Service Payload,
SMC/MC/docs/gbs_bw_200.pdf (7 March 2005). AIAA Paper 98-5198, AIAA Defense and Civil Space Programs
14. D. P. Russ and S. F. Archer, “Performance of the Ultra- Conference (October 1998).
High Frequency Follow-on (UHF F/o) Spacecraft,” AIAA 19. MILSATCOM Joint Program Office, “Global Broadcast
Paper 93-4109, AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Service (GBS) Joint Program,” http://www.losangeles.af.mil/
Conference (September 1993). SMC/MC/docs/gbs_bw_200.pdf (7 March 2005).
15. S. F. Archer and J. M. Weekley, “World-Wide 20. M. DiFrancisco, “Global Broadcast Service (GBS)
Communications for the U. S. Navy: The UHF Follow-On End-to-End Services: Protocols and Encapsulation,” MIL-
Program,” AIAA Paper 95-3549, AIAA, Space Programs and COM 2000, IEEE Military Communications Conference Pro-
Technologies Conference (September 1995). ceedings, Vol. 2 (October 2000), pp. 704–709.
16. M. Weekley and J. Loiselle, “World-wide Communi- 21. C. Ellis, et al., “Asymmetric TCP/IP Networking
cations for the U.S. Navy - Evolving Capability from the UHF over GBS,” MILCOM 2000, IEEE Military Communications
Follow-On Program,” AIAA Paper 96-4236, AIAA, Space Conference Proceedings, Vol. 2 (October 2000), pp. 629–633.
Programs and Technologies Conference (September 1996). 22. J. Ingerski and A. Sapp, “Mobile Tactical
17. J. W. Weisinger and D. Chappell, “The Phase II Global Communications, the Role of the UHF Follow-On Satellite Con-
Broadcast Service Payload,” AIAA Paper 96-4353, AIAA stellation and its Successor, Mobile User Objective System,”
Space Programs and Technologies Conference (September IEEE Military Communications Conference Proceedings,
1996). MILCOM 2002, Vol. 1 (October 2002), pp. 302–306.

Milstar
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, DOD was operating three nuclear attack. Flexibility is the ability to provide worldwide
types of communication satellite assets: DSCS, FLTSATCOM unscheduled access and worldwide connectivity to terminals
supplemented by the Gapfillers (and beginning in 1984, on all types of platforms. The system has three segments:
Leasats), and AFSATCOM. A major system improvement over space, mission control, and terminal. The space segment
the supplemented FLTSATCOM system, called TacSatCom definition changed in size, orbits, and capability several times
II, was planned for the 1990s. A major improvement for during system development. As finally defined in 1995, the
the AFSATCOM system, called the Strategic Satellite full space segment is four Milstar satellites in geosynchronous
System (SSS), was also planned to start in the mid-1980s. orbit. Additional satellites in orbit supply redundancy and ad-
Congressional concern that these developments would provide ditional capacity. The control segment plans mission activities,
redundant capabilities resulted in a consolidation of the two allocates system resources, tests and controls the satellites,
planned improvements into one new system called Milstar and resolves satellite anomalies. The control segment includes
[1–26]. both a fixed site in Colorado and mobile sites. Because of the
The Milstar system was designed to emphasize robustness intersatellite crosslinks, it is possible to monitor the entire
and flexibility. Robustness is the ability to operate under ad- network and control all Milstar satellites from one location.
verse conditions including direct jamming, interception, and The terminal segment includes more than 1000 terminals

Fig. 4.32. Milstar satellite.

220
 Milstar

Fig. 4.33. Milstar satellite antennas.

in satellite electronics allow the Block 2 satellites to provide

robustness and flexibility for 32 MDR channels in addition to
the Block 1, 192 LDR channels for a total satellite throughput
capacity of about 40 Mbps.
The entire Milstar satellite, shown in Fig. 4.32, has a cen-
tral bus, two payload wings, and two solar arrays. Figure 4.33
shows the antennas on the payload wings. At the outer end of
developed by the Air Force, Navy, and Army for application each wing is a crosslink antenna. The wing on the upper right
at fixed sites and on ships, submarines, vehicles, aircraft, and side of the figure is the LDR payload found on both Block 1
manpacks. Antenna diameters vary from 14 cm for submarines and Block 2 satellites; the lower left wing is the MDR payload
to 61 cm for man-portable to 3 m for shore command posts. found only on Block 2 satellites.
The Milstar concept was defined in 1980 and 1981. In The LDR uplinks are divided into nine signal groups, each
1982, work began on the FEP, described earlier. The purpose assigned to a different antenna. All the uplinks are frequency-
was to provide a proof of concept and an early in-orbit, Mil- division multiplexed and frequency hopped and use M-ary
star-compatible space asset for testing. In 1983, Milstar satel- FSK modulation; each uplink is time-division multiplexed
lite and payload development contractors were selected. A between communications and access control. Five groups are
critical design review was held in 1986, and satellite integra- assigned to the agile beam antennas, which are within the
tion tests were conducted in 1990. Satellite features to support five clustered boxes on the top of the LDR wing. Each agile
the system robustness include frequency hopped uplinks and antenna uses a collection of 37 beams to cover Earth; only one
downlinks, extensive onboard processing, 60 GHz crosslinks, beam is connected to the receive electronics at a time, but this
and nuclear hardening. Satellite features to support the system connection may be switched between beams on a hop-by-hop
flexibility include multiple uplink and downlink channels at basis. Two uplink groups are assigned to the two narrow spot-
various rates; in-bound control channels for service requests; beam antennas whose reflectors are attached to the side of the
multiple uplink and downlink beams, including agile beams wing toward the reader; another group is assigned to the wide
that can switch on a hop-by-hop basis; and routing of indi- spot-beam antenna whose reflector is behind the agile beam
vidual signals between uplinks, downlinks, and crosslinks. antennas. The ninth group is assigned to the Earth-coverage
There are two Block 1 Milstar satellites, also known as horn.
LDR (low data rate) or Milstar I satellites. LDR refers to the Following the receive antennas the signals are ampli-
fact that the 192 channels are available at rates between 75 fied, dehopped, and downconverted. In the IF (intermediate
and 2400 bps. As a result of the 1990 restructure of the Mil- frequency) section of the receiver, three supergroups are
star program, the third satellite is the beginning of the Block 2 formed and filtered; each supergroup is composed of three
or MDR (medium data rate) or Milstar II satellites. MDR rates uplink signal groups. The signal processor demodulates the
are 4.8 kbps to 1.544 Mbps. The program restructure was a re- signals, forms an output for each uplink user, and sepa-
sponse to global political changes, which shifted the emphasis rates access and communications data. Onboard processors
of the program toward tactical communications. The relax- prepare responses to the access data, used for initiation or
ation of some survivability requirements and improvements modification of communications paths or reporting status

221
Military Satellites

LNA Dehopper and IF

AB downconverter receiver

LNA Dehopper and IF Signal

NS D downconverter receiver C
processor
1.
LNA Dehopper and IF
AB downconverter receiver LDR
crosslink Crosslink
processor equipment
Dehopper and IF AB
AB LNA downconverter receiver
1.
Signal Message Modulator
AB LNA Dehopper and IF processor Amplifier
downconverter receiver C processor and hopper 2.
(data router)
Dehopper and IF 3.
WS D LNA downconverter receiver EC
2.

LNA Dehopper and IF

AB downconverter receiver

Dehopper and IF Signal

NS D LNA C processor
downconverter receiver
3.
EC LNA Dehopper and IF
downconverter receiver
Control
processors
AB Agile beam antenna UHF
EC Earth coverage antenna transmitter
NS Narrow spot antenna UHF
WS Wide spot antenna U receiver and C U
U UHF helix antenna processor
Fleet broadcast
Redundant units not shown transmitter

Fig. 4.34. Milstar LDR and UHF communication subsystem.

information. Communications data are sent to the data router enemy forces. Each distributed user-coverage antenna gener-
for transmission to the downlink or the crosslink for messages ates a simple spot beam, useful for distributed forces such
routed to another satellite. All LDR data to be downlinked are as Navy ships and shore stations. Uplink channels are not
time-division multiplexed into a single data stream; all us- permanently assigned to antennas. Up to 16 channels may be
ers are synchronized to the downlink and know which time assigned to each nulling antenna with none to the distributed-
slots are theirs. The data in each slot is modulated in either coverage antennas, or as few as 10 channels may be assigned
an M-ary FSK or a DPSK format. The downlink is frequency to each nulling antenna with the other 12 split among the dis-
hopped, amplified, and switched among the various downlink tributed-coverage antennas.
antenna beams so that each user’s time slots are directed to the Following reception by the receive antennas, the signals are
proper location on the Earth. There are a total of 41 downlink amplified, dehopped, downconverted, filtered, and demodu-
LDR beams. Thirty-seven are in the agile beam antenna; in lated. The outputs of the 32 demodulators are sent to the data
Fig. 4.33 (on preceding page) it is the large box next to the router. The router separates communication and access control
five uplink agile beam antennas. Two narrow spot beams and messages and is the MDR interface with the crosslinks. All
one wide beam share the uplink antennas via diplexers; there downlink signals are time multiplexed into a single MDR bit
is also a downlink Earth-coverage horn. stream, DPSK modulated, frequency hopped, and amplified.
Each Block 2 satellite receives the LDR signals and, in Access control messages in the downlink inform users of their
addition, 32 MDR uplink channels. Each channel can accom- time-slot assignments. The downlink is switched among the
modate a single user at up to 1.544 Mbps or is time shared by same eight antennas used for the MDR uplinks.
multiple lower-rate users with an aggregate rate of up to about Each satellite has two crosslink antennas. Some receiver
2 Mbps. Communications and access control messages are and transmitter electronics are mounted on the back of each
time-division mutliplexed in each channel. All MDR uplinks antenna to minimize signal losses. Other crosslink hardware
use filtered symmetric DPSK modulation and are frequency is mounted in the MDR payload wing. Each crosslink antenna
hopped. The uplinks are received by two nulling antennas and can be used for simultaneous transmission and reception
six distributed user-coverage antennas. Each nulling antenna on separate frequencies. On Block 2 satellites the crosslink
has a 13-element feed; the antenna processor controls the equipment has interfaces with both LDR and MDR payloads;
weighting of each feed to null jamming signals originating LDR signals and MDR signals are on quadrature phases of the
close to the desired uplink terminal. This capability is well unbalanced QPSK modulation.
suited to a theater of operations where U.S. forces are close to

222
 Milstar

IF
13 feeds Processor Dehopper and receiver
1.
and LNAs and downconverter
combiner IF C Demodulators
receiver 2.
Downlink
feed 1. DUC
Nulling antenna Data Modulator DUC
router and hopper Amplifier
IF DUC
13 feeds Processor Dehopper and receiver
and LNAs and downconverter DUC
combiner IF
receiver DUC
Downlink

Demod switch matrix

feed 2. DUC
Nulling antenna MDR
crosslink Crosslink
processor equipment
DUC Dehopper and
LNA downconverter
Control
IF processors
DUC LNA Dehopper and C
downconverter receiver

DUC Dehopper and

LNA downconverter

DUC Dehopper and

LNA downconverter

Dehopper and IF DUC Distributed User Coverage Antenna

DUC LNA C receiver
downconverter
Redundant units not shown
DUC Dehopper and
LNA downconverter

Fig. 4.35. Milstar MDR communication subsystem.

The UHF uplink can receive four frequency hopped 75 bps 20.2 to 21.2 GHz (MDR): three 60 W TWTAs (one active, two
FSK signals through one of the helix antennas. The other helix spare), output switched between eight antennas
antenna is used for downlink transmission of four 75 bps FSK 60 GHz: four solid-state transmitters; one active, one spare for
signals and one 1200 bps BPSK fleet broadcast signal. The each of two frequencies on Block 1 (two additional frequencies
fleet broadcast uplink is via one of the regular LDR uplink on Block 2)
channels. Data routing on each satellite allows the 75 bps sig- 243.7 to 244.5 MHz: one AFSATCOM and one Fleet Broadcast
nals to be uplinked with LDR and downlinked at UHF or vice- transmitter
versa. Both the fleet broadcast signal and the 75 bps signals
may be received and transmitted by the same satellite or may Receiver
be routed on the crosslinks to other satellites. 43.5 to 45.5 GHz: one LNA and downconverter per antenna
Additional Milstar information is as follows; information (except the two MDR nulling antennas)
designated MDR applies only to Block 2 satellites. 60 GHz: three receivers (two active, one spare)
Satellite 335.6 to 339.6 MHz: one receiver
Rectangular central body with two deployed payload wings,
span of equipment wings 16 m, span of solar arrays 35 m Antenna
43.5 to 45.5 GHz (LDR): one wide spot-beam antenna with a
4700 kg in orbit
61 cm-diam, offset-fed, gimballed parabolic reflector (diplexed
Sun-tracking solar arrays and batteries, approximately 5000 W with transmit); two narrow spot-beam antennas with 102 cm
Three-axis-stabilized using reaction wheels diam, offset-fed, gimballed parabolic reflectors (diplexed with
transmit); five agile beam antennas, each with rapid switching
Liquid propulsion for on-orbit use among 37 beams; one Earth-coverage horn
Configuration 43.5 to 45.5 GHz (MDR): two gimballed, nulling spot-beam
Multiple uplinks and crosslinks processed onboard the satellite antennas (diplexed with transmit), each with a 102 cm diam,
and switched to multiple downlinks or crosslinks offset-fed reflector and a 13-element feed array; six distributed
user-coverage antennas (diplexed with transmit), each with a
Transmitter 43 cm diam, offset-fed, gimballed reflector
20.2 to 21.2 GHz (LDR): four 25 W TWTAs (one active, three 20.2 to 21.2 GHz (LDR): one wide spot-beam antenna with a
spare), output switched between five antennas 61 cm diam, offset-fed, gimballed parabolic reflector (diplexed
with receive); two narrow spot-beam antennas with 102 cm
diam, offset-fed, gimballed parabolic reflectors (diplexed with

223
Military Satellites

receive); one agile beam antenna, with rapid switching among (25 July 1983), p. 20; (9 December 1985), p. 49; (3 November
37 beams; one Earth-coverage horn 1986), p. 29; (10 November 1986), p. 32; (26 January 1987),
20.2 to 21.2 GHz (MDR): two gimballed spot beam antennas, p. 93; (30 October 1989), p. 49; (22 January 1990), p. 19; (4
each with a single feed diplexed with the receive feed array via June 1990), pp. 45, 47.
a dichroic subreflector; six distributed user-coverage antennas
7. J. W. Rawles, “Milstar Soars Beyond Budget and
(diplexed with receive)
Schedule Goals,” Defense Electronics, Vol. 21, No. 2 (February
60 GHz: two gimballed parabolic antennas 1989).
UHF: two Earth-coverage helix antennas (one transmit, one 8. R. Nishimura and T. J. Murphy, “The Restructured
receive)
Milstar Program,” Paper 92-1611, AIAA Space Programs and
All antennas are circularly polarized Technologies Conference (March 1992).
Telemetry and command 9. M. Ziegler, R. Lindquist, and B. Wallachy, “Milstar:
Telemetry: in 2200 to 2290 MHz band; in the 20.2 to 21.2 GHz A Revolution in Navy Command and Control,” Paper 93-
band 4232, AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Conference
(September 1993).
Command: in 1762 to 1842 MHz band; in the 43.5 to 45.5 GHz
band 10. L. F. Kwiatkowski et al., “The Milstar System,” Paper
94-1013, AIAA 15th International Communications Satellite
Life Systems Conference (February 1994).
Design life 10 years
11. E. C. Hudson, “The Milstar Payloads,” Paper 94-1014,
Orbit AIAA 15th International Communications Satellite Systems
Geosynchronous, no north-south stationkeeping, longitudes Conference (February 1994).
68°W, 90°W, 120°W, 177.5°E, 90°E, 55°E, 4°E 12. J. D. Smith II and N. J. Pappageorge, “Milstar System
Use Concept,” Paper 94-1010, AIAA 15th International
Orbital history Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
Milstar 1: launched 7 February 1994, in use 1994).
Milstar 2: launched 6 November 1995, in use
13. L. P. Leibowitz and K. Feth, “Milstar Initial Operational
Milstar 3: launch left satellite in unusable low orbit, 30 April Use Demonstration,” Paper 94-1017, AIAA 15th International
1999 Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
Milstar 4: launched 27 February 2001, in use 1994).
Milstar 5: launched 15 January 2002, in use 14. J. H. Hoffman, “Milstar Terminal Interoperability,”
Milstar 6: launched 8 April 2003, in use Paper 94-1016, AIAA 15th International Communications
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1994).
Titan IV/Centaur launch vehicle
15. D. N. Spires and R. W. Sturdevant, “From Advent to
Management Milstar: The U.S. Air Force and the Challenges of Military
Developed by Lockheed (spacecraft and integration) with TRW Satellite Communications,” chapter 7 in Beyond the Iono-
Space & Electronics, later Northrop Grumman Space Technology sphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica
(LDR payload) and Hughes Space and Communications, later (ed.), NASA History Office, Washington, D.C. (1997); also
Boeing Satellite Systems (MDR payload) for Air Force Space Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 50, No. 6
and Missile Systems Center
(June 1997).
Operated by Air Force Space Command
16. P. Chien, “Military Satellite Communications,”
****** Launchspace, Vol. 3, No. 2 (April 1998).
1. A. D. Dayton and P. C. Jain, “MILSATCOM 17. J. Adams, “Milstar Profile,” Lockheed Martin Missiles
Architecture,” IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. & Space Release 99-131, http://lmms.external.lmco/ about/
28, No. 9 (September 1980). press-kit/milstar (21 July 1999).
2. F. E. Bond, “Long Range MILSATCOM Architecture,” 18. “Milstar Homepage,” Los Angeles Air Force Base,
IEEE Military Communications Conference (October 1982). http://www.laafb.af.mil/SMC/MC/Milstar (9 August 1999).
3. J. B. Schultz, “Milstar to Close Dangerous C3I Gap,” 19. Air Force Space Comm Fact Sheet, “Milstar Satellite
Defense Electronics, Vol. 15, No. 3 (March 1983). Communications System,” March 1999, http://www.spacecom.
af.mil/hqafspc/library/facts/milstar (9 August 1999).
4. J. B. Schultz, “Milstar Progresses Despite High Cost
and Technology Risks,” Defense Electronics, Vol. 16, No. 6 20. “Milstar II,” 6 May 1999, HSC 990035-18/500/4-
(June 1984). 99, April 1999, http://www.hughespace.com/factsheets/
government/milstar_ii/milstar_ii (9 August 1999).
5. J. Fawcette, “Milstar: Hotline in the Sky,” High
Technology, Vol. 3, No. 11 (November 1983). 21. H. G. Kistosturian, “The On-Orbit Antenna Pointing
Calibration of Milstar Satellite Gimbaled Parabolic Antennas,”
6. Aviation Week & Space Technology (5 November IEEE Military Communications Conference Proceedings,
1979), p. 67; (28 September 1981), p. 72; (8 March 1982), MILCOM 1999, Vol. 1, pp. 608–611 (November 1999).
p. 280; (20 September 1982), p. 131; (7 March 1983), p. 22;

224
 SICRAL

22. D. W. Griffith et al., “Modeling Performance Improve- http://www.losangeles.af.mil/SMC/MC/docs/milstar_bw_

ments in Milstar MDR Networks with Demand Assigned 200.pdf (7 March 2005).
Multiple Access (DAMA),” IEEE Military Communications 25. Air Force Link, “Milstar Satellite Communications
Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 1999, Vol. 2, pp. 1353– System” (April 2004), http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.
1357 (November 1999). asp?fsID=118 (7 March 2005).
23. USAF, “Fact Sheet: Milstar” August 2000, http:// 26. N. G. Leveson, “Role of Software in Spacecraft
www.losangeles.af.mil/SMC/PA/Fact_Sheets/mlstr_fs.htm (7 Accidents,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 41, No. 4
March 2005). (July–August 2004).
24. MILSATCOM Joint Program Office, “Milstar System,”

Polar Program
The Interim Polar Program [1–2] adapted the EHF payload from 1. Department of the Air Force, Air Force Handbook,
the UFO program for use on host satellites in high-inclination 108th Congress, First Session, http://www.af.mil/library/
orbits. These payloads use the Milstar LDR waveform to posture/2003handbook.pdf (12 April 2005), p. 57.
communicate with military forces operating above 65 degrees 2. Exhibit R-2, RDT&E Budget Item Justification,
north latitude, where visibility to geostationary orbit satellites 0603432F Polar MILSATCOM (Space), http://www.dtic.
is poor or impossible. Continuous coverage of the north polar mil/descriptivesum/Y2005/AirForce/0603432F.pdf (12 April
region requires two payloads in orbit. The first launch with an 2005).
interim polar payload was in 1997. There will be two more
launches.
******

SICRAL
SICRAL is an Italian military communication satellite all of Spain and Turkey and narrow steerable beams with 2000
system. The name is an Italian acronym; the first three km diam footprints at SHF, and Earth coverage at UHF.
letters are for Sistema Italiana de Communicazione. The The satellite is shown in Fig. 4.36. The large squares de-
program had been studied for many years; the satellite ployed to the sides of the satellite body are UHF antennas; the
development started about 1996. The system requirements antennas on the body are for SHF and EHF. Additional details
were to provide strategic communications in Italian territory; follow.
tactical communications in Italian territory and adjacent Satellite
regions; and mobile communications with land, sea, and Alenia Spazio
air platforms. Requirements also called for integration with
the Italian national military network and compatibility with 2596 kg at launch
international standards, including interoperability with the Solar cells, 3000 W
military communication satellites of the United States, United Three-axis stabilization, maximum pointing error 0.2 deg north-
Kingdom, France, and Spain. south and east-west
The satellite was built by Alenia Spazio and launched in
Liquid bipropellant
2001 [1–4]. A second satellite, SICRAL 1B is reported to be
in construction. Configuration
The network and satellite control center is at Vigna di Valle, EHF: four 50 MHz bandwidth transponders
Italy. The satellite operates in three frequency bands: EHF,
SHF: four 50 MHz bandwidth transponders
SHF, and UHF. Signals may be switched between frequency
bands on the satellite but there is no onboard demodulation UHF: three 150 kHz bandwidth transponders
of signals. Terminals include EHF transportable, SHF fixed,
Transmitter
transportable, ship, and manpack, and UHF ship, aircraft, ve-
hicular, manpack, and portable. Transmissions include FDMA EHF: in 20.2 to 21.2 GHz band
point-to-point links at 32 kbps to 2 Mbps and FDMA SCPC SHF: in 7.25 to 7.75 GHz band
tactical networks at 32 or 64 kbps in the SHF and EHF bands, UHF: near 260 MHz
and TDMA DAMA communications for mobile terminals 75
bps to 16 kbps in the UHF band. EHF and SHF bands are used Receiver
for feeder link communications for the UHF mobile terminal EHF: in 43.5 to 45.5 GHz band
links. Satellite antenna beams are Earth coverage and one SHF: in 7.9 to 8.4 GHz band
shaped beam for Italy and nearby areas at EHF, a fixed wide-
UHF: near 300 MHz
coverage ellipse from Iceland to the horn of Africa including

225
Military Satellites

Fig. 4.36. SICRAL satellite.

Antenna 1. “SICRAL,” http://www.alespazio.it/sicral/sicral.

EHF, SHF: parabolic reflectors htm (31 August 1999) and “SICRAL: A new ally for
UHF: planar array of patch elements Defence Communications,” http://www.alespazio.it/telecom
munications_page.aspx?IdProg=16 (12 April 2005).
Telemetry & command 2. “Space Systems for Europe: Observation, Commu-
In 2 to 2.3 GHz band and EHF nications and Navigation Satellites—Reply to the Annual
Report of the Council,” Western European Union Document
Life
1643 (18 May 1999), http://www.weu.int/assembly/eng/
Ten years reports/1643e.html (1 September 1999).
Orbit 3. “SICRAL Italian Military Communications System,”
Geostationary, 16.2°E longitude a brochure distributed by Alenia Spazio (February 2001).
Orbital history 4. “Programma SICRAL,” http://66.102.7.104/
search?q=cache:cvHl4m_JnNEJ:www.afcea.it/Atti/
Launched 7 February 2001
2%2520luglio%25202001/Presentazione%2520sistema%252
Ariane 4 launch vehicle 0SICRAL.ppt+sicral&hl=en (12 April 2005).
Management
Developed by Alenia Spazio for Italian Ministry of Defence

******

XTAR, SpainSat
The XTAR and SpainSat program is commercial development satellite had been assembled and was being tested. While the
and operation of satellites for leased service solely to satellite was being moved, a cable broke and the satellite fell.
government, especially military, customers [1–4]. The satellites Recovering from this incident caused the other satellite to be
use frequencies reserved for such use by the governments of launched first.
the NATO and some other countries. This development is done XTAR-Eur (for Europe), owned by XTAR, is the second
by HISDESAT Servicios Estrategicos (Strategic Services) satellite. A portion of the XTAR capacity is leased by HIS-
of Spain and Loral Space & Communications of the United DESAT for its primary customer, the Spanish Ministry of
States. HISDESAT’s main investor is Hispasat; the others are Defense, until SpainSat enters service. Afterward, XTAR will
Spanish companies involved in space activities; the company be a backup for SpainSat. Besides involvement with the Span-
was formed in 2001. XTAR is 56 percent owned by Loral and ish Ministry of Defense, XTAR capacity on both satellites is
44 percent by HISDESAT. available for lease to any government friendly to the United
SpainSat was the first of two satellites developed by these States.
companies. It is owned by HISDESAT, but a significant por- The two satellites have very similar designs. XTAR-Eur
tion of the communications capacity is leased to XTAR and is shown in Fig. 4.37. The primary payload on both satellites
called XTAR-LANT (for Atlantic). At the end of 2003 the is X-band transponders. On XTAR-Eur all the transponders

226
 XTAR, SpainSat

Fig. 4.37. XTAR-Eur satellite.

have 72 MHz bandwidths. On SpainSat the transponders to Antenna

be leased have the same bandwidths, whereas those for Spain X: Two Earth-coverage beams (one per polarization), one fixed
have been tailored to the Spanish requirements. For uplinks beam, 4 (XTAR-Eur)/3 (SpainSat) steerable beams, steerable
and downlinks, both satellites have Earth-coverage antenna beams can point toward any location on the Earth, fixed and
beams, fixed area beams, and steerable area beams. Each steerable beams have 4.5 deg beamwidth (XTAR-Eur) and
transponder can be switched between two or more beams, and 4/4.5 deg beamwidth (XTAR-Lant)
several transponders can share each beam. SpainSat also has a X: RHCP and LHCP
Ka-band transponder.
XTAR-Eur has a control center in Pennsylvania with a Telemetry & command
backup in Virginia, which communicate with the satellite Telemetry in 2200 to 2290 MHz and 7250 to 7750 MHz
through TT&C stations near Madrid and on Grand Canary Is- Command in 1750 to 1850 MHz and 7900 to 8400 MHz
land. SpainSat has a control center near the Madrid TT&C sta-
tion and a backup near the Canary Islands station. For further Life
redundancy, the two control centers can support each other. Service life 15 years
Additional information about these satellites follows.
Orbit
Satellite Geostationary, 29°E longitude (XTAR-Eur), 30°W longitude
Space Systems/Loral 1300 bus (SpainSat)
31 m span of deployed solar arrays Stationkeeping to ±0.05 deg north-south and east-west although
3631 kg at launch (XTAR-Eur), 3692 kg at launch (SpainSat) satellites function properly at inclinations up to 3 degrees
5770 W beginning of life, 4600 W end of life Orbital history
Three-axis stabilization XTAR-Eur: launched 12 February 2005, began operation April
Bipropellant propulsion 2005
SpainSat: launched 11 March 2006, began operation April
Configuration 2006
X: twelve 72 MHz bandwidth transponders on XTAR-Eur, Ariane 5 launch vehicle
eight 72 MHz bandwidth transponders (XTAR-LANT) and six
transponders (controlled by HISDESAT) on SpainSat Management
Ka: one transponder on SpainSat Developed by Space Systems/Loral for XTAR and Hisdesat

Transmitter Operated by XTAR and Hisdesat

X: 7250 to 7750 MHz
******
12/14 active (XTAR-Eur/SpainSat) plus 7 spare 100 W
linearized TWTA per 72 MHz bandwidth transponder 1. “XTAR, Fast, Flexible, X-Band Capacity,” http://www.
xtarllc.com/news/XTAR_Brochure.pdf (18 April 2005).
EIRP 44/48 dBW in spot beams, 34/38 dBW in Earth-
coverage beams (edge of coverage/peak) 2. “Xtar,” http://www.xtarllc.com/ (18 April 2005).
Ka: in 20.2 to 21.2 GHz 3. HISDESAT, “Sistemas Gubernamentales Orientados
al Espacio Comunicaciones en Bandas X y Ka,” http://www.
Receiver hisdesat.es/ (18 April 2005).
X: 7900 to 8400 MHz, G/T –1.4 to –0.6/+2.6 to +3.5 dB/K in
4 C. Westerhoff and D. J. Curtin, “The STAR System,”
spot beams, –11/–7.8 dB/K in XTAR-Eur Earth-coverage beam,
–11.6/–7.6 dB/K in XTAR-LANT Earth-coverage beam (edge of AIAA 23rd International Communication Satellite Systems
coverage/peak) Conference (September 2005).
Ka: in 30 to 31 GHz

227
Military Satellites

Syracuse 3
Syracuse (SYstem of RAdio-Communications Using a Configuration
SatellitE) is a French military satellite communication system. SHF nine 40 MHz channels
The space segment of Syracuse 1 was an X-band payload EHF six 40 MHz channels.
on the three Telecom 1 satellites launched in the 1980s, and
the space segment of Syracuse 2 was an X-band payload Transmitter
on the four Telecom 2 satellites launched in the 1990s. The SHF: 7250 to 7750 MHz
primary payloads on these satellites were for commercial EHF: in 20.2 to 21.2 GHz
communications. The Telecom satellites are described in
chapter 7. The decision to make Syracuse 3 [1–3] a dedicated Receiver
military satellite in contrast to the joint commercial-military SHF: 7900 to 8400 MHz
Telecom satellite was influenced by:
EHF: in 43.5 to 45.5 GHz
• The need for guaranteed military service without the
constraints of competing commercial interests on the Antenna
satellite SHF: 1 global-coverage beam; 1 fixed-coverage beam
• The need for a design with nuclear hardening and jam (metropolitan France); 4 steerable beams, 2 with 2000 km diam
resistance footprint, 2 with 4000 km diam footprint
• The weight, power, and volume required on the satellite EHF: 1 global-coverage beam; 2 steerable beams each with
for multiple antenna beams and an EHF payload 600 km diam footprint
• The difficulty of partnering with Telecom France since
its privatization Life
In November 2000 La Délégation Générale pour 12.2 years
l’Armement (DGA) of the French Ministry of Defense
awarded a contract for Syracuse 3A with options for 3B and Orbit
3C. The design includes military communication requirements Geostationary
of other European countries and NATO. In December 2003
Syracuse 3B was converted from an option to a firm order. Orbital history
Syracuse 3A was launched to ensure continuity of service Syracuse 3A: launched 13 October 2005, in use at 47ºE longitude
from the Syracuse 2 payloads, while Syracuse 3B will be Syracuse 3B: launched 11 August 2006, will be in use at 5°W
launched to improve the level of service. As part of the im- longitude
provement process, during the period 2006 to 2014, 600 new Syracuse 3C: projected for 2010
terminals will be delivered for use on land in both portable
Ariane 5 launch vehicle
and fixed applications, and on ships and submarines.
Syracuse 3 satellites are able to operate with existing Management
ground terminals and those in development in the NATO na- Alcatel Space for La Délégation Générale pour l’Armement
tions. In the SHF bands they use both polarizations in contrast (DGA)
to the single polarization used on prior satellites in this band,
Network and satellite control by the Joint Services Network
thereby increasing capacity and/or spectrum-use flexibility. Infrastructure Division (French acronym DIRISI) at Maisons-
Because of their military mission, the satellites are hardened Laffitte on the west side of Paris
to resist nuclear radiation, in compliance with NATO speci-
fications. They also have antennas designed to reduce the ef- ******
fects of jamming. Further, ground terminals can use antijam
signaling. 1. Alcatel, “SYRACUSE III, France’s New-Generation
Additional information is as follows: Military Satcom System,” http://www.alcatel.com/space/pdf/
telecom/syracusegb.pdf, May 2003 (18 April 2005).
Satellite
2. French Ministry of Defense, untitled, http://www.
Alcatel Spacebus 4000
defense.gouv.fr/portal_repository/1859278798__0001/fichier/
Body 2.3 x 1.8 x 3.7 m, 30 m span of deployed solar array getData (18 April 2005).
3725 kg at launch 3. French Ministry of External Affairs, Office of
Sun-tracking solar arrays, 5640 W at end of life Science and Technology, “France To Strengthen Its Military
Three-axis stabilization Communications,” http://www.france-science.org/home/page.
asp?target=nfo-let&PUBLID=9&LNG=us#20534, 13 April
2005 (18 April 2005).

Wideband Gapfiller System

WGS was originally planned and named to fill a gap beyond the capabilities and provide a new two-way Ka-band service [1–12]
DSCS III X-band satellites and GBS Ka-band payloads on GBS for a considerable period of time. WGS has three segments:
until the implementation of an Advanced Wideband System. space, terminals (users), and control (operators). The satellite is
The current status is that WGS will augment DSCS III and GBS compatible with existing DSCS and GBS user terminals.

228
 Wideband Gapfiller System

The initial contract, in January 2001, was

for two satellites; a third was added in De-
cember 2002, and the contract has options for
three more satellites. Some preparatory work for the
fourth satellite was authorized in February 2006. Un-
like most large military satellite development contracts, this Fig. 4.38. WGS satellite.
contract is fixed price. The development process is like that
for commercial satellite programs, augmented with additional
funding for concerns of high priority to the government. In
December 2002 a DOD decision added satellites 4 and 5 to
the program with wider bandwidth channels for airborne user
support. These satellites will be put on contract near the end
of 2005.
The WGS satellites will operate in both X-band and Ka-
band. The primary X-band antennas are phased arrays, one
each for reception and transmission. There are also Earth-
coverage antennas. The two arrays can be independently
configured with one to eight beams of varying size, shape, and
pointing direction. Maximum capacity is 422 MHz in each of
two beams, 375 MHz in one beam, 125 MHz in each of four Solar arrays with triple-junction gallium arsenide
beams, and 47 MHz in one beam. The 1766 MHz total band- solar cells, >11 kW at end of life
width requires each array to have sufficient separation be-
Three-axis stabilization
tween beams and good sidelobe control to achieve an average
frequency reuse of 3.5 times in the 500 MHz wide X-band al- Liquid bipropellant for early orbits and xenon ion propulsion
location. Beam steering, shaping, sidelobe levels, and satellite orbit raising and on-station orbit and attitude control
gain are controlled by the Army’s network planning software Configuration
to optimize user service. For the transmit array, this software
X-band and Ka-band: Equivalent to 39 channels each with 125
also allocates transmit power, which can be flexibly shared MHz bandwidth; digital channelizer divides uplink bandwidth into
among the beams, and ensures that the combination of beam 1875 independently routable 2.6 MHz bandwidth subchannels;
size, pointing direction, power, and signal bandwidth together onboard connection of X-band and Ka-band
satisfy international limits on power density on Earth. The
network planning software sends inputs to the satellite control Transmitter
software, which generates commands that configure the satel- X: phased array 7250 to 7672 MHz
lite. The satellite holds each configuration until commanded to One SSPA per array element; three SSPA power levels,
another. highest for 52 elements in center of array, lowest for 148
At Ka-band there are eight narrow-coverage and two area- elements around array periphery, and moderate for 112
coverage antennas. Each transmits and receives one beam, and intermediate elements
each antenna is independently steerable. Signal bandwidths EIRP 60.8 to 59.2 dBW at edge of 2.2 deg beam for scan
for the new two-way Ka-band service are multiples of 125 angles from nadir to 8 deg off nadir
MHz, divisible into 2.6 MHz subchannels by the onboard
Ka: 20.2 to 21.2 GHz
processors. Signal bandwidths for the GBS augmentation are
the same as on GBS. Uplinks in one band can be connected to Narrow coverage EIRP 55.2 to 58.1 dBW, area coverage
downlinks in either or both bands. EIRP 42.5 dBW, Earth coverage EIRP 34.3 dBW
The satellite is shown in Fig. 4.38. The X-band arrays are Receiver
on the Earth-viewing face of the body, and the smaller Ka-
X: phased array 7978 to 8400 MHz
band reflectors are deployed to both sides of the body. The flat
panels on both sides of the body and deployed antennas are One LNA per element
thermal radiators. The center portion of each radiator is fixed, G/T +6.2 to + 5.0 dB/K at edge of 2.2 deg beam for scan
but the outer portions deploy in orbit. The launch vehicle will angles from nadir to 8 deg off nadir
put the satellite into a low orbit. Bipropellant chemical pro- Ka: 30 to 31 GHz
pulsion will be used for 14 days to raise the orbit and reduce
Narrow coverage G/T 8.4 dB/K for six of the 1.5 deg
inclination, after which ion propulsion will be used to move beams, 7.4 dB/K for the other two 1.5 deg beams, area
the satellite to geostationary orbit. Ninety days will elapse coverage G/T –1 to –1.4 dB/K for 4.5 deg beam, Earth
between launch and the beginning of on-station testing. The coverage G/T –10.5 dB/K
slowness of the transfer is due to the low thrust of the ion
propulsion; the benefit is the propellant weight is much less Antenna
than if all thrusting were done with chemical propellants. Ad- X: Eight steerable and shapeable beams formed by one
ditional information about the WGS satellites follows. transmit phased array and one receive phased array; beam
size varies between 2.2 deg circular and Earth coverage; 1.17
Satellite m diam receive array has 188 elements, RHCP; 1.27 m diam
Boeing 702 bus, solar-array span >40 m transmit array has 312 elements, LHCP
Approximately 5900 kg at launch, 3500 kg in orbit, beginning Two Earth-coverage horns, one transmit, one receive
of life
229
Military Satellites

188 Earth Earth 312

elements coverage coverage elements
7250-
7750
2502- 19.5- 2502-
3002 144.5 3002
1

Switch matrix and gain control

1

N:1
1 1

Downlink control
1 1

12:1

1:N
1 1

1:18
1
C
12 18 8
N:1

1:N
7250-
7900- 7750
8400 188
1
1 8

1:N 1:N
8 8 1

1:18
1
N:1

18 312
C
8 8
12:1

routing, and gain control

12

Subchannel formation,
N:1

188

2502- 19.5- 2502-

D D D D 20.2-
3002 144.5 3002 21.2 GHz
Switch matrix and gain control

8 Narrow 8 Narrow

Downlink control
30- coverage coverage
31 to
GHz
D

2 Area 2 Area
coverage coverage

Commands

Fig. 4.39. WGS communication subsystem.

Ka: Eight steerable, narrow-coverage parabolic antennas, 1.5 Management

deg beamwidth, each transmit-receive; receive gain 43.2 dBi, Developed by Boeing Satellite Systems for Air Force Space
transmit gain 40.9 dBi and Missile Systems Center
Two steerable area coverage parabolic antennas, each Operated by Air Force Satellite Operations Center in Colorado
transmit-receive and Army Wideband Satellite Operations Centers in California,
Maryland, Germany, and Japan
Telemetry & command
Telemetry in 2200 to 2290 MHz, 7250 to 7750 MHz, and 20.2 ******
to 21.2 GHz bands
1. “Exhibit R-2, RDT&E Budget Item Justification,
Command in 1750 to 1850 MHz, 2025 to 2110 MHz, 7900 to
0603854F Wideband MILSATCOM (Space)” (February
8400 MHz, and 30 to 31 GHz bands
2005), http://www.dtic.mil/descriptivesum/Y2006/AirForce/
Life 0603854F.pdf (20 April 2005).
Fourteen years 2. Boeing Satellite Systems, “Wideband Gapfiller Satellite
(WGS)” (October 2002), http://www.boeing.com/defense-
Orbit space/space/bss/factsheets/702/wgs/wgs_factsheet.html (7
Geostationary March 2005).
Orbital history 3. MILSATCOM Joint Program Office, “Wideband
WGS 1: launch planned 2007, planned longitude 175°E Gapfiller Satellites,” http://www.losangeles.af.mil/SMC/MC/
docs/wgs_bw_200.pdf (7 March 2005).
WGS 2: launch, planned for 2007–2008, planned longitude
12°W 4. R. A. Williams and H. I. Paul, “Military X and Ka-
WGS 3: launch planned for 2008, planned longitude 60°E bands Media Mix Analysis for the Wideband Gapfiller
Satellite System,” IEEE Military Communications Conference
WGS 4-5: launch planned for 2009-2010
Proceedings, MILCOM 2000, Vol. 2, pp. 1214–1218 (October
Delta 4 and Atlas 5 launch vehicles 2000).

230
 Skynet 5

5. G. Elfers and S. Miller, “Future U.S. Military Satellite Capability,” IEEE International Symposium on Phased Array
Communication Systems,” Crosslink, Vol. 3, No. 1, Winter Systems and Technology (October 2003) pp. 82–87.
2001/2002, http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/winter 9. J. Besse, L. Gonzalez, and R. Condello, “On the
2002/08.html (10 June 2005). Performance of Small Aperture Ka-Band Terminals for
6. R. A. Williams and H. I. Paul, “Analysis of Ground Use over the Wideband Gapfiller Satellite,” IEEE Military
Segment Broadcast Architectures for the Wideband Gapfiller Communications Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 2002,
Satellite (WGS),” IEEE Military Communications Conference Vol. 2, pp. 1388–1391 (October 2002).
Proceedings, MILCOM 2002, Vol. 2, pp. 1412–1416 (October 10. J. Brand, “On the Use of the Wideband Gapfiller
2002). Satellite at Ka-band for Communications-on-the-move,” IEEE
7. L. N. Nguyen, G. V. Kinal, and H. I. Paul, “Performance Military Communications Conference Proceedings, MILCOM
of Hybrid Link Power Control Using Wideband Gapfiller 2003, Vol. 1, pp. 529–532 (October 2003).
Satellite-Based Automatic Level Control (ALC) and 11. H. I. Paul, “Multi-carrier Network-Centric Satellite
Ground-Based Link Power Control (LPC),” IEEE Military Communications Modem Design,” IEEE Military Communi-
Communications Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 2003, cations Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 2002, Vol. 1, pp.
Vol. 1, pp. 511–516 (October 2003). 12–17 (October 2002).
8. D. H. Roper, W. E. Babiec, and D. D. Hannan, “WGS 12. S. Hargis, “Wideband Gapfiller Satellites Ground
Phased Arrays Support Next Generation DoD SATCOM System Interoperability,” 1 March 2005, http://sunset.usc.edu/
gsaw/gsaw2005/s4/hargis.pdf (15 June 2005).

Skynet 5
The United Kingdom Ministry of Defence (MOD) studied The control segment consists of an operations center, a
replacements for Skynet 4 satellites since the early 1990s. Work satellite control facility, a network management center, a n d
on Skynet 4D through 4F started in 1993, thereby delaying the electronics and antennas for communication with the
need for a replacement. In the 1990s, two international programs satellites. The ground segment includes more than
were considered: INMILSAT (International Military Satellite) 60 terminals for land and shipborne applica-
with France and the United States and TRIMILSATCOM tions. The space segment includes the satel-
with France and Germany. By late 1998 the United Kingdom lites and launches. As of 2005, two Skynet
withdrew from the TRIMILSATCOM agreement, and in 5 satellites are in development.
the spring of the next year the MOD gave a 20-month study Few technical details about the sat-
contract to two contractor teams for a design of a Skynet 4 ellites have been announced. They are
replacement that would continue to be interoperable with U.S. using Astrium’s Eurostar 3000 bus, will
and other allied communications systems. Study objectives weigh approximately 5000 kg at launch,
included the ability to transmit data more rapidly, increased and will have a solar array span of 30 m
security features, and surge capacity for use during military or more. The communication subsystem
operations. These studies also considered privately financed will include both UHF and SHF chan-
development and private operation of the satellite(s). nels. The SHF uplinks are in 7900 to
The United Kingdom eventually decided to use a Private 8400 MHz and the downlinks are in
Finance Initiative for purchase of satellite services. Under this 7250 to 7750 MHz; multiple steer-
initiative, which had been used in recent years for other MOD able spot beams will be used. Ad-
procurements, the contractor obtains the financing or system ditional satellite features
development from banks, and the bank loans are repaid as the that have been mentioned
government pays for the services it receives. The government are a secure command
selected a preferred bidder for the Skynet 5 contract in spring link, nulling antennas, and
2002 and awarded a contract in October 2003 for 15 years of onboard switching. The
service from 2003 to 2018 [1–4]. The service begins with the satellites will be launched
Skynet 4 satellites in orbit and continues with Skynet 5 satel- by Ariane 5 in the second
lites. The lengthy interval between the selection of a bidder half of 2006 and second
and award of a contract was needed to work out many unique half of 2007 into geosta-
details of a Private Finance Initiative for a satellite system. tionary orbit. Longitudes
The prime contractor is Paradigm Secure Services, which will be selected from
is owned by EADS, the European Aeronautic Defence and among 34°W, 1°W,
Space Company. Paradigm Services, also owned by EADS, 6°E, and 53°E, with
is responsible for service and network maintenance while possible operation at
Astrium, another part of EADS, is building the satellites, up- 17.8°W for support
grading the ground control stations, and building new and up- to NATO.
grading existing user terminals. The contract allows Paradigm
to sell Skynet services to allied nations. ****** Fig. 4.40. Skynet 5 satellite.

231
Military Satellites

1. A. McLean, “PFI in the Sky, or Pie in the Sky?— 3. Paradigm, “Systems,” http://www.paradigmsecure.
Privatising Military Space,” Space Policy, Vol. 15, No. 4 com/?OBH=5 (10 May 2005).
(November 1999). 4. S. Kershaw, “Private Finance for Skynet 5,” RUSI
2. Paradigm Secure Communications, “Paradigm Defence Systems (Summer 2004), http://www.rusi.org/publica-
Awarded Skynet 5 Contract” (24 October 2003), http://www. tions/defencesystems/ref:P40F6922441D3C/ (10 May 2005).
paradigmsecure.com/?OBH=30&SCH=skynet%204&ID=27
(5 April 2005).

NATO 5
With the end of the Cold War, NATO’s mission, including for EHF capacity, which is likely to be awarded to the United
involvement in international missions outside Europe, requires States, although France is interested in bidding.
new or different communication capabilities. From the mid-
1990s through 2002, NATO investigated options for replacing ******
the NATO 4 satellites to continue and expand satellite 1. P. A. Kelly, “The Evolving NATO Satellite Experience,”
communications under the name NATO SATCOM Post-2000 Advisory Group for Aerospace Research & Development
[1–2]. (AGARD) Conference Proceedings, AGARD-CP-580 (June
In August 2002 the United States and a team of the Min- 1997).
istries of Defence of France, Italy, and the United Kingdom 2. P. Ricci and A. Franzosi, “Possible Features of NATO
submitted proposals for supplying UHF and SHF communica- Communications Gap Filler,” Advisory Group for Aerospace
tions to NATO. Both proposals were based on the bidders’ na- Research & Development (AGARD) Conference Proceedings,
tional military communication satellite systems. In May 2004 AGARD-CP-580 (June 1997).
NATO awarded the three-nation team a contract for services
from 2005 through 2019 [3–5]. The NATO contract, signed 3. “NATO SATCOM POST 2000,” http://www.nato.
in November 2004, is with the governments, but allows them int/docu/pr/2004/p04-072e.htm, and “Improved Satellite
to contract with other organizations for actual provision of Communications for NATO” (5 May 2004), http://www.nato.
services, as the United Kingdom already has done. The team int/docu/update/ 2004/05-may/e0505a.htm, (10 May 2005).
established a single joint program management office and a 4. “Memorandum of Understanding for the Provision of a
single mission access center. Satellite Communications Capability Signed” (23 November
France and the United Kingdom provide SHF capacity 2004), http://www.nato.int/docu/pr/2004/p04-162e.htm (10
through their Syracuse and Skynet systems, and Italy the UHF May 2005).
capacity through its Sicral system. Each nation will act as a 5. P. B. de Selding, “NATO Communications Program
backup to the other two as needed. Merges 3 National Systems” (19 May 2004), http://www.
A separate procurement will acquire user terminals to isrjournal.com/story.php?F=327991 (10 May 2005).
work with the satellites. A future contract will be negotiated

Advanced EHF
The Advanced EHF (AEHF) program is a follow-on to Milstar, The uplink and downlink antennas, other than the Earth-cov-
with increased capacity and higher data rates [1–5]. The AEHF erage horns, form steerable beams of various sizes in order to
mission offers worldwide, secure, survivable communications optimize coverage for military deployments.
to strategic and tactical forces of the United States and its Onboard processing is used for antijamming protection and
allies. The AEHF program includes Canada, United Kingdom, for optimum assignment of resources. Onboard switching can
and Netherlands as partners. route uplink signals either directly to a downlink or via cross-
The program consists of three segments: space, mission link to another satellite for downlinking to a different part of
control, and terminals. The space segment comprises the sat- the Earth. Signal processing is compatible with Milstar’s LDR
ellites and launches. The mission control segment controls and MDR modes and also has extended data rates (XDR).
satellites on orbit, monitors satellite health, and does commu- Individual link data rates vary from LDR’s lower limit of 75
nications system planning and monitoring. This segment has bps to XDR’s upper limit of 8.2 Mbps, well beyond the 1.544
both fixed and mobile control stations. The terminal segment Mbps limit of MDR.
includes fixed and mobile ground terminals, ship and subma- The AEHF satellite is built on a Lockheed Martin A2100
rine terminals, and airborne terminals. bus. It measures 10 m across the crosslink antennas and
Figure 4.40 shows the AEHF satellite. The two large an- 23 m across solar arrays; its mass is approximately 6100 kg at
tennas extending from the sides of the body are the crosslink launch and 4100 kg on-orbit. Launches to geostationary orbit
antennas, which use frequencies near 60 GHz to communicate are planned for spring 2008, 2009, and 2010 by Delta IV and
directly with other AEHF or Milstar satellites. The two larger Atlas V launch vehicles. Orbital longitudes are not limited to,
white panels on the Earth-viewing face of the body are the but are likely to be selected from among the Milstar longi-
phased arrays for the 20.2 to 21.2 GHz downlinks; the smaller tudes: 68°W, 90°W, 120°W, 177.5°E, 90°E, 55°E, and 4°E.
white panel is the phased array for the 43.5 to 45.45 GHz up- AEHF studies and development are managed by the Air
links. Other antennas are used for uplinks and/or downlinks. Force Space and Missile Systems Center. In August 1999,
232
 Mobile User Objective System

18-month, system-definition-study contracts were given to

two teams, one composed of Lockheed Martin and TRW and
one led by Hughes Space and Communications. In the spring
of 2000, these contractors decided to end their competition
and join together as a national team, claiming that the unified
approach would reduce the time to orbit by 18 months. In No-
vember 2001 a contract was awarded to Lockheed Martin as
prime contractor for two AEHF satellites and the mission con-
trol segment. Boeing Satellite Systems, successor to Hughes
Space and Communications later dropped out of the team.
TRW, later Northrop Grumman Space Technology, remains on
the team as payload supplier.
In June 2004 DOD added a third satellite to the program;
it was put on contract in January 2006. In October 2004 DOD
decided to limit the program to three satellites and concentrate
resources on moving to the future with the Transformational
Fig. 4.41. Advanced EHF satellite.
Satellite (TSAT) program. However, Congress is concerned
that DOD is moving too fast with the challenging TSAT
development, so there might be a reconsideration of a fourth
AEHF satellite. 3. G. Elfers and S. Miller, “Future U.S. Military Satellite
Communication Systems,” Crosslink, Vol. 3, No. 1, Winter
****** 2001/2002, http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/winter
1. MILSATCOM Joint Program Office, “Advanced 2002/08.html (10 June 2005).
Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) Satellite,” http://www. 4. D. A. Fritz, D. W. Moy, and R. A. Nichols, “Modeling
losangeles.af.mil/SMC/MC/docs/aehf_bw_200.pdf (7 March and Simulation of Advanced EHF Efficiency Enhancements,”
2005). IEEE Military Communications Conference Proceedings,
2. United States Air Force Fact Sheet, “Advanced MILCOM 1999, Vol. 1, pp. 354–358 (November 1999).
Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) System,” http://www. 5. “Exhibit R-2, RDT&E Budget Item Justification,
losangeles.af.mil/SMC/PA/Fact_Sheets/aehffactsheet.htm, 0603430F Advanced EHF MILSATCOM (Space)” (February
April 2004 (10 May 2005). 2005), http://www.dtic.mil/descriptivesum/Y2006/AirForce/
0603430F.pdf (10 May 2005).

Mobile User Objective System

In the late 1990s the Navy, as the DOD lead for narrowband bands; military satellites alone, combinations of military and
tactical satellite communications, was investigating commercial satellites, and commercial satellites alone; various
alternatives for an advanced narrowband system to service satellite orbits; and airborne and terrestrial alternatives to sat-
continuation and expansion beyond the lifetime of the UFO ellites. The studies concluded that a UHF system with geosyn-
satellites. Narrowband is defined as the ability to transmit chronous satellites should be the core of the system.
data rates up to 64 kbps. The primary frequency band for The next step in the program was the award in Septem-
such communications is UHF, typically 240 to 320 MHz for ber 2002, of 14-month contracts for component advanced
a military system. The benefits of this band compared with
higher frequencies are penetration of weather, foliage, and
structures; feasibility of small terminals with nondirectional
antennas; and compatibility with a multitude of UHF satellite
terminals already in use by DOD. Disadvantages are limited
bandwidth and increasing interference. Besides studying and
developing requirements for a new, dedicated UHF system,
the Navy also studied the use of commercial mobile
communications satellite systems.
The new narrowband system is named Mobile
User Objective System (MUOS) [1–13]. Multiple con-
tractor teams, including traditional DOD contractors and
operators of commercial satellite systems, conducted
three phases of concept exploration studies
from November 1999 through July 2001.
The studies concentrated on fundamen-
tal requirements, such as assured access,
netted communications, worldwide cover-
age, increased capacity, reduced terminal size, and
affordability. They examined multiple frequency Fig. 4.42. MUOS satellite.

233
Military Satellites

development to two contractor teams. They were to refine Communications Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 2000,
system definition and identify risk areas; reduce risks through Vol. 2 (October 2000), pp. 792–796.
technology development, demonstration, and simulations; 6. A. A. Russo, “Interference Issues Associated with
define external interfaces; and continue affordability assess- ITU Coordination of the Advanced Narrowband System
ments. Frequencies,” IEEE Military Communications Conference
After the component advanced-development stage, a com- Proceedings, MILCOM 2000, Vol. 2 (October 2000), pp. 797–
petition led to the selection of one contractor in September 800.
2004. This contract includes two geostationary satellites with
options for three more plus ground elements for satellite and 7. J. Ingerski and A. Sapp, “Mobile Tactical
network control. These will operate with an estimated 20,000 Communications, the Role of the UHF Follow-On Satellite
existing and separately procured new user terminals and DOD Constellation and its Successor, Mobile User Objective
teleports. The signal structure will be compatible with both System,” IEEE Military Communications Conference
the existing terminals and newer terminals built to DOD’s Proceedings, MILCOM 2002, Vol. 1 (October 2002), pp. 302–
Joint Tactical Radio System standard. The MUOS satellites 306.
are being developed by Lockheed Martin based on its A2100 8. W. W. Curles and L. T. Curry, “Mobile User Objective
satellite bus for the Navy’s Space and Naval Warfare Systems System Program Overview,” IEEE Military Communications
Command. Each satellite will have one 5 m diam and one 12 Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 2002, Vol. 1 (October
m diam antenna reflector deployed in orbit. The first satellite 2002), pp. 290–295.
is expected to go into operation in 2010. The system is to last
9. G. Elfers and S. Miller, “Future U.S. Military Satellite
through 2024.
Communication Systems,” Crosslink, Vol. 3, No. 1, Winter
****** 2001/2002, http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/winter
1. J. Loiselle, R. Tarleton, and J. Ingerski, “The Next 2002/08.html (10 June 2005).
Generation Mobile User Objective System (MUOS),” AIAA 10. J. Nicholson and C. M. Howard, “Concept Exploration
Paper 1998-5246, AIAA Defense and Civil Space Programs Phase III results for the Mobile User Objective System
Conference and Exhibit (October 1998). (MUOS) Requirements,” IEEE Military Communications
2. J. Loiselle, R. Tarleton, and J. Ingerski, “The Next Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 2002, Vol. 1 (October
Generation Mobile User Objective System (MUOS),” IEEE 2002), pp. 296–301.
Military Communications Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 11. J. Loiselle, R. Tarleton, and J. Ingerski, “The Next
1999, Vol. 2 (October-November 1999), pp. 1115–1118. Generation Mobile User Objective System (MUOS), http://
3. J. Nicholson and B. T. Gerstein, “The Department of enterprise.spawar.navy.mil/UploadedFiles/next_gen_muos.
Defense’s Next Generation Narrowband Satellite Commu- pdf (7 March 2005).
nications System, the Mobile User Objective System (MUOS),” 12. Navy Fact Sheet, “Navy Communications Satellite
IEEE Military Communications Conference Proceedings, Programs Mobile User Objective System,” http://enterprise.
MILCOM 2000, Vol. 2 (October 2000), pp.805–809. spawar.navy.mil/UploadedFiles/muos-fs_2002-09.pdf, 19
4. A. Sapp, Jr., “Mobile User Objective System (MUOS): September 2002 (7 March 2005).
Future Satellite Communications for the Mobile Warfighter,” 13. Navy Communications Satellite Program Office,
IEEE Military Communications Conference Proceedings, “Mobile User Objective System (MUOS),” enterprise.spawar.
MILCOM 2000, Vol. 2 (October 2000), pp. 789–791. navy.mil/getfile.cfm?contentId=396, October 2004 (16 May
5. K. M. Kumm, “Internetworking in the MUOS CAI 2005).
and the Advanced Narrowband System, ” IEEE Military

Germany
In spring 2005, the German Federal Armed Forces 2. P. B. de Selding, “Two Firms Win Tentative German
announced negotiations for a contract for dedicated satellite Milcom Satellite Contracts,” Space News (2 May 2005), p. A3.
communications [1–4]. In July 2006 a contract was awarded 3. EADS Space, “German Armed Forces Will Receive
to Milsat Services of Bremen, Germany for two dedicated Secure Communications Network with Two Dedicated
satellites and additional leased capacity on Intelsat satellites. Satellites” (5 July 2006), http://www.space.eads.net/press-
The two satellites will be built by EADS Astrium and will center/press-releases/german-armed-forces-will-receive-
have UHF and 7/8 GHz transponders. They will be launched secure-communications-network-with-two-dedicated-
late in 2008 or in 2009 with one going to 63ºE and one going satellites (14 August 2006).
to 37ºW longitude.
4. Intelsat General, “Intelsat General Corporation Signs
****** Long-term Agreement to Support EADS Space Services
1. Bundesministerium der Verteidigung, “Vertragsver- and ND SatCom Partnership” (10 July 2006), http://www.
handlungen SATCOM Bw Stufe 2 im Vergabeverfahren,” intelsatgeneral.com/pdf/en/aboutus/releases/IGC_PR_06_
(in German), (20 April 2005), http://www.bmvg.de/ N2.pdf (14 August 2006).
redaktionen/bwde/bmvgbase.nsf/CurrentBaseLink/
W26BMCR2561INFODE (16 May 2005).
234
 Defense Satellite Communications System

Transformational Satellite Communications System (TSAT)

Development of the transformational communications archi- launch in 2014. The development contract for the mission
tecture (TCA) began in 2001. In 2006 the MILSATCOM planning and network management system was awarded to
portion of TCA includes plans for the TSAT System. TSAT Lockheed Martin Integrated Systems & Solutions in January
will provide communication services to users in the presence 2006.
of nuclear scintillation and jamming. A primary objective,
******
compared with the AEHF system, is a 10-fold increase in link
capacity and user connectivity. TSAT will be a ring of satellites, 1. MILSATCOM Joint Program Office, “Transformational
probably five, in geosynchronous orbit interconnected by Communications MILSATCOM,” http://www.losangeles.
laser crosslinks with data rates on the order of 10–40 Gbps af.mil/SMC/MC/tcm.htm (16 May 2005).
[1–3]. TSAT will provide services to users with EHF, Ka- 2. Department of the Navy, “Transformational Communi-
band, and optical terminals. TSAT will also implement an cations—The Space Segment” (April–June 2005), http://www.
internet-protocol-based networking system, intended to chips.navy.mil/archives/05_Apr/PDF/spectrum.pdf, CHIPS,
provide beyond line-of-sight connectivity within the DOD’s (16 May 2005).
global information grid. The intention of TSAT is to provide
communications between fixed and mobile DOD elements in 3. “Exhibit R-2, RDT&E Budget Item Justification,
an Internet-like environment. 0603845F Transformational SATCOM (TSAT)” (February
TSAT is in a risk-reduction and system-definition phase 2005), http://www.dtic.mil/descriptivesum/Y2006/AirForce/
in 2006. Selection of a satellite development contractor is 0603845F.pdf (16 May 2005).
scheduled to occur near the start of 2008 with the first satellite

Defense Satellite Communications System

The primary users of the DSCS [1–25] are the Worldwide ment optimizes the network configuration for both FDMA and
Military Command and Control System, the ground mobile SSMA operations, responds to jammers, generates command
forces, Navy ships, wideband data relay, the Defense Information sets to configure the satellite, and processes telemetry from
Systems Network, the White House Communications Agency, the satellites.
and the Diplomatic Telecommunications System. DSCS also
provides support to allied nations. In addition to the satellites, ******
DSCS includes a control segment and a variety of ground 1. G. E. LaVean, “The Defense Satellite Communications
terminals. System,” Paper 74-457, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite
Several types of ground terminals are in use. Some types Systems Conference (April 1974).
are being developed to satisfy the increasing diversity of users 2. I. C. Wright and P. McLellan, “Defense Satellite
in DSCS. Airborne and shipborne terminals are the respon- Communication System—An Operational System,” Paper
sibility of the Air Force and Navy, respectively; the Army is 31.1, International Conference on Communications: ICC ’77
responsible for all other terminals. By the end of the 1980s, (June 1977).
most of the tactical terminals were the transportable truck-
and trailer-mounted units with 2.4 m antennas, which are used 3. T. D. Ellington, “DSCS III—Becoming an Operational
by the ground mobile forces, or shipboard units with 1.8 m System,” IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 28, No.
antennas. The Heavy Terminal–Medium Terminal moderniza- 9 (September 1980).
tion program was instituted to upgrade existing fixed ground 4. G. E. LaVean, “Satellite Communications Requirements
terminals with 18 and 11.5 m antennas. in the Defense Communications System,” Signal, Vol. 28, No.
The configuration of the DSCS network may vary within 7 (March 1974).
any year as necessary to support the users’ responses to world 5. R. L. Drummond, “Network Control and Coordination
events. Each of the operational satellites and spare satellites with the U.S. Defense Satellite Communications System
has a primary and alternative network control station located (DSCS),” Paper 74-477, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite
at major nodes such as Ft. Detrick, Maryland. The five pri- Systems Conference (April 1974).
mary operational satellites correspond to five DSCS regions:
east Atlantic, west Atlantic, Indian Ocean, east Pacific, and 6. J. T. Witherspoon and R. P. Sherwin, “Real-time
west Pacific. The change from a four- to five-region system Adaptive Control for the Defense Satellite Communications
occurred in the mid-1980s. There is considerable overlap be- System,” Paper 76-272, AIAA/CASI 6th Communications
tween the areas served by adjacent satellites. Satellite Systems Conference (April 1976). Reprinted in
The DSCS control segment allocates satellite capacity to Satellite Communications: Future Systems, Progress in
best serve user requirements. Control segment computer al- Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 54, D. Jarett, ed. (1977).
gorithms provide an allocation process that makes use of the 7. H. M. Yakabe, “Formulation of the Follow-on Defense
considerable flexibility of the DSCS III satellites. This flex- Satellite Communications System Concept,” 1975 IEEE
ibility includes the antenna patterns and connectivities and Intercon Record (April 1975).
thus also involves variable EIRP and G/T. The control seg-

235
Military Satellites

8. G. W. Carter et al., “An Experimental Satcom Control 17. W. J. Hilsman and A. R. Garcia, “Defense Satellite
System for DSCS,” Paper 42.1, National Telecommunications Communication System: Another Milestone,” Signal, Vol. 38,
Conference: NTC ’77 (December 1977). No. 1 (September 1983).
9. R. D. Rosner, “Communications System Control for the 18. J. F. Urner, “Multichannel SHF DAMA System,” 1983
Defense Communications System,” Paper 31.1, International Military Communications Conference: Milcom ’83 (October
Conference on Communications: ICC ’78 (June 1978). 1983).
10. R. D. Rosner, “An Integrated Distributed Control 19. P. J. Bogert, “The Role of the DSCS Operational
Structure for Global Communications,” IEEE Transactions on Support System in the Future DSCS Operations Control System
Communications, Vol. 28, No. 9 (September 1980). Architecture,” 1984 Military Communications Conference:
11. B. E. Tyree, J. Bailey, and V. Chewy, “Ground Mobile Milcom ’84 (October 1984).
Forces Tactical Satellite SHF Ground Terminals,” Paper 78- 20. W. D. Powers and A. M. Hartigan, “The Defense
582, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems Conference Satellite Communications System,” Signal, Vol. 39, No. 11
(April 1978). (July 1985).
12. B. E. Tyree, “An Overview of the Small SHF Satellite 21. P. E. Bracher and R. P. Laskey, “Space and Terrestrial
Ground Terminal Development Program,” RCA Engineer, Vol. Systems in the Defense Communications System,” EASCON
22, No. 1 (June/July 1976). ’88 Conference Record (November 1988).
13. S. F. Rurak, “Ground Mobile Forces Tactical 22. J. R. Giroux et al., “SHF MILSATCOM Technology
Satellite Terminals,” International Telemetering Conference Marches Ahead,” Microwave Systems News, Vol. 20, No. 3
Proceedings (November 1980). (March 1990).
14. A. L. Johnson and T. E. Joyner, “Small EHF/SHF 23. R. Cook, “DSCS: Past, Present, and Future,” Paper 92-
Airborne Satcom Terminal,” International Telemetering 1610, AIAA Space Programs and Technologies Conference
Conference Proceedings (November 1980). (March 1992).
15. P. C. McLellan, “DSCS—An Evolving Operational 24. J. Heronema, “DSCS Terminals Get a Boost,” Space
System,” Signal, Vol. 35, No. 6 (February 1981). News, (26 August–1 September 1996), p. 8.
16. W. P. McKee, “The Role of Satellite Communications 25. W. C. Peters, “The Objective DSCS Operations Control
in the Future DCS,” Paper 6H.1, International Conference on System Architecture: Planning the Migration of DSCS Control
Communications: ICC ’82 (June 1982). to New Technologies,” IEEE Military Communications
Conference Proceedings, MILCOM 1999, Vol. 1, pp. 349–353
(October 1999).

236
 5. Russian Satellites

C
ommunication satellites built and launched by the 3. Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Pro-
Soviet Union and later by Russia are described here grams, 1976–1980 (With Supplementary Data Through
[1–17]. All former Soviet communication satellite pro- 1983), Part 3: Unmanned Space Activities, U.S. Senate Com-
grams have been taken over by Russia; none are known to have mittee Print 98-235, Part 3, U.S. Government Printing Office,
gone to other republics. The Molniya satellites are well known Washington, D.C. (1985).
because they were the first—and for a decade, the only—Soviet 4. N. L. Johnson, “Estimated Operational Lifetimes
satellites clearly identified as communication satellites and of Several Soviet Satellite Classes,” Journal of the British
because of the large numbers that have been launched. These Interplanetary Society, Vol. 34, No. 7 (July 1981).
satellites use a high-inclination elliptical orbit well suited
to providing coverage of the Soviet land mass. In 1975, the 5. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in
Soviet Union began launching communication satellites into Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation,
geostationary orbit. Several types exist, and others, although Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque
announced, have yet to be launched. Both the Molniya and the (undated).
existing geostationary satellites are described in this chapter. 6. “Russian Communications and Broadcast Satellites,”
The Lockheed Martin Intersputnik satellite is described in Via Satellite, Vol. 8, No. 3 (March 1993).
chapter 2, Soviet and Russian low-orbit communication satel-
7. C. Bulloch, “Russat ’93, A Catalog of Assets,” Via
lites are described in chapter 3, and Russian amateur satellites
Satellite, Vol. 8, No. 7 (July 1993).
are described in chapter 9.
Since the demise of communism, Russian organizations 8. W. L. Morgan, “Alternative Ways to Build Commu-
have actively pursued communication satellite users and mar- nications Satellites,” Paper 94-1011, AIAA 15th International
keting and development partners in other parts of the world. Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
This openness has significantly increased the amount of in- 1994).
formation available outside Russia. However, except for a few 9. L. E. Ninas, “The Current Status of Russian/CIS
satellites, firm information on satellite details is still hard to Communication Satellites,” Thesis, Naval Postgraduate
obtain, even though satellite designs change less frequently School, Monterey, California (September 1994).
than in Western countries. Therefore, the information in this
chapter is less complete than that in other chapters, and except 10. W. Pritchard and R. Filep, “A Visit to the Russian Space
for a few satellites, quantitative information is not presented in Centers at Krasnoyarsk and Baikonur,” Via Satellite, Vol. 9,
a tabular format but is included in the text when known. No. 7 (July 1994).
Another tendency noted with the demise of communism 11. C. Bulloch, “Russian Satcoms, Promises and Reality,”
has been the need for the Russian satellite manufacturers to Via Satellite, Vol. 11, No. 6 (June 1996).
find viable sources of money to fund new and, to some extent, 12. M. Williamson, “Satellite Platforms—Eastern Competi-
ongoing satellite projects. Thus, some interesting partnerships tion,” Space & Communications, Vol. 12, No. 5 (September–
have been formed, not all of which have been successful. October 1996).
There has also been a tendency to look to the Western satellite
builders as potential partners. It is not clear at this time, how- 13. C. Bulloch, “Russian Satcom: Some Projects Are For
ever, if this new cooperation with the West is something that Real,” Via Satellite, Vol. 12, No. 3 (March 1997).
will become permanent or is just a temporary measure to find 14. M. Breiter, “Satellite Communications Equipment and
added monetary sources and try to catch up on technology. Fi- Services in Russia” (October 1998), http://iepnt1.itaiep. doc.
nally, the hunt for new satellite program sponsors has led to a gov/bisnis/isa/981012r3.htm (1 September 1999).
plethora of announced projects, only some of which will ever 15. T. Foley, “From Russia with Doubts,” Via Satellite,
make it to the launch pad. Vol. 14, No. 12 (December 1999).
****** 16. V. Bartenev, et al., “Attitude and Orbit Control Systems
1. Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Pro- of Russian Communications, Geodetic, and Navigation Space-
grams, 1966–1970, U.S. Senate Committee Print, U.S. Gov- craft,” Space Technology, Vol. 19, Nos. 3–4 (1999).
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (1971). 17. United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Online
2. Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Pro- Index of Objects Launched into Outer Space,” http://www.
grams, 1971–1975, U.S. Senate Committee Print, Vol. 1, U.S. unoosa.org/oosa/en/osoindex.html, 2004 (12 July 2005).
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (1976).

Molniya
The former Soviet Union had a very large land mass, much of communication satellites [1–18], which are used for both
which was undeveloped. This factor was a strong limitation civilian and government communications. During the 1960s
on the development of terrestrial communication links. To they were used primarily for communications internal to the
overcome this limitation, the Soviets undertook to develop former Soviet Union, with a gradual expansion to international
communication satellites early in the 1960s. This development service in the 1970s. By mid-2005, 164 Molniya satellites had
resulted in the production of the Molniya (Lightning) been launched into orbit (Table 5.1).

237
Russian Satellites

Table 5.1. Molniya Satellites Table 5.1. Molniya Satellites (continued)

Satellite Satellite
Series Series
1 2 3 Launch Date Decay Date 1 2 3 Launch Date Decay Date
1 23 April 1965 16 August 1979 12 6 February 1975 4 July 1985
2 13 October 1965 17 March 1967 2 14 April 1975 29 November 1988
3 25 April 1966 11 June 1973 29 29 April 1975
4 20 October 1966 11 September 1968 30 5 June 1975 12 August 1987
5 24 May 1967 26 November 1971 13 8 July 1975
6 3 October 1967 4 March 1969 31 2 September 1975 19 November 1986
7 22 October 1967 31 December 1969 14 9 September 1975
8 21 April 1968 29 January 1974 3 14 November 1975
9 6 July 1968 15 May 1971 15 17 December 1975 7 March 1987
10 5 October 1968 16 July 1976 4 27 December 1975 12 August 1986
11 11 April 1969 17 April 1974 32 22 January 1976
12 22 July 1969 18 June 1971 33 11 March 1976 10 October 1990
13 19 February 1970 29 September 1975 34 19 March 1976 14 May 1985
14 26 June 1970 16 February 1976 5 12 May 1976
15 29 September 1970 20 March 1976 35 23 July 1976 29 May 1987
16 27 November 1970 25 November 1975 16 2 December 1976 21 February 1991
17 25 December 1970 22 December 1975 6 28 December 1976 6 February 1990
18 28 July 1971 19 July 1977 17 11 February 1977
1 24 November 1971 10 May 1976 36 24 March 1977
19 19 December 1971 13 April 1977 7 28 April 1977
20 4 April 1972 30 January 1974 37 24 June 1977 20 May 1993
2 19 May 1972 22 March 1977 38 30 August 1977 28 September 1993
3 30 September 1972 12 January 1978 8 28 October 1977
21 14 October 1972 1 November 1977 9 24 January 1978 5 December 1989
22 2 December 1972 11 February 1976 39 2 March 1978 9 March 1992
4 12 December 1972 22 January 1975 40 2 June 1978
23 3 February 1973 23 October 1977 41 14 July 1978 8 February 1992
5 5 April 1973 6 January 1979 42 23 August 1978
6 11 July 1973 5 August 1978 10 13 October 1978
24 30 August 1973 5 December 1979 11 18 January 1979
7 19 October 1973 8 July 1983 43 12 April 1979 9 December 1989
25 14 November 1973 26 May 1979 12 5 June 1979 26 September 1992
26 30 November 1973 9 June 1985 44 31 July 1979
8 25 December 1973 24 November 1984 45 21 October 1979 18 February 1994
27 20 April 1974 17 November 1983 46 11 January 1980 22 October 1992
9 26 April 1974 47 21 June 1980 1 April 1991
10 23 July 1974 13 18 July 1980
28 24 October 1974 29 December 1985 48 16 November 1980 18 November 1995
1 21 November 1974 15 May 1986 14 9 January 1981 3 July 1999
11 21 December 1974 7 July 1988 49 30 January 1981

The Molniya satellites have been put into a l2 hr elliptical, distribution of television signals. With the appearance of the
inclined orbit. The apogee, at an altitude near 40,000 km, is Molniya 2 and 3 series, civilian traffic seems to be transferred
over the Northern Hemisphere, so that a satellite is visible to to them, leaving government and military traffic on Molniya 1
a ground station in Russia for as long as 9 hr during one or- satellites.
bit, and about l5 hr total per day. The inclination (62–65 deg) The Molniya satellites relay signals between ground sta-
permits good visibility to all Russian ground stations and pro- tions of the Orbita network. Stations that use the frequencies
vides coverage of the polar areas, which is not possible from associated with the Molniya 2 and 3 satellites are designated
geostationary orbit. The perigee, at an altitude less than 2000 Orbita 2. Orbita ground stations use antennas that are about
km, occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. The high-inclination 12 m in diameter. In recent years other types of ground termi-
orbit is easy to achieve from the high-latitude Russian and nals might also have been brought into use with the Molniya
Kazakh launch sites (63° and 46°N), whereas significantly satellites.
more energy is required for an equatorial orbit. Because of the
pioneering use of this orbit and the number of launches into
it, the 12 hr inclined, highly elliptical orbit is often called the Molniya l
Molniya orbit. The Molniya 1 series of satellites has been in use since 1965.
Early Molniya satellites probably handled a combination These were the first communication satellites developed by
of government and civilian traffic, the latter being primarily the Soviets; the only thing known about their development

238
 Molniya

Table 5.1. Molniya Satellites (continued) Table 5.1. Molniya Satellites (continued)

Satellite Satellite
Series Series
1 2 3 Launch Date Decay Date 1 2 3 Launch Date Decay Date
15 24 March 1981 19 October 1992 33 29 September 1988 4 February 2002
16 9 June 1981 10 February 1998 34 27 December 1988
50 25 June 1981 14 December 1991 74 28 December 1988 31 July 1998
17 17 October 1981 9 January 1997 75 15 February 1989
51 17 November 1981 2 November 1993 35 8 June 1989 14 December 2001
52 23 December 1981 76 27 September 1989 11 November 2000
53 26 February 1982 36 28 November 1989 20 May 2000
18 24 March 1982 23 June 1992 37 23 January 1990 23 June 2003
54 28 May 1982 19 November 1992 77 26 April 1990 24 February 2005
55 21 July 1982 10 October 1992 38 13 June 1990
19 27 August 1982 13 January 2002 78 10 August 1990
20 11 March 1983 39 20 September 1990
56 16 March 1983 79 23 November 1990
57 2 April 1983 26 January 2000 80 14 February 1991
58 19 July 1983 23 February 1995 40 21 March 1991
21 31 August 1983 22 May 2001 81 18 June 1991
59 23 November 1983 30 October 2001 82 1 August 1991
22 21 December 1983 18 August 1993 41 17 September 1991
60 16 March 1984 4 November 1994 83 4 March 1992
61 10 August 1984 31 December 2002 84 6 August 1992
62 24 August 1984 42 14 October 1992
63 14 December 1984 43 2 December 1992
23 16 January 1985 5 December 1994 85 13 January 1993
24 29 May 1985 44 21 April 1993 25 January 2004
25 17 July 1985 21 September 2002 86 26 May 1993
64 22 August 1985 22 March 2000 45 4 August 1993
26 3 October 1985 22 February 2001 87 22 December 1993
65 23 October 1985 13 February 1999 46 23 August 1994
66 28 October 1985 2 August 2002 88 14 December 1994
27 24 December 1985 47 9 August 1995
28 18 April 1986 25 February 1999 89 14 August 1996
29 19 June 1986 48 24 October 1996
67 31 July 1986 28 January 2000 90 24 September 1997
68 5 September 1986 20 June 2000 49 1 July 1998
30 21 October 1986 15 October 1999 91 28 September 1998
69 15 November 1986 50 8 July 1999
70 26 December 1986 (3K) 51 20 July 2001
31 22 January 1987 52 25 October 2001
71 11 March 1988 (1T) 92 2 April 2003
72 17 March 1988 4 July 2001 53 19 June 2003
32 26 May 1988 15 March 2002 (1T) 93 18 February 2004
73 12 August 1988 16 December 1999 3K 21 June 2005 (launch failure)

is that Cosmos 41 was flown as a test vehicle in 1964. This addition of quartz cover slides on the solar arrays. Early
association was determined after the Molniya satellites began Molniya 1 satellites are said to have a mass of 1650 kg.
to be launched into the same orbit as Cosmos 41; the Soviets The Molniya 1 communications subsystem can relay either
did not admit the relationship until 5 years after Cosmos 41 a single television signal or duplex narrowband (e.g., tele-
was launched. phone or telegraph) transmissions. About 40 W output power
The Molniya 1 satellites use three-axis stabilization. Both is used for transmission of a television signal; with narrow-
solar panels and antennas are deployed after launch. Although band operation, each of the two signals has an output power of
Fig. 5.1 shows parabolic reflector antennas, some Molniya 1 about 14 W. The Molniya 1 design has probably been modi-
satellites used antennas composed of four helices. The gim- fied several times during the past 30 years. However, many
balled antennas are pointed at Earth, while the whole satel- details of the satellites never have been described, so it is im-
lite body is rotated to orient the solar array toward the sun. possible to determine how much the design has changed. One
The solar-array output on Cosmos 41 and the first Molniya of the changes seems to have been the addition of low-noise
1 satellites degraded much faster than expected, which was preamplifiers, not present on early satellites, to the receivers.
caused by passage through altitudes of intense radiation twice The first Molniya 1 was launched in April 1965. During its
per orbit. At least part of the solution to the problem was the first day in orbit, television signals were exchanged between

239
Russian Satellites

Molniya 3
The first Molniya 3 satellite was launched in November 1974.
The basic characteristics of the Molniya 2 and Molniya 3 series
seem to be the same, and no explanation has been given for the
change in name. Each satellite has three or four transponders
in the same frequency bands used by Molniya 2. Transmitter
powers per transponder have been reported as being 20, 40,
or 80 W. The Molniya 3 satellites were launched to establish
a four-satellite constellation, which grew to an eight-satellite
constellation in the early 1980s. These eight followed the same
tracks used by the Molniya 1 satellites. However, like the
Molniya 1s, fewer Molniya 3s have been launched in recent
years, and the active constellation must have decreased in size.
The satellites handle telephone and television traffic within
Russia and between Russia and other countries, although the
majority of international traffic is on geostationary satellites.
Two Molniya 3K satellites have been launched. Since no
Fig. 5.1. Molniya 1 satellite. distinction has been made between Molniya 3 and 3K, in
Table 5.1 both types are listed in the Molniya 3 column.
Moscow and Vladivostok. In 1966, the first increment of ******
stations in the Orbita ground network became operational. 1. A. D. Fortushenko, “The Soviet Communication Satel-
These stations can receive television signals, and both receive lite Molniya 1,” Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 32, No. 10
and transmit voice, data, and facsimile signals. Moscow and (October 1965).
Vladivostok are the two primary stations and are the only ones
to transmit television. 2. V. Lustiberg, “Satellite Radiocommunication in
The original Molniya 1 constellation had three active satel- the USSR,” Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 33, No. 12
lites; it soon grew to four. In the 1970s, the constellation grew (December 1966).
to eight active satellites. The eight are in two groups of four; 3. L. Ya. Kantor, V. A. Polukhin, and N. V. Talyzin, “New
each group’s orbits have a common ground track, with the sat- Relay Stations of the Orbita-2 Satellite Communications
ellites spaced 6 hr apart along the ground track. The apogees System,” Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol.
of the two groups’ ground tracks are separated by 90 deg of 27, No. 5 (May 1973).
longitude with the ascending nodes at approximately 65° and 4. N. I. Kalashnikov, Satellite Communication Systems,
155°E longitude. However, the rate at which Molniyas were Translation JPRS-54505, Joint Publications Research Service,
launched decreased significantly since the late 1990s. While Washington, D.C. (September 1971).
some of the decrease might be due to increased satellite life, it
is likely that the number of active satellites in the constellation 5. K. L. Plummer, “Soviet Communications Satellites,”
has decreased. Spaceflight, Vol. 12, No. 8 (August 1970).
In recent years the name Molniya 1T has been used. It ap- 6. K. L. Plummer, “1970: A Soviet Space Year,” Space-
parently refers to an improved model, but because no distinc- flight, Vol. 13, No. 5 (May 1971).
tion has been made between Molniya 1 and 1T, both are listed
7. D. G. King-Hele, “The Orbital Lifetimes of Molniya
in the Molniya 1 column in Table 5.1.
Satellites,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol.
28, No. 12 (December 1975).
Molniya 2 8. “A Pattern of Molniyas,” Flight International (16
Molniya 2 satellites evolved from the Molniya 1 satellites; the January 1975), p. 79.
first launch was in November l971. A major change was the 9. Aerospace Daily (19 December 1975), p. 264; (2
communication frequencies, which were in the 5.7 to 6.2 GHz September 1976), p. 10; (30 September 1976), p. 144; (26
band for reception and the 3.4 to 3.9 GHz band for transmission. November 1976), p. 132; (28 December 1976), p. 274; (12
Molniya 1 satellites use 0.8 to 1.0 GHz for both transmission April 1977), p. 244; (21 July 1977), p. 105.
and reception. Besides the frequency change, it seems that
Molniya 2 had a greater communication capacity than Molniya 10. Flight International (24 April 1975), p. 686; (17 July
1. Some, or all, of the Molniya 2 satellites used horn antennas 1976), p. 187; (25 September 1976), p. 982.
rather than the parabolic reflectors used on Molniya l satellites. 11. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal
In both cases, the antenna pattern was approximately Earth of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August
coverage (approximately 20 deg beamwidth) when the satellite 1985).
was near apogee. A major change in support subsystems was 12. Space Communications and Broadcasting, Vol. 2,
additional panels on the Molniya 2 solar array, which increased No. 3 (September 1984), p. 291; Vol. 6, No. 1–2 (May 1988),
the power generation 50 percent. The last Molniya 2 launch p. 31.
was in February 1977; these satellites have been replaced by
the Molniya 3 satellites. 13. N. L. Johnson, “Satcom in the Soviet Union,” Satellite
Communications (June 1988).

240
 Raduga

14. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in Index of Objects Launched into Outer Space,” http://www.
Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation, unoosa.org/oosa/en/osoindex.html (2004), (12 July 2005).
Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque 17. W. P. Hooper, W. M. Rogers, and J. G. Whitman Jr.,
(undated). “Earth Station for the U.S.A.-U.S.S.R. Direct Communication
15. L. E. Ninas, “The Current Status of Russian/CIS Link,” Paper 74-424, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite
Communication Satellites,” Thesis, Naval Postgraduate systems Conference (April 1974).
School, Monterey, California (September 1994). 18. B. Hendrickx, “The Early Years of the Molniya Pro-
16. United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Online gram,” Quest, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Fall 1998).

Raduga
The Molniya satellites all use elliptical, high-inclination or- Earth stations. These satellites would operate in the 5.7 to 6.2
bits. Beginning in 1969, the Soviet Union discussed plans GHz (uplink) and 3.4 to 3.9 GHz (downlink) bands. Although
for a communication satellite called Statsionar (Stationary), most of these satellites are positioned to serve Russia and
which would be placed in geostationary orbit [1–4]. The first neighboring countries, the system does provide broader cover-
announcements indicated a launch of Statsionar at the end of age. Coverage of Russia itself requires at least two satellites,
1970. Actually, in March 1974, Cosmos 637 was the first Soviet because the geography is such that the entire country cannot
satellite put into geosynchronous orbit. Although not named as be seen from any one point in geostationary orbit. Often oc-
a predecessor of Statsionar, it generally has been assumed to cupied longitudes are 12ºE, 35ºE, 45ºE, 49ºE, 70ºE, 85ºE, and
be such. Molniya 1S was launched into synchronous orbit on 128ºE.
29 July 1974. The name and announcement clearly indicated At the end of 1975 the Soviet Union launched the first
that it was a communication satellite. The S in the satellite Raduga (Rainbow) satellite [5–13], which took the position
name apparently stood for synchronous or Statsionar. identified for Statsionar 1. This began a pattern in which spe-
In the second half of 1975, the Soviet Union released some cifically named satellites or payloads implemented capabilities
details of the Statsionar system. The plans included 10 satel- announced under the generic Statsionar designation. The ini-
lites, designated Statsionar 1 to 10, for telephony and telegra- tial missions of the Raduga series were to distribute television
phy and for distribution of television programs to Orbita-size signals to the Orbita-2 ground network and to support military

Table 5.2. Raduga Satellites Table 5.2. Raduga Satellites (continued)

Satellite Satellite
Number Launch Date Status Number Launch Date Status
a a
1 22 December 1975 25 15 February 1990
a b
2 11 September 1976 26 20 December 1990
a
3 24 July 1977 1-2c 27 December 1990 a

a a
4 18 July 1978 27 28 February 1991
a a
5 25 April 1979 28 19 December 1991
a b
6 20 February 1980 29 25 March 1993
a b
7 5 October 1980 30 30 September 1993
a
8 18 March 1981 1-3c 5 February 1994 b

a a
9 21 July 1981 31 18 February 1994
a d
10 9 October 1981 32 28 December 1994
a
11 26 November 1982 –e 19 February 1996
a
12 8 April 1983 1-4c 28 February 1999 d

a
13 26 August 1983 –f 5 July 1999
a
14 15 February 1984 1-5c 28 August 2000 49°Eg
a
15 22 June 1984 1-6 or 33 6 October 2001 70°Eg
a
16 8 August 1985 1-7 or 34 27 March 2004 85°Eg
a
17 15 November 1985
a
18 17 January 1986 a
Satellite has been moved out of geosynchronous orbit, or has failed and is drifting.
a
19 25 October 1986 b
Satellite probably no longer working.
a
20 19 March 1987 c
Sometimes all the Raduga satellites are numbered consecutively, so that 1-1
a
21 10 December 1987 becomes 24, 1-3 becomes 33, 31 becomes 34, etc.
a
22 20 October 1988 d
Satellite possibly operational.
a
23 14 April 1989 e
Launch vehicle upper-stage failure, satellite reentered atmosphere 6 May 2004.
1-1c 21 June 1989 a
f
a
Launch vehicle failure.
24 15 December 1989 g
Satellite apparently operational.

241
Russian Satellites

and government communications. After the Gorizont series 2. Space Communications and Broadcasting, Vol. 2,
became operational, the television distribution mission was No. 3 (September 1984), p. 291; Vol. 6, No. 1–2 (May 1988),
transferred to it. Since then, the Raduga series has apparently p. 31.
been devoted to military and government communications. 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (22 September
This inference is strengthened by the fact that some Radugas 1975), p. 17; (15 December 1975), pp. 14–16; (12 January
host Gals communication payloads that use frequencies used 1976), p. 42; (2 February 1976), pp. 44–45; (14 November
by satellites of other nations only for military communica- 1977), p. 20; (21 November 1977), p. 20; (25 June 1979), p.
tions. In 1989 Raduga 1-1 was launched. Launches of this 20; (5 November 1979), p. 23; (3 March 1980), p. 83; (9 March
series and the basic Raduga series have continued with no an- 1981), p. 88; (14 December 1981), p. 90; (24 October 1983),
nouncement of their distinctions. Some publications associate p. 24; (28 April 1986), p. 137; (9 February 1987), p. 21.
the name Globus with the Raduga 1-1 series of satellites.
Neither the Raduga satellites nor drawings nor photos of 4. Aerospace Daily (28 March 1974), p. 153; (31 July
them have been displayed, so their configuration is uncertain. 1974), pp. 169, 170; (28 October 1976), p. 270; (12 November
The Soviet Union announced that they are three-axis-stabi- 1976), p. 68; (26 July 1977), p. 131; (2 January 1980), p. 3.
lized and have sun-tracking solar arrays. Based on this and the 5. T. Pirard, “From Molniya to Ekran,” Spaceflight,
Soviet practice of using similar satellite bus designs for mul- Vol. 20, No. 1 (January 1978).
tiple applications, it is likely that the Radugas look similar,
6. N. L. Johnson, “The Development and Deployment
except for antennas, to the Gorizonts and Ekrans. The Radu-
of Soviet Geosynchronous Satellites,” Journal of the British
gas are estimated to weigh about 2000 kg. They are launched
Interplanetary Society, Vol. 35, No. 10 (October 1982).
by the Proton launch vehicle. The typical lifetime of a Raduga
satellite is 5 to 7 years; all launches are listed in Table 5.2. 7. N. L. Johnson, “Soviets Expand Use of GEO,” Satellite
Longitudes most commonly occupied by Raduga satellites Communications (July 1988).
include 35ºE, 45ºE, 70ºE, and 85ºE. 8. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in
The basic Raduga payload is probably five or six transpon- Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation,
ders with about 36 MHz bandwidth having uplinks near 6 Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque
GHz and downlinks between 3.4 and 3.7 GHz. The estimated (undated).
capacity of a Raduga is one television signal and up to 1000
duplex voice circuits, when used with 9 to 12.2 m-diameter 9. P. S. Clark, “Soviet Geosynchronous Orbit Satellite
Earth station antennas. Besides their basic payload, most or all Activity October 1991–May 1992,” Journal of the British
Radugas also host Gals and Volna communication payloads; Interplanetary Society, Vol. 46, No. 10 (October 1993).
moreover, some Radugas have Luch-P communication pay- 10. L. E. Ninas, “The Current Status of Russian/CIS
loads. These payloads are discussed in following sections. Communication Satellites,” Thesis, Naval Postgraduate
After launching 35 Raduga satellites in a period of less than School, Monterey, California (September 1994).
20 years, the launch rate slowed considerably. There were no 11. “Raduga 33,” http://www.tbs-satellite.com/online/sat_
launches in 1995, and the only one tried in 1996 failed when raduga_33.html (29 September 1999).
the upper-stage motor failed to restart after the first burn to
circularize the orbit. There was one success and one failure in 12. “Russian Military Satellite Launch Fails” (6 July 1999),
1999, and one success in each of 2000, 2001, and 2004. This http://defence-data.com/current/page4740.htm (7 September
lack of launches has reduced the number of Radugas available 1999).
for service and raises a question about how much longer this 13. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
type of satellite will continue to be fielded. 1990–1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
Vol. 54 (2001).
******
1. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal
of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August
1985).

Ekran
Satellite broadcasting in the Soviet Union began with Molniya In 1976 the first Ekran (Screen) satellite was launched to
1 satellites and the Orbita ground network in 1967. This do the Statsionar T mission [1–20]. Ekran 16, in 1987, was
expanded the percentage of the population that could receive the start of a second generation, sometimes called Ekran-M.
television, but further expansion became impractical because Two, or perhaps more, Ekrans were operated at the same time
the cost of the Orbita ground stations was not justifiable for to increase the number of television signals that are broadcast.
service to communities with populations of a few thousand. These satellites broadcast to ground stations of the Ekran net-
The solution was to use a satellite of higher power so that work, most of which are in the northern and Asian portions
the ground stations could be simplified. Therefore, the 1975 of Russia. These ground stations have simple arrays of four
Statsionar announcement included a Statsionar T, for television to 32 Yagi-type antennas. The ground stations feed terrestrial
broadcasting to Earth stations much smaller than those of the rebroadcast stations or cable distribution systems. In 1977, 60
Orbita network. stations were in operation with plans for more than 1000. By

242
 Ekran

Table 5.3. Ekran Satellites

Satellite
Number Launch Date Status
a
1 27 October 1976
a
2 20 September 1977
a
3 21 February 1979
a
4 3 October 1979
a
5 14 July 1980
a
6 26 December 1980
a
7 26 June 1981
a
8 5 February 1982
a
9 16 September 1982
a
10 12 March 1983
a
11 30 September 1983
a
12 16 March 1984
a
13 24 August 1984
a
14 22 March 1985
a
15 24 May 1986
a
16 4 September 1987
a
17 27 December 1987
a
18 6 May 1988
a
19 8 December 1988
20 30 October 1992 99°Eb
21 7 April 2001 99°Ec

Fig. 5.2. Ekran satellite. a

Satellite has been moved out of geosynchronous orbit, or has failed and is drifting.
b
Satellite probably no longer working.
c
Satellite apparently operational.

1991 more than 4000 were reported to be in use. The basic [19]. This failure, which occurred on 23 June 1978, was
Ekran satellite is pictured in Fig. 5.2; it is manufactured by caused by the explosion of a nickel-hydrogen battery. The
NPO-PM (Nauchno-Proizvodstvennoe Obiedinenie Prikladnoi breakup is the only one reported for a satellite in the geosyn-
Mekhaniki, Russian for Scientific Production Association of chronous orbit and identifies a potentially serious problem
Applied Mechanics). It has a pressurized body that is three- with space debris at a critical position in space.
axis-stabilized. The figure shows one-half of the deployed
solar array; the other half is on the other side of the satellite. ******
Ekran-M satellites have an additional solar panel on each side 1. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal
of the boom. Ekran-M satellites are estimated to weigh about of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August
2000 kg and to generate about 1.8 to 2 kW of power. 1985).
Ekran satellites had a single transponder that transmitted 2. Aviation Week & Space Technology (22 September
one television signal; Ekran-M satellites have two transpon- 1975), p. 17; (15 December 1975), pp. 14–16; (12 January
ders. The Ekran uplink is at 6.2 GHz with a downlink at 714 1976), p. 42; (2 February 1976), pp. 44–45; (14 November
MHz; the bandwidth is 24 MHz. Ekran-M added an uplink 1977), p. 20; (21 November 1977), p. 20; (25 June 1979), p.
at 6.0 GHz and a downlink at 754 MHz. Ekran transmitter 20; (5 November 1979), p. 23; (3 March 1980), p. 83; (9 March
power is 200 W per transponder. The transmitting antenna is 1981), p. 88; (14 December 1981), p. 90; (24 October 1983),
composed of 96 helical elements, deployed on four panels, as p. 24; (28 April 1986), p. 137; (9 February 1987) p. 21.
shown in Fig. 5.2. The antenna gain varies from about 33.5 dB
peak to 26 dB near the edge of the service area. 3. Aerospace Daily (28 March 1974), p. 153; (31 July
The lifetimes of the early Ekrans may have been as short as 1974), pp. 169–170; (28 October 1976), p. 270; (12 November
1 year; later lifetimes are estimated to be at least 3 years, and 1976), p. 68; (26 July 1977), p. 131; (2 January 1980), p. 3.
the satellite launched in 1992 operated at least 9 years. Table 4. “The Ekran System is Operational,” Telecommunica-
5.3 shows a history of the Ekran satellites. Ekran satellites op- tions and Radio Engineering, Vol. 31/32, No. 1 (January
erate only at 99ºE longitude. It is presumed from the paucity 1977).
of launches in the past 14 years that some of Ekran’s mission 5. V. A. Shamshin, “The Status of the Development of the
has been taken over by newer satellites. Television Broadcast Network and Prospects for the Future,”
In 1992 Russia acknowledged that one of its Ekran satel- Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol. 31/32, No.
lites (either 1 or 2) had broken up in geosynchronous orbit 5 (May 1977).
243
Russian Satellites

6. V. L. Bykov and V. A. Borovkov, “The Ground- 13. N. L. Johnson, “Soviets Expand Use of GEO,” Satellite
Based Transmitting Station of the ‘Ekran’ System,” Communications (July 1988).
Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol. 31/32, No. 14. W. L. Morgan, “Ekran—A Soviet Direct Broadcast
5 (May 1977). Satellite,” Satellite Communications (June 1991).
7. V. I. Dyachkov et al., “The Receiving Equipment of the 15. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in
‘Ekran’ System,” Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation,
Vol. 31/32, No. 5 (May 1977). Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque
8. V. D. Kunetsov, V. K. Paramonov, and N. V. (undated).
Soshinkova, “The Receiving Antenna of the ‘Ekran’ System,” 16. F. Stranák, “Satellite Communications in Eastern
Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol. 31/32, No. Europe,” IEEE Global Telecommunications Conference:
5 (May 1977). Globecom ’92, Vol. 3 (December 1992).
9. V. P. Minashin et al., “The Basic Principles of the ‘Ekran’ 17. P. S. Clark, “Soviet Geosynchronous Orbit Satellite
System,” Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol. Activity October 1991–May 1992,” Journal of the British
31/32, No. 1 (January 1977). Interplanetary Society, Vol. 46, No. 10 (October 1993).
10. S. V. Borodich, “Satellite TV Broadcasting System 18. L. E. Ninas, “The Current Status of Russian/CIS
‘Ekran,’” Using Space-Today and Tomorrow, XXVIIIth Communication Satellites,” Thesis, Naval Postgraduate
International Astronautical Congress Proceedings (September School, Monterey, California (September 1994).
1977), Vol. 2 (1978).
19. C. Covault, “Russia Seeks Joint Space Test to Build
11. T. Pirard, “From Molniya to Ekran,” Spaceflight, Vol. Military Cooperation,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (9
20, No. 1 (January 1978). March 1992).
12. N. L. Johnson, “The Development and Deployment 20. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
of Soviet Geosynchronous Satellites,” Journal of the British 1990–1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
Interplanetary Society, Vol. 35, No. 10 (October 1982). Vol. 54 (2001).

Gorizont
The Soviet Union launched the first Gorizont (Horizon) satellite The Gorizont satellites are built by NPO-PM and launched
[1–18] in December 1978, and displayed one at the 1979 Paris by the Proton launch vehicle; the history is given in Table
Air Show. The satellite was not associated with the Statsionar 5.4. They have been used at longitudes from 14ºW to at least
system until the third launch was identified as Statsionar 5. 145ºE. The last Gorizont was launched in 2000, and they are
The first Gorizont had an elliptical, 11 deg inclination orbit being replaced by the Express satellites described below.
with a 24 hr period, attributed to a launch vehicle malfunction. The satellites weigh approximately 2200 kg and generate
Subsequent Gorizonts have geosynchronous, near geostationary 1.3 kW of power primarily from the deployed arrays but also
orbits. There is no control of inclination, that is, no north-south from some body-mounted solar cells. The body is pressurized,
stationkeeping, although the initial orbit parameters are chosen like other Soviet and Russian satellites, and is three-axis-sta-
to minimize inclination change over the satellite lifetime. bilized. Overall satellite dimensions are 5.45 x 3.3 x 9.45 m.
The initial announcement regarding Gorizont was that Their typical lifetimes have been 5 to 7 years, with a maxi-
it was for television relay. Three Gorizonts were launched mum of about 10 years, although current Intersputnik specifi-
before the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow and were used cations list only a 3- to 5-year lifetime.
in the televising of that event. Besides television, Gorizonts The Gorizont satellite (Fig. 5.3) has seven transponders.
provide other types of communications both within the former Six are at C-band with uplinks in 5975 to 6275 MHz and
Soviet Union and Russia and internationally. Gorizonts are downlinks in 3650 to 3950 MHz. These appear to make up
used for civil communications, in contrast to the government the basic Gorizont payload. The seventh is at Ku-band with an
and military uses ascribed to the Raduga series. Transponders
on some Gorizonts were leased to the Intersputnik organiza-
tion, described at the end of this chapter, but these leases had
ceased by 2005 with Intersputnik having switched to Express
satellites. Gorizonts 29 and 30, and perhaps an older satellite
(Gorizont 17), were leased to the U.S. company Rimsat (see
chapter 2) for international communications in Asia and the
Pacific. Because of a financial dispute, these satellites were
taken over by Intersputnik in late 1995. Within Russia, the
Orbita-RV and Moskva ground networks are associated with
the Gorizont satellites. The Orbita-RV stations are derived
from the Orbita-2 stations used with Molniya-3 satellites. The
Moskva stations are smaller and simpler, with 2.4 m-diameter
antennas. Fig. 5.3. Gorizont satellite.

244
 Gorizont

Table 5.4. Gorizont Satellites G G Z G Z G S H

Satellite
Number Launch Date Status
S S S
1 19 December 1978 7
a
2 5 July 1979
a
3 28 December 1979
a 9
4 14 June 1980 C
5 15 March 1982 a C-band
a
6 20 October 1982 11
a
7 30 June 1983
a
8 30 November 1983
a
6
9 22 April 1984
a
10 1 August 1984
11 18 January 1985 a 8
a
12 10 June 1986
a S C
13 18 November 1986 10
a
14 11 May 1987
a
15 31 March 1988
16 18 August 1988 a G Global beam 17° × 17°
17 26 January 1989 a D H Hemiglobal beam 9° × 18°
18 5 July 1989 a
Z Zone beam 6° × 12°
a
19 25 September 1989 S Spot beam 5° × 15°
a
20 20 June 1990
a
21 3 November 1990 Ku-band
a
22 23 November 1990
23 1 July 1991 a Fig. 5.4. Gorizont communication subsystems.
a
24 24 October 1991
b
25 2 April 1992
26 14 July 1992 b formed by the elliptical reflectors around the large antenna;
27 27 November 1992 b and global beams, probably formed by both the circular and
28 28 October 1993 b rectangular horns seen below and left of the spot-beam an-
29 18 November 1993 b tenna. All these antennas use circular polarization. G/Ts are in
30 20 May 1994 b the range -7 to -14 dB/K. EIRPs are in the range 25 to 43 dB;
31 25 January 1996 40°Ec the low end is the 12 to 15 W transponders in a global beam,
32 25 May 1996 53°Ec and the high end is the high-power transponder in a spot
33 6 June 2000 145°Ed beam. The Ku-band has –3.5 dB G/T, with approximately 20
W amplifier power connected to a 5 deg spot beam.
a
Satellite has been moved out of geosynchronous orbit, or has failed and is drifting.
A group of four helix antennas seen on some Gorizont
b
displays is associated with the Volna subsystem. The com-
Satellite probably no longer working.
c
munication subsystem diagram (Fig. 5.4) indicates the general
Satellite possibly operational.
d
nature of the connections between the transponders and the
Satellite apparently operational
antenna beams. However, the diagram and the satellite figure
do not necessarily have a full correspondence since it is un-
uplink at 14.325 GHz and the downlink at 11.525 GHz. This certain whether the satellite figure includes antennas for other
transponder is identified as a Luch, or Loutch, payload. Some payloads and whether the figure and diagram represent the
or all Gorizonts also carried a Volna payload, and a few might same configuration of the basic Gorizont payload.
have had a Potok payload; each of these is described in the ******
following sections.
Five of the six C-band transponders of the basic payload 1. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal
have 34 MHz bandwidths, while the sixth has either 34 or 40 of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August
MHz bandwidth. The Ku-band transponder also has a 36 MHz 1985).
bandwidth. They are numbered as transponders 6 through 12 2. Space Communications and Broadcasting, Vol. 2, No.
(12 is assigned to the Ku-band transponder); a comparison 3 (September 1984), p. 291; Vol. 6, No. 1–2 (May 1988), p.
of the downlink frequencies with those used by the Radugas 31.
implies that transponders 1 through 5 are on the Raduga satel- 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (22 September
lites. 1975), p. 17; (15 December 1975), pp. 14–16; (12 January
Five of the six Gorizont C-band transponders have ampli- 1976), p. 42; (2 February 1976), pp. 44–45; (14 November
fier powers of 12 to 15 W; the sixth has a power somewhere 1977), p. 20; (21 November 1977), p. 20; (25 June 1979), p.
between 40 and 60 W. These transponders are connected to a 20; (5 November 1979), p. 23; (3 March 1980), p. 83; (9 March
5 deg spot beam formed by the large reflector in the center of 1981), p. 88; (14 December 1981), p. 90; (24 October 1983),
Fig. 5.3; 9 x 18 deg hemiglobal and 6 x 12 deg zone beams, p. 24; (28 April 1986), p. 137; (9 February 1987), p. 21.

245
Russian Satellites

4. Aerospace Daily (28 March 1974), p. 153; (31 July 11. F. Stranák, “Satellite Communications in Eastern
1974), pp. 169–170; (28 October 1976), p. 270; (12 November Europe,” IEEE Global Telecommunications Conference:
1976), p. 68; (26 July 1977), p. 131; (2 January 1980), p. 3. Globecom ’92, Vol. 3 (December 1992).
5. L. Ya. Kantor, “The ‘Moskva’ Satellite Television 12. P. S. Clark, “Soviet Geosynchronous Orbit Satellite
Broadcasting System,” Telecommunications and Radio Activity October 1991–May 1992,” Journal of the British
Engineering, Vol. 34/35, No. 1 (January 1980). Interplanetary Society, Vol. 46, No. 10 (October 1993).
6. L. Ya. Kantor, “The ‘Orbita-RV’ Satellite Sound 13. L. E. Ninas, “The Current Status of Russian/CIS
Broadcasting and Newspaper Column Transmission System,” Communication Satellites,” Thesis, Naval Postgraduate
Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol. 36/37, No. School, Monterey, California (September 1994).
5 (May 1982). 14. Users Handbook, Intersputnik International Organiza-
7. T. Pirard, “Intersputnik: The Eastern ‘Brother’ of tion of Space Communications, Moscow (1994).
Intelsat,” Satellite Communications, Vol. 6, No. 8 (August 15. “Gorizont Satellite,” http://www.intersputnik.com/
1982). gorizont.shtml (20 September 1999).
8. N. L. Johnson, “The Development and Deployment 16. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
of Soviet Geosynchronous Satellites,” Journal of the British 1990–1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
Interplanetary Society, Vol. 35, No. 10 (October 1982). Vol. 54 (2001).
9. N. L. Johnson, “Soviets Expand Use of GEO,” Satellite 17. M. Long, “Russia’s Statsionar Satellite System,”
Communications (July 1988). SatFACTS (August 1996), also at http://www.mlesat.com/
10. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in Archive2.html (12 July 2005).
Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation, 18. NPO-PM, “Communication Satellite, ‘GORIZONT,’”
Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque http://www.npopm.ru/e/index.htm (12 July 2005).
(undated).

Gals (Military Communications)

In 1977, the Soviet Union announced plans for three new mation has been released about Russian civil and commercial
communication systems using satellites in synchronous orbit: satellite systems.
Gals, Volna, and Luch (or Loutch) [1–3]. A few additional By the second half of the 1990s, no new references to a
Gals and Volna satellites were announced in subsequent years. Gals satellite or payload for military applications have been
Additional Statsionar orbital positions have been announced noted (all recent use of the name Gals has referred to the tele-
to encompass the orbital longitudes that do not correspond vision broadcast satellite described below), so this program
to the Statsionar 1 to 10 series. The coincidences of different might have reached its end even though no new replacement
systems at various longitudes suggested multiple payloads on program in the same frequency band has been identified.
a single spacecraft.
Gals (Tack) is a system intended for government and mili- ******
tary service [1–4]. It is distinct from the Gals television broad- 1. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal
casting satellite described below. The Gals government service of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August
system has uplinks in the 7.9 to 8.4 GHz band and downlinks 1985).
in the 7.25 to 7.75 GHz band. The Soviet Union said that this 2. N. L. Johnson, “The Development and Deployment
Gals has 10 narrowband channels, with 3 or 4 receivers and of Soviet Geosynchronous Satellites,” Journal of the British
transmitters and that antenna patterns include Earth cover- Interplanetary Society, Vol. 35, No. 10 (October 1982).
age, Northern Hemisphere, and a spot beam with about 5 deg
beamwidth. The original announcement of Gals led some to 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (14 November
assume that it could be a distinct satellite. However, this view 1977), p. 20; (21 November 1977), p. 19; (5 November 1979),
did not last long, and the current consensus is that Gals is a p. 23; (3 March 1980), p. 83; (9 March 1981), p. 88; (24
payload carried on some or all of the Raduga satellites. As the October 1983), p. 24; (28 April 1986), p. 137; (9 February
Radugas, little information has been released about Gals. In 1987), p. 21.
contrast, since the fall of the Soviet Union, considerable infor- 4. N. L. Johnson, “Soviets Expand Use of GEO,” Satellite
Communications (July 1988).

Volna
Volna (Wave) is a system for mobile communications [1–7]. of Volna. One variant uses L-band frequencies, the other
The original Volna announcement included seven orbital uses both L-band and UHF. The former seems to exist only
locations. The original announcement included two variations as a payload on Gorizont satellites, presumably for merchant

246
 Potok

marine communications; the latter only as a payload on 1. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal
Raduga satellites, presumably for military or other government of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August
communications. Morya (Seaman) is another name used in the 1985).
past for satellite communications for mobile terminals, but its 2. N. L. Johnson, “The Development and Deployment
relation to Volna is unknown. of Soviet Geosynchronous Satellites,” Journal of the British
The L-band portion of the two Volna variants has uplinks Interplanetary Society, Vol. 35, No. 10 (October 1982).
between 1630 and 1660 MHz and downlinks between 1530
and 1559 MHz. These are links from and to mobile terminals. 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (14 November
The Volna payload on Gorizont satellites has a 500 kHz band- 1977), p. 20; (21 November 1977), p. 19; (5 November 1979),
width with an EIRP of 26 dBW and a G/T of –20 dB/K. p. 23; (3 March 1980), p. 83; (9 March 1981), p. 88; (24
The UHF portion of the Volna hosted on Raduga has up- October 1983), p. 24; (28 April 1986), p. 137; (9 February
links and downlinks in 240 to 322 and 335.4 to 400 MHz. 1987), p. 21.
At these frequencies, the mobile terminals have very broad 4. N. L. Johnson, “Soviets Expand Use of GEO,” Satellite
antenna beams that cannot discriminate between multiple sat- Communications (July 1988).
ellites in view. Hence, a number of agreements were made in
5. L. E. Ninas, “The Current Status of Russian/CIS
the 1970s and 1980s between the Soviet Union and the United
Communication Satellites,” Thesis, Naval Postgraduate
States identifying distinct frequencies that the satellites of
School, Monterey, California (September 1994).
each nation would use. Although the number of channels per
payload is uncertain, the Soviet-U.S. agreements have at least 6. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in
11 downlink segments for Soviet satellites. The satellite an- Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation,
tenna beams are apparently slightly broader (i.e., lower gain) Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque
than Earth coverage. (undated).
****** 7. NPO-PM, “Communication Satellite, ‘GORIZONT,’”
http://www.npopm.ru/e/index.htm (12 July 2005).

Potok
Potok (Stream) [1–5] is a geosynchronous satellite system that Table 5.5. Potok Satellites
has satellites identified with Cosmos numbers. Sometimes
the name Geiser (or Geyser) is used for the Potok satellites. Name Launch Date Status
a
It appears that the name Potok is given to the payload, while Cosmos 1366 16 May 1982
a
Geyser applies to the actual satellite bus. Both Potok and Luch Cosmos 1540 2 March 1984
a
have been reported to have a data relay function. In the United Cosmos 1738 4 April 1986
a
States, “data relay” usually means providing communications Cosmos 1888 1 October 1987
b
between satellites and ground stations, as is done by TDRSS Cosmos 1961 1 August 1988
b
Cosmos 2085 18 July 1990
(Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System). It appears that a
Cosmos 2172 22 November 1991
Potok does not do this type of data relay but rather transmits b
Cosmos 2291 22 September 1994
documents and digital data between ground stations, primarily a
Cosmos 2319 30 August 1995
for the government and military. Uplinks to Potok are between Cosmos 2371 4 July 2000 c
4.4 and 4.7 GHz; downlinks are between 3.2 and 4 GHz.
Of the three Potok locations, 80°E, 13.5°W, and 168°W a
Satellite has been moved out of geosynchronous orbit, or has failed and is drifting.
longitude, only the first two have been occupied. Known Po- b
Satellite probably no longer working.
tok (or Geyser) satellites are listed in Table 5.5. A few other c
Satellite possibly operational.
Cosmos satellites are sometimes tentatively associated with
the Potok program, because of the combination of operating at
80°E longitude together with an uncertain mission. Like other 3. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in
Russian government satellites, no drawing of a Potok has been Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation,
released. With only one launch since 1995, it is uncertain Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque
whether the program is still alive. (undated).
4. P. S. Clark, “Soviet Geosynchronous Orbit Satellite
******
Activity October 1991–May 1992,” Journal of the British
1. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal Interplanetary Society, Vol. 46, No. 10 (October 1993).
of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August
5. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
1985).
1990–1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
2. N. L. Johnson, “Soviets Expand Use of GEO,” Satellite Vol. 54 (2001).
Communications (July 1988).

247
Russian Satellites

Luch
Luch (Beam or Ray), or Loutch, was among the systems
announced in 1977. The first Luch was launched in 1982
as a payload on Gorizont 5. It was used in a program of
communications and propagation experiments carried out
by the Soviet Union and several Eastern European nations.
Since then the designation Luch has been manifested in four
forms [1–14]. The first is a Luch payload on Gorizonts. The
second is a Luch P payload on Radugas; the meaning of the
P is unexplained. The third is the Ku-band payload on the
Express satellites. Finally Luch is also a distinct system, with
the satellites sometimes named Altair. Another announcement
of a venture called TASS-Loutch Telecom noted that the first
satellite is active and located at 77°E, which was the location of
the Luch 1 satellite. The other two were scheduled for launch
in 1998 and 1999, but neither launch occurred.
The Luch payload on Gorizont has a single transponder
with a 34 to 36 MHz bandwidth. The uplink is centered at
14.325 GHz and the downlink at 11.525 GHz. This payload is
sometimes considered the 11 and 14 GHz portion of the Gori-
zont payload, rather than being separately named as Luch. The
uplink and downlink share a single linearly polarized antenna
with a 5 deg beamwidth. The uplink G/T is –3.5 dB/K; the
downlink EIRP is about 36 dBW. This Luch, like other Gori-
zont payloads, is used for civil communications. The Luch P
payload is assumed to be the same as or similar to the Luch
payload. As with Luch, Luch P is sometimes considered the
11 and 14 GHz portion of the Raduga payload, rather than
being separately named. Luch P, like other Raduga payloads,
is used for government and military communications. The Fig. 5.5. Luch satellite.
Ku-band payload on the Express satellite has one transponder
with the same up and downlink frequencies as those of the
Luch payload on the Gorizont. However, it also includes a
second transponder with similar characteristics but with an of the satellite, including solar panels and antennas, are about
uplink centered at 14.425 GHz and a downlink centered at 8.5 x 11 x 16 m.
11.625 GHz. These two transponders share a linearly polar- The Luch satellite carries out the mission that was an-
ized 5° beam. Since Express is the replacement for Gorizont, nounced in 1981 as the Satellite Data Relay Network (SDRN)
the Luch payload on Express is the replacement for the Luch and may also carry out the related SSRD mission. The an-
payload on Gorizont. nounced SDRN longitudes are 16°W, 95°E, and 160°W, desig-
The Luch system is sometimes called the Soviet or Rus- nated west, central, and east (as seen from the Soviet Union),
sian equivalent of NASA’s TDRSS. This is partially true, in and sometimes named WSDRN, CSDRN, and ESDRN. The
that this Luch provides communications between low-orbit announced SSRD longitudes are 16°W, 77°E, and 167°W,
satellites and ground stations, as does TDRSS. However, the and sometimes named ZSSRD, CSSRD/TSSRD, and VSSRD
Luch satellite apparently also includes transponders used for from the Russian words for west, central, and east. The west-
communications between ground stations; in this aspect the ern and both central locations were occupied at times, but the
satellite is similar to the Luch and Luch P payloads. eastern locations were never occupied. In mid-1988 one satel-
Frequencies reported for use by the Luch satellite are: lite was temporarily placed at 12°E longitude to support the
15.05 GHz from low-orbit satellites; 13.52 GHz to low-orbit first flight of Buran. The Luch satellites are listed in Table 5.6
satellites; 700 to 900 MHz to and from low-orbit satellites; with the Cosmos numbers, which were the official designators
14.62 GHz for uplinks, including signals to be sent to low- for the older satellites.
orbit satellites, from control stations; and 10.82, 11.32, and Table 5.6. Luch Satellites
perhaps 13.7 GHz for downlinks to control stations, including
signals from low-orbit satellites. These frequencies have been Name Launch Date Status
used for communications, including voice and television sig- Cosmos 1700 25 October 1985 a

nals, with the Mir space station and the Buran reusable launch Cosmos 1897 26 November 1987 a

vehicle. The Luch satellites also have other uses such as tele- Cosmos 2054 27 December 1989 a

conferencing. Antenna beamwidths are 0.5 deg for 13 and 15 Luch 16 December 1994 a

GHz links, 5 deg for 700 to 900 MHz links, and 1 deg for 11 Luch 1 11 October 1995 a

and 14 GHz links. a

Satellite is no longer working.
Luch satellites have a mass of 2400 kg and produce 1.8 kW
of power; they are built by NPO-PM. The in-orbit dimensions

248
 Gals (Satellite Broadcasting)

The last Luch was launched in 1995 and none have been 6. N. L. Johnson, “Soviets Expand Use of GEO,” Satellite
operating since approximately the end of 1999. Because their Communications (July 1988).
primary function was communications with the Mir space sta- 7. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in
tion, which decayed out of orbit in March 2001, it is unlikely Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation,
that any more Luch satellites will be launched. Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque
****** (undated).
1. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal 8. P. S. Clark, “Soviet Geosynchronous Orbit Satellite
of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August Activity October 1991–May 1992,” Journal of the British
1985). Interplanetary Society, Vol. 46, No. 10 (October 1993).
2. Aviation Week & Space Technology (14 November 9. L. E. Ninas, “The Current Status of Russian/CIS Com-
1977), p. 20; (21 November 1977), p. 19; (5 November 1979), munication Satellites,” Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School,
p. 23; (3 March 1980), p. 83; (9 March 1981), p. 88; (24 Monterey, California (September 1994).
October 1983), p. 24; (28 April 1986), p. 137; (9 February 10. Users Handbook, Intersputnik International Organiza-
1987), p. 21. tion of Space Communications, Moscow (1994).
3. V. L. Bykov et al., “The International Experimental 11. “Express Satellite,” http://www.intersputnik.com/sate
Section of the Dubna Experimental Satellite Communications ///expr.htm#top, (22 July 1999).
System,” Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol.
37, No. 10 (October 1983). 12. R. McCaffery, “Russian Satellite Market Opens to New
Venture,” Space News (30 June 1997), p. 14.
4. P. S. Clark, “The Soviet Space Year of 1984,” Journal
of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 38, No. 8 (August 13. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
1985). 1990 – 1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
Vol. 54 (2001).
5. Flight International (19 April 1986), p. 20; (31 October
1987), p. 17. 14. NPO-PM, “Data Relay Satellite, ‘Luch,’” http://www.
npopm.ru/e/produkt/satellites/luch.htm (12 July 2005).

Gals (Satellite Broadcasting)

The Gals satellite [1–11] provides television broadcasting for
use at individual locations and for local area distribution. It has
no known connection, other than name, with the Gals military
communications payload on the Raduga satellites. The Gals
satellites are built by NPO-PM, with financing provided by
the private company Informcosmos (later InSpace). This
may have been the first satellite built with money not directly
budgeted by the Russian government. The Gals satellites each
weigh about 2500 kg and generate 2400 W of power. The
NiH2 batteries are stated to provide full power during eclipses.
The satellite diameter is about 4 m, and the solar array span
is about 21 m. The satellite has east-west and north-south
stationkeeping to an accuracy of ±0.2 deg; it is the first Soviet
or Russian satellite to have north-south stationkeeping, and is
accomplished by means of electric propulsion. Earth and star
sensors on the satellite and the reception of uplink beacons are
used to achieve ±0.1 deg attitude control.
Each Gals satellite has three 27 MHz bandwidth transpon- Fig. 5.6. Gals satellite.
ders transmitting in the 11.8 to 12.3 GHz band. The satellite
has two transmitting antennas, one producing a 1.25 x 2.5 deg
beam, the other producing a 0.9 x 1.2 deg beam; they can be
steered toward any point on the Earth, and the orientation of
the 1.25 x 2.5 deg beam can be rotated over a 60 deg angle. downlink is possible with 60 to 90 cm diameter antennas;
There are also two receiving antennas with 2 deg beams. The reception of professional-quality signals requires an antenna
uplinks are specified to be in the 17.4 to 17.9 GHz band. The diameter of about 2.4 m.
three transponders each have full redundancy. Two transpon- The first Gals was launched 20 January 1994 by a Proton
ders have 90 W amplifiers, and one has a 45 W amplifier. launch vehicle. It was tested at 44°E longitude. The satellite
Transponder and antenna connections are shown in the com- was leased to a Chinese broadcaster, and in July 1994 it was
munication subsystem diagram in Fig. 5.7. The downlink relocated to 71°E to be used for broadcasting from China to
EIRP is stated to be 55 to 57 dBW; uplink G/T is stated to be Taiwan. Gals 2 was launched 17 November 1995 and was also
0 dB/K to as much as 2 dB/K. Individual reception of the Gals initially positioned at 71°E. In 1996 both were repositioned.

249
Russian Satellites

2. C. Bulloch, “Russat ’93, A Catalog of Assets,” Via

Satellite, Vol. 8, No. 7 (July 1993).
3. Gals Satellite Data Sheet, Informcosmos, Moscow
Transponder 1 C (undated).
4. W. Griethe and F. Schwan, “The Gals Satellite,” Via
S Transponder 2 Satellite, Vol. 10, No. 5 (May 1995).
5. K. Lantratov and V. Kamozov, “Russia’s New Commu-
S Transponder 3 nications Satellites,” Launchspace Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 1
(February/March 1998).
Receiver Transmit
Transponder Power Beamwidth Beamwidth 6. I. S. Tsyrlin and V. B. Tamarkin, “Russian Mobile
1, 2 90 W 2 s 2 deg 1.25 s 2.5 deg
Satellite Communication Program,” Proceedings of the
Fourth International Mobile Satellite Conference (Ottawa,
3 45 W 2 s 2 deg 0.9 s 1.2 deg
June 1995), p. 536.
Fig. 5.7. Gals communication subsystem.
7. “Gals Direct Broadcast Satellite,” http://www.
Gals-R, with four to six transponders for television broad- intersputnik.com/satell/gals.htm (20 September 1999).
casting, and Gals-RM were announced, as were Gals-R6 and 8. “Gals 1,” http://www.tele-satellit.com/tse/online/ sat_
Gals-R12, with six and 12 transponders, respectively. InSpace gals_1.html (2 March 1998). (28 April 1998).
has also announced a contract to a Canadian firm for four 9. “Gals 2,” http://www.tele-satellit.com/tse/online/ sat_
high-power Ku-band repeaters for a Gals-R16 [12]. However, gals_2.html (2 March 1998), (28 April 1998).
by 2005 there had not been a launch of any type of Gals sat-
ellite after the original two satellites. Gelikon or STV-12, a 10. “SATCO DX: Gals 1/2 & TDF 2 at 36,0° E,” http://
larger television broadcast satellite with 12 transponders, was www.satcodx.com/gals.shtml (4 May 1998).
also announced but not launched. 11. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
****** 1990–1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
Vol. 54 (2001).
1. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in
Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation, 12. “Inspace Chooses Spar for Gals-R16 Satellite Work,”
Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque Space News (19 May 1997) p. 11.
(undated).

Express
The Express or Ekspress [1–17] communication satellites The Express program was originally managed by the
are the successor to the Gorizont satellites and the Luch Informcosmos association, which includes NPO-PM, the
payload on these satellites. They are possibly a full or partial Russian Scientific Research Institute for Space Device Engi-
successor to the Raduga satellites and the Volna payload on neering, the Radio Scientific Research Institute, the Russian
the Raduga satellites, since one of their announced missions is Space Communication Company, and Informcosmos. At some
government communications. It might also be a successor to point the management passed to the Russian Space Com-
Ekran satellites although it uses a different frequency band for munications Company (RSCC), which buys and operates the
television distribution. The announced functions for Express satellites. The program is at least partially commercial with
satellites include telephony, television and radio broadcasting, funding from a Russian bank. Because of this, there is consid-
videoconferencing, data transmission, broadband Internet erable marketing of the satellites. Intersputnik, Eutelsat, and
access, VSAT communications networks, corporate networks, some television networks are major users of Express satellites,
multimedia services for applications such as distance learning and in some cases lessors or owners of satellite transponders.
and telemedicine, and mobile governmental communications. The first satellites were Express 11 and 12, shown in Fig.
Through 2005, Express satellites appeared in three stages: 5.10. The numbers are due to the fact that the manufacturer
Express, Express A, and Express AM. Improvements from reserves numbers 1 through 10 for nonflight development and
step to step include more power to support more and higher- test units. These satellites have the alternate names of Express
power transponders, addition of an L-band transponder, tighter 2 and 6. These are the names for the registrations at the longi-
stationkeeping, and longer satellite life. The satellites are tudes occupied by Express 11 and 12. Details are as follows.
designed to communicate with C-band ground terminals with Differences in values among Russian sources are indicated by
antennas as small as 2.4 m and Ku-band ground terminals “or” and “–.” These differences might relate to maximum and
with antennas as small as 1.5 m. The general configura- minimum or specification and measured values, but such dis-
tion of Express and Express A communication subsystems, tinctions are not stated in those sources.
without the receivers and downconverters, are shown in Fig. Satellite
5.8 and 5.9. C-band transponders are spaced 50 MHz apart, 2600 kg in orbit
unlike those of most western nations’ satellites, which are
spaced 40 MHz apart. 1500 or 2500 W solar array power
Three-axis-stabilized

250
 Express

Configuration G1 M1 G1 G2 G2 M M S S
C-band: ten 36 MHz bandwidth transponders
Ku-band: two 36 MHz bandwidth tran-
sponders 6
1 S C D
Transmitter
8 12
C: 3650–4150 MHz 2
65–75 W amplifier (one transponder), C S C
10 20
10–15 W amplifier (nine transponders) 2
EIRP 37 dBW (global beam, high power
Ku-band
transponder), 32 dBW (quasi-global
7
beam), 38.5–39 dBW (zone beam), 3
C
42/49 dBW (spot beam, 15/75 W
amplifier) 9
3 C S C
Ku: 11.525 and 11.625 GHz (center fre- C-band
quencies) 11
S 3
20 W per transponder, 43 dBW EIRP
(spot beam)
15
Receiver 3
C: 5975 –6475 MHz C S
17
G/T –11.5 to –2.8 dB/K 3

Ku: 14.325, 14.475 GHz (center frequencies)

14
3
Antenna
C: multiple antennas, each used only for C S
16
transmit or receive, 17 deg beamwidth 3
(global), 15 deg beamwidth (quasi-global),
5 x 10 deg beamwidth (steerable zone), 5 G1 17-deg beam 1 High power
deg beamwidth (steerable spot), all circular G2 15-deg beam
polarization
M 5 × 11-deg beam 2 Medium power
Ku: one antenna used for both transmit and
S 5 deg-beam
receive, 5 deg beamwidth (steerable spot),
3 Low power
linear polarization

Life
Five or seven years Fig. 5.8. Express communication subsystem.

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.2° E-W Satellite
Approximately 2600 kg in orbit
Orbital history
2500 or 3600 W solar-array power
Express 11 (Express 2): launched 13 October 1994, operated
at 14°W longitude into 2000 or later Three-axis-stabilized
Express 12 (Express 6): launched 26 September 1996, Chemical and electric propulsion
operated at 80°E longitude into 2000 or later
Configuration
Proton launch vehicle L-band: one 0.5 MHz bandwidth transponder
Management C-band: eleven 36 MHz and one 40 MHz bandwidth
Developed by NPO-PM transponders
Operated by RSCC Ku-band: five 36 MHz bandwidth transponders
The next satellites were Express A1, A2, A3, and A1R (R for Transmitter
replacement). The second and third of these had the alternate L: near 1550 MHz
names of Express 6A and 3A. These are the International
C: 3600–4200 MHz
Telecommunication Union names for the registrations at
the longitudes occupied by them. Details are as follows. 75 W amplifier (one transponder), 40 W amplifier (two
Differences in values among Russian sources are indicated transponders), 20 W amplifier (nine transponders)
by “or” and “–.” These differences might relate to maximum EIRP 30 to 48 dBW overall; 30 or 32/37 dBW peak in
and minimum or specification and measured values, but such quasi-global beam (20/75 W), 36.5 or 39/40 or 42 dBW
distinctions are not stated. peak in zone beam (20/40 W), 40.5/48 dBW peak in spot
beam (20/75 W)

251
 Russian Satellites

M G1 M G2 S1 M S2

47.5 dBW
A8 A7 A6 A3 A2 A4 A9
45.5 dBW
5 D

22 49 dBW
7
42 dBW
24
9 40.5 dBW
C C-band
26 Ku-band
15

12
17
Fig. 5.11. Express AM2 coverage areas.
20
11
S S C Ku: 11.45 to 11.7 GHz
35 W per transponder, 43.5 or 46 dBW peak EIRP in
6 zone beam
S

14 Receiver
C
S L: near 1650 MHz
C: 5925 to 6525 MHz
16 G1 17-deg beam
S Two active and one spare receiver
G2 15-deg beam
8 M 5 × 11-deg beam G/T –8.5 or –6/+0.2 or +1 dB/K peak in global/zone beam
S1 5-deg beam Ku: 14.25–14.5 GHz
C
10 S2 3.5 × 7-deg beam One active and one spare receiver
G/T + 5.3 or +6 dB/K peak in zone beam
18 Antenna
C: transmit 15 deg beamwidth (quasi-global), 5 x 11 deg
beamwidth (steerable zone), 5 deg beamwidth (steerable
Fig. 5.9. Express A communication subsystems. spot), all RHCP; receive 17 deg beamwidth (global), 5 x 11 deg
beamwidth (steerable zone), all LHCP
Ku: 3.5 x 7 deg beamwidth (steerable beam), one antenna
used for both transmit in vertical polarization and receive in
horizontal polarization

Beacon
C: 3800 MHz, 13 or 16 dBW peak EIRP in quasi-global beam
Ku: 11.4 GHz, 20 or 26 dBW peak EIRP in zone beam

Life
Seven or 10 years

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W

Orbital history
Express A1: launched 27 October 1999, launch failure
Express A2: launched 12 March 2000, replaced Express 12
(Express 6) at 80°E, in operation or a spare mid-2005
Express A3: launched 24 June 2000, replaced a Gorizont at
11°W, in operation mid-2005
Express A1R: launched 10 June 2002, operated at 40°E,
apparently in operation or a spare mid-2005
Proton launch vehicle

Fig. 5.10. Express satellite.

252
 Express

(eight transponders); EIRP 35-43/40-48 dBW for 40/120

W in single European/North African/Central Asian beam,
31.3/37.4 dBW for 40/120 W in global beam (AM1)
100 W amplifier (five transponders), 60 W amplifier (11
transponders); EIRP 35/40.5 dBW minimum in single
48 dBW broad beam for Eastern Europe through East Asia,
44/47.5 dBW minimum in western Russian portion of
this beam for 60/100 W; 38 to 48 dBW peak in steerable
beam (AM2, AM3)
5° 110 W amplifier (one transponder), 70 W amplifier (15
41 dBW 46 dBW
transponders), 40 W amplifier (10 transponders); EIRP
10° 37/39/41 dBW minimum in single broad beam for Eastern
Europe through East Asia for 40/70/110 W, 37 to 47 dBW
in steerable beam (AM11)
Ku: probably in 10.95–11.2 GHz and/or 11.45–11.7 GHz
90–100 W amplifier per transponder; EIRP 41–49 dBW in
Fig. 5.12. Express AM22 wide European beam coverage area.
European beam, 38–47 dBW in wide European beam, 49
Management dBW minimum in India beam (AM1)
Developed by NPO-PM with payload subcontractor Alcatel of 90–100 W amplifier (eight transponders), 140 W amplifier
France (four transponders); EIRP 40–47/42–49 dBW in broad
beam for Eastern Europe through East Asia for 90–
Operated by RSCC 100/140 W, 43–53 dBW in steerable beam (AM2, AM3)
The most recent satellites are the Express AM series. AM1 120 W amplifier per transponder; EIRP 41–51 dBW in
[18], AM2, AM3, AM11, and AM22 have been launched. No steerable beam (AM11)
explanation was given for the numbering. AM33 and AM44 103 W amplifier per transponder; EIRP 42–50 dBW in
are in development and few details have been published. European beam, 41–48 dBW in wide European beam,
Example coverage areas are shown in Figs. 5.11 and 5.12. 42–52 dBW in steerable beam 1, 40–50 dBW in steerable
Available information is as follows. Differences in values beam 2 (AM22)
between Russian sources are indicated by “or” and “–.”
These differences might relate to maximum and minimum or Receiver
specification and measured values, but such distinctions are L: near 1650 MHz (AM1, AM2, AM3, AM33, AM44)
not stated. Parenthetical notations limit the detail to specific One active and one spare LNA, G/T –10.6 dB/K (AM1)
satellites; lack of parenthetical notations indicates applicability
C: probably in 5925–6525 MHz (AM1, AM2, AM3, AM11)
to the whole Express AM class.
Two active and one spare receivers
Satellite
Approximately 2600 kg in orbit G/T –4.5 to +3/5 dB (fixed-antenna beam). –9.9 dB/K
(global beam) (AM1)
6000 W (AM1, AM2, AM3), 6000–7300 W (AM11, AM22, AM33,
AM44) solar-array power Ku: 14.0–14.5 GHz (AM1)

Three-axis-stabilized Two active and one spare LNA for each antenna (AM1)

Chemical and electric propulsion G/T –1.7 to +5.8 dB/K (Europe), –5.5 to +3.0 dB/K (wide
Europe beam), +6.4 dB/K (India beam) (AM1)
Configuration
Antenna
L-band: one 0.5 MHz bandwidth transponder (AM1, AM2,
AM3), undescribed capability (AM33, AM44) L: one transmit and receive global coverage antenna composed
of four helices (AM1)
C-band: nine 40 MHz bandwidth transponders (AM1), twelve
40 MHz and four 72 MHz bandwidth transponders (AM2, AM3), C: one transmit and one receive global coverage horns; one
twenty 40 MHz bandwidth transponders (AM11), undescribed transmit and receive fixed-coverage antenna with 1.8 m diam
capability (AM33, AM44) reflector (AM1)

Ku-band: eighteen 54 MHz bandwidth transponders (AM1), Ku: three transmit and receive antennas for European, wide
twelve 54 MHz bandwidth transponders (AM2, AM3), ten 54 European, and Indian coverage with 1.1, 1.8, and 1.1 m diam
MHz bandwidth transponders (AM11), twenty-four 54 MHz reflectors; one global coverage horn for beacon transmission
bandwidth transponders (AM22, AM33, AM44) (AM1)

Transmitter Life
L: near 1550 MHz (AM1, AM2, AM3, AM33, AM44) Twelve years

25–30 W amplifier (AM1, AM2, AM3) Orbit

30 dBW EIRP (AM1) Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W, possible
longitudes for all Express satellites are 14°W, 11°W, 40°E,
C: probably in 3600 to 4200 MHz (AM1, AM2, AM3, AM11)
53°E, 80°E, 96.5°E, 103°E, 140°E, and 145°E
120 W TWTA, one active and one spare (one
transponder), 40 W SSPA, eight active and three spares

253
Russian Satellites

Orbital history 7. M. Breiter, “Satellite Communications Equipment and

Express AM1: launched 29 October 2004, began operations Services in Russia,” October 1998, http://iepnt1.itaiep. doc.
February 2005 at 40°E gov/bisnis/isa/981012r3.htm (1 September 1999).
Express AM2: launched 29 March 2005, began operations 8. “Express Satellites,” http://www.intersputnik.com/
June 2005 at 80°E express.shtml (27 September 1999).
Express AM3: launched 24 June 2005, began operations in 9. “Express-A Satellites,” http://www.intersputnik. com/
September 2005 at 140°E expressa.shtml (27 September 1999).
Express AM11: launched 26 April 2004, began operations
July 2004 at 96.5°E, disabled by debris strike March 2006 and
10. J. C. McDowell, “Jonathan’s Space Report, No. 410,”
moved above geostationary orbit. http://hea-www.harvard.edu/QEDT/jcm/space/jsr/jsr, 28 Octo-
ber 1999 (2 November 1999).
Express AM22: launched 29 December 2003, began operations
March 2004 at 53°E 11. M. Long, “Russia’s Statsionar Satellite System,”
Express AM33, AM44: launch expected in 2006 or 2007
SatFACTS (August 1996), also at http://www.mlesat.com/
Archive2.html (12 July 2005).
Proton launch vehicle
12. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
Management 1990–1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
Developed by NPO-PM with payload subcontractors NEC and Vol. 54 (2001).
Toshiba of Japan (AM1) or Alcatel of France (AM2, AM3, AM11, 13. Intersputnik, “Express-A Satellites,” http://www.
AM22, AM33, AM44) intersputnik.com/index.htm, click “site map” > “Express-A
Operated by RSCC satellites” (20 July 2005).
****** 14. Russian Satellite Communications Company, “Satel-
lites,” http://www.rscc.ru/en/satellite/models/index.html (20
1. N. L. Johnson and D. M. Rodvold, Europe and Asia in July 2005).
Space 1991–1992, Section 4.1.1, Kaman Sciences Corporation,
Colorado Springs, and USAF Phillips Laboratory, Albuquerque 15. NPO-PM, “Telecommunication Satellite ‘EXPRESS-
(undated). A’,” http://www.npopm.ru/e/index.htm, click “site map” >
“Express-A” (20 July 2005).
2. C. Bulloch, “Russat ’93, A Catalog of Assets,” Via Sat-
ellite, Vol. 8, No. 7 (July 1993). 16. Alcatel, “Express,” http://www.alcatel.com/space/
programmes/telecom/telecompayloads.htm#express (20 July
3. Users Handbook, Intersputnik International Organiza- 2005).
tion of Space Communications, Moscow (1994).
17. I. Tsirkin et al., “‘Express’ Satellite Communications
4. Express Satellite Data Sheet, Informcosmos, Moscow System,” (in Russian) ICSC 94, Proceedings of
(undated). International Conference on Satellite Communications
5. F. Schwan and W. Griethe, “Express,” Via Satellite, Vol. 1 (October 1994) pp. 211–215.
Vol. 10, No. 10 (October 1995). 18. Y. Izmailov, et al., “Express AM1 Communication
6. P. B. deSelding, “Alcatel, NPO Sign Pact,” Space News Payload Module,” AIAA 23rd International Communication
(23 June 1997), p. 7. Satellite Systems Conference (September 2005).

Kupon
The Kupon (Coupon) system [1–9] is an example of an attempt The satellite was reported to have a mass of 2300 to 2700
to obtain private financing for a Russian satellite system. The kg and to generate 2400 W at end of life.
Kupon satellite, financed by the Central Bank of the Russian The first of three planned Kupon satellites was launched
Federation, was to be a key ingredient for its Bankir service, on 12 November 1997 on a Proton rocket and placed into
which was intended to electronically tie the country’s banks geosynchronous orbit at 55ºE longitude. It appeared to be op-
together. It was estimated that the Bankir system would require erating satisfactorily until it ceased functioning on 20 March
only 20 percent of the Kupon capacity, thus freeing up to 80 1998. The failure was attributed to problems with stabiliza-
percent for marketing to other potential users. tion. In April 1998 the Central Bank announced that it would
The Kupon satellite was produced by NPO Lavochkin no longer finance Kupon satellites, but instead would lease the
based on prior satellites produced by that company. Its pay- needed capacity for the Bankir system. There have been no
load was developed by NPO ELAS and used phased-array further reports about this project.
active antennas with electronic beam forming and steering.
Interbeam switching was also provided. The satellite had four ******
transmitting and four receiving phased arrays. These antennas 1. C. Bulloch, “Russian SATCOMs, Promises and
had the capability to form up to 16 transmit-receive beams Reality,” Via Satellite, Vol. 11, No. 6 (June 1996).
with 2 deg beamwidth. References to 16 transponders might 2. M. Breiter, “Satellite Communications Equipment and
actually be a reference to these beams. Uplink beams were Services in Russia,” October 1998, http://iepnt1.itaiep. doc.
in 14 to 14.5 GHz and downlink beams in 10.95 to 11.2 and gov/bisnis/isa/981012r3.htm (1 September 1999).
11.45 to 11.7 GHz.

254
 Bonum-1

3. C. Bulloch, “Russian SATCOM: Some Projects Are 7. Encyclopedia Astronautica Entry: “Kupon” (10 June
For Real,” Via Satellite, Vol. 12, No. 3 (March 1997). 1999), http://www.rocketry.com/mwade/craft/kupon.htm (30
4. Telesputnik Overview, “Russian Satellite Projects,” August 1999).
http://www.telesputnik.ru/english/review/overviews (8 Septem- 8. S. D. Koulikov et al., “‘KUPON’ spacecraft of ‘Bankir’
ber 1999). Satellite Communication and Data Transmitting System,”
5. “Russian Bank Nears Satellite Launch,” Space News (8 ICSC ‘98. The Third International Conference on Satellite
September 1997), pp. 6–7. Communications, Vol.1 (September 1998) pp. 71–73.
6. “Central Bank Ends Satellite Financing,” Space News 9. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
(20 April 1998), p. 18. 1990–1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
Vol. 54 (2001).

Bonum-1
In October 1997, Bonum-1 awarded a contract for development NPO-PM could not produce a Gals nearly as fast as the 16-
of a single satellite [1–6]. Bonum is a subsidiary of Media month delivery date provided by Hughes. Hughes had hoped
Most, a Moscow-based private media group in the business successful delivery of the Bonum-1 would lead to further
of direct satellite television broadcasting services for Russia. business, particularly since the eastern part of the Russian
The satellite name is Bonum, Bonum-1, or Most, depending landmass was still to be covered. However, no such business
on context. The -1 in the name is not a satellite number but resulted.
rather a reflection of the corporate name. The purpose of Bonum-1 was the first satellite contract awarded to a U.S.
the satellite is to broadcast 30 or more Russian and foreign manufacturer by a Russian company. There are reports that the
channels to subscribers in European Russia, the Urals, and part satellite was financed by a loan from U.S. Eximbank and that
of west Siberia. Some in Russia view the Bonum-1 satellite as one of the conditions of the loan was that the money be spent
direct competition for some versions of the Gals satellite, but in the United States. The contract included in-orbit delivery of
the satellite, launch vehicle services, ground satellite control
equipment for use at the control center, and training for the
satellite controllers at the Bonum-1 control station located in
Moscow. Initially the satellite was to be launched on a Proton
rocket, but its small size eventually dictated use of the smaller
Delta II.
The Bonum-1 satellite, shown in Fig. 5.13, is a high-power
version of the same design used for more than 50 prior satel-
lites. The satellite is spin-stabilized with a despun section that
has the communications equipment inside the satellite body
and the antenna outside the body. Additional information
about Bonum-1 follows.
Satellite
Hughes HS 376HP bus
Cylindrical body, 2.1 m diam; 7.9 m satellite height in orbit with
deployed antenna and solar array
1425 kg at launch, 793 kg on orbit, beginning of life

47 dBW 50 dBW

Fig. 5.13. Bonum-1 satellite. Fig. 5.14. Bonum-1 coverage area.

255
Russian Satellites

Solar arrays and NiH2 battery, 1500 W beginning of life, 1400 Orbital history
W end of life Launched 22 November 1998
Spin-stabilized, 0.05° antenna pointing accuracy Delta II launch vehicle
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, liquid bipropellant
propulsion for on-orbit use Management
Developed by Hughes Space and Communications Group
Configuration Operated by Russian Satellite Communications Company
Eight 33 MHz-bandwidth transponders
******
Transmitter
In 12.2–12.5 GHz band, one 75 W (80 W by some reports) 1. “Hughes Launches Its First Satellite for Russia,” http://
TWTA per transponder plus spares www.hughespace.com/factsheets/376/bonum_1/bonum_
Minimum EIRP at edge of service area 47 dBW 1.html, July 1999 (30 August 1999).
2. S. Saradzhyan, “U. S. Firms Hope Bonum-1 Opens
Receiver Russia’s Doors,” Space News (30 November 1998), p. 7.
In 17.8–18.1 GHz band
3. Hughes Space and Communications, “BONUM-1
Minimum G/T at edge of service area +6 dB/K Successfully Launched,” 22 November 1998, http://www.
hughespace.com/hsc_pressreleases/98_11_22_bonum1 (30
Antenna
August 1999).
One antenna with 2.0 x 2.5 m offset-fed reflector, dual circular
polarizations 4. “Hughes Sells Satellite System to Russian Firm,” Space
News (27 October 1997), p. 2.
Life
5. Russian Satellite Communications Company, “Bonum-
Eleven-year service life
1 Satellite,” http://www.rscc.ru/en/satellite/models/model11.
Orbit html (20 July 2005).
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W, 36°E 6. Boeing, “Bonum-1,” http://www.boeing.com/defense-
longitude initially, moved to 56°E longitude summer 2000 space/space/bss/factsheets/376/bonum_1/bonum_1.html, July
1999 (25 July 2005).

Yamal
The Yamal program, named for a region in Siberia, is carried The payload has 10 transponders, each with about 36 MHz
out by Gazcom, which was established in 1992 by Gazprom, bandwidth and a 25 W solid-state power amplifier. The maxi-
the largest gas producer, distributor, and retailer in Russia; mum EIRP is 41 dBW and the maximum G/T is +1 dB/K.
Rocket Space Corporation (RSC or Russian RKK) Energia, The uplinks are approximately 6 GHz and the downlinks at
the largest launch vehicle producer in Russia and builder of the and below 4 GHz. Energia opted to go to Space Systems/Loral
Mir manned space station as well as the developer of the first for the communications payload when it could not meet the
six Molniya spacecraft; and Gazprombank, a commercial bank. requirements in Russia.
The name Gazcom is sometimes preceded by JSC for Joint The original plan was to place the satellites at 75°E and
Stock Company. The system seems to have been developed 19.5°W longitude. A conflict at 75°E longitude was resolved
with a combination of public and private financing. The in favor of Intersputnik, so the Yamal 100 satellites were as-
system provides communications for Gazprom and associated signed to 90°E and 49°E longitude. The two satellites were
companies and additional regional communications and launched together on 6 September 1999 by a Proton launch
television networks for some parts of Russia [1–21, although vehicle. Yamal 101 had early problems and was never put into
12–19 are older and not always in accord with 10]. Prior to operation. Yamal 102, now identified as Yamal 100, was put
launch of the first Yamal satellites, one Gorizont and/or one into operation at 90°E longitude and remains in operation as
Express satellite were used to establish communications for of mid-2005.
Gazprom. Before the Yamal 100 launch, there already were plans
Gazcom is the prime contractor for the system while RSC for the Yamal 200 and 300 series. Eventually two Yamal 200
Energia has prime responsibility for the satellites. Two mod- satellites were launched. Their appearance is similar to each
est size Yamal 100 satellites were built. Development began other and to Yamal 100, except for the extra antenna on Yamal
in 1995. The mass of each is about 1250 kg and the life is 200-1. The extra antenna exists because this satellite has both
reported to be 10 years. The satellite is capable of ±0.1 de- C-band and Ku-band transponders, whereas the others have
gree stationkeeping and makes use of ion thrusters. Its power only C-band. Various western and Japanese satellite manufac-
system is capable of delivering 2500 W. It is reported to be turers are reported to have been part of the development team
the first satellite built in Russia that does not have a pressur- for the Yamal 200 satellites. Both Yamal 100 and Yamal 200-1
ized main body. The coverage area is all of Russia except the are in operation at 90ºE. Additional Yamal 200 information is
extreme eastern end plus Japan and Korea, some countries in as follows, where “#1” and “#2” identify differences between
central Asia, Pakistan through Turkey, and Eastern Europe. the two satellites.

256
 Yamal

Satellite
Box-shaped body with deployed solar arrays
Approximately 1330 kg
Three-axis stabilization, 0.1 deg pointing
accuracy
Liquid and ion propulsion

Configuration
C-band: nine/eighteen 72 MHz bandwidth
Fig. 5.15. Yamal 100 satellite.
transponders (#1/#2), dual-polarization
frequency reuse
Ku-band: six 72 MHz-bandwidth transponders
(#1)

Transmitter
C: 3530–4090 MHz (#1), 3450–4170 MHz (#2)
One 55W LTWTA per transponder, plus
3 spares (#1), 3 spares for each nine
transponders (#2), maximum EIRP 44/43
dBW (#1/#2)
Ku: 10.95–11.2 and 11.45–11.7 GHz (#1)
One 120 W LTWTA per transponder, plus Fig. 5.16. Yamal 200-1 satellite.
2 spares (#1), maximum EIRP 50 dBW

Receiver
C: 5855–6415 MHz (#1), 5775–6495 MHz (#2)
Two active and 2 spare receivers,
maximum G/T +2/+1 dB/K (#1/#2)
Ku: 14.0–14.5 GHz (#1)
One active and one spare receiver,
maximum G/T +4 dB/K

Antenna
C: circular polarization
Ku: linear polarization Fig. 5.17. Yamal 200-2 satellite.

Telemetry and command

Beacon: 11.4505 GHz (#1)

Life
Twelve years

Orbit
Geostationary, ±0.1 degree stationkeeping

Orbital history
Yamal 200-1: launched 24 November 2003, in
operation at 90ºE
Yamal 200-2: 2 launched 4 November 2003, in 43 dBW
48 dBW
operation at 49ºE 46 dBW
42 dBW
Proton launch vehicle 42 dBW
40 dBW
Management
Developed by RSC Energia
Operated by Gazcom
Recent reports about the Yamal 300 satellites C-band
Ku-band
indicate that there will be two satellites either
the same as or slightly bigger than the Yamal
200 satellites and with a few more transponders.
Fig. 5.18. Yamal 200-1 coverage area.

257
Russian Satellites

Transmitter powers are likely to be higher.

Launch dates are uncertain. Longitudes are
expected to be 90ºE and 49ºE or 55ºE.
******
1. C. Bulloch, “Russian Satcoms, 41.0 dBW
Promises and Reality,” Via Satellite, Vol.
11, No. 6 (June 1996). 42.5 dBW
42.0 dBW 40.0 dBW
2. C. Bulloch, “Russian Satcom: Some
Projects Are For Real,” Via Satellite, Vol.
12, No. 3 (March 1997). 41.5 dBW

3. K. Lantratov and V. Kamozov, 42.5 dBW

“Russia’s New Communications Satellites,”
Launchspace Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 1
(February/March 1998).
4. “Energia, NPO-PM Will Build Seven
Satellites,” Space News (16 March 1998), p.
2. 37.5 dBW

5. “Chapter 6, Russia Introduction,”

http://itri.loyola. edu/satcom2/06_05 (1 July
1999). Fig. 5.19. Yamal 200-2 coverage area.
6. J. C. McDowell, “Jonathan’s Space Report, No. 407,”
7 September 1999, http://hea-www.harvard.edu/QEDT/ jcm/ 15. N. N. Sevastianov, “‘YAMAL’Satellite Communications
space/jsr/jsr (22 September 1999). System,” ICSC ‘96. The 2nd International Conference on Sat-
ellite Communications, Vol. 4 (September 1996), pp. 7–18.
7. WPS Media Highlights of the Day, “New
Communications Satellite Launched,” 8 September 1999, 16. V. Alivokhin et al. “Satellite Communication
http://www.wps.ru/e_media.html (8 September 1999). Earth Stations, Used In The Network Of Yamal Satellite
Communication System,” Proceedings of ICSC ’96: The 2nd
8. “Communication Repeaters and Payloads,” http://
International Conference on Satellite Communications, Vol.
ssloral.com/heritage/programs.html (7 September 1999).
4 (September 1996) pp. 19–23.
9. P. B. deSelding, “Alenia Makes Satellite Deals with
17. N. I. Nagorny, “Satellite Backbone Data Network of
China, Russia,” Space News (25 October 1999).
Yamal Satellite Communication System,” ICSC ‘96. The 2nd
10. S. P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia, International Conference on Satellite Communications, Vol.
“Yamal-200 Communications Satellite,” http://www.energia. 4 (September 1996), pp. 24–31.
ru/english/energia/usp/yamal-200/yamal-200.html (26 July
18. Y. P. Semionov, N. N. Sevastianov, and A. V. Shestakov,
2005).
“Program of the Development of Yamal-200 and Yamal-300
11. Gascom, http://www.gascom.ru/index.php?lang=en Communications Satellites for Russian National System
(26 July 2005). of Fixed Satellite Communications,” ICSC ‘98: The Third
12. V. A. Blinov, N. N. Sevastyanov, and A. V. Shestakov, International Conference on Satellite Communications, Vol.
“The New Satellite Communication System for Russia 1 (September 1998), pp. 35–42.
‘Yamal,’” ICSC 94: Proceedings of International Conference 19. V. V. Remizov et al., “Yamal Satellite Communication
on Satellite Communications, Vol. 1 (October 1994), pp. 100– and Broadcast System,” ICSC ‘98: The Third International
106. Conference on Satellite Communications, Vol. 1 (September
13. I. G. Baklanov and V. A. Netes, “The Role of Satellite 1998), pp. 25–34.
Communication in Network Reliability Improvement,” ICSC 20. P. S. Clark, “Russian Geosynchronous Orbit Satellites,
94: Proceedings of International Conference on Satellite 1990–1999,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
Communications, Vol. 1 (October 1994), pp. 145–150. Vol. 54 (2001).
14. Y. S. Denisov, A. V. Shestakov, and E. F. Zemskov, “The 21. Alenia Spazio, “Yamal Communication Satellite,”
Communication Satellite ‘Yamal’: The New Technological http://www.alespazio.it/telecommunications_page.aspx?IdPro
Approach in Creating the Communication Satellites in Rus- g=18&IdPage=123 (27 July 2005).
sia,” ICSC 94: Proceedings of International Conference on
Satellite Communications, Vol. 1 (October 1994), pp. 91–99.

258
 The Intersputnik System

Possible Future Russian Satellites

Although the current Russian satellite communications pro- 19.237 GHz beacon from a Russian Mayak “satellite” at 14°W
grams are much more open than were those of the Soviet Union, longitude (the Gorizont 20 location) was used for propagation
the information available about upcoming satellites remains research during the summer of 1991 [1]. This likely was the
limited. Furthermore, development of the many announced same transmitter launched in the year before. It is unknown
satellites is being attempted in a country undergoing a difficult how (or if) this Mayak relates to the satellite described as part
economic transformation and by companies and associations of the Marathon system for mobile communications that was
with little experience in commercial development of announced in the first half of the 1990s.
communication satellites. Therefore, there can be no confident
******
predictions about what proposed programs will result in actual
satellite launches or when. 1. B. Ahmed, M. S. Mahmoud, and I. E. Otting, “Fade
An experimental Mayak (Lighthouse or Beacon) trans- Measurements at 20 GHz Using Mayak and Olympus Satellites,”
mitter, developed by the Soviet Union and three Eastern Third European Conference on Satellite Communications,
European countries, was launched on Gorizont 20 in 1990. A IEE Conference Publication Number 381 (November 1993).

The Intersputnik System

The Intersputnik International Organization of Space Table 5.7. Standard Performance
Communications [1–17] was formed in 1971 by the Soviet Union Features for Earth Stations
and eight other nations. Intersputnik is both an international
organization and a satellite communication system operated by Minimum G/T, Antenna
Type Band (dB/K) Diameter, (m)
the organization. It began operations with Molniya 2 satellites
C1 C 31.0 9–12
loaned by the Soviet Union, then transitioned to Gorizont
satellite transponders that it leased from them. The space K1 Ku 38.0 9–10
segment evolved to a mix of leased Gorizont, Express, and C2 C 28.0 6.5–7.5
Gals transponders in the late 1990s. Since 2000 the evolution K2 Ku 35.0 6.5–7.5
continued with the operation of the LMI satellite (described in C3 C 23.5 3.5–5
chapter 2) and the lease of transponders on the two Express- K3 Ku 30.0 3.5–5
A, multiple Eutelsat, and two Yamal 200 satellites. Express A C4 C 19.3 2–3
and Yamal 200 are described above, and Eutelsat, in chapter
K4 Ku 25.0 2–3
7. Intersputnik communication services can be used for
voice, facsimile, data, videoconferencing, and distribution of
television and audio programs, over international or domestic
routes, and for connection with public or private terrestrial capacity. For telephone and data circuits, Intersputnik recom-
networks. In the fall of 2004 the Intersputnik system included mends that Earth stations use Intelsat type IDR (Intermediate
about 150 larger ground terminals and more than 1500 smaller Data Rate—Intelsat) or IBS (Intelsat Business Service) equip-
ground terminals. ment, for transmission of 1 to 30 voice circuits at 64 to 2048
The Intersputnik organization is an international legal en- kbps. Digital circuit multiplication equipment is recommended
tity open to membership by any government. Members pay for routes with more traffic.
a small fixed fee, plus a fee in proportion to their use of the Earth stations are owned by users or national service pro-
system above a threshold amount. In 2005 Intersputnik had viders. Intersputnik has defined standard performance features
25 members. It is governed by a board (or council) that has for several types of Earth stations. These are summarized in
one representative, with one vote, from each member nation. Table 5.7.
The board meets at least once per year to set goals and gen- The type 1 antenna is the standard, recommended Inter-
eral policies for the organization. In the meetings, decision by sputnik antenna for major terminals. The others have lesser
consensus is sought, but a two-thirds vote is sufficient. Day- capability and, therefore, lesser complexity and cost. All
to-day operations are controlled by a directorate, which has a terminals have the capability to exchange telephony, fax and
director general and deputy elected by the board and technical telex messages, data, and videoconferencing. The two anten-
and administrative staffs. The offices of the directorate are in nas with the larger apertures have the capability to exchange
Moscow. TV and audio programs, while those with the smaller aper-
Intersputnik owns or leases satellite transponders that are tures are listed as capable of reception of these signals.
open to use by members and nonmembers on an equal basis, The Intersputnik system has monitoring stations and a con-
except that members have priority if the demand for satel- trol center. One monitoring station has been set up for each of
lite capacity exceeds that which is available. It has tariffs for the two service regions (Atlantic and Indian Oceans). A third
various services in both C-band (6 GHz up, 4 GHz down) and has been established for expansion into the Pacific Ocean.
Ku-band (14 GHz up, 11 to 12 GHz down). The rates depend A monitoring station is usually a standard Earth station with
on the satellite capacity and Earth station type, with discounts additional instrumentation needed to monitor system perfor-
for such things as long-term use and efficient use of satellite mance. The control center initiates commands to the satellites,

259
Russian Satellites

monitors and analyzes satellite telemetry, gathers satellite 7. S. P. Kurilov, V. A. Borovkov, and Yu. F. Konovalov,
tracking data and computes and predicts orbits, and plans “The Ground Station of the Intersputnik System in Algeria,”
satellite operations such as stationkeeping maneuvers. The Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol. 34/35, No.
Intersputnik directorate uses information from the monitoring 11 (November 1980).
stations and control center to notify members and users of sys- 8. Users Handbook, Intersputnik International Organiza-
tem status, performance, and plans. tion of Space Communications, Moscow (1994).
****** 9. G. P. Zhukov and V. S. Veshchunov, “Intersputnik:
1. J. Krupin, “The International Organization of Space Developing Legal Basis of Activity,” Proceedings of the
Communications ‘Intersputnik,’” Using Space—Today and Thirty-Seventh Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, AIAA
Tomorrow, XXVIIIth International Astronautical Congress (October 1994).
Proceedings (September 1977), Vol. 2 (1978). 10. “Intersputnik Overview,” http://www.intersputnik.com/
2. S. P. Kurilov, V. A. Borovkov, and Yu. F. Konovalov, overview.htm (20 September 1999).
“The Ground Station of the Intersputnik System in Algeria,” 11. “Corporate Overview,” http://www.intersputnik.com/
Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol. 34/35, No. company.shtml (29 September 1999).
11 (November 1980).
12. “Space Segment,” http://www.intersputnik.com/
3. T. Pirard, “Intersputnik: The Eastern ‘Brother’ of spacesegment.shtml (29 September 1999).
Intelsat,” Satellite Communications, Vol. 6, No. 8 (August
1982). 13. “Intersputnik Satellites’ Coverage Areas,” http://www.
intersputnik.com/zones.shtml (26 October 1999).
4. Yu. B. Zubarev et al., “The Present State and the
Principal Trends in the Development of the ‘Intersputnik’ 14. “Earth Stations Used in the Intersputnik System,”
System,” Telecommunications and Radio Engineering, Vol. http://www.intersputnik.com/earthstations.shtml (26 October
36, No. 12 (December 1982). 1999).
5. H. R. Shinn and S. B. Swensrud, “Intersputnik: Current 15. “Earth Stations in Atlantic Ocean region,” http://www.
Status and Future Options,” Space Communication and intersputnik.com/eslist.shtml (29 September 1999).
Broadcasting, Vol. 3, No. 2 (June 1985). 16. “Intersputnik Monitoring Stations,” http://www.
6. H. R. Shinn and S. B. Swensrud, “Intersputnik: Current intersputnik.com/controlstation.shtml (26 October 1999).
Status and Future Options,” Signal, Vol. 39, No. 11 (July 17. Intersputnik, “Site Map,” http://www.intersputnik.com/
1985). index.htm (26 July 2005).

260
 6. North American Satellites

O
utside of the Soviet Union, the first domestic (one- to begin offering broadband and related services in the mid-
country) communication satellite system was that 2000s to Canadian and U.S. markets.
of Canada, which began operating in 1973 and has In the early years these satellites were nominally domestic,
evolved through several generations of satellites. The first U.S. but as satellite capabilities have increased, the desire to use
domestic communication satellite system began operating in them for service to adjacent nations has also increased. This
1974. Since then, many systems have been established, and a development led to a liberalization of regulations in the three
considerable and mature industry of suppliers and services has nations. Initially transborder services were allowed, and
been created around them. Thus, the U. S. domestic satellite eventually distinction between domestic and international
marketplace is characterized by diversity and competition in satellite services was gradually removed. Most of the recent
many aspects. Economics is certainly the driving force in the satellites provide coverage of at least two of the three North
U.S. domestic satellite market. In contrast, although economics American nations, and some provide coverage of Central and
is of concern in Canada, a predominant force is that no other South American nations as well.
practical communications medium is available for much of The past decade has seen the strong emergence of direct-
Canada. broadcast satellite services of both video and audio programming
Mexican involvement with domestic satellite to the United States and Canada. A number of broadcasters now
communications began in 1980 with the lease of an Intelsat provide a wide range of television programming directly to
transponder and expanded in 1985 with the launch of the millions of North American customers using receive terminals
first two Mexican domestic satellites. Since then, Mexico as small as 45 cm, as well as radio programming to primarily
has launched four more domestic satellites. The satellite use mobile customers using S-band transmissions.
both augments terrestrial systems in urban areas and delivers This chapter describes the satellites of Canada, the United
reliable communications to rural areas. States, and Mexico, Canadian and U.S. television and radio
A number of business initiatives in the late 1990s and broadcast satellites, and the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite
early 2000s attempted to develop broadband data services System (TDRSS). U.S. military satellites are described in
to businesses and households using Ka-band transmission, chapter 4. The U.S. Marisat and joint U.S. and Canadian MSat
but market conditions caused many of these businesses to satellites are described in chapter 3.
fail. Those that survived either had just begun or were about

Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

In the 1960s, Canada had excellent microwave communication recent activities at Ka-band for systems in Canada and the
facilities, but they were, and are, concentrated primarily in the United States. Details of the Ka-band payloads will be found
heavily populated region along the Canadian-U.S. border. In together with details of the C- and Ku-band systems with
the more northerly regions of Canada, hundreds of smaller which they share a common spacecraft bus.
towns and outposts are not served by microwave. Their contact
with each other and with the commercial and governmental
centers in the south depended on radio-telephone and aircraft Telesat Canada
services. The radio communication facilities had been difficult The Telesat system began operations at the beginning of 1973
to provide and unreliable. The Canadian government decided following the launch of the first Anik satellite. (Anik is the Inuit
to turn to communication satellites as a way to provide reliable word for little brother.) As plans developed for newer satellites,
communications to these remote regions, as well as to the the first three satellites were designated the Anik A series.
urban centers. The satellites provided all types of communication services
In 1969, the Canadian government established the Telesat throughout Canada. A single Anik B satellite supplemented the
Canada Corporation to provide domestic communication A series and provided additional experimental channels. The
satellite services [1–27]. In 1973, Canada became the first Anik D series replaced the A satellites. The Anik C satellites
North American country to launch a domestic communications came into use at the same time but had a different function—to
satellite, and by 2005 Canada was operating its sixth generation augment terrestrial communications on high-traffic-density
of communication satellites. Today the Telesat system provides paths and to use the 12 and 14 GHz frequencies for service to
a broad range of satellite services to all of Canada. In the mid- terminals in urban areas, where the 4 and 6 GHz bands, used
1990s Telesat became a subsidiary of Bell Canada Enterprises in Anik D, are unacceptable because of interference from other
while retaining the Telesat name. uses of the band. Development of the Anik E satellites began
In 2004 Canada opened up two of its broadcast satellite at the end of 1986. They were dual-frequency band satellites,
service orbital positions to interested parties. Later that year which replaced both the Anik C and Anik D satellites. In 1999,
the Ciel Satellite Group, a Canadian company affiliated with the direct broadcast satellite Nimiq (an Inuit word meaning a
SES Americom, was awarded the 129ºW position. In 2006 force that binds together) was added to Telesat’s constellation.
Ciel ordered a satellite from Alcatel Alenia to start its service. In 2000, the first Anik F was launched and assumed all
The following section discusses Canadian satellite systems communication services from the Anik E satellites. The Telesat
that use the C-, Ku-, and the newly-emerging Ka-band. Later Canada satellites are listed in Table 6.1.
in this chapter, North American Ka-band Systems summarizes

261
North American Satellites

Table 6.1. Telesat Canada Satellites

Satellite Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status
Anik A1 1972 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1982
Anik A2 1973 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1982
Anik A3 1975 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1984
Anik B 1978 RCA C/Ku Retired 1986
Anik C1 Brazil 1(T) 1985 Hughes Space and Communications Ku Retired 2003
Anik C2 1983 Hughes Space and Communications Ku Retired 1997
Anik C3 1982 Hughes Space and Communications Ku Retired 1997
Anik D1 1982 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1991
Anik D2 Satcom 4R, Arabsat 1D 1984 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1995
Anik E1 1991 SPAR Aerospace/General Electric C/Ku Retired 2005
Anik E2 1991 SPAR Aerospace/General Electric C/Ku Drifting, inclined orbit
Anik F1 2000 Hughes Space and Communications C/Ku In use, 107.3°W
Anik F1R 2005 EADS Astrium C/Ku In use, 107.3°W

Anik F2 2004 Hughes Space and Communications C/Ku/Ka In use, 111.1°W

Anik F3 EADS Astrium C/Ku/Ka Under construction, planned launch
in 2006, intended for 118.7°W
Nimiq 1 1999 Lockheed Martin Ku In use, 91°W
Nimiq 2 2002 Lockheed Martin Ku/Ka In use, 82°W
Nimiq 3 DIRECTV 3 1995 Hughes Space and Communications Ku At 82°W
Nimiq 4 Astrium EADS Astrium Ku/Ka Under construction, planned launch
in 2008, intended for 82°W

The Telesat system includes many types of ground terminals direct broadcast satellite Nimiq 2 and Anik F3 also contain
for communications plus multiple telemetry, tracking, and Ka-band payloads.
command (TT&C) terminals. The original terminals all Satellite and network control for the Telesat system is
operated in the 4 and 6 GHz bands. The heavy-route terminals, accomplished from a control center near Ottawa.
with 30 m antennas, were equipped for all communications The following subsections describe the Anik satellites
services, and each had several transmitters and receivers followed by the direct-broadcast Nimiq satellites.
for handling multiple simultaneous links. In addition, these
******
terminals had a complete set of TT&C equipment. The network
TV terminals were primarily for transmission and reception of 1. A. A. McKenzie, “Special Report-Communications:
high-quality TV. What’s Up in Satellites,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 9, No. 5 (May
Northern telecommunications terminals provide voice 1972).
links with the heavy-route stations and television reception for 2. R. R. Bowen et al., “The Development of a Canadian
local rebroadcasting to home receivers. Remote TV terminals Broadcasting Satellite System at 12 GHz,” Paper 51.3, Inter-
receive television transmissions for local rebroadcast and national Conference on Communications: ICC ’80 (June
can be expanded to provide two-way telephone service. This 1980).
capability has been used in several terminals subsequent to
their initial installation. The thin-route terminals provide 3. J. Almond, “Telesat Programs, Plans,” Paper 1.4,
limited two-way telephone service and can be upgraded to add First Canadian Domestic and International Satellite
television reception capability. Communications Conference (June 1983).
The Anik C system using the 12 and 14 GHz bands became 4. M. J. Savas, “Overview of TCTS Satellite Service
operational in 1983, with 10 main terminals in the major cities. Applications,” Paper 19.1, First Canadian Domestic and
These terminals had 7.6 m antennas, with automatic step International Satellite Communications Conference (June
tracking. With the introduction of the Anik E satellites, almost 1983).
all television transmissions were placed on Anik E2, with Anik 5. P. Jedicke and C. Cunningham, “Canada’s Satellite Sys-
E1 used primarily for telephony and voice. tem,” Spaceflight, Vol. 27, No. 7/8 (August/September 1985).
In 1988, Telesat established two subsidiaries in Brazil and
in 1999 began trunk communications service between three 6. R. M. Lester, “The Introduction of New Satellites to an
cities using Anik C1. Operating System,” Paper 58.2, International Conference on
In 2004, Telesat began using the Ka-band spectrum with Communications: ICC ’81 (June 1981).
the launch of Anik F2. This satellite has a primary set of 7. “Canadian Communication Satellites—Telesat,” Space
nonprocessing repeaters associated with 45 spot beams and, Communication and Broadcasting, Vol. 6, No. 1–2 (May
as a demonstration system, a small processing repeater. The 1988).

262
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

8. B. C. Kirk, “Satellite Communications in Canada,” 25. J. Gaumond, J. R. Campbell, and M. Zuliani, “Overview
Third IEE Conference on Telecommunications, IEE Con- of the TCTS Satellite TDMA Trial,” IEEE Canadian
ference Publication No. 331 (1991). Communications and Power Conference (October 1982).
9. “Telesat’s Satellites,” http://www.telesat.ca/satellites/ 26. F. F. Behmann and G. Y. Nawar, “Availability
index.htm (September 2005). Considerations for Satellite Links,” Proceedings Annual
10. J. Almond, “Commercial Communication Satellite Reliability and Maintainability Symposium (January 1983).
Systems in Canada,” IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 27. A. Grami and K. Gordon, “Next-Generation Ka-Band
19, No. 1 (January 1981). Satellite Concept to Extend the Reach of Canada’s Broadband
11. P. N. Wadham, “Operational Experience with the Infrastructure,” Telesat Canada, Globecom-2001, San
Canadian Domestic Satellites,” AIAA Paper 74-453, AIAA 5th Antonio, Texas (November 2001), http://www.telesat.ca/news/
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1974). speeches/ (September 2005)
12. A. D. D. Miller, “Operational Experience with Small
Unattended Television Receive Earth Stations,” Paper 74- Anik A
454, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
The Anik A satellites [1–16] were spin-stabilized with a
(April 1974).
single despun communications antenna. All equipment was
13. R. K. Kwan, “The Telesat TDMA System,” International mounted within the spinning body. The antenna was a 1.5
Conference on Communications: ICC ’75 (June 1975). m diam framework, to which was attached a lightweight
14. H. Kowalik, “Telesat Satellite Control System,” mesh that was optically transparent but reflective at the
Paper 74-451, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite Systems communication frequencies. A multiple-element feed horn
Conference (April 1974). illuminated the reflector so that the antenna beam was shaped
to match the Canadian land mass. Figure 6.1 shows the on-
15. J. W. Crawford, “Operating Experience in the Canadian orbit configuration of the Anik A satellites.
Domestic Satellite Systems,” Paper 78-541, AIAA 7th The Anik A communication subsystem had 12 channels and
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978). was derived from the Intelsat IV communication subsystem.
16. D. A. Gray, “Telesat’s Sixty-One Mbps TDMA It had redundant receivers common to all channels and a
System Operational Experience,” Paper 11.3, National single 5 W TWTA (traveling wave tube amplifier) for each
Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’78 (December channel. Each channel could handle one television signal or
1978). as many as 960 one-way telephone circuits. Enough prime
17. G. Gothe, “The Anik-B Slim TDMA Pilot Project,” power was available to operate all 12 channels initially and
Paper 71.4, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC up to 10 during eclipse and later in the orbital life. Although
’80 (November 1980). the TWTAs were not redundant, it was expected that 10 of the
18. D. A. Gray, “Evaluation of a 14/12 GHz 90 Mbit Digital
Satellite Link,” Paper D7.2, National Telecommunications
Conference: NTC ’81 (November 1981).
19. J. R. Campbell and M. Zuliani, “System Design for
the TCTS Integrated Satellite Business Network,” Paper B2.1,
International Conference on Communications: ICC ’83 (June
1983).
20. B. Hanson, A. Smalley, and M. Zuliani, “Implementation
of a Light-Route TDMA Communications Satellite System for
Advanced Business Networks,” AIAA Paper 82-0477, AIAA
9th Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March
1982).
21. A. E. Winter and C. C. Nicholson, “Earth Station
Implementation in the Canadian Domestic Satellite Systems,”
International Telemetering Conference Proceedings
(November 1981).
22. S. B. Turner, “The Telesat Canada Tracking, Telemetry
and Command System,” International Telemetering Con-
ference Proceedings (November 1981).
23. P. A. Brown, “Evaluation of a 14/12 GHz Digital
Satellite Link as the Facility Between Digital Switches,” Paper
D7.3, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’81
(November 1981).
24. H. B. Hadden, “A News Collection and Distribution
System via Satellite,” International Broadcasting Convention,
IEE Conference Publication No. 220 (September 1982). Fig. 6.1. Anik A satellite.

263
North American Satellites

12 would still be operable at the end of the 7-year design life. Two chains (one on, one standby), each with tunnel diode
In practice, approximately 7 years after launch, each satellite amplifiers and a low-level TWTA
had six TWTA failures, which were defined by about 6 dB 7.8 dB noise figure
loss of gain. Figure 6.2 illustrates the Anik A communication
subsystem. Details of the Anik A satellites are as follows. Antenna
One 1.5 m diam offset-fed parabola, linear polarization, beam
Satellite shaped to maximize gain over Canadian territory, approximately
Hughes HS 333 bus 3 by 8 deg beamwidth, beam center tilted 7.85 deg north of
Cylinder, 1.90 m. diam, 1.70 m. height (3.5 m. overall) equatorial plane
297 kg in orbit, beginning of life Telemetry and command
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 330 W maximum beginning of Telemetry: near edge of 3700 to 4200 MHz band; high power
life, 260 W at end of life via omnidirectional antenna, or low power via communications
Spin-stabilized, 100 rpm, ±0.1 deg accuracy antenna (when on station)
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine propellant Command: near 6420 MHz; via omnidirectional antenna or via
for on-orbit use communications antenna (when on station)

Configuration Life
Twelve 36 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters Seven-year design life

Capacity Orbit
960 one-way voice circuits or one TV program per repeater Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W

Transmitter Orbital history

3702–4178 MHz Anik A1: launched 9 November 1972, in use until July 1982,
moved above synchronous orbit
One TWTA per repeater
Anik A2: launched 20 April 1973, in use until October 1982,
5 W output, 33 dBW minimum EIRP (effective isotopic radiated
moved above synchronous orbit
power) per repeater over all of Canada
Anik A3: launched 7 May 1975, in use until November 1984,
Receiver moved above synchronous orbit
5927–6403 MHz Delta 1914 launch vehicle (1, 2); Delta 2914 (3)

Management
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Com-
pany for Telesat Canada
Operated by Telesat Canada
5927–6403 3702–4178 Anik A1 was launched in November
D
1972 and became operational in
January 1973. Originally, seven or
eight channels were in full-time use,
with other channels in occasional use.
Channel Anik A2 was launched in April 1973,
1 primarily as an on-orbit spare for
TW
Anik A1. Some channels were leased
3 to U.S. communications companies
TW for domestic operations prior to
the launching of the U.S. satellites.
5
TW Although the Anik A antenna pattern
C was optimized for Canada, the channel
7 capacity between two terminals in
TW
the middle or northern latitudes of
9 the United States was still about 60
TW percent of the capacity achievable
TD TD TW between Canadian terminals.
11 Anik A3 was launched in 1975 and
TW
2225 soon became the primary operational
S H C satellite replacing Anik A1. The
2225 Anik A1 and A2 satellites provided
redundancy as well as channels for
TD TD TW Same for channels occasional transmissions. In July
2,4,6,8,10,12
1979, Anik B became the primary
operational satellite. In 1980, Anik
Fig. 6.2. Anik A communication subsystem. A2 was moved to the same longitude
264
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

as Anik A3, which maximized at one location the number of Anik B

channels available for spare and occasional use. (The single Anik B [1–13] was a single satellite similar in design to the first
location minimized the number of ground-terminal antennas Radio Corporation of America (RCA) U.S. domestic satellites.
required.) Between 1982 and 1985, with the Anik D satellites It had three-axis stabilization and solar arrays that deployed in
coming into use, the Anik A satellites were turned off and orbit, as shown in Fig. 6.3. Anik B had two communication
moved out of geosynchronous orbit. subsystems, each with its own antenna. One, which used 4 and
****** 6 GHz, was identical to that of the Anik A satellites, except
that the TWTA power had been doubled and the gain-to-noise-
1. A. A. McKenzie, “Special Report-Communications:
temperature ratio (G/T) had been increased 25 percent. The
What’s Up in Satellites,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 9, No. 5 (May
other operated at 12 and 14 GHz and made extensive use of
1972).
hardware developed and tested in the CTS (Communications
2. R. M. Lester, “The Introduction of New Satellites to an Technology Satellite) program described in chapter 1. It had
Operating System,” Paper 58.2, International Conference on six channels, four TWTAs, and four regional transmitting
Communications: ICC ’81 (June 1981). beams. Figure 6.4 illustrates the Anik B 12 and 14 GHz
3. J. Almond, “Commercial Communication Satellite communication subsystem. Together, the four 12 and 14 GHz
Systems in Canada,” IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. beams covered all of Canada. A number of switches provided
19, No. 1 (January 1981). flexibility in assigning channels to the regions and minimizing
loss of coverage resulting from TWTA failures. The receiver
4. R. F. Chinnick, “The Canadian Telecommunications was connected to a single Canadian coverage beam.
Satellite System,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Anik B was launched in December 1978. In July 1979,
Society, Vol. 26, No. 4 (April 1973). traffic from Anik A3 was transferred to the 4 and 6 GHz
5. “Canadian Domestic Communications Satellite,” “Ideas subsystem. Beginning in 1983, the traffic was split between
and Achievements” Section, Telecommunication Journal, Vol. Anik B and Anik D1. The 12 and 14 GHz subsystem was
40, No. 1 (January 1973). leased to the government’s Department of Communications. It
6. D. E. Weese and F. H. Smart, “Measured Communication was used to continue some of the experiments started with CTS
Performance of the Telesat Satellite System,” Paper 74-455, and to provide preoperational experience for Anik C services.
AIAA 5th Communications Satellite Systems Conference Anik B was removed from service in December 1986. Details
(April 1974). of the Anik B satellite are as follows.
7. M. J. Houterman, “ ‘Anik’ Satellite Communications Satellite
System,” International Telemetering Conference: ITC ’72 Rectangular body with deployed solar arrays, overall span 9.6
(October 1972). m, 3.3 m height (body plus antenna)
461 kg in orbit, beginning of life
8. L. Harrison, “Canadian Domestic Satellite (Telesat),
A General Description,” International Conference on Com- Sun-tracking solar array and NiCd batteries, 840 W beginning
munications: ICC ’71 (June 1971). of life, 635 W minimum after 7 years
9. P. N. Wadham, “Operational Experience with the Three-axis-stabilized, 0.25 deg antenna pointing accuracy (3S)
Canadian Domestic Satellites,” Paper 74-453, AIAA 5th Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine propellant
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1974). for on-orbit use
10. A. D. D. Miller, “Operational Experience with Small Configuration
Unattended Television Receive Earth Stations,” Paper 74- 4 and 6 GHz: twelve 36 MHz bandwidth single-conversion
454, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite Systems Conference repeaters
(April 1974). 12 and 14 GHz: six 72 MHz bandwidth single-conversion
11. R. K. Kwan, “The Telesat TDMA System,” International repeaters
Conference on Communications: ICC ’75 (June 1975).
12. H. Kowalik, “Telesat Satellite Control System,”
Paper 74-451, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite Systems
Conference (April 1974).
13. J. W. Crawford, “Operating Experience in the Canadian
Domestic Satellite Systems,” Paper 78-541, AIAA 7th Com-
munications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978).
14. D. A. Gray, “Telesat’s Sixty-One Mbps TDMA System
Operational Experience,” Paper 11.3, National Telecom-
munications Conference: NTC ’78 (December
1978).
15. P. N. Wadham, “Operational Experience
with Anik A,” Paper 80-0549, AIAA 8th
Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(April 1980).
Fig. 6.3. Anik B satellite.
16. Satellite Communications (February
1985), p. 14.
265
North American Satellites

Orbital history
1
.0
4 – Anik B: Launched 15 December 1978, in use until
.5
4
1 W W C EC E December 1986, moved above synchronous orbit
Hz
G
C D D D D Delta 3914 launch vehicle
2
1
–
7
.2
.H
G z
Management
Developed for Telesat Canada by RCA (spacecraft
and integration) and SPAR Technology, Canada
(communication subsystems)
1 3
C TW C Operated by Telesat Canada
1
3 S
S 5
******
S
1. N. G. Davies, J. W. B. Day, and M. V. Patriarche,
P T 5 3
C TW C “The Transition from CTS/Hermes Communications
Experiments to Anik-B Pilot Projects,” EASCON ’78
S 2300 H Conference Record (September 1978).
2 4 2. A. Casey-Stahmer, “From Satellite Experiments
C TW C
P T
2
to Operational Applications: Canadian Experiences
4 S and Plans,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 8, No. 1 (January
S 6 1981).
2300 S
6 4 3. J. W. B. Day, N. G. Davies, and R. J. Douville,
Th He
G
/6
4
e ictsh
z
n
o C TW C “The Applications of Lower Power Satellites for
ik
n
A
th
e
m
sa A
,
ye
tsb
ia
n
u
m
co Direct Television Broadcasting,” Acta Astronautica,
exce d
n
so
a
th
p TD Vol. 7, No. 12 (December 1980).
cd
la
p
isre yb T.
4. R. R. Bowen et al., “The Development of
a Canadian Broadcasting Satellite System at 12
Fig. 6.4. Anik B communication subsystem. GHz,” Paper 51.3, International Conference on
Communications: ICC ’80 (June 1980).
Transmitter 5. J. Almond, “Commercial Communication Satellite
Systems in Canada,” IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol.
4 and 6 GHz: 3702 to 4178 MHz, one 10 W TWTA per repeater,
36 dBW minimum EIRP per repeater over all of Canada 19, No. 1 (January 1981).
12 and 14 GHz: 11.70 to 12.18 GHz, four 20 W TWTAs, 46.5 6. R. W. Hoedemaker and D. G. Thorpe, “Anik B, The
dBW minimum EIRP in each beam New Canadian Domestic Satellite,” Paper 9/3, WESCON
Technical Papers (September 1976).
Receiver 7. R. W. Hoedemaker and D. G. Thorpe, “Anik B, The
4 and 6 GHz: 5927 to 6403 MHz, G/T >–6 dB/K New Canadian Domestic Satellite,” RCA Engineer, Vol. 23,
12 and 14 GHz: 14.00 to 14.48 GHz, G/T >–1 dB/K No. 1 (June–July 1977).
Antenna 8. A. R. Raab and K. Farrell, “A Shaped Beam Multifeed
4 and 6 GHz: Offset-fed parabola, approximately 3 x 8 deg 14/12 GHz Antenna for Anik-B,” 1978 AP-S International
beam shaped to match Canadian land mass Symposium (May 1978).
12 and 14 GHz: Offset-fed parabola, approximately 91 x 122 9. G. Gothe, “The Anik-B Slim TDMA Pilot Project,”
cm; one receive beam shaped to match Canada, four 1.8 x 2.0 Paper 71.4, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC
deg transmit beams each covering 25% of Canada, minimum ’80 (November 1980).
measured gain over coverage areas 35.1 dB (transmit) and
29.4 dB (receive)
10. J. G. Chambers, “An Evolutionary Approach to the
Introduction of Direct Broadcast Satellite Service,” Paper
Telemetry and command 73.2, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’80
Telemetry: near edge of 3700 to 4200 MHz band, via (November 1980).
omnidirectional antenna, or via communications antenna 11. D. E. Weese, “The Canadian Domestic Satellite
(when on station) Communication System—Present and Future,” Paper 7-3,
Command: near edge of 5925 to 6425 MHz band, via EASCON ’77 Conference Record (September 1977).
omnidirectional antenna, or via communications antenna
(when on station) 12. R. M. Lester, “Telesat Canada Plans for New Satellite
Systems,” Paper 78-544, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite
Life Systems Conference (April 1978). Revised version in Journal
Seven-year design life of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 17, No. 2 (March–April
1980).
Orbit
13. O. S. Roscoe, “Satellite Broadcasting in Canada,”
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W SMPTE Journal, Vol. 91, No. 12 (December 1982).

266
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

Anik C four regional transmitting beams. There was a single receive

Anik C [1–9] was a spin-stabilized satellite designed for launch beam. For both reception and transmission, the beams covered
by either a Delta vehicle or the space shuttle. When in orbit, only the southern half of Canada, inasmuch as Anik C was
as shown in Fig. 6.5, the antenna was deployed from one end used to interconnect only the urban centers of Canada. Figure
of the satellite, and a cylindrical solar panel extended at the 6.8 shows both Anik B and Anik C coverage areas. The use
opposite end. The cylindrical body of the satellite was within of 12 and 14 GHz allowed the ground terminals to be placed
this panel, which was covered with solar cells except for a inside cities without interference between the satellite system
mirrored band that was a thermal radiator. The combination and terrestrial microwave facilities. Furthermore, the use
of the two arrays provided adequate power for the mission of multiple beams, each covering only a portion of Canada,
and permitted a compact launch configuration. The two panels increased the effective radiated power of the satellite. This was
spun together in orbit as a rigid body. The relative position complementary to the nationwide beams of either Anik A or
could be varied slightly by ground command to balance the Anik D, which covering all of Canada, were or are best suited
satellite to help maximize antenna pointing accuracy. Figure to the distribution of national television or message services
6.6 shows these satellite details. that require nationwide access. In typical use, Anik C had one
The communication subsystem, shown in Fig. 6.7 had 90 Mbps data stream or two FM television signals per satellite
16 repeaters and used the 12 and 14 GHz bands. Both this repeater.
subsystem and the antenna were mounted on a despun Development began in April 1978, and Anik C3 was
platform within the satellite body. Each repeater had a single launched on shuttle flight 5 in November 1982. It was launched
TWTA, and the satellite had four spare TWTAs. The TWTAs first because the others were put in ground storage awaiting
were connected in a ring arrangement so that the spares were launch vehicle availability, and it was easier to launch C3
available to all channels. The repeaters occupied the 500 than to store it and remove another from storage. The second
MHz allocation twice by means of orthogonal polarizations satellite was launched in June 1983 and the third in April
for both transmission and reception. Each repeater had a 1985. Satellites C3 and C2 were put into operation after initial
bandwidth of 54 MHz, selected to accommodate 90 Mbps testing in orbit. Traffic did not grow as much as expected when
digital telephone trunks, yet also to maximize the number of Anik C was planned. Therefore, Satellite C1 was put into
repeaters for maximum flexibility in distribution of television. orbital storage and offered for sale. A purchase agreement was
The antenna was composed of two surfaces, each transparent made in 1986 by a group that planned to use it for transpacific
to one polarization and reflecting another. These surfaces were services, but the agreement was canceled in 1987. By 1989,
slightly offset from each other to allow separate feed networks Telesat began to use the satellite in a limited way, and in 1990
for each polarization. additional traffic was transferred to it in preparation for the
The channels could be connected in various ways to the introduction of Anik E1.

Fig. 6.5. Anik C satellite. Fig. 6.6. Anik C satellite details.

267
North American Satellites

1
3 T TW 3 P
C
3
3 T TW 3 P
West
C beam
5
3 T TW 3 P
T T
Vertical 7 C
2300 3 T TW 3 P
polarization
Vertical
Receiver 2 polarization
Spare 3 T TW 3

Receiver 3 2
Horizontal 3 T TW 3 P
C
polarization
Receiver 4 4
3 T TW 3 P
C
Receiver 5 6
3 T TW 3 P West-center
beam
8 C
Sends all power to 3 T TW 3 P
P either output or
half to each Spare 3 T TW 3
May be in any of East-center
3 beam
these 3 states:
Same as above
East beam
Horizontal
polarization

Fig. 6.7. Anik C communication subsystem.

Anik C1 and C2 were sold in January 1993 to Paracomsat Transmitter

of Argentina for use as the initial satellites of the Argentinean 11.703–12.197 GHz
Nahuel system and were operated by Telesat under contract One 15 W TWTA per repeater plus four spares per satellite
to Paracomsat. When Argentina’s Nahuel satellite was
48 dBW EIRP per repeater using one antenna beam, 3 dB
launched in January 1997, ownership of the Anik satellites
lower when output is split between two beams, 5.5 dB backoff
was transferred back to Telesat. Anik C2 was retired that year. when two TV transmissions share a repeater
Anik C1 began service to southern Brazil at the beginning of
1999 under a joint venture by Telesat and Brazilian partners. Receiver
In early 2000 Telesat bought out the interests of the Brazilian 14.003–14.497 GHz
joint venture and sold the satellite to its final owner, Loral
Two active plus three spare receivers
Space & Communications. It was operated under the satellite
name Brazil 1(T) from Loral Skynet’s 63°W orbital position +3 dB/K G/T over 95% of coverage, otherwise +2 dB/K
until its retirement in May 2003 [9]. Antenna
Details of the Anik C satellites are as follows.
One 1.8 m diam paraboloid, dual linear polarizations for both
Satellite receive and transmit, one receive beam approximately 1 x 8
Hughes HS 376 bus deg, four contiguous transmit spot beams approximately 0.8 x
2 deg each, each pair of spot beams may be combined into an
Cylinder, 2.2 m diam, 6.4 m height in deployed condition
area beam approximately 1.2 x 2 deg, beams aimed to cover
567 kg in orbit, beginning of life southern half of Canada
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 800 W end of life
Telemetry and command
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, antenna beam pointing to 0.02 deg Telemetry: near edge of 11.7 to 12.2 GHz band, via
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine propellant omnidirectional antenna, or via communications antenna
for on-orbit use (when on station)
Command: near edge of 14.0 to 14.5 GHz band, via
Configuration
omnidirectional antenna, or via communications antenna
Sixteen 54 MHz bandwidth repeaters, dual-polarization (when on station)
frequency reuse, horizontal polarization channel centers 13
MHz higher than vertical polarization Life
Ten-year design life
Capacity
90 Mbps (1344 voice channels) or two TV programs per repeater

268
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S
and E-W

Orbital history
Anik C3: launched 11 November 1982
(deployed from shuttle, 11 November)
115°W longitude, retired June 1997, moved
above synchronous orbit
Anik C2: launched 18 June 1983 (deployed
from shuttle, 18 June) was 110°W longitude,
in use at 76°W longitude 1993 to early
1997, retired June 1997, moved above
synchronous orbit
Anik C1: launched 12 April 1985 (deployed
from shuttle, 13 April) was 107°W longitude,
in use at 72°W longitude 1993 to early 1997,
then 106.8°W longitude, finally at 63°W;
retired May 2003
Shuttle launch vehicle (satellite design is
also compatible with Delta 3910)

Management
Developed for Telesat Canada by Hughes
Aircraft Company (about 40% of the work
subcontracted to Canadian firms)
Operated by Telesat Canada

******
1. J. Almond, “Commercial Communi-
cation Satellite Systems in Canada,” IEEE
Communications Magazine, Vol. 19, No. 1
(January 1981).
2. D. E. Weese, “The Canadian Domes-
tic Satellite Communication System—
Present and Future,” Paper 7-3, EASCON
’77 Conference Record (September 1977).
3. R. M. Lester, “Telesat Canada Plans
for New Satellite Systems,” Paper 78-544,
AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems
Conference (April 1978). Revised version in
Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 17,
No. 2 (March–April 1980). Fig. 6.8. Anik B and C coverage areas.
4. F. H. Smart, “The Anik C 90 Mb/
s Digital Service,” Fourth International
Conference on Digital Satellite Communications (October 9. “Saluting a Thoroughbred’s Space Odyssey: Anik C1
1978). Is Finally Put to Pasture,” Telesat Report (Summer 2003),
pp. 4-6, http://www.telesat.ca/pdfs/report/summer2003.pdf
5. W. Zatychec, “Anik C Space Segment for Telesat (September 2005).
Canada,” Paper 80-0474, AIAA 8th Communications Satellite
Systems Conference (April 1980).
6. D. A. Gray, “Evaluation of a 14/12 GHz 90 Mbit Digital Anik D
Satellite Link,” Paper D7.2, National Telecommunications The Anik D satellites [1–7] were replacements first for the Anik
Conference: NTC ’81 (November 1981). A satellites and later also for Anik B. The satellite structure,
7. J. R. Campbell and M. Zuliani, “System Design for the support subsystems, thermal radiator, and deployable solar
TCTS Integrated Satellite Business Network,” Paper B2.1, In- array were almost identical to those of Anik C.
ternational Conference on Communications: ICC ’83 (June The major difference between the two satellites was the
1983). communication subsystem, shown in Fig. 6.9. Anik D had
8. F. H. Smart, “Overview of the Anik C Satellites and 24 repeaters in the 4 and 6 GHz bands—twice the number
Services,” Paper 7.1, First Canadian Domestic and Inter- contained in an Anik A satellite and accomplished by dual-
national Satellite Communications Conference (June 1983). polarized reception and transmission. The antenna pattern was

269
North American Satellites

shaped to provide coverage of all of Canada, the same as Anik Orbital history
A. However, the TWTA output power was twice that of the Anik D1: launched 27 August 1982, was 105°W longitude, in
earlier satellites, thus permitting equivalent service to smaller use until retired December 1991, moved above synchronous
ground terminals. The Anik D satellite details follow. orbit
Satellite Anik D2: launched 8 November 1984 (deployed from shuttle,
Hughes HS 376 bus 9 November), was 111°W longitude, in storage until 1986, in
use until 1991, see text for events through 1995, moved above
Cylinder, 2.2 m diam, 6.6 m height in deployed condition synchronous orbit
Approximately 635 kg in orbit, beginning of life Delta 3920 launch vehicle (1), shuttle (2)
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 800 W end of life
Management
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat
Developed for Telesat Canada by SPAR Aerospace with
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine propellant Hughes Aircraft Company as a major subcontractor
for on-orbit use
Operated by Telesat Canada
Configuration The Anik D satellites were built by SPAR Aerospace, a
Twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth repeaters, dual-polarization Canadian company, which was a subcontractor on many
frequency reuse other satellites (including Anik C) of similar design. The first
Anik D was launched in August 1982. Most 4 and 6 GHz
Capacity television service was on Anik D, whereas message and voice
960 one-way voice circuits or one TV program per repeater service was predominantly handled via Anik B. The second
Transmitter was launched in November 1984 and put into orbital storage.
Telesat saw three benefits to orbital storage: lower launch costs
3702–4198 MHz
on early shuttle flights; availability of space on a shuttle when
One TWTA per repeater later years’ schedules were crowded; and ability to bring the
10 W output, 36 dBW minimum EIRP per repeater over all of satellite into service at any time with only a few days delay.
Canada Anik D2 was brought into service in 1986 to take the traffic
from Anik B as it reached the end of its useful life. Traffic
Receiver from both D1 and D2 was transferred to Anik E in 1991. Anik
5927–6423 MHz D2 was moved to a new location in December 1991 for use
Two active plus two spare receivers by GE Americom as Satcom 4R, a temporary replacement
G/T >–6 dB/K

Antenna
One 1.8 m diam reflec- 1A A
TW C C D Horizontal
tor, multiple feed horns to polarization
optimize beam shape for S S
Canada, orthogonal linear 1B
polarizations TW

Telemetry and S S
command 3A
T T TW
Telemetry: near edge
of 3700 to 4200 MHz S S
band, via omnidirectional 2225 3B B
TW C
antenna, or via com-
munications antenna 3702 –
Same for 5, 7 and 9, 11 4198
(when on station) 5927– Receiver 2
6423
Command: near edge 2A A
TW C
of 5925 to 6425 MHz
band, via omnidirectional Receiver 3 S S
antenna, or via 2B
communications antenna TW
(when on station)
Receiver 4 S S
Life 4A
TW
Ten-year design life
S S
Orbit 4B B
C C D Vertical
TW polarization
G e o s t a t i o n a r y,
stationkeeping to ±0.05° Same for 6,8 and 10,12
N-S and E-W
Fig. 6.9. Anik D communication subsystem.

270
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

for GE Satcom 4. In February 1993, it was sold to the Saudi join the cylinder to the exterior panels of the satellite body.
Electronics and Computer Services Corporation to become Two large reflectors were deployed from the east and west
Arabsat 1D. Satellite control remained with Telesat, achieved faces of the body. One was for 4 and 6 GHz and the other
by remote operations through a command and telemetry station for 12 and 14 GHz. A third, smaller antenna was fixed on the
located in Tunisia. In January 1995, it was retired. Earth-viewing face of the body. This third antenna was for the
12 and 14 GHz cross-border beam; the larger 12 and 14 GHz
******
antenna provides the national, east, and west beams.
1. R. M. Lester, “The Introduction of New Satellites to an At 12 and 14 GHz, the national beam provided coverage
Operating System,” Paper 58.2, International Conference on of all of Canada except for some sections of the far north. The
Communications: ICC ’81 (June 1981). east and west beams, shown in Fig. 6.11(a) each corresponded
2. J. Almond, “Commercial Communication Satellite to half of the national beam. The cross-border beam, shown
Systems in Canada,” IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. in Fig. 6.11(b) covered southern Canada plus most of the
19, No. 1 (January 1981). contiguous 48 states. The east and west beams were used only
for transmission; the national and cross-border beams were
3. A. R. Smalley, “Overview of Anik D Satellite used for both reception and transmission. At 4 and 6 GHz, a
and Services,” Paper 7.2, First Canadian Domestic and single national beam was used for reception and transmission.
International Satellite Communications Conference (June As shown in Fig. 6.11(c), this beam covered all of Canada,
1983). approximately the northern half of the contiguous 48 states,
4. D. L. Doan et al., “Anik D, Brasilsat and GStar Shaped and much of Alaska.
Beam Antennas,” Paper 29.5, First Canadian Domestic and A simplified block diagram of the 4 and 6 GHz
International Satellite Communications Conference (June communication subsystem is shown in Fig. 6.12, and a
1983). simplified block diagram of the 12 and 14 GHz communications
5. Aviation Week & Space Technology (19 November subsystem is shown in Fig. 6.13. In the 12 and 14 GHz portion
1984), p. 19. of the communications subsystem, 12 channels were received
in the national beam, and four could be individually switched
6. Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 52, No. 6 (June between national and cross-border beams. For transmission,
1985), p. 385. these latter four could be switched to the national, cross-
7. B. Hanson, A. Smalley, and M. Zuliani, “Implementation border, or west beam. Two others could be switched between
of a Light-Route TDMA Communications Satellite System national and east beams. The remaining 10 are fixed, four to
for Advanced Business Networks,” Paper 82-0477, AIAA 9th the west beam and six to the east beam.
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982). Details of the Anik E1 and Anik E2 satellites and
communications payload are as follows.
Satellite
Anik E General Electric series 5000 bus
The launch dates and expected lifetimes of the Anik C and D Rectangular box body, approximately 1.8 x 2.1 x 2.1 m, 22 m
satellites indicated that both series would need to be replaced span across solar arrays, 8 m span across deployed reflectors
in the early 1990s. Telesat decided that large enough spacecraft
Approximately 1450 kg in orbit, beginning of life
were available to allow replacement of both series with a
single-design satellite series. In addition, such a combined Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, approximately
replacement would be less expensive to build and launch than 4300 W at beginning of life, 3900 W after 10 years
two separate replacement series. The single combined design Three-axis stabilization using pivoted momentum wheels and
was Anik E [1–11]. magnetic torquers
The development of Anik E began late in 1986. Primary Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver,
requirements were to provide a continuation of the 4 and 6 monopropellant hydrazine for on-orbit use
GHz payload on Anik D and the 12 and 14 GHz payload on
Anik C with the addition of a national coverage beam at 12
and 14 GHz, higher power at 12 GHz, improved flexibility
to switch between the various 12 and 14 GHz beams, and
additional coverage of the United States to provide full cross-
border services to Canadian companies doing business in both
nations.
Figure 6.10 shows the on-orbit configuration of the Anik
E satellites. The basic satellite design was the same as many
other communication satellites: a rectangular
body with solar panels that deploy in orbit
from the north and south faces of the body.
Communications equipment was attached
to the inside surfaces of the north and south
faces; other equipment was mounted in a
central cylindrical structure and on panels that Fig. 6.10. Anik E satellite.

271
North American Satellites

Configuration
4 and 6 GHz: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth
single-conversion repeaters, dual-
polarization frequency reuse
12 and 14 GHz: sixteen 54 MHz bandwidth 52 dBW
single-conversion repeaters, dual- 49 dBW
polarization frequency reuse
49 dBW
Transmitter 52 dBW
4 and 6 GHz: 3702–4198 MHz 45 dBW

11.5 W solid-state amplifiers, in six 45 dBW

groups of five amplifiers for four
repeaters
EIRP per repeater 37–38 dBW over
much of Canada, 35–37 dBW over all
of Canada, the northern half of CONUS
(continental United States), and half Longitude: 110.5°W
of Alaska, 30 dBW over almost all of
CONUS and Alaska (a) 12-GHz east and west beams
12 and 14 GHz: 11.903–12.197 GHz
50 W TWTAs, in two groups of nine
amplifiers for eight repeaters
EIRP per repeater 45–52 dBW in
east and west beams, 45–49 dBW in 43 dBW
national beam, 43–45 dBW in cross-
44 dBW
border beam
Receiver 45 dBW
4 and 6 GHz: 5927–6423 MHz
Two active receivers plus two spares
G/T –3 dB/K over all of Canada
12 and 14 GHz: 14.003–14.497 GHz 45 dBW
Three active receivers plus two spares
G/T 1.5–2.5 dB/K over Canada
43 dBW 44 dBW
Antenna Longitude: 110.5°W
4 and 6 GHz: One 2.1 m diam offset-fed
dual-grid parabola with multiple feedhorns, (b) 12-GHz cross-border beam
dual linear polarizations
12 and 14 GHz: Two offset-fed dual-grid
parabolas; one 2.1 m diam with multiple feed
horns for national, east, and west beams,
dual linear polarizations; one 1 m diam with
multiple feed horns for cross-border beams,
single polarization

Telemetry and command

Frequencies near edges of communications
bands
38 dBW
Life
Twelve years fuel load 36 dBW

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-
S and E-W
Longitude: 110.5°W
Orbital history
Anik E1: launched 26 September 1991, c) 4-GHz beam
retired 2005
Anik E2: launched 4 April 1991, drifting in an Fig. 6.11. Anik E transmit coverage areas.
inclined orbit in late 2005
Ariane launch vehicle

272
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

T
11

T
9

T
7

T
5 C
T

T T
5947–
6423 2225 T
3
BFN (H) 3 Receiver 2 3 H T
1
BFN (V) 3 Receiver 3 3 H T BFN (H)
2
5927– Receiver 4 3702–4178
6403 T
4

T
6
BFN Beam forming network C
T
8
H, V Horizontal, vertical
polarizations T
10

3 May be in any of 3 states: T

12

T 3722–4198

Same as above BFN (V)

Fig. 6.12. Anik E communication subsystem (4/6 GHz).

Management a day, Anik E1 was restored to operation using its second

Developed for Telesat Canada by SPAR Aerospace with GE wheel. Anik E2 was not restored to service until August 1994.
Astro-Space as a major subcontractor It depends on ground command of its thrusters in response to
Operated by Telesat Canada several attitude-sensing methods, and was the first three-axis-
stabilized satellite to be operated without a momentum wheel.
The Anik E development program was a protoflight approach, Operation of both Anik E satellites then proceeded normally,
where the first flight satellite qualified the design. Distinct and in 1999 their end of life was predicted to be 2002 or later.
qualification models were built only for the solid-state Anik E1 was retired in January 2005. Prior to its retirement,
amplifiers, antennas, some propulsion components, and the satellite was positioned at 111.1°W until March 2001, then
batteries. Anik E2 was launched in April 1991. The 12 and 118.7°W until mid-2003, and finally at 109.5°W in an inclined
14 GHz antenna was deployed only after anomalous behavior, orbit until its retirement.
and the 4 and 6 GHz antenna could not be deployed. Since Anik E2 was located at 107.3°W until February 2001, then
the latter antenna was blocking the attitude control sensors, 111.1°W until July 2003. The satellite was positioned at 67°W
the whole satellite was disabled. Three months after launch for several months in mid-2005 in cooperation with Venezuela
and after intensive study and testing, the antenna was and the countries of the Andean Community. In late 2005 it
finally deployed by spinning the satellite [9]. Anik E1, with was drifting in an inclined orbit.
modifications to avoid the deployment problem, was launched Telesat Canada arranged for a short-term lease of
26 September 1991 and put into service in November of the PanAmSat’s Galaxy 3R satellite in 2003, and the satellite was
same year. In January 1994, solar activity apparently caused temporarily renamed Anik E2R. In May 2003 the satellite was
excess electrostatic charging in both satellites; one momentum repositioned to Telesat’s 111.1°W orbit location. In July 2004
wheel failed in Anik E1 and both in Anik E2 [10–11]. Within Anik F2 was launched, and it became operational at 111.1°W

273
North American Satellites

National
C BFN (H)
TW
1
V
TW
2
V
TW
3
11716 –
TW C 12197
4
East
TW C
5 BFN (H)

TW
6
T T
14016 – TW
7
14497 2300
TW
8
National 3 Receiver 2 3
BFN (V) 1 TW
2
Cross-
Cross- 3 Receiver 3 3 3 C border
border 4 BFN (V)
BFN (H) TW
1
National 3 Receiver 4 3 S S V
BFN (H)
TW
2
Receiver 5 S S V
14003 –
14484 TW
3
S S V
11703 –
TW 12184
4
S S V
BFN Beam forming network
TW West
C
H, V Horizontal, vertical polarizations 5 BFN (V)
V Variable power divider
TW
3 May be in any of 3 states: 6

TW
7

TW
8

TW
National
C BFN (V)

Fig. 6.13. Anik E communication subsystem (12/14 GHz).

in October 2004. Traffic was transferred off of Galaxy 3R 3. R. C. Whitehouse, “The Anik E Antenna Farm,” IEEE
onto Anik F2, and Galaxy 3R has since been moved to 74°W. International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation (June
Details of the Galaxy 3R satellite can be found in the section 1989).
below on domestic U.S. satellites. 4. A. Kidd and E. Bertenyi, “Anik E Spacecraft
****** Development and Test,” Paper 90-0825, AIAA 13th
International Communication Satellite Systems Conference
1. E. Bertenyi and R. Tinley, “Telesat Canada’s Anik E
(March 1990).
Spacecraft,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 16 (1987).
5. Aviation Week & Space Technology (8 December
2. A. Shoamanesh and R. Taylor, “Telesat Canada’s
1986), p. 85; (20 April 1987), p. 20; (9 September 1991), p. 76.
Anik E Communications Satellite System,” Paper 88-0783,
AIAA 12th International Communication Satellite Systems 6. Satellite Communications (February 1988), p. 27;
Conference (March 1988). (May 1989), p. 19; (February 1991), p. 25.

274
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

7. R. deCamprieu, M. Zuliani, and D. E. Weese, “Anik

E: Meeting User Requirements in the 1990’s,” The Canadian
Satellite User Conference (May 1987).
8. L. A. Keyes and H. J. Moody, “Evolution of the Anik
E Payload,” The Canadian Satellite User Conference (May
1987).
9. D. Wang and N. Martens, “Anik-E2 Recovery Mission,”
Acta Astronautica, Vol. 29, No. 10/11 (October/November
1993).
10. L. Cooper, “Black Thursday, The Day Anik Failed,”
Via Satellite, Vol. 9, No. 7 (July 1994).
11. B. Burlton, “The Rescue of Anik E2,” Canadian
Aeronautics and Space Journal, Vol. 41, No. 2 (June 1995).

Anik F Series Fig. 6.14. Anik F1 satellite.

Detailed planning for the Anik F series of
satellites began in 1996. This series now includes
the Anik F1, F1R, F2, and F3 satellites. Planning identified
several objectives for Anik F: to continue the C-band and by 12 transponders on each polarization in the North American
Ku-band service of prior satellites, to expand the coverage beam and another 12 on one polarization in the South
from a national system to a regional system, to make use American beam. Similarly there are 48 Ku-band transponders
of more Ku-band frequencies, and to split the Telesat space with the same threefold frequency reuse: 16 transponders on
segment into two parts. The last objective was accomplished each polarization in the North American beam and another 16
by the development of Nimiq for direct-to-user television on one polarization in the South American beam. These 48
broadcasting and Anik F for all other communication services. transponders are in the 500 MHz of Ku-band spectrum used
Anik F was designed to achieve all of the other objectives. Anik by Anik C and Anik E. There are another four transponders
F1 was ordered in March 1998. Studies regarding possible in an adjacent part of Ku-band; these transponders have twice
differences on F2 continued through 1998. Anik F1 was the bandwidth of the others and are received in the North or
launched in November 2000, and is operational at 107.3°W. South American beams but transmitted in the global beam.
It replaced Anik E2, which was moved to 111.1°W. Anik F2 However, at most, 48 of the 52 Ku-band transponders can be
then replaced both Anik E2 and E2R at 111.1°W. Anik F2 has on simultaneously.
a reduced C- and Ku-band payload but includes a relatively The two larger antennas deployed from the satellite body
large Ka-band payload. Early in its on-orbit life Anik F1 began are for the North American Ku-band and C-band beams.
suffering power degradation owing to fogging of concentrators The smaller reflectors deployed over the front of the satellite
used to reflect additional sunlight onto the solar arrays. Telesat body are for the South American beams. There are also horn
then ordered a replacement satellite, Anik F1R from Astrium, antennas on the face of the satellite body that generate Ku-
followed by an additional order for Anik F3. Each of these band “global” transmit beams that cover most of the American
satellites is described in the following subsections. continents. Figure 6.15 illustrates the coverage areas and EIRP
contours for Anik F1.
Additional satellite and communication subsystem details
Anik F1 about Anik F1 [1–4] follow.
The Anik F1 satellite, shown in its on-orbit configuration
Satellite
in Fig. 6.14, is much larger than earlier Anik satellites. For
Boeing HS 702 bus
example, its weight is twice that of Anik E, solar-array power
is four times Anik E, and its total bandwidth is 50 percent more Rectangular box body, 40.4 m span across solar arrays, 9 m
than Anik E with a considerable increase in transmitter power. span across deployed reflectors
The increased solar-array power is achieved by a combination 4710 kg at launch, 3015 kg in orbit, beginning of life
of newer solar cells, longer arrays, and reflectors on each side Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, approximately
of the arrays to collect more sunlight. The increased power 17.5 kW at beginning of life, 15 kW end of life
is needed to supply the larger number and higher power of Three-axis stabilization
the C-band and Ku-band amplifiers. However, some of the
power supplied to each of these amplifiers becomes heat, and Liquid bipropellant propulsion for orbit raising maneuvers, ion
propulsion for on-orbit use
thermal radiators deployed along the north and south faces of
the satellite body are necessary to reject the heat load. The Configuration
satellite uses ion propulsion for all attitude and orbit control 4 and 6 GHz: Thirty-six 36 MHz bandwidth single-conversion
once it reaches its operating location; no liquid propulsion is repeaters, dual-polarization and dual-beam frequency reuse
used in operational orbit.
12 and 14 GHz: Forty-eight 27 MHz bandwidth and four 54
The Anik F1 communication subsystem includes 36 C- MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters (maximum of 48
band transponders. Threefold frequency reuse is accomplished active), dual-polarization and dual-beam frequency reuse

275
North American Satellites

Transmitter Ku-Band
C-Band
4 and 6 GHz
3700–4200 MHz
40 W linearized TWTAs, in
one ring of 44 TWTAs for 34 dBW
36 transponders
EIRP per transponder:
42 dBW over much of 48 dBW
Canada, 34 dBW over 99%
of Canada and the United
42 dBW
States (North American
beam); 41 dBW over most 40 dBW
of South America, 36 dBW 40 dBW
34 dBW
over all of South America
(South American beam)
12 and 14 GHz
11.45–12.2 GHz (54 MHz
bandwidth transponders in
11.45–11.7 GHz, 27 MHz
bandwidth transponders in 36 dBW
11.7–12.2 GHz)
115 W linearized TWTAs,
in one ring of 58 TWTAs for
38 dBW
48 transponders
EIRP per transponder: 48
dBW over southern Canada 46 dBW
and northern CONUS, 40
dBW over all of Canada, 41 dBW
United States, and Mexico
(North American beam); 46 33 dBW 43 dBW
dBW over most of South
America, 43 dBW over all
of South America (South
American beam); 38 dBW Fig. 6.15. Anik F1 coverage areas and EIRP.
over much of South and
Central America and eastern Canada and United States, Telemetry and command
33 dBW over all the Americas except Alaska (global beam)
Telemetry: two frequencies slightly above 11.7 GHz
Receiver Command: frequencies slightly above 14.0 GHz and slightly
4 and 6 GHz below 14.5 GHz
5925–6425 MHz Life
Three active receivers plus two spares Fifteen-year service life
12 and 14 GHz
13.75–14.5 GHz (54 MHz bandwidth transponders in
Orbit
13.75–14.0 GHz, 27 MHz bandwidth transponders in Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W
14.0–14.5 GHz)
Orbital history
Three active receivers plus two spares
Anik F1: launched 21 November 2000, in use at 107.3°W
Antenna longitude
4 and 6 GHz Ariane launch vehicle
One 2.2 m diam offset-fed dual-grid parabolic reflector, Management
linear polarization (South America)
Developed for Telesat Canada by Hughes Space and
One 2.4 m diam offset-fed dual-grid parabolic reflector, Communications
dual linear polarizations (North America)
Operated by Telesat Canada
12 and 14 GHz:
One 2.2 m diam offset-fed dual-grid parabolic reflector,
On 21 November 2000, Anik F1 was successfully launched on
linear polarization (South America) an Ariane 44L rocket and positioned at 107.3°W. Commercial
service began in February 2001.
One 2.4 m diam offset-fed dual-grid parabolic reflector,
dual linear polarizations (North America)
In late 2001 and early 2002, Boeing discovered that the
concentrators associated with the solar arrays on its 702
Two horns, each on one linear polarization (global spacecraft were losing effectiveness owing to fogging caused
beams)
by outgassing of material from other parts of the satellite, and
this problem applied to the Anik F1 spacecraft as well as at
276
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

least five others. These concentrators were designed to reflect and forms a subnetwork. There are a total of six subnetworks.
additional solar energy onto the cells of the solar array, multi- Six of the 45 beams are also designated for use by gateways,
plying the output of the arrays to provide high-power output. which are located in Toronto, Winnipeg, and Vancouver,
Because of this loss of effectiveness, the predicted end-of-life Canada; Cheyenne Springs, Wyoming; Bakersfield, California;
power of Anik F1 has been significantly reduced. Telesat has and Laredo, Texas. These six beams are spatially isolated. A
ordered a satellite, called Anik F1R, to fill in for the loss of forward link originates at a gateway and extends out to the
communications capacity on Anik F1. Details of the Anik F1R users in the subnetwork. A return link comes back from the
satellite can be found below. users to the gateway terminal.
The basic architecture of the Anik F2 Ka-band payload
****** is set around these six star-based subnetworks. Figure 6.20
1. R. Tinley and E. Bertenyi, “Telesat Canada’s Anik F illustrates this subnet architecture for an example eight-beam
Spacecraft,” 49th International Astronautical Congress, Acta subnet. The gateway terminals transmit the forward link to the
Astronautica Vol. 50, No. 5, pp. 315–323 (2002), http://www. satellite in the 28.35 to 28.60 GHz and the 29.25 to 29.50 GHz
telesat.ca/news/speeches/ (September 2005). bands, and receive the return link from the satellite in the 18.3
2. “Telesat Satellite Footprints,” http://www.telesat.ca/ to 18.8 GHz band. The user terminals receive the forward link
satellites/footprints/index.htm (September 2005). from the satellite in the 19.70 to 20.2 GHz band and transmit
the return link to the satellite in the 29.5 GHz to 30.0 GHz
3. “Anik F,” http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/ band.
bss/factsheets/702/anik_f1/anik_f1.html (September 2005). Note that the Anik F2 satellite uses 1000 MHz of bandwidth
4. “Telesat’s Anik F1 Satellite Begins Service on February on the uplink and another 1000 MHz on the downlink, but
19,” Telesat press release (19 February 2001), http://www. only one polarization is used at any given uplink or downlink
telesat.org/news/2001/01-02.htm (September 2005). frequency. A future satellite could use the same frequency plan
but the opposite set of polarizations from those used on Anik
F2, thereby doubling capacity and also serving as a backup
Anik F2 satellite.
In April 2000, Telesat ordered Anik F2 [1–12] from Boeing From the gateway, the forward link is transmitted to the
Satellite Systems. Anik F2 is designed to maintain and spacecraft using 5.6 m gateway antennas. Seven or eight
augment current North American broadcast, voice, and data 56.25 MHz wide time division multiplexed (TDM) carriers
services with its C- and Ku-band equipment. The satellite are transmitted, one carrier for each user-link beam in the
shares the same Boeing 702 bus as the Anik F1 satellite, but subnetwork associated with that gateway. (There is an
the communications payload is different. Anik F2 includes a alternative mode where the single 56.25 MHz wide TDM
significant Ka-band payload, but does not provide coverage of carrier is replaced with three identical low-rate TDM carriers
South America at C- or Ku-band as does Anik F1. Figure 6.16 for compatibility with cable-modem standards.) In a subnet, all
shows the on-orbit configuration of Anik F2. of the forward link carriers together use 500 MHz of spectrum.
The number of active transponders used on Anik F2 for The carriers are received on the satellite through the feeder-
C- and Ku-band coverage is only two-thirds that of F1. At C- link beam associated with this gateway terminal. This feeder-
band, Anik F2 has 24 active transponders covering Canada link beam is identical to one of the user-link beams. Automatic
and northern CONUS, whereas Anik F1 has 36 active C- level control (ALC) is employed on this uplink to combat rain
Band transponders that cover Canada, northern CONUS and fade. The carriers are frequency translated to their respective
all of South America. At Ku-band, Anik F2 has 32 active downlink frequencies and routed through transmit amplifiers
transponders covering North America, whereas Anik F1 has 48 to the appropriate user-link spot beam. If the user-link beam is
active transponders covering both North and South America. in the eastern part of the continent where there is higher rain
Figure 6.17 illustrates the coverage pattern of the C-band attenuation, then the carrier is amplified by a dedicated 90 W
payload on Anik F2, and Fig. 6.18 illustrates the Ku-band TWTA. If the user-link beam is in the west, then the carrier
payload coverage pattern. shares a 90 W TWTA with another western user-link beam.
At Ka-band, Anik F2 has 45 active transponders and an From the user terminal, the return link is transmitted
associated array of spot beams designed to provide broadband to the satellite using either single- or multiple-frequency
data and multimedia services to Canada and CONUS users. TDMA. User terminal antenna sizes range from 66 to 120 cm.
The CONUS portion of this Ka-band capacity has been leased Return link data rates can be reconfigured dynamically on an
to WildBlue in the United States for this type of service, individual terminal basis, and these rates can vary between 384
making it one of the first satellites to commercialize two-way
broadband services at Ka-band.
The primary Ka-band payload is a nonprocessing repeater
designed around an array of spot beams. There are 45 uplink
and 45 downlink spot beams, and the uplink and downlink
patterns are identical. Figure 6.19 illustrates how these
beams are arranged across Canada and
CONUS. Every set
of seven or eight
user-link beams
is associated with
a gateway terminal Fig. 6.16. Anik F2 satellite.

277
North American Satellites

40
38 42

32 36
34

32

34

Fig. 6.17. Anik F2 C-band transmit coverage pattern and EIRP (dBW).

0
5

2
5

0
5
48

46

46
42
40 44
36 40

36

44

Fig. 6.18. Anik F2 Ku-band transmit coverage pattern and EIRP (dBW).

kbps and 2 Mbps. In addition, the total return link bandwidth aggregated signal, now containing hundreds of carriers from
assigned to each individual user-link beam can be reconfigured the user terminals, is routed through a linearized return-link
to accommodate changes in return-link traffic. A specific user- amplifier and transmitted to the gateway terminal.
link beam can be assigned tens of MHz to hundreds of MHz Employing spatial isolation of the 45 beams, the frequency
of bandwidth, as long as an aggregate 500 MHz of bandwidth reuse of Anik F2 exceeds a factor of 5, and depending on the
is not exceeded. An IF (intermediate frequency) switch link conditions and waveform usage this yields a capacity of
onboard the satellite aggregates the return link signals from the Anik F2 Ka-band payload of approximately 3 to 4 Gbps.
all of the user-link spot beams into 500 MHz of spectrum. The Assuming a long-term average user traffic flow of 1 to 2 kbps

278
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

Note: Shaded beams

have 60 dBW EIRP for
85% coverage area;
unshaded have 57 dBW.

Fig. 6.19. Anik F2 Ka-band beam configuration.

LHCP

19.7 – 20.2 GHz Transponder 1

User forward link filter TDM access
total 8 carriers
Transmitters

56.25 MHz
RHCP

29.5 – 30.0 GHz Receiver

User return link 250 MHz 250 MHz
User
terminal
Spot
beam 1 Transponder 8 Feeder forward links
filter
Variable
bandwidth 28.35 – 28.60 GHz

LHCP
29.25 – 29.50 GHz
Single or multiple Feeder forward link
TDM carriers
User return links
Gateway
RHCP

Switch 18.30 – 18.80 GHz

56.25 MHz control
Feeder return link
Spot
Single TDM carrier beam
User forward links
Receivers

IF switch

100’s of
LHCP

19.7 – 20.2 GHz Transmitter aggregated

User forward link carriers
RHCP

29.5 – 30.0 GHz 500 MHz

User User return link
terminal Feeder return links
Spot
beam 8
Fig. 6.20. Anik F2 Ka-band subnetwork architecture.

for the forward link and 2 to 4 kbps for the return link, it is single-hop user-to-user connections employing a mesh network
estimated that the Anik F2 Ka-band system will be able to architecture that does not require use of a gateway terminal.
serve about half a million to one million subscribers. The processor is ATM based, and decodes and demodulates
Anik F2 also includes a secondary onboard processing the low-rate multifrequency TDMA signals received from
Ka-band payload. The goal of this hardware is to demonstrate user terminals. The onboard processor then multiplexes these
279
North American Satellites

into a single digital stream, compatible with the 54 MHz DVB Receiver
(digital video broadcast) standard, and transmits the stream in 4 and 6 GHz: 5925–6425 MHz
the desired user-link beam. The processor can be configured 12 and 14 GHz: 14.0–14.5 GHz
by ground control.
There is also an experimental V-band RF (radio frequency) 18 and 29 GHz: 29.5–30.0 GHz: G/T ~16 dB/K (selected feeder
link sites), 28.3–29.5 GHz: G/T ~14 dB/K (100% coverage)
beacon on F2, which is at 40.390 GHz. It will be used to
obtain information about V-band propagation to assist in the Antenna
development of V-band propagation models. Measurements 4 and 6 GHz:
will be made at multiple locations and the information gathered
One nadir 2.2 m dual-shaped gridded reflector (Canada
will be used to develop techniques to mitigate rain and other
and Northern CONUS)
propagation effects at this frequency.
Available details of the Anik F2 satellite are as follows. 11 and 14 GHz:
One nadir 2.2 m dual-shaped gridded reflector (North
Satellite America, Hawaii)
Boeing HS 702 bus
Two 0.5 m track antennas
Rectangular box body, 47.9 m span across solar arrays, 8.2 m
18 and 29 GHz:
span across deployed reflectors
Four 1.4 m transmit reflectors
5910 kg at launch, 3805 kg in orbit, beginning of life
Four 0.9 m receive reflectors
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH2 batteries, six panels
of improved triple-junction gallium arsenide solar cells, 45 transmit and receive spot beams covering CONUS and
approximately 16 kW at beginning of life, 15 kW end of life Canada
Three-axis stabilization Life
Liquid bipropellant propulsion for orbit-raising maneuvers, ion Fifteen-year design life
propulsion for on-orbit use, four 25 cm ion propulsion thrusters
Orbit
Configuration Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W
4 and 6 GHz: twenty-four active repeaters, 36 MHz bandwidth
each Orbital History
12 and 14 GHz: thirty-two active (8 spare) repeaters, 27 MHz Anik F2: launched 18 July 2004, in use at 111.1°W longitude
bandwidth each Ariane 5G launch vehicle
18 and 29 GHz:
Management
Forward Links: 19.7–20.2/28.35–28.6,29.25–29.5 GHz Developed for Telesat Canada by Boeing Satellite Systems
Receive: 6 feeder link beams, 500 MHz each Operated by Telesat Canada
Transmit: 45 user link beams, 56 MHz each,
driven by 31 TWTAs The Ka-band payload is at least partially developed through a
partnership of the Communications Research Canada (CRC),
Return Links: 18.3–18.8/29.5–30.0 GHz
Canadian Space Agency, EMS Technologies, COM DEV, and
Receive: 45 user-link beams, variable bandwidth Telesat. EMS Technologies made the onboard processor [8].
Transmit: 6 feeder-link beams, 500 MHz each, 6
TWTAs ******
1. “Production begins on Telesat’s Anik F2 satellite,”
Transmitter
Telesat press release (17 April 2000).
4 and 6 GHz: 3700–4200 MHz
2. Boeing satellite fact sheet, “Anik F2,” http://www.
30 W TWTAs, 24 active
boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/702/anik_f2/
EIRP: 42 dBW peak, minimum 34 dBW CONUS and anik_f2.html (September 2005)
Canada
11 and 14 GHz: 11.7–12.2 GHz 3. “Successful Launch of Telesat Canada’s Anik F2,”
Canadian Space Agency press release (17 July 2004), http://www.
127 W TWTAs, 40 total space.gc.ca/asc/eng/satellites/anikf2.asp (September 2005).
EIRP: 52 dBW peak, minimum 44 dBW CONUS and
Canada 4. “Telesat’s Anik F2 satellite begins service,” Bell
Canada press release (7 October 2004), http://www.bce.ca/en/
18 and 29 GHz:
news/releases/tc/2004/10/07/71702.html (September 2005).
18.3–18.8 GHz (feeder return links); 19.7–20.2 GHz (user
forward links) 5. Anik F2 coverage contours, Telesat Canada web site,
http://www.telesat.ca/satellites/footprints/index.htm (Septem-
90 W TWTAs, 37 active (1 TWTA assigned to each of 17
eastern spot beams, 1 TWTA per pair of 28 western spot ber 2005).
beams, remaining TWTAs to 6 feeder return links) 6. A. Grami, K. Gordon, and A. Shoamanesh, “Anik
Eastern spot beams: 60 dBW (85% coverage), 58 dBW (100% F2 Ka-Band System: High-Speed Internet Access,” Paper
coverage) AIAA-2000-1258, 18th AIAA International Communications
Western spot beams: 57 dBW (85% coverage), 55 dBW (100% Satellite Systems Conference (ICSSC), (April 2000).
coverage)

280
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

7. A. Grami and K. Gordon, “Next Generation Ka- Aviation Administration [6]. Important characteristics of the
Band Satellite Concept to Extend the Reach of Canada’s Anik F1R and F3 satellite follow.
Broadband Infrastructure,” GLOBECOM-2001, San Antonio, Satellite
Texas, November 2001, http://www.telesat.ca/news/speeches/ Astrium E3000 bus
(September 2005).
Rectangular box body, 4.8 m x 2.4 m x 2.9 m, 36 m span across
8. “SpaceMuxTM On-Board Processor Product—Overview,” solar arrays
EMS Technologies product description, http://www.emsstg.
Approximately 4500 kg (F1R), approximately 4600 kg (F3) at
com/pdf/SpaceMuxWhitepaper.pdf, September 2005. launch
9. M. Lee, S. Wright, and Jim Dorey, “Advanced Beam*Link® 10 kW at end of life
Processor For Commercial Communication Satellite Payload
Three-axis stabilized
Application,” Paper AIAA 2002-1853, AIAA (2002).
10. A. Shoamanesh and R. Tinley, “Anik F2 Ka-band Configuration
Multimedia System Design,” 11th Ka and Broadband GPS augmentation payload (F1R)
Communications Conference and 23rd AIAA International 4 and 6 GHz: 24 transponders, 36 MHz bandwidth
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (ICSSC) 2005
12 and 14 GHz: 32 transponders, 27 MHz bandwidth
(Rome, Italy, 25–28 September 2005).
18 and 29 GHz: 2 transponders, 120 MHz bandwidth (F3 only)
11. A. Malarky and G. Healy, “BEAM*LINK® Processors
for Communication Satellites—ANIK F2 Application,” 11th Ka Transmitter
and Broadband Communications Conference and 23rd AIAA GPS: in 1559–1610 MHz and 1164–1215 MHz bands (F1R)
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
4 and 6 GHz
(ICSSC) 2005 (Rome, Italy, 25–28 September 2005).
35 W TWTA, 30 for 24 redundancy (F3)
12. K. Skublics and H. Doepner, “Development of a
EIRP: 41 dBW over most of Canada (F3)
Ka-Band Transportable IOT System for the Anik F2 Ka
Band Payload,” 11th Ka and Broadband Communications 12 and 14 GHz
Conference and 23rd AIAA International Communications 130 W TWTA, 40 for 32 redundancy (F3)
Satellite Systems Conference (ICSSC) 2005 (Rome, Italy, EIRP: 45 to 48 dBW typical over Canada (F3)
25–28 September 2005).
Receiver
4 and 6 GHz: 5925–6425 MHz
Anik F1R, F3 12 and 14 GHz: 14.0 to 14.5 GHz
Approximately 2 years after its November 2000 launch, Anik
Antenna (F1R)
F1 developed a significant problem in its power system. This
problem manifested itself as a degradation in power output GPS: 9 element array of helices (transmit), shared use of 4 and
6 GHz antenna (receive)
over life, significantly reducing communications capacity.
In order to restore this lost capacity, Telesat ordered a new 4 and 6 GHz
satellite from Astrium in February 2003 [1, 2]. This satellite, One 2.4 m single offset fed parabolic
called Anik F1R, was launched in September 2005 and is Coverage: Canada, CONUS, Hawaii, Mexico
collocated with Anik F1 at 107.3°W. Telesat plans to move the 12 and 14 GHz
North American C- and Ku-band traffic located on Anik F1
to Anik F1R in order to continue providing communications One 2.4 m Gregorian
services to these customers. Anik F1, its communications load Coverage: Canada, CONUS, Hawaii, Mexico
significantly reduced, will then continue to serve customers in Antenna (F3)
South America. Figure 6.21 shows the on-orbit configuration
Three 2.4 m diameter deployable reflectors,
of Anik F1R. one 0.5 m fixed
In June 2001 Telesat was awarded a spectrum license by
Industry Canada to operate a C-, Ku-, and Ka-band satellite at Coverage: Canada, CONUS
118.7°W. In April 2004 Telesat announced that it had ordered
a satellite, Anik F3, to operate at this orbital position. Telesat
selected Astrium to build this satellite [3–5]. Launch is planned
for 2006, and EchoStar plans to lease Ku-band capacity on
Anik F3 to augment its services.
Both Anik F1R and Anik F3 are based on the Astrium
E3000 bus. Both have 24 C-band and 32 Ku-band transponders.
Anik F3 has an additional Ka-band payload consisting of two
Ka-band transponders, although little information is publicly
available on its characteristics.
Anik F1R is also equipped with an L-band payload that
will broadcast Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation
data as a part of the Geostationary Communications and
Fig. 6.21. Anik F1R satellite.
Control Segment being implemented for the U.S. Federal

281
North American Satellites

Life binds together. The communication subsystems of the Nimiq

Fifteen-year design life satellites include all 32 channels available in the International
Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) broadcasting plan for
Orbit the Western Hemisphere. Nimiq is used for both television
Geostationary and radio broadcasting, all with digital signals. Receivers
in customers’ homes will normally use 18-inch diameter
Orbital History antennas. The Nimiq satellites are positioned at 82°W and
Anik F1R: launched 9 September 2005, in use at 107.3°W 91°W geostationary longitudes [2].
longitude Nimiq 1 and 2 were both built by Lockheed Martin using
Anik F3 launch planned for 2006, will go to 118.7°W longitude the A2100 bus and have coverage of both Canada and CONUS
Proton launch vehicle [3–5]. Nimiq 1 was launched aboard a Proton in May 1999, and
during the second half of 1999 much of the programming was
Management shifted from Anik E2 to Nimiq 1. Nimiq 2 was ordered from
Developed for Telesat Canada by Astrium Lockheed Martin in June 2001 and launched in late December
Operated by Telesat Canada 2002 [6, 7]. Figure 6.22 shows the on-orbit configuration of
Nimiq 2.
The C-band, Ku-band and Ka-band communications antennas
Nimiq 2 also has 2 Ka-band transponders that are 500 MHz
for Anik F3 are supplied by EMS Technologies [7].
wide, and each use a 90 W TWTA transmitter [8]. Current use
Anik F1R, launched on 9 September 2005, became opera-
of this payload is not known. Bell ExpressVu holds a Canadian
tional at 107.3°W in early October 2005 [8, 9].
government Ka-band license at the 91°W orbit location where
****** Nimiq 1 is currently located. Nimiq 1 does not have a Ka-band
1. “Telesat Selects European manufacturer for New Anik payload.
Satellite,” Telesat press release (4 February 2003), http://www. Additional details for Nimiq 1 and 2 are as follows.
telesat.ca/news/2003/03-02.htm (September 2005). Satellite
2. “Anik F1R—Communications Services for North Lockheed Martin A2100 AX bus
America,” Astrium web site. http://www.astrium.eads.net/ Rectangular box body
corp/programs/part1/00000705.htm (September 2005). 3600 kg launch mass
3. “Telesat Chooses Europe’s EADS Astrium to Build Next Sun-tracking solar arrays, 8800 W (Nimiq 1) 8070 W (Nimiq 2)
Anik Satellite,” Telesat press release (28 April 2004), http:// end-of-life
www.telesat.ca/news/2004/04-07.htm (September 2005). Three-axis stabilization
4. “EADS Astrium Awarded a Second Anik Satellite
by Telesat,” EADS Astrium press release (28 April 2004), Configuration
http://www.space.eads.net/press-center/archives/2004/257-en 12.2–12.7, 17.3–17.8 GHz:
(September 2005). Thirty-two 24 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual-
polarization frequency reuse
5. “Anik F3 Capacity,” Telesat web site, http://www.
telesat.ca/news/f3info.htm (September 2005). 18 and 29 GHz (Nimiq 2)
Two 500 MHz bandwidth transponders
6. “Lockheed Deploys First of Two Satellites Supporting
Space-Based GPS Navigation Service for FAA,” Satellite Transmitter
News (12 September 2005), http://www.satnews.com/ 12.2–12.7 GHz
stories2005/1314.htm (September 2005).
120 W TWTA per transponder plus spares (or 16 transponders
7. EMS Technologies Awarded Multi-Antenna Contract may be operated with two TWTAs each)
for Anik F3 Satellite,” EMS Technologies press release (20
May 2004), http://www.ems-t.com/emspressroom/press/press_ Receiver
elmg/press2004/05-20-04_Anik_F3.pdf, (September 2005). 17.3–17.8 GHz
8. “Telesat’s Anik F1R Satellite Ready for Launch,” Two active plus two spare receivers
EADS Astrium press release (5 September 2005), http://www.
Antenna
space.eads.net/press-center/press-releases/telesats_anik_f1r_
12.2–12.7, 17.3–17.8 GHz:
satellite_ready_for_launch (September 2005).
Two deployed, offset-fed parabolic reflectors, dual circular
9. “Telesat Launches Satellite to Carry Satellite TV, Improve polarization
Air Navigation,” Telesat press release 9 (September 2005), http://
www.telesat.ca/news/2005/05-13.htm (September 2005). Coverage
Canada and CONUS

Nimiq Life
Nimiq is the direct broadcast part of the Telesat space Twelve-year service life
segment [1]. Nimiq, a name selected in a nationwide contest, Orbit
is an Inuit word with the figurative meaning of a force that
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W

282
 Canadian Communication and Direct Broadcast Satellites

Orbital history
Nimiq 1: launched 20 May 1999, in use, 91°W longitude
Nimiq 2: launched 30 December 2002, in use, 82°W longitude
Proton D-1-e (Nimiq 1) Proton M/ Breeze M (Nimiq 2) launch
vehicle

Management
Developed for Telesat Canada by Lockheed Martin Commercial
Space Systems
Operated by Telesat Canada
In mid-February 2003, Nimiq 2 developed an electrical short
circuit in its solar power system [9, 10]. Lockheed Martin
determined that the likely root cause was foreign object
debris in a single power connector. The solar array could not
be recovered, and Telesat has had to reduce the number of
operating transponders on Nimiq 2 to conserve power. In April
2003 Telesat was operating 26 transponders on the satellite
and expected typical degradation of available solar-array Fig. 6.22. Nimiq 2 satellite.
power with age from that point forward.
In order to augment Telesat’s direct broadcast satellite
capability at the 91°W orbit location, Telesat leased the
DIRECTV 3 satellite from DIRECTV in 2004 and for a press release (28 June 2001), http://www.lockheedmartin.
time collocated the satellite next to Nimiq 1 at 91°W [11]. com/wms/findPage.do?dsp=fec&ci=12106&rsbci=0&fti=112
The lease runs through December 2006, and Telesat refers to &ti=0&sc=400 (September 2005).
the satellite as Nimiq 3. This collocation allowed Telesat to 5. “Telesat Begins Construction of New Direct Broadcast
operate 16 transponders in a high-power mode, eight channels Satellite,” Bell Canada Enterprises press release (28 June 2001),
on DIRECTV 3 and eight on Nimiq 1. The other 16 channels http://www.bce.ca/en/news/releases/tc/2001/06/28/6157.
licensed to Telesat at 91°W were operated in medium-power html?displayMode=print& (September 2005).
mode using Nimiq 1. In the high-power mode configuration
of both Nimiq 1 and DIRECTV 3, two 120 W TWTAs were 6. “Telesat Launches New Direct Broadcast Satellite,”
combined to serve one transponder. Details of the DIRECTV Bell Canada Enterprises press release (30 December 2002),
3 satellite can be found later in this chapter. http://www.bce.ca/en/news/releases/tc/2002/12/30/69661.
Telesat announced in January 2006 that EADS Astrium html?displayMode=print& (September 2005).
will build Nimiq 4, a satellite that will continue to provide 7. “Russian Rocket Delivers Canadian Satellite into Space,”
digital direct-to-home broadcast services from a planned Spaceflight Now (30 December 2002), http://spaceflightnow.
location of 82°W longitude [12]. The satellite will use the com/proton/nimiq2/index.html (September 2005).
E3000 bus, will have a launch mass of 4,800 kg, a solar-array
8. A. Grami and K. Gordon, “Next Generation Ka–Band
span of 39 meters, and generate 12 kW of power at end of life.
Satellite Concept to Extend Reach of Canada’s Broadband
It will have 32 active high power Ku-band transponders and 8
Infrastructure,” Telesat Canada, GLOBECOM-2001
active Ka-band transponders. The Ka-band payload will use
(November 2001), Table 1, http://www.telesat.ca/news/
spot beams.
speeches/speeches01-01.htm (September 2005).
****** 9. “Pair of Troubled Satellites Challenge Telesat,”
1. “Canada’s First Direct Broadcast Satellite is Beaming... SpaceNews (10 March 2003).
and so is Telesat,” Telesat Report, http://www.telesat.ca/pdfs/ 10. “Telesat Clears Nimiq 2 Satellite for Long-Term
report/summer1999.pdf (September 2005). Service,” Telesat Canada press release (11 April 2003), http://
2. “Bell ExpressVu Receives Satellite Authorization www.telesat.ca/news/2003/03-07.htm (September 2005).
from Industry Canada,” Bell Canada Enterprises press release 11. “Request for Special Temporary Authority for the
(10 November 2000), http://www.bce.ca/en/news/releases/ DIRECTV 3 Satellite,” FCC Order (23 June 2004), File
bev/2000/11/10/5046.html?displayMode=print& (September No. SAT-STA-20030903-00300 DBS8402, http://hraunfoss.
2005). fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DA-04-1761A1.pdf
3. “Nimiq Series,” Telesat’s Satellites Satellite Gallery, (September 2005).
http://www.telesat.ca/satellites/photos/satellites_gallery6.htm 12. “Telesat Awards EADS Astrium for Nimiq 4 Spacecraft,
(September 2005). Unveils Plans for the Digital TV Satellite,” Satnews Daily (17
4. “Telesat Awards Lockheed Martin Contract for Powerful January 2006), http://www.satnews.com/stories2006/1966.
A2100 Satellite and Launch on Atlas V,” Lockheed Martin htm (February 2006).

283
North American Satellites

U.S. Communication Satellites

The satellite systems described below provide communication qualified and that the proposed service would be in the public
services primarily for the United States. Together, these interest. This decision also placed specific restrictions on
systems serve CONUS, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and certain applicants. Following further arguments, a final FCC
the Virgin Islands [1–24]. As satellite designs evolved over decision in December 1972 opened the way for processing the
the years, additional power became available, which made applications. The FCC had allowed opportunities (after the
possible either more power in a fixed service area or an March 1971 filing) for applicants to drop, modify, or combine
increased service area. Gradually both increased, and FCC applications. As a result, there were five active applications
(Federal Communications Commission) regulations changed, at the start of 1973: Western Union Telegraph Company,
first to allow transborder services to Canada, and eventually to American Satellite Corporation, Hughes Aircraft Company
eliminate the distinction between domestic and international with GTE Satellite Corporation, Comsat General Corporation
service. As a result, many of these nominally U.S. domestic with AT&T, and RCA Globecom with RCA Alascom.
systems now provide communications in or between many Three approvals were required for each system, covering
nations in Central and North America, and some also provide the satellite equipment, ground equipment, and system
service to South America. operations. By January 1974, all five applicants had received
This section covers systems operating primarily in the C- one or more of these approvals, and both satellite and ground
and Ku-bands. In early 2005 three major operators owned and equipment were being built. However, in February 1974,
managed these systems—SES Americom, PanAmSat, and American Satellite Corporation canceled its order for three
Intelsat. Intelsat entered the North American market in 2004 satellites because of lack of financing. Then, in April of the
by purchasing all North American satellites of Loral, which same year, AT&T and GTE announced plans to combine their
had formerly been the third major operator. In 2005 Intelsat systems using the satellites being developed for AT&T. At the
announced its intention to purchase PanAmSat. Regulatory end of 1974, the status of these applications was as follows.
approval was given in June 2006, and the resulting merger • Western Union Telegraph Company began operations in
reduced the number of major operators to two. 1974.
The following section, North American Ka-Band Systems, • RCA was developing its own satellites. (Initial op-
summarizes recent activities to develop communication erations began in December 1973 with satellite capacity
satellite systems at Ka-band for Canada and the United States. leased from Telesat Canada.)
However, details on Ka-band payloads that have been deployed • AT&T was proceeding toward operational status, with
will usually be found together with details of the C- and Ku- Comsat General developing satellites for the system.
band systems with which they share a common spacecraft • GTE had dropped plans for its own system, preferring
bus. Most Ka-band systems deployed thus far have not been joint operations with AT&T; the next year it became a
deployed on stand-alone spacecraft. user of the AT&T system, rather than a joint owner.
• American Satellite Corporation was leasing satellite ca-
pacity from Western Union.
The Beginning and the 1970s RCA and AT&T systems began operations in 1976. By the
In September 1965, the American Broadcasting Company fall of that year, each had two satellites in orbit, as did Western
filed a request with the FCC for authorization to operate a Union. Prior to the development of these systems, the Intelsat
communication satellite system for distribution of network system was used for satellite communications between CONUS
television. This application was returned by the FCC and Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico. The Intelsat terminal in
without comment, pending an inquiry concerning public- Alaska became a part of the RCA system, and the terminal
policy questions related to the establishment of domestic in Puerto Rico became a part of the AT&T system. Although
communication satellite systems (sometimes referred to as these systems serve Hawaii, the Intelsat terminal there has
“domsats” at that time). This inquiry began in March 1966, remained in the Intelsat system to link Hawaii with many
with many diverse organizations presenting their views to Pacific nations and islands. In the same year, CML Satellite
the FCC. During the next few years, many studies, opinions, Corporation, a combination of two of the eight March 1971
system proposals, and experimental plans were submitted. In applicants, reorganized as Satellite Business Systems (SBS).
addition to the FCC inquiry, both the legislative and executive FCC approval was received in 1977, and the first SBS satellite
branches of the government studied domestic satellite systems. was launched late in 1980. The system became operational in
In 1968, a task force appointed by President Lyndon Johnson March 1981. At the end of 1980, nine satellites were in orbit:
prepared a report favoring a limited pilot program. However, three each for the Western Union and AT&T systems, two for
just at the time the report was published, a new administration RCA, and one for SBS.
was elected and a new investigation was started. In January
1970, the study group issued a report favoring open entry for
domestic satellite systems. On the basis of this report, the FCC The 1980s
in March 1970 invited applications for permission to construct During the first few years after Western Union and RCA
and operate the systems. By the March 1971 deadline, eight started operations, the demand for satellite capacity was
applications were filed. quite low. In about 1978, the demand started to increase very
FCC action on these applications was prolonged by more quickly. By early 1980, the FCC had several applications to
comments, claims, and counterclaims. A tentative decision consider, some for expansion of existing systems and some
in June 1972 modified the open-entry policy to require each for new systems. Those that were filed before May of that year
applicant to show that it was financially and technically were considered together and approved in December. New
systems that were authorized were Hughes Communications,
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 U.S. Communication Satellites

Inc. (HCI), Southern Pacific Communications Company By early 1985, applications from about 20 organizations
(SPCC), and GTE Satellite Corporation (GSat). In 1983, GTE were pending. A decision was announced in the summer of
purchased SPCC, and the latter two systems were combined 1985. Six previously authorized systems were each granted
under the name GTE Spacenet. one additional orbital slot. Western Union and HCI, which
In 1981, the FCC started a broad review of the domestic already were operating 4 and 6 GHz satellites, were authorized
satellite licensing policy. The objective of this review was to to use the 12 and 14 GHz band also. Five new systems were
formulate the best method of allocating orbital and spectral authorized: Alascom, Inc.; Comsat General Corporation;
resources to what was foreseen as an ever-increasing demand. Federal Express Corporation; Ford Aerospace Satellite
The primary emphasis was on the orbital spacing of satellites. In Services Corporation; and Martin Marietta Communication
1970, 5 deg spacing between satellites was assumed necessary Systems, Inc. Alascom was formerly an RCA subsidiary and
to prevent interference. In 1974, this was reduced to 4 deg. In already had one satellite in use that it bought from RCA.
the 1980 decisions, 4 deg was used for satellites that were using Comsat General had developed four satellites in the 1970s in
the 4 and 6 GHz bands (often called C-band) and 3 deg for those a lease agreement with AT&T. This authorization was for a
using the 12 and 14 GHz bands (often called Ku-band). new, unrelated system. Five other applications were rejected
The review started in 1981 was not completed until April as financially unqualified, and two applicants withdrew before
1983. At that time, the orbital spacing was reduced to 2 deg for the FCC proceedings were concluded.
both frequency bands; implementation of this spacing was to Another round of applications had gathered by September
proceed over the next few years. This action almost doubled 1987. Six previously authorized companies requested additional
the number of potential satellite locations in orbit. However, satellites, and one new company (National Exchange) requested
most of these locations were assigned to new satellites and authorization to operate a system. In 1988, the FCC allowed
new systems authorized in concluding the review. The 1983 further applications, but only for replacement satellites. The
authorizations, covering all applications received by May deadline for these was October. The issues the FCC faced in
1982, included additional satellites for several systems plus 1988 and 1989 were satellite spacing, how to accommodate
five new systems: RCA, for use of the 12 and 14 GHz bands ever higher 12 GHz transmitter powers without interference
in addition to the 4 and 6 GHz satellites, American Satellite to adjacent satellites, and whether to require some in-orbit
Corporation, United States Satellite Systems, Rainbow satellites to move in order to accommodate newly authorized
Satellite, and Advanced Business Communications. American satellites. The FCC decision was announced in November
Satellite was well established in the business; it had operated 1989. A total of 10 replacement satellites were authorized,
an increasing number of ground terminals with the Westar along with 13 new satellites of which four are ground spares.
satellites since 1974. The latter three companies received
provisional authorizations and were required to submit
evidence of their financial ability to develop the systems. The 1990s
Since none of them was able to present satisfactory evidence, Along with the increase in applications and authorizations
all three authorizations were revoked early in 1985, in order through the 1980s, business practicality led to a decrease
to clear the way for the FCC to proceed with the next set of in the number of operational systems. The first step was the
authorizations. consolidation of the GTE and Spacenet systems in mid-decade.
By the time of the 1983 authorizations, several other HCI absorbed Western Union satellites later in the decade.
applications were submitted to the FCC. Additional applications Four applicants authorized in 1985 did not carry through with
arrived in the following months. Again, the FCC conducted their plans: Comsat General, Federal Express, Ford Aerospace,
a broad review of domestic satellite policy prior to studying and Martin Marietta. The decade of the 1990s began with HCI
the individual applications. Topics of particular interest were buying the three SBS satellites that had significant remaining
the number of orbital positions (often called slots) available, life.
the efficiency with which each is used, and the financial As a result, by the end of 1990 only six companies had
qualifications of applicants. domestic communications systems with their own satellites:
To some extent, the number of slots was fixed by the • Alascom
previous 2 deg spacing decision. However, there were still • AT&T
contentions about how fast to transition the 4 and 6 GHz • Contel ASC
satellites to the new spacing. The contentions focused on the • General Electric
many existing ground antennas, which were not compatible • GTE Spacenet
with 2 deg spacing and the cost to improve them or to replace • Hughes Communications, Inc.
them before they would otherwise be replaced. Another Even among these six, the Alascom system is dependent
consideration regarding the number of slots was the potential on, and to some extent a part of, the GE system. Furthermore,
utility of some slots farther east or west than those already Contel and GTE merged in 1991, and in 1994, GE Americom
assigned. To provide for efficient use of each slot, the FCC purchased the entire domestic satellite business of GTE Spacenet,
required all satellites to use dual-polarization frequency reuse, thus reducing the number of domestic system operators to three.
which was already used on most satellites. The FCC also Each of these three satellite system operators was a part of a very
developed minimum standards for numbers of transponders, large corporation, emphasizing the fact that large finances are
their bandwidths, and TWTA power for 12 and 14 GHz a necessity for long-term participation in the comsat business.
satellites. These characteristics had become relatively fixed on Besides the resource requirement, any new applicant faced the
4 and 6 GHz satellites, but varied among the higher-frequency problem that many important customers have established long-
satellites. Finally, the FCC stated more specific measures for term relationships with specific comsat systems. Furthermore,
applicants’ financial qualifications. since the users of satellite services want to minimize the number

285
North American Satellites

of ground antennas they need, certain types of signals, such Development of Earth Terminals
as video distribution, had collected on a few satellites, again Along with the satellite population growth there has been an
limiting the business base suitable for a new satellite. Because even faster growth in Earth terminals. In the mid-1970s, the
of these reasons, National Exchange, although authorized in number of terminals per system was a few dozen. Each had an
1989 to develop a new system, did not continue. antenna at least 10 m in diameter and considerable electronics.
In 1996, the FCC acted on applications received in the In the late 1970s, the distribution of television, especially to
prior year. It granted each existing system authority for one cable television systems, started and grew quickly. By 1980,
replacement satellite, one expansion satellite, and, if requested, the total number of terminals across the three domestic systems
one ground spare. It also approved two satellites for Loral and (Westar, Comstar, RCA Satcom) was probably about 1000,
conditionally approved two for Echostar and one for Orion. most with antenna diameters less than 12 m, many only capable
The condition was a requirement to show financial ability. In of receiving television. This type of terminal has increased in
fact, none of these three new systems went ahead to develop number to about 10,000, with the typical antenna diameter now
any satellites, although Loral got into the business in 1997 by about 6 m or less. In the 1980s, as the result of the dozens
purchasing the entire AT&T system. In 1997, Hughes merged of television programs available on communication satellites,
its domestic satellite system with PanAmSat’s international the market for television receive terminals for homes boomed.
system. Therefore, at the end of the 1990s, there were only These terminals, which typically have 2.4 to 4.6 m antennas and
three U.S. domestic satellite systems, some with multiple cost about $1000 to $3000 each, were conservatively estimated
satellite names reflecting their business history. to number 600,000 in 1985, to exceed 1 million in 1990,
and to exceed 3 million in 1993. The growth in the number
The 2000s of these terminals slowed considerably because of the advent
of broadcasting satellite systems (described in a later section
In the early 2000s, the overall commercial satellite of this chapter) capable of transmitting about 200 television
market slowed significantly because of a combination of channels to 45 cm antennas. Meanwhile, although the number
communication satellite overcapacity and a reduction in of large terminals with multiple transmit and receive capabilities
demand for telecommunication services. Consequently the has increased, they still probably number no more than 5000.
consolidation of the domestic commercial satellite industry Another type of terminal having considerable growth since
that had been ongoing during the 1990s continued into the the mid-1980s is the very small aperture terminal (VSAT).
early 2000s, and acquired an even wider international flavor. The typical antenna diameter is 1.2 to 1.8 m. These are used
In March of 2001, SES (Société Européenne des Satellites) primarily for data networks, where many remote locations are
in Luxembourg acquired the assets of GE Americom in a deal tied to a hub with a larger terminal. Data transmission may be
valued at $5 billion. The GE Americom business and assets one way to the hub, or one way from the hub, or bidirectional
were renamed SES Americom, and SES formed a new company between the hub and the VSATs. The total number of VSATs
called SES Global to hold all assets of GE Americom, SES in use at the end of 1994 was about 120,000, and this number
ASTRA, and SES Multimedia. The company is headquartered might have doubled in the following 5 years.
in Luxembourg.
During this same period Loral’s financial situation turned ******
for the worse. As a result, in 2003 Intelsat initiated and in 2004 1. A. A. McKenzie, “Special Report—Communications:
completed the purchase of the North American satellite assets What’s Up in Satellite,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 9, No. 5 (May
of Loral Skynet. At the same time, and as a precondition of the 1972).
sale to Intelsat, Loral voluntarily filed for bankruptcy under
Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code. Intelsat acquired 2. G. E. LaVean and E. J. Martin, “Communication
four in-orbit satellites and two satellites under construction, Satellites: The Second Decade,” Astronautics and Aeronautics,
as well as the rights to their orbital locations. Operation of Vol. 12, No. 4 (April 1974).
the former Loral Skynet system has continued under Intelsat 3. R. E. Greenquist, “First Generation Domestic Satellite
ownership, but using the Intelsat name. Systems,” AIAA Paper 71-842, AIAA Space Systems Meeting
In December 2003, News Corporation bought Hughes (July 1971).
Electronics, and PanAmSat continued under this new owner- 4. W. R. Hinchman, “Public Policy and the Domestic
ship until August 2004 when News Corporation sold its Satellite Industry,” International Conference on Commu-
80-percent interest in PanAmSat to the private equity firm nications: ICC ’72 (June 1972).
Kolhlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. Operation of the PanAmSat
system continued under the new ownership and remained under 5. E. T. Ebersol, “Domestic Satellite Systems: The Reality
the PanAmSat name. In August 2005, Intelsat announced the and the Promise,” Microwaves, Vol. 12, No. 7 (July 1973).
planned acquisition of PanAmSat [24], and this merger was 6. “Domsat Derby Heats Up,” Microwave Systems News,
completed in July 2006. Vol. 3 (August/September 1973).
The descriptions of the satellites that follow are grouped
7. “The ‘Domsat’ Race is Now Wide Open,” Business
around the three communications satellite systems or families
Week (22 September 1973).
that served the United States in 2005. The names of these
systems and the names of the predecessor systems are: 8. “Assessment of Space Communications Technology,”
• SES Americom Family: AMC, (Aurora, GE, GStar, Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, U.S. House
Satcom, Spacenet, ASC) of Representatives, 91st Congress (3 February 1970).
• PanAmSat Family: Galaxy, (SBS, Westar) 9. C. F. Page, “Western Tele-Communications Domestic
• Intelsat Family: Intelsat Americas, (Telstar, Comstar) Communications Satellite Service Development,” Signal, Vol.
28, No. 7 (March 1974).
286
 U.S. Communication Satellites

10. K. H. Crandall, “The 12 and 14 GHz Bands in p. 12; (January 1989), p. 8; (March 1991), p. 14; (March 92),
Domestic Satellite Communications,” Paper 31D, National p. 10; (September 93), p. 12; (August 1994), p. 10.
Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’73 (November 1973). 22. Space News (May 13–19, 1996), p. 6.
11. P. L. Bargellini, “Evolution of U.S. Domestic Satellite 23. J. V. Evans, “Proposed U.S. Multimedia Systems, pp.
Communications,” 3rd Jerusalem Conference on Information 2–5,” Digest of the 1998 IEEE Antennas and Propagation
Technologies (1978), printed in Information Technology: Society International Symposium, Vol. 1 (1998).
Proceedings (1978).
24. “Intelsat and PanAmSat to Merge, Creating World-
12. R. E. Burton, “Users—The Second Phase,” Paper 80- Class Communications Solutions Provider,” Intelsat press
0552, AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference release (29 August 2005), http://www.intelsat.com/aboutus/
(April 1980). press/release_details.aspx?year=2005&art=20050829_01_
13. T. J. Casey and R. J. Lepkowski, “Satisfying Orbital EN.xml&lang=en&footer=7 (September 2005).
Location Requirements of Future Domestic Satellite Systems,”
EASCON ’80 Conference Record (September 1980).
14. R. J. Lepkowski, “Orbital Locations of the New SES Americom Family
Domestic Satellites,” Paper 43.4, International Conference on RCA Corporation was one of the original applicants for a U.S.
Communications: ICC ’81 (June 1981). domestic satellite system. One of its subsidiaries developed
15. R. J. Lepkowski, “Orbit Utilization—Current the satellites for use by another subsidiary, RCA American
Regulations,” Paper E7.1, National Telecommunications Con- Communications, or RCA Americom. After RCA was bought
ference: NTC ’81 (November 1981). by General Electric in 1986, the name of the system operator
changed to GE Americom. Later, when part of GE’s space
16. S. W. Fordyce and E. W. Ashford, “U.S. Domestic business was sold to Martin Marietta, Americom remained
Communication Satellites,” Space Communication and part of GE. Then in 2001, SES acquired all of Americom,
Broadcasting, Vol. 3, No. 2 (June 1985). renaming it SES Americom. SES formed a new Luxembourg-
17. P. Chien, “U.S. Cable Birds—An Update,” Via Satellite, based company called SES Global to hold its two primary
Vol. 8, No. 6 (June 1993). subsidiaries, SES ASTRA and SES Americom, as well as a
18. T. Foley, “Desperately Seeking C-Band,” Via Satellite, number of other subsidiaries.
Vol. 9, No. 12 (December 1994). Over the years GE absorbed several other domestic satellite
operators and consolidated operations of their satellites and
19. J. Careless, “U.S. Cable Birds—C-Band,” Via Satellite, networks but retained their satellite names. The following
Vol. 10, No. 4 (April 1995). subsections are arranged by the original satellite names. By the
20. Aviation Week & Space Technology (23 August late 1990s and early 2000s, all of these satellites were in the
1971), p. 38; (26 June 1972), p. 189; (17 July 1972), p. 22; process of being replaced by GE and then SES Americom.
(11 September 1972), p. 24; (27 November 1972), p. 14; (11 In October 1982, GTE and Southern Pacific agreed that GTE
December 1972), p. 18; (1 January 1973), p. 20; (15 January would acquire all stock of Southern Pacific Communications
1973), p. 19; (26 February 1973), p. 19; (19 March 1973), p. 40; Company (SPCC). Other communications companies objected
(26 March 1973), p. 15; (23 July 1973), p. 17; (17 September to the agreement because of the size of the combination,
1973), p. 18; (25 February 1974), p. 19; (11 March 1974), p. both in terrestrial and satellite communications. However,
47; (29 April 1974), p. 81; (15 July 1974), p. 298; (2 September the agreement was completed by September 1983, although
1974), p. 21; (7 October 1974), p. 19; (14 October 1974), p. government approval was not received until 1985. The
18; (18 November 1974), p. 18; (3 February 1975), p. 17; (24 company became GTE Spacenet, and it owned and operated
February 1975), p. 62; (23 June 1975), p. 15; (8 December both the Spacenet originally ordered by Southern Pacific and
1975), p. 39; (8 March 1976), p. 16; (24 January 1977), p. 27; GTE’s GStar satellites. In 1994, GE Americom purchased GTE
(23 May 1977), p. 20; (17 October 1977), p. 94; (30 January Spacenet, including both its satellites and ground facilities.
1978), p. 59; (10 July 1978), p. 15; (26 November 1979), p. 48; American Satellite Corporation (ASC) [1–31] was formed
(5 January 1981), p. 46; (9 March 1981), p. 101; (8 June 1981), in 1972 as a subsidiary of Fairchild Industries. In 1979, it
p. 322; (15 November 1982), p. 18; (14 March 1983), p. 104; became a joint venture of Fairchild and Continental Telephone
(14 March 1983), p. 107; (9 May 1983), p. 60; (8 August 1983), (later Continental Telecom, then Contel). In 1985, Fairchild
p. 21; (22 August 1983), p. 25; (30 January 1984), p. 46; (12 sold its interest in ASC to Continental Telecom, which became
March 1984), p. 114; (23 July 1984), p.115; (7 January 1985), the sole owner of ASC. In 1987, its name was modified to
p. 103; (11 February 1985), pp. 13, 73; (25 February 1985) Contel ASC. In 1991, Contel ASC became a part of GTE
p. 15; (19 August 1985), p. 19; (26 August 1985), p. 63; (3 Spacenet, which in turn became a part of GE Americom in
February 1986), p. 42; (24 March 1986), p. 83; (16 June 1986), 1994. In addition to these acquisitions, since the service
p. 117; (26 January 1987), p. 30; (5 October 1987), p. 48. provided in Alaska by RCA Alascom and its successors has
always depended on RCA and GE satellites, the descriptions
21. Satellite Communications (January 1981), p. 17;
of the Alascom satellites are incorporated into this section.
(January 1984), p. 36; (November 1984), p. 32; (April 1985),
The number of satellites that either are or once were a
p. 27; (September 1986), pp. 10, 11; (November 1986), p. 10;
part of RCA Satcom, GE Satcom, Spacenet, GStar, American
(December 1986), p. 16; (March 1987), p. 47; (September
Satellite Corporation, GE, and now SES Americom is quite
1987), p. 10; (November 1987), p. 10; (January 1988), p. 11;
large. Table 6.2 provides a summary listing of these satellites,
(February 1988), p. 12; (March 1988), p. 10; (October 1988),
organized by launch date. Company and satellite details follow
the table.
287
North American Satellites

Table 6.2. Satellites of the SES Americom Family Serving the United States

Satellite Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status

Satcom 1 1975 General Electric C Retired 1984

Satcom 1R 1983 General Electric C Retired
Satcom 2 1976 General Electric C Retired 1983
Satcom 2R 1983 General Electric C Retired 1995
Satcom 3 1979 General Electric C Launch Failure
Satcom 3R 1981 General Electric C Retired 1992 or 1993
Satcom 4 1982 General Electric C Retired 1992 or 1993
Satcom 4R Anik D2 1984 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired
Satcom 5 1982 General Electric C Retired
Satcom K-1 1986 General Electric Ku Retired
Satcom K-2 1985 General Electric Ku Retired
Spacenet 1 1984 General Electric C/Ku Retired
Spacenet 2 1984 General Electric C/Ku Retired
Spacenet 3 1985 General Electric C/Ku Launch Failure
Spacenet 3R 1988 General Electric C/Ku Retired
Spacenet 4 ASC 2 1991 General Electric C/Ku Retired 2006
GStar 1 1985 General Electric Ku Retired
GStar 2 1986 General Electric Ku Retired
GStar 3 1988 General Electric Ku Retired
GStar 4 1990 General Electric Ku Retired 2004
ASC 1 1985 General Electric C/Ku Retired
Satcom C-1 1990 General Electric C Retired 2005
Satcom C-3 1992 General Electric C Retired 2005
Satcom C-4 1992 General Electric C Spare, 85°W
Satcom C-5 1991 General Electric C Retired
AMC-1 GE-1 1996 Lockheed Martin C/Ku In use, 103°W
AMC-2 GE-2 1997 Lockheed Martin C/Ku In use, 85°W
AMC-3 GE-3 1997 Lockheed Martin C/Ku In use, 87°W
AMC-5 GE-5 1998 Aerospatiale C/Ku In use, 79°W
AMC-4 GE-4 1999 Lockheed Martin C/Ku In use, 101°W
AMC-6 GE-6 2000 Lockheed Martin C/Ku In use, 72°W
AMC-7 GE-7 2000 Lockheed Martin C In use, 137°W
AMC-8 GE-8, Aurora III 2000 Lockheed Martin C In use, 139°W
AMC-9 2003 Alcatel Alenia Space C / Ku In use, 83°W
AMC-10 2004 Lockheed Martin C In use, 135°W
AMC-11 2004 Lockheed Martin C In use, 131°W
AMC-15 2004 Lockheed Martin C / Ku In use, 105°W
AMC-16 2004 Lockheed Martin C/Ku In use, 85°W
AMC-18 2006 Lockheed Martin C Launched late 2006
AMC-21 Alcatel Alenia Space Ku Launch planned 2008

The C-band Satcom satellites have a boxlike body. Solar

RCA Satcom, GE Satcom panels are deployed in orbit from two opposing sides of the
The original RCA satellites had the name Satcom. The Satcom body, while the antennas are mounted on the Earth-facing
satellites include the C-band satellites that have been in orbit side. The satellite body is stabilized to keep the antennas Earth
since 1975 and have been replaced by improved versions several oriented, and the solar arrays are rotated about their axes to
times and the two Ku-band satellites that were added in 1985. track the sun.

288
 U.S. Communication Satellites

These satellites evolved over the years. Satcom 1 and 2

satellites are shown in Fig. 6.23, and the Fig. 6.23. RCA Satcom 1 and 2.
remaining Satcom satellites are shown in
Fig. 6.24. All were of similar designs,
but their sizes increased with time,
and additional equipment resulted
in increased reliability and life. The
early satellites had two sections
in each of the two solar panels, whereas
the newer satellites have three sections in each panel.
The increased panel size, together with increased solar cell
efficiency, enabled support of higher-power payloads. The
satellites’ evolution consists of three groups: 1 through 5,
launched from 1975 to 1982; 1R and 2R, launched from 1982
to 1983; and C-1 through C-5, launched beginning in 1990.
In these names, R means replacement. Satcom 5, also known
as Aurora 1, and Satcom C-5, also known as Aurora 2, are the
satellites of the Alascom system. As of 2005 only Satcom C-4 One 17 W solid-state amplifier per repeater plus two spares per
had not been retired and was apparently being held as a spare six repeaters (C-3, C-4)
by SES Americom [32, 33]. Satellite details for Satcom 1, 1R, EIRP per repeater at edge of coverage: 32 dBW (CONUS and
2, 2R, 3, 3R, C-1, C-3, C-4, and C-5 are as follows. Alaska), 26 dBW (Hawaii) (1, 2, 3, 3R, 4); 33 to 34 dBW (CONUS
Satellite and Alaska), 35 dBW (CONUS), 37 to 38 dBW (Alaska), 26
dBW (Hawaii) (5, 1R, 2R, C-1, C-5); 37 dBW (CONUS), 31
GE series 3000 bus (1R, 2R, C) dBW (Hawaii) (C-3, C-4)
Box, 119 x 163 x 112 cm (1, 2, 3, 3R, 4), 142 x 163 x 175 cm (5,
1R, 2R), 127 x 163 x 132 cm (C) with antenna and feeds fixed Receiver
on one end and solar panels deployed from two sides, overall 5925–6425 MHz
span 9.6 m (1, 2)/12.3 m (3, 3R, 4)/14.5 m (5, 1R, 2R)/15.5 m
Four receivers (two on, two standby)
(C); overall height approximately 2.9 m (1, 2)/3.5 m (1R, 2R)
Tunnel diode preamplifier, 7 dB noise figure (1, 2); FET
463 kg (1, 2), 581 kg (3, 3R, 4), 598 kg (5, 1R, 2R, C-1 to C-4),
preamplifier, 3.5 dB noise figure (3, 3R, 4, 1R, 2R)
644 kg (C-5) in orbit, beginning of life
G/T at edge of coverage: –6 dB/K (1, 2, 3, 3R, 4), –3 dB/K (5,
Sun-tracking solar array and NiCd (1, 2, 3, 3R, 4, 5, 1R, 2R)/
1R, 2R, C) (CONUS and Alaska); –10 dB/K (1, 2, 3, 3R, 4), –13
NiH2 (C) batteries, 745 W (1, 2)/1000 W (3, 3R, 4)/1470 W (1R,
dB/K (1R, 2R, C) (Hawaii)
2R) at beginning of life, 490 W (1, 2)/700 W (3, 3R, 4) minimum
after 8 years, 980 W (5, 1R, 2R) minimum after 10 years, 1029 Antenna
W (C) after 12 years
One antenna with overlapping gridded reflectors, one for
Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels and magnetic horizontal polarization transmission and reception and one for
torquers, ±0.2 deg accuracy (1, 2, 3, 3R, 4); improving to ±0.05° vertical polarization, each with feed horns for CONUS/Alaska
(C) coverage and for Hawaii coverage, one (1, 2)/six to seven (5,
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, monopropellant liquid 1R, 2R, C) feed horns per polarization, 33 dB isolation between
propulsion for on-orbit use the two polarizations

Configuration Telemetry and command

Twenty-four 34–36 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters, Telemetry: near edges of 3700–4200 MHz band, 3700.5 and
dual-polarization frequency reuse 4199.5 MHz (C)
Command: near upper edge of 5925–6425 MHz band
Capacity
Up to 1000 (1, 2, 3, 3R, 4), 6000 (5, 1R, 2R) one-way voice Life
circuits or 64 Mbps data or two TV programs per repeater Seven-year (1, 2)/eight-year (3, 3R, 4)/10-year (5, 1R, 2R, C-
1)/12-year (C-3, C-4, C-5) design life
Transmitter
3700–4200 MHz
One 5 W TWTA per repeater, no
redundancy (1, 2)
One 5.5 W TWTA for each of 18 repeaters
plus one spare per six repeaters and one 8.5
W TWTA for each of six repeaters plus one spare (3,
3R, 4)
One 8.5/9.5 W solid-state amplifier per repeater plus one
spare per six repeaters (5, 1R, 2R/C-1)
One 11 W solid-state amplifier per repeater plus two spares per
six repeaters (C-5) Fig. 6.24. GE Satcom (1R and subsequent).

289
North American Satellites

Orbit because of embedded polarizing grids. On Satcoms 1 through 4,

Geostationary; stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W (1 to 5), the main beam of each antenna had a single elliptical footprint
±0.05° to ±0.1° N-S and E-W (C) that covered CONUS and Alaska (and the intervening part of
Canada). An additional offset feed horn provided a separate
Orbital history beam for coverage of Hawaii. Beginning with 1R, a different
Satcom 1: launched 13 December 1975, replaced by 1R in feed structure is used, permitting coverage of these two areas
summer/fall 1983, turned off June 1984 and moved above and of CONUS alone or Alaska alone. Switching between
synchronous orbit different coverage patterns is possible. The first satellites
Satcom 1R: launched 11 April 1983, turned off and moved used one TWTA per repeater with no redundancy. The next
above synchronous orbit set had one spare TWTA for each six repeaters, for improved
Satcom 2: launched 26 March 1976, replaced by 2R in the fall reliability. On the 5, 1R and 2R satellites, solid-state field-
of 1983, then turned off and moved above synchronous orbit effect-transistor (FET) amplifiers replaced the TWTAs, again
Satcom 2R: launched 8 September 1983, turned off and moved with one-for-six redundancy. These amplifiers have better
above synchronous orbit in 1995 linearity and lower AM/PM (amplitude to phase modulation)
Satcom 3: launched 7 December 1979, lost at apogee motor conversion than TWTAs, affording up to 50-percent capacity
firing increase in multiple carrier per repeater operation. On the C-
3, C-4, and C-5 satellites, the amplifier redundancy increased
Satcom 3R: launched 19 November 1981, turned off 1992 or
1993 and moved above synchronous orbit
to two spares for six repeaters. The original communication
subsystem is shown as well as the new subsystem with various
Satcom 4: launched 15 January 1982, turned off 1992 or 1993 improvements.
and moved above synchronous orbit The first satellites were the first to use the Delta launch
Satcom 5: (also known as Aurora I): launched 28 October 1982, vehicle Model 3914. This version of the Delta was developed
in use until spring 1991, later moved above synchronous orbit to meet RCA requirements and was partially funded by RCA,
Delta 3914 (1, 2)/3910 (3, 3R, 4)/3924 (5,
1R, 2R) launch vehicle Horizontal
polarization
Satcom C-1: launched 20 November
1990, spent the 1990s at 137°W, then in Vertical CA H CA
service at 37.5°W longitude serving the polarization Feed horns
North Atlantic rim, retired May 2005 CA CONUS/Alaska
CA H CA C D D H Hawaii
Satcom C-3: launched 10 September
1992, initially at 131°W, currently at
79°W D P
5925– 3700–
Satcom C-4: launched 31 August 1992, 6425 4200
initially at 135°W, currently at 85°W P
Satcom C-5: (also known as Aurora II): Channel
launched 29 May 1991, provided service 1
from 139°W longitude until retired and TD T TW
replaced by AMC-8/Aurora III in March, 5
2001 2225 TW
S T
2225 S S S
Ariane launch vehicle (C-1, C-3), Delta 9
7925 (C-4, C-5) TW
TD T
13 C
Management TW
Developed by GE Astro Space (formerly
17
RCA Astro Electronics) for Americom and TW
RCA Alascom (Alascom Inc., from 1981,
later AT&T Alascom) 21
TW
Operated originally by GE (formerly RCA)
Americom, Satcom C-1 now operated by
SES Channels
3,7,11,15,19,23
The GE satellite C-band communication
subsystem was similar to that of the TD T
Channels
AT&T satellite in that it has 24 channels 2,6,10,14,18,22
with frequency reuse by orthogonal 2225
S T
2225 S S S
linear polarizations. A block diagram Channels
of the communication subsystems for TD T
4,8,12,16,20,24
Satcom 1 through 3 is shown in Fig.
6.25, and for Satcom 1R and 2R in Note:
Fig. 6.26. These satellites had separate Satellites from 3 on
antennas for the two polarizations. The have a spare amplifier
antennas are physically overlapping but for each group of 6
each responds to only one polarization Fig. 6.25. RCA Satcom communication subsystem (1 through 3).

290
 U.S. Communication Satellites

Horizontal
polarization

Vertical CA H CA
polarization
CA CONUS/Alaska
CA H CA C D D H Hawaii

D P
5925– 3700–
6425 4200
P

T T
1

T T
3

T T
5

T T C
7

T T
9

T T
11

T T

Channels
S T T H
3,7,11,15,19,23
2225

Receiver 2
Channels
2,6,10,14,18,22
S S
Receiver 3
Channels
S Receiver 4 H 4,8,12,16,20,24

Fig. 6.26. GE Satcom communication subsystem (1R, 2R).

marking the first time a launch vehicle development was privately The GE Ku-band satellites looked similar to the C-band
sponsored. The first launch was in December 1975 and the satellites. An on-orbit depiction is shown in Fig. 6.27. The
second in March 1976. A third launch in 1979 was unsuccessful; stabilization subsystem was improved to improve pointing
the satellite was destroyed during apogee motor firing. accuracy. Electrothermal hydrazine thrusters, also used on
The two satellites launched in 1983, called 1R and 2R, Satcom C-1 through C-4, replaced four catalytic hydrazine
replaced the first two. Satcom 3R, which replaced the one thrusters for more efficient stationkeeping maneuvers. Heat
destroyed, and 4 were also actively used pipes replaced heat spreaders on the north and south faces of
by GE. Satcom C-1, launched in 1990, the body, where the communication subsystem was mounted.
replaced 1R, which was moved to This reduced weight and improved thermal control. The
collocate it with 3R. These two satellites solar array had four panels per side, rather
were replaced by C-3 at the end of 1992. than three on the C-band satellites,
Owing to a telemetry failure, satellite 4 had to be
replaced earlier than planned, so GE leased Anik D2
at the end of 1991 and used it as 4R until Satcom C-4 was
launched and operational in late 1992.
GE took care of satellite command and telemetry for its
own satellites. The primary control site was integrated with
a communications terminal in New Jersey. Another control
site in New Jersey was activated in 1985. A secondary control
site was integrated with another communications terminal in
Southern California. As a result of purchasing other satellite
systems, command and telemetry sites in Maryland and
Colorado were added to the GE system. Fig. 6.27. GE Ku satellite.

291
North American Satellites

Vertical Horizontal
polarization polarization

W West CONUS W E W E
E East CONUS

14.0–14.5 GHz
C D C D
D D

T TW 11.7–12.2
GHz
1 W
T TW V
E
3
T TW V
W
E
5 W
T TW V
W C
E
S T T T S
7 W
T TW V
2300 E
9 W E
Receiver 2 T TW V C
E
S S
11 W
Receiver 3 T TW V
E
13 W
S Receiver 4 S T TW V
E
15 W
T TW V
E

T TW
V Variable power divider
T TW

Same as above for

Channels 2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16

Fig. 6.28. GE Ku communication subsystem.

because of the larger power requirement of the communication m provided equivalent reception quality to 3 to 5 m antennas
subsystem. at C-band. Another benefit of Ku-band was that interference
The communication subsystem as shown in Fig. 6.28 from terrestrial uses of the spectrum was not the problem as in
had 16 channels, each with a 54 MHz bandwidth. The first- C-band, so Ku-band antennas had fewer siting constraints. The
stage amplifier in the receiver was an FET, thermoelectrically third and fourth Satcom K satellites were being built for a joint
cooled to –50°C to reduce system noise. This was the first venture with Home Box Office (a cable television company).
time a thermoelectric cooler had been used in a long-life They were to be dedicated to television distribution to cable
communication satellite. The TWTAs had a power of 45 W—an systems. However, this business plan was changed, and the
increase from the power levels used on other satellites. Within partially built satellites were offered for sale. They were
the communication subsystem, the channels were handled in bought separately, modified for their new owners, and became
two groups of eight. Each group had three spare TWTAs. After Luxembourg’s Astra 1B and Intelsat K (later New Skies K).
the TWTA, each channel had a variable power divider, which Characteristics of Satcom K-1 and K-2 are as follows.
could send the power to the east beam or the west beam or to Satellite
both. The separation between the east and west beams was RCA/GE series 4000 bus
approximately a line from the west side of Minnesota to the
western tip of Texas. Thus, each beam roughly matched two Rectangular body, approximately 1.7 x 2.1 x 2.1 m, overall
time zones. Together, the beams provided CONUS coverage. height, including antenna feed tower, 3 m, span of deployed
solar array 19.2 m
All reception used CONUS coverage. The satellites did not
have beams for Alaska or Hawaii. Approximately 934 kg in orbit
Two Satcom K satellites were launched, late in 1985 and Sun-tracking solar array and NiH2 batteries, approximately 3000
early in 1986. Uses of these satellites were similar to those W at beginning of life, approximately 2500 W after 10 years
for the C-band satellites. Ground antenna diameters of 1 to 2
292
 U.S. Communication Satellites

Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels and magnetic 4. J. L. Rivard, “The Domestic Satellite Program in
torquers, ±0.05 deg antenna pointing accuracy Alaska,” National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’74
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, liquid monopropellant (December 1974).
propulsion for on-orbit use 5. J. Napoli and D. Greenspan, “RCA Satcom, The Next
Configuration Generation Domestic Communications Satellite System,”
Sixteen 54 MHz bandwidth repeaters, dual-polarization
WESCON Technical Papers (September 1975).
frequency reuse 6. P. Schneider, “New Approaches Make RCA
Satcom Most Cost Effective System for Domestic Satellite
Transmitter Communications for United States,” EASCON ’75 Convention
11.7–12.2 GHz Record (September 1975).
One 45 W TWTA per repeater, three spares per eight 7. H. R. Hawkins, “RCA Satcom System Begins New
repeaters
Communications Era in United States,” Signal, Vol. 28, No. 7
EIRP per repeater: CONUS: 38 dBW (minimum), 43 dBW (March 1974).
(>95% of CONUS); West: 45 dBW (minimum), most areas 46–
48 dBW; East: 39 dBW (minimum), most areas 45–47 dBW 8. J. E. Keigler, “RCA Satcom: An Example of Weight
Optimized Satellite Design for Maximum Communications
Receiver Capacity,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 5, No. 3–4 (March–April
14.0–14.5 GHz 1978).
Four receivers (two on, two standby) 9. J. Christopher and D. Greenspan, “RCA Satcom
Cooled FET preamplifier, 2 dB noise figure Communication System,” Paper 7-4, EASCON ’77 Conference
Record (September 1977).
Antenna 10. H. W. Rice, “RCA Americom’s Domestic Satellites Pay
Two reflectors (one for horizontal and one for vertical Off,” Paper 77-351, AIAA 13th Annual Meeting and Technical
polarization), 1.5 m diam, each with nine feed horns for east
Display (January 1977).
coverage and five for west coverage (all feeds combine for
CONUS coverage) 11. J. E. Keigler and C. R. Hume, “The RCA Satcom
Satellite,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol.
Telemetry and command 29, No. 9 (September 1976).
Telemetry: 11.702 and 12.198 GHz
12. A. W. Brook, “RCA Satcom System,” RCA Engineer,
Command: near edge of 14.0–14.5 GHz band Vol. 22, No. 1 (June/July 1976).
Life 13. J. E. Keigler, “RCA Satcom—Maximum Commu-
Ten-year design life nication Capacity per Unit Cost,” RCA Engineer, Vol. 22, No.
1 (June/July 1976).
Orbit
14. J. Christopher, D. Greenspan, and P. H. Plush, “The
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W Launch and In-Orbit Test Elements of the Satcom System,”
Orbital history RCA Engineer, Vol. 22, No. 1 (June/July 1976).
Satcom K-1: launched 12 January 1986 (deployed from shuttle, 15. J. Cuddihy and J. M. Walsh, “RCA Satcom Earth-Station
12 January), in use until about 1998 Facilities,” RCA Engineer, Vol. 22, No. 1 (June/July 1976).
Satcom K-2: launched 27 November 1985 (deployed from 16. J. Lewin, “Ground-Control System for Satcom
shuttle, 28 November), operated for over 16 years at 81°W, Satellites,” Paper 78-539, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite
retired in March 2002 [34] Systems Conference (April 1978). Revision in Journal of
Shuttle launch vehicle (1, 2) Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 16, No. 4 (July–August 1979).
Management 17. R. M. Lansey and M. R. Freeling, “RCA’s Satellite
Developed by RCA Astro Electronics for RCA Americom Distribution System for Small-Dish Earth Terminals,”
EASCON ’78 Conference Record (September 1978).
Operated by RCA Americom (later GE Americom, then SES
Americom) 18. J. L. Rivard, “Long-Line Communication in Alaska—
Then and Now,” RCA Engineer, Vol. 23, No. 4 (December
****** 1977–January 1978).
1. J. Napoli and J. Christopher, “RCA SATCOM 19. P. W. DeBaylo, “RCA Americom Spacecraft
System,” National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’74 Reliability,” RCA Engineer, Vol. 25, No. 2 (August–September
(December 1974). 1979).
2. M. V. O’Donovan, “A Lightweight Transponder 20. R. Hoedemaker and C. Staloff, “A Compatible STS/
Design for the U.S. Domestic Communications Satellite,” PAM D/RCA Satcom Telemetry and Command System,”
International Conference on Communications: ICC ’73 (June International Telemetry Conference Proceedings (November
1973). 1979).
3. M. V. O’Donovan, “Design of a Light-Weight 21 W. Braun and J. E. Keigler, “RCA Satcom System
Microwave Repeater for a 24-Channel Domestic Satellite Expansion,” Paper 80-0525, AIAA 8th Communications
System,” RCA Review, Vol. 34, No. 3 (September 1973). Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980).

293
North American Satellites

22. P. W. DeBaylo, “Design, Measurement

and Achievement of a High Level of Service Fig. 6.29. Spacenet satellite.
Availability in a Domestic Satellite
Communications Network,” Paper 82-0515,
AIAA 9th Communications Satellite Systems
Conference (April 1982).
23 A. Hills, “Alaska’s Giant Satellite Network,”
IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 20, No. 7 (July 1983).
24. M. R. Freeling and A. W. Weinrich, “RCA Advanced
Satcom,” Paper 84-0715, AIAA 10th Communication Satellite
Systems Conference (March 1984).
25. W. H. Braun and J. E. Keigler, “RCA Satellite Networks:
High Technology and Low User Cost,” Proceedings of the
IEEE, Vol. 72, No. 11 (November 1984).
26. J. A. Frohbeiter, “RCA’s Approach to Increased
The Spacenet design was based on, and was very similar in
Communications Satellite Performance,” Paper 2.2,
appearance to, the RCA Satcom satellite design. The satellite
First Canadian Domestic and International Satellite
Communications Conference (June 1983). is shown in Fig. 6.29 in the deployed condition. The two sun-
tracking solar-array wings were each composed of three panels,
27. A. R. Raab and C. E. Profera, “Wideband Beam- which were folded against the satellite body for launch. The
Forming Networks for Satellite Antenna Systems,” Paper 86- antenna feed horns and reflectors were mounted on the Earth-
0665, AIAA 11th Communication Satellite System Conference viewing side of the satellite body. The two spheres protruding
(March 1986). from the east and west sides of the body were tanks for
28. P. F. Joy and L. Goliaszewski, “Advanced Thermal propellant used for attitude adjustments and stationkeeping
and Power Systems for Satcom-Ku Satellites,” Paper 86- maneuvers. The communication subsystem was mounted on
0618, AIAA 11th Communication Satellite System Conference the north and south panels of the body. The Spacenet satellite
(March 1986). details are as follows.
29. C. Renton, “RCA Satcom Ku-Band Antenna System,” Satellite
IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation Rectangular body, 1 x 1.3 x 1.6 m, with antennas and feeds
(June 1986). fixed on the Earth-viewing face; solar panels deployed from
north and south faces span across solar panels 14.3 m; height,
30. J. Napoli, “A Ku-Band Satellite System for the Cable with antenna feeds, about 3.4 m
Television Industry,” Paper 88-0779, AIAA 12th International
704 kg in orbit, beginning of life
Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1988).
Sun-tracking solar array and NiH2 batteries, approximately
31. B. C. Russell et al., “Aurora II—The Next Generation 1300 W minimum at end of life
Satellite for Alaska,” Paper 90-0832, AIAA 13th International
Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels and magnetic
Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1990).
torquers, approximately ±0.2 deg accuracy
32. “SES Americon Retires Satcom C1 after 14 Years of Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, monopropellant liquid
Service,” SES Americom press release (2 May 2005), http:// propulsion for on-orbit use
www.ses-americom.com/media/2005/05_02_05.html, (July
2005). Configuration
33. “GE Americom’s Satcom C-5 Satellite Ends a Brilliant 4 and 6 GHz: twelve 36 MHz bandwidth and six 72 MHz
Career.” GE Americom press release (12 March 2001), http:// bandwidth single-conversion repeaters, dual-polarization
frequency reuse
www.ses-americom.com/media/2001/03_12_01a.html, (July
2005). 12 and 14 GHz: six 72 MHz bandwidth repeaters
34. “SES Americom Retires K-2 After 16+ Years of Service.” Capacity
SES Americom press release (4 March 2002), http://www.ses- Up to 3600 voice circuits or one TV signal or 60 Mbps per 36
americom.com/media/2002/03_04_02.html (July 2005). MHz bandwidth (twice as much in 72 MHz)

Transmitter
Spacenet 4 and 6 GHz: 3702 to 4178 MHz (36 MHz repeaters)
For many years, Southern Pacific Communications Company One 8.5 W transistor amplifier per repeater
(SPCC) operated a network for dedicated and public long- EIRP: 34 dBW (CONUS), 28 dBW (Alaska), 25 dBW
distance telephone and data links. SPCC owned much of the (Hawaii, Puerto Rico)
terrestrial portion of the network but leased all the satellite 4 and 6 GHz: 3724 to 4196 MHz (72 MHz repeaters)
portion. The company contracted for development of the One 16 W TWTA per repeater
Spacenet satellites [1–4] to replace the leased satellite capacity
starting in 1984. EIRP: 36 dBW (CONUS), 32 dBW (Alaska), 28 dBW
(Hawaii, Puerto Rico)
One spare amplifier for every six repeaters

294
 U.S. Communication Satellites

12 and 14 GHz: 11.704–12.176 GHz which used the orthogonal antenna polarization, had six 72
One 16 W TWTA per repeater, 41 dBW EIRP (CONUS) MHz bandwidth repeaters. The weight saved, relative to a 12-
One spare amplifier for every six repeaters repeater design, allowed an additional six repeaters of 72 MHz
bandwidth. These six operated in the 12 and 14 GHz band. The
Receiver narrowband (36 MHz) repeaters used solid-state amplifiers.
4 and 6 GHz: two active plus two spare receivers The wideband repeaters used TWTAs with twice the output
5927–6403 MHz, (36 MHz repeaters) G/T –5 dB/K power. The 4 and 6 GHz antenna patterns were adjusted to
(CONUS), –7 to –9 dB/K (Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico) the expected satellite location. The western satellite pattern
5949–6421 MHz, (72 MHz repeaters) G/T –2 to –3 dB/K covered all 50 states, whereas the eastern satellite pattern
(CONUS), –7 dB/K (Alaska, Hawaii) covered CONUS and the Caribbean. The 12 and 14 GHz pattern
was optimized for CONUS coverage, with some degradation
12 and 14 GHz: 14.004–14.476 GHz, one active plus one spare
receiver, –3 dB/K G/T (CONUS) in parts of Texas, Florida, and Maine.
Two Spacenets were launched in 1984. The third satellite
Antenna was lost in a launch vehicle failure in 1985. A replacement
4 and 6 GHz: two paraboloids, approximately 1.2 x 1.5 m, was launched in 1988. The first was stationed in a westerly
sharing same physical aperture, each with an embedded grid location, and the 4 and 6 GHz channels were used mostly
for one of two orthogonal linear polarizations, six feed horns for distribution of television programs and also for voice and
per polarization with coverage for CONUS plus Alaska and data service requiring its coverage of Alaska and Hawaii.
Hawaii or CONUS plus Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands The second and third satellites were primarily devoted to
12 and 14 GHz: one paraboloid, four feed horns, linear business communications. In 1991, GTE Spacenet absorbed
polarization, CONUS coverage the satellite operations of Contel ASC, and the ASC 2 satellite
became Spacenet 4. It was launched in 1991 and was operating
Telemetry and command in a location that is visible to all 50 states. After the launch of
Telemetry: near edges of 3700–4200 MHz band AMC-4 in 1999, Spacenet 4 was moved to 172°E, where it
Command: near edge of 5925–6425 MHz band was serving the North Pacific rim for SES until its retirement
in April 2006. In the next year Spacenet 1, the oldest of GTE’s
Life nine Spacenet, GStar, and ASC satellites in orbit, was sold
Ten-year design life, 11–12 years expected life to China, renamed Chinasat 5, and moved to a location over
China. GTE continued to control the satellite under contract
Orbit to a Chinese organization. Spacenet 1 was retired by 2000.
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W In 1997 or 1998, Spacenet 2 was moved to the same location,
Orbital history operated for a while, and then taken out of service.
The control center for the Spacenet satellites was in McLean,
Spacenet 1: launched 22 May 1984, in use until 1992, sold to
China and moved to 115°E longitude, retired by 2000 Virginia, near Washington, D.C. The TT&C sites were located
in Woodbine, Maryland, and San Ramon, California. These
Spacenet 2: launched 10 November 1984, in use until functions were handled by GE Americom.
mid-1990s, moved to 116°E longitude, then moved above
synchronous altitude
In 1987, the Geostar Corporation [5–7] began providing
limited one-way position determination service (Geostar
Spacenet 3: launch vehicle failure September 1985 System 1.0) from mobile subscribers, primarily in the long-
Spacenet 3R: (later called 3) launched 11 March 1988, in use, distance trucking industry, using the French Argos transponders
87°W, later 83°W longitude, retired by 2000 (described in chapter 3) on U.S. meteorological satellites. In
Spacenet 4: launched 12 April 1991, formerly named ASC 1988, one-way messaging was added to an improved position
2 (see ASC description), used at 101°W, moved to 172°E determination service (Geostar System 2.0) using Geostar
longitude IN 1999, retired April 2006 subsystems included on several Spacenet and GStar satellites.
Ariane launch vehicle In 1989, a further enhancement to two-way messaging service
(Geostar System 2.C) was made with transmissions to mobile
Management subscribers using one of the standard 4 and 6 GHz Spacenet
Developed by GE Astro Space (formerly RCA Astro Electronics) repeaters. The next step in the Geostar evolution, System 3.0,
for GTE Spacenet Corporation was to have occurred by 1994 with the launch of dedicated
Operated initially by GTE Spacenet Corporation through 1994, Geostar satellites; this step was stopped by the 1991 bankruptcy
now by SES Americom of Geostar.
Spacenet was the first U.S. domestic satellite to operate in both
the 4 and 6 GHz and the 12 and 14 GHz frequency bands. The
satellites in orbit prior to Spacenet all operated in either one
or the other of these two bands. The primary objective in the
communication subsystem design was to maximize bandwidth
subject to launch vehicle-imposed weight constraints. The
result was a 24-channel design with 50 percent more bandwidth
than a contemporaneous 24-channel, 4 and 6 GHz design.
The 4 and 6 GHz portion of the communication subsystem,
shown in Fig. 6.31, had two sections. One was a typical set
of twelve 36 MHz bandwidth repeaters. The other section, Fig. 6.30. Geostar subsystem.

295
North American Satellites

5949–6421 Horizontal Vertical

polarization polarization
T T
1

T T
3
D D
T T
5
5927–6403
T T C C
7
3702–4178
T T
9

T T
11

T T

Channels 2,4,6,8,10,12
S T T H
same as above
2225

Receiver 2
S S T TW
13
Receiver 3
T TW
15
S Receiver 4 H C
T TW
17
3724–4196
T TW C
14

T TW
16
C
T TW
18

T TW

Fig. 6.31. Spacenet 4/6 Ghz communication subsystem.

The Geostar 2 subsystem was a simple frequency The second was on GStar 2, launched in 1986; the subsystem
translating repeater. It received position reports, with short operated properly in initial testing but failed less than 2 months
messages optionally appended, from the mobile subscribers, after launch. The third subsystem was on GStar 3, which was
and amplified and upconverted them. In the regular Spacenet launched in 1988 but did not reach its operational orbit until
or GStar communication subsystem these signals were 1989. The fourth and fifth subsystems were on Spacenet 3R
combined, at lower power, with the downlink spectrum of and GStar 4, successfully launched in 1988 and 1990. Geostar
one repeater for transmission to Geostar Central. This facility System 2.0 operations began with the subsystem on Spacenet
communicated position reports to, and messages to and from, 3R. After the Geostar bankruptcy, several other companies
the mobile subscriber’s control point (e.g., a dispatcher’s office were interested in using these subsystems; however, no
for a trucking company). Transmissions from the mobile to continued use ensued.
the Geostar subsystem were a burst of 20 to 100 ms duration,
******
depending on the length of the message appended to the
position report, at a data rate of 15.6 kbps encoded to 31.2 1. C. J. Waylan, “The Spacenet Satellites,” Paper 82-0520,
kbps and spread with an 8 Mbps code; the modulation was AIAA 9th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
BPSK (binary phase shift keying) with the signal centered in (March 1982).
the 1610 to 1626.5 MHz band. 2. A. Jacobs and B. Pourmand, “A Digital Satellite
The Geostar subsystem had a 0.7 m by 1.3 m planar Communications System for Sprint,” Paper 84-0717, AIAA 10th
antenna with a gain of 22.9 dB and a G/T of –4.5 dB/K over the Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1984).
coverage area, which was the United States, southern Canada,
and northern Mexico. The first subsystem was on Spacenet 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (31 March 1980),
3, which was destroyed by a launch vehicle failure in 1985. p. 26; (21 December 1981), p. 12; (25 October 1982), p. 58;
(23 September 1985), p. 22; (24 March 1986), p. 83.
296
 U.S. Communication Satellites

the 12 and 14 GHz bands. The

subsystem had 16 channels,
each with a 54 MHz bandwidth,
and used dual-polarization
D
frequency reuse. The receive
antenna provided CONUS
coverage on one polarization
and a combined coverage for
14004– 11704–
14476 12176 CONUS, Alaska, and Hawaii
T TW on the other. The transmit
24 antenna had four beams, and
T TW their coverage is shown in Fig.
22 6.35. Channels 1 and 3 were
C
T T T TW
permanently connected to a
20 combined coverage beam. Each
2300 of the other 14 channels had a
T TW C
S H 19 variable power divider. These
dividers could route the power
Receiver 2 T TW to either a west beam or an east
21
C beam or split the power between
T TW the two to form a CONUS beam.
23
The west and east coverages
T TW corresponded to the parts of
CONUS west and east of the
Fig. 6.32. Spacenet 12/14 Ghz communication subsystem.
Mississippi River.
Channels 1 and 3 had 30 W
TWTAs, and all other channels
4. “Satellite Fleet,” http://www.ses-americom.com/ had 20 W TWTAs. The power radiated by the satellite was
satellites/index.html (July 2005). sufficient to support 60 Mbps transmissions in the CONUS
5. R. D. Briskman, “Geostar Initial RDSS System,” Paper and combined beams, or 90 Mbps in the west and east beams.
88-0862, AIAA 12th International Communications Satellite A total of 20 TWTAs were available in a ring redundancy
Systems Conference (March 1988). arrangement, three of which were the 30 W type. The GStar
receivers had a parametric amplifier for the first stage and an
6. R. J. Lepkowski, “Implementation of Geostar’s RDSS FET amplifier for the second stage, followed by downconver-
System,” Proceedings of the International Mobile Satellite sion and additional amplification. Performance values and
Conference (June 1990). other satellite details of the GStar 1 through 4 satellites are as
7. R. D. Briskman, “Radio Determination Satellite follows.
Service,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 78, No. 7 (July Satellite
1990). Box, 1.8 x 1.8 x 2.4 m with antennas fixed on Earth-viewing
side and solar arrays deployed from two sides, overall span 14
m, overall height approximately 3.4 m
GStar Approximately 635 kg in orbit, beginning of life
GTE Spacenet Corporation, formerly GTE Satellite Sun-tracking solar array and NiH2 batteries, 1700–1900 W
Corporation, was the developer of the GStar system and the beginning of life, 1330 W minimum after 10 years
owner of the GStar satellites [1–7]. In the fall of 1994, GTE
Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels and magnetic
Spacenet, including both its satellites and ground facilities,
torquers; accuracy ±0.04° (pitch), ±0.05° (roll), ±0.13° (yaw)
was sold to GE Americom.
Like the Spacenet satellites, the GStars had a design based Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, monopropellant liquid
on the RCA (GE after 1986) satellites. As shown in Fig. 6.33, propulsion for on-orbit use
these satellites had a central box-like body structure from which
the two sun-tracking solar arrays are deployed. The antenna
structure was fixed on the Earth-viewing side of the body.
All other equipment was mounted within or on the surface
of the body. The satellite had nickel-hydrogen batteries and
electrothermal hydrazine thrusters, both of which were new
technology items not common in communication
satellites in 1985. Both contributed
to increased life for a given
satellite weight.
The GStar communi-
cation subsystem, illus-
trated in Fig. 6.34, used Fig. 6.33. GStar satellite.

297
North American Satellites

Horizontal Vertical
polarization polarization

AH Alaska and Hawaii AH W E AH W E

W West CONUS
E East CONUS
14017–14498
C D C D
14003–14484 D D

T TW
1
P C
T TW 11703– 11717–
3 12184 12198
P
C C
T TW
5
V
T TW
7 C C
S P T T H V
T TW
2300

T TW
Receiver 2 2
V
S S C
T TW
Receiver 3 4
V
T TW
Receiver 4 6
S H V
T TW
8 C
V
P Fixed power divider T TW

V Variable power divider C

Same as above for channels 9–16
except all have V
C

Fig. 6.34. GStar communication subsystem.

Configuration Antenna
Sixteen 54 MHz bandwidth repeaters, dual-polarization Two 1.5 m diam parabolic reflectors with embedded polarization
frequency reuse grids, one behind the other, one each for vertical and horizontal
polarization; b33 dB isolation between the two polarizations; 16
Capacity feed horns per reflector (seven for west CONUS, six for east
Up to 5400 voice circuits or 90 Mbps per repeater CONUS, three for Alaska and Hawaii)

Transmitter Telemetry and command

11.703–12.198 GHz Telemetry: 11.702 and 12.198 GHz
Three 30 W TWTAs for two repeaters, seventeen 20 W TWTAs Command: near both edges of 14.0–14.5 GHz band
for 14 repeaters
Life
EIRP: (30 W repeaters)b40 dBW for CONUS, Alaska, Hawaii,
up to 45 dBW in parts of CONUS; (20 W repeaters) 40–45 dBW Ten-year design life, at least 12-year expected life
over CONUS or approximately 45 dBW over most of eastern
CONUS in east spot mode or 42–45 dBW over western CONUS
Orbit
in west spot mode Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W, except
for GStar 3
Receiver
14.003–14.498 GHz
Orbital history
GStar 1: launched 8 May 1985, in use until late 1990s
Two active plus two spare receivers
GStar 2: launched 28 March 1986, in use until late 1990s
G/T:b–1.5 dB/K over almost all of CONUS, +1 to +4 dB/K in
much of CONUS, b–3.5 dB/K Alaska and Hawaii GStar 3: launched 8 September 1988, problems during apogee
motor firing left satellite in wrong orbit, orbit raised during 1989,
began operations November 1989, in use until late 1990s
298
 U.S. Communication Satellites

GStar 4: launched 20 November 1990, in use

at 125°W from 1990 to 1992, then 105°W
longitude until retired in February 2004.
Ariane launch vehicle

Management
Developed by GE Astro Space (formerly
RCA Astro Electronics) for GTE Spacenet
Corporation
Operated by GTE Spacenet Corporation
through 1994, then by GE Americom
The first two GStar launches were in May
1985 and March 1986. The third launch was
in September 1988. When the apogee motor
fired, the satellite was not stable, and the orbit
perigee was raised by less than half of the
expected distance. The cause of the instability
was later determined to be unbalanced loading
of the hydrazine propellant tanks. Beginning
in January 1989, the on-orbit propulsion
subsystem was used to raise the perigee. The
process was very slow because of the low
thrust. Nine months later, the satellite was
in synchronous orbit, and operational use
began in November 1989. Because of the
propellant use, the estimated satellite life had
been reduced to 4 or 5 years, and no north-
south stationkeeping was done. As a result,
the satellite orbital inclination was 2 deg
when it reached synchronous orbit and was
increasing by about 0.75 deg per year. The
fourth GStar was launched successfully in
November 1990 and retired in February 2004
[8]. Because of the purchase of Spacenet by
GE Americom, there were no more Spacenet
or GStar satellites. They were replaced with
the GE 1, 2, and 3 satellites, which were
launched beginning in 1996.
Geostar Corporation had subsystems
on both GStar and Spacenet satellites; they
are described in the foregoing Spacenet
subsection.
The GStar satellite control center was
located with the Spacenet control center in
McLean, Virginia. The TT&C sites were located
in Oxford, Connecticut, and Grand Junction,
Colorado. Since the fall 1994 acquisition, GE
Fig. 6.35. GStar coverage areas.
Americom took the responsibility for GTE’s
satellite operations and customer service and
integrated them into the Americom system. 4. W.Yung and M. Louie, “Acquisition and Synchronization
for the GStar TDMA Digital Satellite System,” Paper 82-0512,
******
AIAA 9th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
1. D. L. Doan et al., “Anik D, Brasilsat and GStar Shaped (March 1982).
Beam Antennas,” Paper 29.5, First Canadian Domestic and
5. Aviation Week & Space Technology (28 April 1980), p.
International Satellite Communication Conference (June
22; (17 August 1981), p. 26; (28 September 1981), p. 45; (19
1983).
October 1981), p. 19; (30 November 1981), p. 20; (25 October
2 J. Napoli, “GStar—A High Performance Ku-Band 1982), p. 58; (23 September 1985), p. 22; (24 March 1986), p.
Satellite for the 1980s,” AIAA 9th Communications Satellite 83; (19 September 1988), p. 18; (17 October 1988), p. 23; (24
Systems Conference (March 1982). October 1988), p. 11; (27 March 1989), p. 13.
3. M. Louie and J. F. Bottomley, “The GStar 60 MB/s and 6. B. Bennett, “The Recovery of GStar III,” Satellite
90 MB/s Services,” Paper 82-0493, AIAA 9th Communications Communications (June 1991).
Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982).
299
North American Satellites

7. “Satellite Fleet,” http://www.ses-americom.com/ Capacity

satellites/index.html (July 2005). 64 Mbps or approximately 1000 voice circuits or one TV signal
8. “SES Americom Retires GSTAR-4 After 13+ Years per 36 MHz bandwidth
of Service,” SES Americom press release (2 February 2004), Transmitter
http://www.ses-americom.com/media/2004/02_02_04_ 4 and 6 GHz: 3700–3960 MHz (36 MHz repeaters)
1.html, (July 2005)
One 8.5 W transistor amplifier per repeater
EIRP: approximately 34 dBW (CONUS), approximately 28
American Satellite Corporation dBW (Alaska), approximately 25 dBW (Hawaii, Puerto Rico)
American Satellite Corporation (ASC) [1–12] was formed 4 and 6 GHz: 3940–4200 MHz (72 MHz repeaters)
in 1972 and began providing communications services in One 16.6 W TWTA per repeater
1974, using satellite capacity leased from Western Union. In EIRP: approximately 36 dBW (CONUS), approximately
1980, ASC converted its lease to a 20-percent ownership of 32 dBW (Alaska), approximately 28 dBW (Hawaii, Puerto
the Western Union satellites. To allow for further growth, in Rico)
March 1983, ASC signed a contract for the development of its 12 and 14 GHz: 11.704–12.176 GHz
own satellites, ASC 1 and 2. ASC 2, launched in 1991, the year One 17 W TWTA per repeater, approximately 41 dBW
ASC became part of GTE Spacenet, was generally known by EIRP (CONUS)
the name Spacenet 4. One spare amplifier for every six repeaters
The ASC satellite design, a derivative of the RCA satellite,
was almost identical to the Spacenet satellite. It was a body- Receiver
stabilized type that had a box-shaped body with solar arrays 4 and 6 GHz: two active plus two spare receivers
deployed from its north and south sides. The communications 5925 to 6185 MHz, (36 MHz repeaters) approximate G/T
antennas were fixed on the Earth-facing side of the body. The –5 dB/K (CONUS), –7 to –9 dB/K (Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto
satellite had an encrypted command link; that was an unusual Rico)
feature in 1985 when the first ASC satellite was launched, 6165 to 6425 MHz, (72 MHz repeaters) G/T –2 to –3 dB/K
but later became a common feature. The satellite also used (CONUS), –7 dB/K (Alaska, Hawaii)
the relatively new (in 1983) nickel-hydrogen battery and
12 and 14 GHz: 14.004 to 14.476 GHz, one active plus one
electrothermal thruster technologies. The communications spare receiver, –3 dB/K G/T (CONUS)
subsystem, like Spacenet, had 24 channels; 12 were 36 MHz
bandwidth and shared the lower half of the 4 and 6 GHz bands Antenna
by means of dual-polarization frequency reuse. The upper 4 and 6 GHz: two paraboloids, approximately 1.2 x 1.5 m,
half of the same bands were used by six 72 MHz bandwidth sharing the same physical aperture, each with an embedded
channels also by means of dual polarization. In the 12 and 14 grid for one of two orthogonal linear polarizations
GHz bands, six 72 MHz bandwidth channels used a single 12 and 14 GHz: one paraboloid, linear polarization
polarization; launch weight limits precluded additional
channels on the orthogonal polarization. The 36 MHz channels Life
used transistor power amplifiers; the others used TWTAs. Ten-year design life, 8.5 years nominal fuel load
The subsystem configuration was similar to that of Spacenet
(see illustrations for the Spacenet 4 and 6 and 12 and 14 GHz Orbit
communication subsystems in the Spacenet subsection above). Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.05° N-S and E-W
Additional satellite details for the ASC 1 and 2 satellites are as
follows. Orbital history
ASC 1: launched 27 August 1985 (deployed from shuttle 27
Satellite August), in use until mid to late 1990s
Box, about 1.5 m on a side, with antennas and feed fixed on ASC 2: launched 12 April 1991, 101°W longitude, name
the Earth-viewing face, solar panels deployed from north and changed to Spacenet 4, later moved to 172°E, retired 2006
south faces, span across solar panels about 14.6 m, height
including antenna feeds about 3.4 m Shuttle launch vehicle (1), Delta (2)
665 kg in orbit, beginning of life Management
Sun-tracking solar array and NiH2 batteries, 1215 W minimum Developed by RCA Astro Electronics for American Satellite Corp.
after 10 years
Operated by American Satellite Corporation, then by GTE
Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels and magnetic Spacenet, and later by SES Americom
torquers, approximately ±0.2 deg accuracy
The first ASC satellite was launched in August 1985. ASC
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, monopropellant liquid was then using both this satellite and its share in the Westar
propulsion for on-orbit use satellites. The second and third satellites were scheduled for
Configuration launch in 1986 and 1987. However, that plan was disrupted by
4 and 6 GHz: twelve 36 MHz bandwidth and six 72 MHz
the multiple launch vehicle failures in the early part of 1986.
bandwidth single-conversion repeaters, dual-polarization ASC 2 was not launched until April 1991. The month before,
frequency reuse GTE and Contel completed a merger that includes the GTE
Spacenet and Contel ASC satellite systems. As a result, ASC
12 and 14 GHz: six 72 MHz bandwidth repeaters
2 was renamed Spacenet 4. Consolidation of the Spacenet and

300
 U.S. Communication Satellites

Contel ASC ground control facilities and operations took place among the towns and villages, and between Alaska and the rest
over an extended period. of the United States.
RCA Alascom initially tried VHF links to improve
******
service, but the results were not very good. In 1975, 100
1. J. G. Puente, “Designing the American Satellite Earth terminals were installed in villages to provide two voice
Corporation System,” EASCON ’73 Conference Record circuits each. One was for public telephone calls and the other
(September 1973). for health-care consultations with urban medical centers. The
2. S. Ashton and D. Silverman, “The American next year, television reception capability was added to these
Satellite Communication System,” Paper 74-482, AIAA 5th terminals. Two television programs were broadcast to them—
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1974). one educational and one entertainment. These programs were
received from the satellite and then rebroadcast to the local
3. L. Kilty, “American Satellite Builds a Major Network area by low-power conventional television transmitters. By
for Government Users,” EASCON ’75 Conference Record 1983, the number of terminals had increased to about 200,
(September 1975). and by 1989 to over 220, so that every community in the state,
4. E. Cacciamani, “New Developments in Small Digital with a population of at least 20, was equipped. Most terminals
Earth Stations,” Pacific Telecommunications Conference have 4.6 m antennas, although about 30 have 10 m or larger
(January 1979). antennas.
5. E. Cacciamani and W. Garner, “The American Satellite RCA Alascom provided the telephone and television
Digital Communications Network,” Paper 49.3, International services as part of the total RCA satellite communications
Conference on Communications: ICC ’79 (June 1979). program using RCA satellites. In 1979, RCA Alascom was sold
to Pacific Power and Light Company and renamed Alascom,
6. S. Mittal, E. R. Cacciamani, and J. Hangen, “Use of Inc. It continued to obtain satellite capacity from RCA and
TDMA in a Domestic Satellite Communications System,” bought a satellite from RCA prior to its launch. The antenna
EASCON ’79 Conference Record (September 1979). pattern of this satellite, RCA Satcom 5, was modified to
7. T. D. Breeden and E. J. Habib, “The Digital Network improve coverage of Alaska. It was launched in October 1982
of American Satellite Corporation,” Paper 80-0517, AIAA 8th and was used by Alascom. It was operated by RCA Americom
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980). under contract to Alascom. The satellite was named Aurora
8. E. J. Habib and S. Mittal, “A New Integrated Service in 1983; the name was selected in a statewide contest. Under
for American Satellite Network,” Paper 82-0617, AIAA the RCA-Alascom contract, RCA satellites provided in-orbit
9th Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March backup for Aurora.
1982). In 1986, GE bought RCA, and RCA Americom became GE
Americom. The cooperation between Alascom and Americom
9. I. L. Lebow, “An Integrated Communications Controller continued through the name change. Plans were developed for
for Demand-Assignment,” Paper D1.2, International an Aurora II satellite to replace the first Aurora (or Aurora I).
Conference on Communications: ICC ’83 (June 1983). This second satellite, shown in Fig. 6.36, was also known as
10. Aviation Week & Space Technology (19 August 1985), GE Satcom C-5. The second satellite had the same basic design
p. 22; (24 March 1986), p. 83. as the first. It had increased transmitter power and redundancy
in addition to spacecraft improvements to increase reliability
11. S. Mittal and W. Garner, “A Specialized TDMA Network
and extend the life. Aurora II also had a secure command link.
for Business Services,” Sixth International Conference on
Aurora II was retired in March 2001.
Digital Satellite Communications (September 1983).
These Aurora satellites had two antenna beam patterns. One
12. O. W. Hoernig Jr., and D. R. Sood, “Security covered Alaska; the other covered Alaska plus CONUS with a
Enhancement for Commercial Communication Satellite lower power level on Hawaii. The broader coverage was used
Systems,” Paper 15.1, Military Communications Conference: for all uplinks. On Aurora I, 12 transponders were connected
Milcom ’84 (October 1984). to the Alaska beam for downlinks and 12 to the broader beam.
On Aurora II, the corresponding numbers were six and 12, with
another six transponders individually switchable between the
Alascom two beams. A block diagram of the Aurora II communication
Prior to 1971, the Air Force provided all long-distance subsystem is shown Fig. 6.37. The Alaska beam was used
communications in Alaska and between Alaska and other for intrastate communications. The other beam was used for
states. In that year, the military communications system in communications between Alaska and other states; capacity
Alaska was sold to RCA. One of the terms of the sale was that
RCA accept the responsibility for improving long-distance
communications in Alaska. RCA established the RCA
Alascom [1–7] subsidiary to carry out this
task. The size, large undeveloped regions,
weather, and population distribution of
Alaska all complicate the provision of
adequate communications. Only a few
cities had good internal communications.
The problem facing RCA Alascom was communications Fig. 6.36. Aurora II satellite.
between the cities and more than 200 small towns and villages,

301
North American Satellites

not required by Alascom was used

T
by Americom as part of its national
satellite network.
In late 2000, the Aurora III T
satellite was launched. This satellite
was also first known as GE-8, and T
then AMC-8. It replaced Aurora II
after it was successfully brought T
into operation. The majority of C US (V)
the 24 transponders are owned by T
AT&T Alascom, the successor to
Alascom. Other transponders will T
be leased by SES Americom for
use anywhere in the 50-state and T
Caribbean coverage area of the
satellite. Other SES satellites will
T
provide the in-orbit backup for
Aurora III. US (H) S T T H
Details of the Aurora I and 2225
II satellites are in the foregoing Same as above US (V)
Satcom subsection, and details of Receiver 2
the Aurora III satellite are in the S S
following SES subsection. Receiver 3 Same as above AK (H)

******
US (V) S Receiver 4 H
1. J. L. Rivard, “The Domestic T
Satellite Program in Alaska,” National
Telecommunications Conference:
T S*
NTC ’74 (December 1974).
2. J. L. Rivard, “Long Line T S* C AK (H)
Communication in Alaska—Then
and Now,” RCA Engineer, Vol. 23, T S*
No. 4 (December 1977–January
1978). C, H CONUS, Hawaii beam
T S*
3. A. Hills, “Alaska’s Giant US 50-state beam
Satellite Network,” IEEE Spectrum, AK Alaska beam T S*
Vol. 20, No. 7 (July 1983).
C C, H (H)
H, V Horizontal, vertical polarization
4. M. R. Freeling and A. S* All power to AK beam or power T S*
W. Weinrich, “RCA Advanced split between AK and C, H beams
Satcom,” Paper 84-0715, AIAA to form US beam (not present on T
10th Communication Satellite Aurora I; all fixed on AK beam)
Conference (March 1984).
Fig. 6.37. Aurora communication subsystem.
5. W. L. Morgan, “Aurora,”
Satellite Communications, Vol. 9,
No. 2 (February 1985). near the end of 1999, and replaced Spacenet 4 at 101°W. GE-
6. B. C. Russell et al., “Aurora II—The Next Generation 5 (now AMC-5), with only Ku-band transponders, was the
Satellite for Alaska,” Paper 90-0832, AIAA 13th International first satellite for a U.S. system manufactured in Europe and
Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1990). is currently operational at 79°W. GE-6, with both C-band and
Ku-band transponders, was launched in October 2000 and is
7. “GE Americom Announces Joint Agreement with AT&T operational at 72°W as AMC-6. GE-7 and -8 (now AMC-7 and
Alascom for GE-8/Aurora III Satellite,” http://www.ses- -8) are C-band only satellites and were launched in September
americom.com/media/1999/pr_alaska.html (July 2005). and December of 2000. GE-7 replaced GE Satcom C-1 at
137°W. GE-8 primarily serves the Alascom system (described
above) under the name Aurora III. It replaced Aurora II
GE (Satcom C-5) at 139°W.
In 1992, Americom ordered the first of a new series of satellites In March 2001, SES ASTRA of Luxembourg acquired
[1–2] that have 24 transponders in C-band and 24 in Ku-band. the GE Americom system, and a new company called SES
By the end of 1994, three of these satellites, originally named Global was formed to include both these businesses as well
GE-1, GE-2, and GE-3 (now AMC-1 through AMC-3), were as interests in others (see the introduction to this section). As
on order, and were launched in 1996 and 1997. A similar noted above, SES renamed the GE-1 through GE-8 satellites
satellite, originally named GE-4 (now AMC-4), was launched as AMC-1 through AMC-8 [3].
302
 U.S. Communication Satellites

Outwardly, the GE satellites have a typical appearance

with a box-shaped body and deployed solar arrays and
antenna reflectors. However, there are a number of inward Fig. 6.38. AMC-1, -2, -3 satellite.
differences, since GE-1 (AMC-1) is the first satellite built
using Lockheed Martin’s A2100 bus. These changes
include a reduction in the number of parts and number
of types of parts to streamline manufacturability;
use of a standard data bus to allow more access to the
satellite during testing; onboard attitude computation and
onboard velocity steering for more accuracy and flexibility
in maneuver planning; and more onboard autonomy, such
as battery charge initiation and termination and thermal
management, in operations. The autonomy requires set-up
time when the satellite is initialized in orbit but simplifies
operations thereafter. Figure Figure 6.38 is an on-orbit
illustration of the AMC-1, -2 and –3 satellites, and Fig. 6.39
is a block diagram of the AMC-1, -2 and –3 communication
subsystem. Figure 6.40 illustrates typical Ku-band minimum
state power amplifiers, two sets of 16 amplifiers for 12
EIRP from the AMC-5 satellite; Fig. 6.41 shows typical C- transponders (4, 6–8)
band minimum EIRP from AMC-6; and Fig. 6.42 provides
Ku: 11.7–12.2 GHz (1–6) plus an additional band (4)
typical Ku-band EIRP from AMC-6. Satellite details for
satellites AMC-1 through -8 are as follows and apply to all 60 W linearized TWTAs, two sets of 18 TWTAs for 12
of these satellites unless qualified by satellite numbers in transponders (1–3); 110 W linearized TWTAs, two sets of
parentheses. 18 TWTAs for 14 transponders (4, 6); 55 W TWTAs, two
sets of 11 TWTAs for 8 transponders (5)
Satellite
Lockheed Martin A2100 bus (1–4,
6–8), Aerospatiale Spacebus 2000
5925–6425
bus (5) D
Rectangular body D
Body 1.5 x 1.6 x 2.2 m (5)
Span of deployed solar arrays 22.9
m (1–3, 5), 26.8 m (4) 3700–
4200
Approximately 1300–1600 kg in orbit
(16 lines)
(1–3); 1013 kg in orbit beginning of
life, 769 kg dry mass (5)
S S
Solar arrays (all) and NiH2 batteries Receiver 2
(1–4, 6–8), 3000 W end of life (4),
3150 W end of life (5) Receiver 3
Three-axis stabilization (all)
Receiver 4 Same as above
Configuration
C: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth (a) C-band
transponders, dual-polarization
frequency reuse (1–4, 6–8)
Ku: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth 14.0–14.5 GHz
transponders, dual-polarization D
frequency reuse (1, 2, 3)
D
Twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth and
four 72 MHz bandwidth transponders, TW
dual-polarization frequency reuse (4,
6) 11.7–
12.2 GHz
Sixteen 54 MHz bandwidth transpon- (18 lines)
ders, dual-polarization frequency
reuse (5) S S
Receiver 2
Transmitter
C: 3700–4200 MHz (1–4, 6–8) Receiver 3 TW
12–18 W adjustable power
solid-state power amplifiers, Receiver 4 Same as above
two sets of 16 amplifiers for 12
transponders (1–3); 20 W solid- (b) Ku-band
Fig. 6.39. AMC-1, -2, -3 communication subsystem.

303
North American Satellites

38

38

42

46
48
48

48

48

Fig. 6.40. AMC-5 satellite Ku-band EIRP.

31

35

39
41
27
41

Fig. 6.41. AMC-6 satellite C-band EIRP.

304
 U.S. Communication Satellites

Receiver
C: 5925–6425 MHz (1–4, 6–8)
Two active plus two spare
receivers (1–4, 6–8)
38
Ku: 14.0–14.5 GHz (1–6) plus 42
part of 13.75–14.0 GHz (4) 46
Two active plus two spare
receivers (1–3, 5); four active
plus two spare receivers (4,
50
6) 52

Antenna
C: 2.2 m diam. deployed, shaped 50
parabolic reflector; dual linear
polarizations (1, 2, 3)
C-band coverage
A M C - 1 : 5 0 s t a t e s,
Canada, Mexico,
Caribbean
A M C - 2 : 5 0 s t a t e s,
Canada, Mexico
A M C - 3 : 5 0 s t a t e s,
Canada, Mexico,
Caribbean
A M C - 4 : 5 0 s t a t e s,
C a n a d a , M ex i c o, Fig. 6.42. AMC-6 satellite Ku-band EIRP.
Car ibbean, Central
America
AMC-6: 48 states, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean, AMC-2 (GE-2): launched 30 January 1997, in use, 105°W
Central America longitude
AMC-7: 50 states, Canada, Mexico AMC-3 (GE-3): launched 4 September 1997, in use, 87°W
AMC-8: 50 states, Canada, Mexico longitude
Ku: 2.4 m diam. deployed, shaped parabolic reflector; dual AMC-4 (GE-4): launched 13 November 1999, in use, 101°W
linear polarizations (1, 2, 3) longitude
1.6 m diam. deployed, parabolic reflector; dual linear AMC-5 (GE-5): launched 28 October 1998, in use, 79°W
polarizations (5) longitude
Ku-band coverage AMC-6 (GE-6): launched 22 October 2000, in use, 72°W
AMC-1: 50 states, southern Canada, northern longitude
Mexico AMC-7 (GE-7): launched 14 September 2000, in use, 137°W
AMC-2: 48 states, Canada, northern Mexico longitude
AMC-3: 50 states, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean AMC-8 (GE-8, Aurora III): launched 19 December 2000, in use,
AMC-4: 50 states, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean, 139°W longitude
Central America, South America Atlas IIA launch vehicle (1, 3), Ariane 4 (2, 4, 5), Ariane 5 (7,
AMC-5: 48 states, southern Canada, northern 8), Proton (6)
Mexico
Management
AMC-6: 48 states, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean,
Developed by Lockheed Martin Commercial Space Systems
Central America
(1–4, 6–9)
Telemetry and command Developed by Dornier Satelliten Systeme (Germany) with
Beacons: 3700.5 and 4199.5 MHz (1–4), 12.198 GHz (1–4), Aerospatiale (France) and Alenia (Italy) (5)
11.702 GHz (4, 5) Operated by GE Americom
Life ******
Fifteen-year design life (1–4, 6–8); expected life at least 15
years (1–4), 12 years (5) 1. D. V. McKinnon and N. V. Chilelli, “The GE-1/2/3
Satellite System and the Impact of A2100 Technology on
Orbit Geocomsat Manufacture, Operations and Performance,” Paper
Geostationary AIAA-98-1372, 17th International Communications Satellite
Systems Conference (February 1998).
Orbital history
2. “Satellite Fleet,” http://www.ses-americom.com/
AMC-1 (GE-1): launched 8 September 1996, in use, 103°W
longitude satellites/index.html (July 2005).

305
North American Satellites

3. “Major North American Fleet Renamed,” SES Life

Americom press release (12 November 2001), http://www. Fifteen-year design life (all)
ses-americom.com/media/2001/11_12_01.html (July 2005).
Orbit
Geostationary
SES Americom
Orbital History
SES in Luxembourg acquired the assets of GE Americom in AMC-9: Launched 7 June 2003, in use, 83°W longitude
March 2001 [1–3]. A new company was formed, called SES
Global, which now holds all of GE Americom, SES ASTRA, AMC-10: Launched 5 February 2004, in use, 135°W longitude
and other satellite interests. GE Americom business and assets AMC-11: Launched 19 May 2004, in use, 131°W longitude
were placed into a subsidiary of SES Global called SES Launch vehicles: Proton Briz (Breeze) (AMC-9), Atlas IIAS
Americom. (AMC-10, -11)
The first of the satellites launched after the acquisition of AMC-12 and AMC-13 are alternate names for Worldsat-2 and
Americom by SES was the AMC-9 spacecraft. It is a C- and Worldsat-3, described in chapter 2. AMC-14 and AMC-17 are
Ku-band hybrid satellite, and was built by Alcatel Space. It was the satellite names reserved by SES Americom for use in a
initially put into service at 85°W longitude, where it replaced proposed direct broadcast satellite service to the United States.
AMC-2, which was moved to 105°W longitude and then later See the U.S. direct broadcast satellites section in chapter 6 for
returned to 85°W. AMC-9 was later repositioned at 83°W. more information.
The next two satellites launched were AMC-10 and AMC- In 2004, SES Americom launched two new hybrid K-
11. These are C-band only satellites designed as replacements and Ka-band satellites to serve the direct-to-home video and
for Satcom C3 and Satcom C4, now operating from 135°W broadband market in the United States [4–5]. The satellites,
and 131°W respectively, and primarily used to support cable called AMC-15 and AMC-16, were positioned at 105°W and
television services. They were built by Lockheed Martin and 85°W respectively. AMC-16 moved to 119°W in May 2006.
launched in February and May 2004. At the time of launch, SES Americom had agreements with
Available satellite details for the AMC 9, 10, and 11 Echostar to provide them service using these two satellites [6].
satellites are as follows. Lockheed Martin was the manufacturer.
Satellite Available satellite details for the AMC 15 and 16 satellites
Alcatel Spacebus 3000B3 (AMC-9), Lockheed Martin A2100 are as follows:
(AMC-10, -11)
Satellite
Rectangular body Lockheed Martin A2100AX
Configuration Rectangular body
C: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth transponders (AMC-9, 10, Sun-tracking solar arrays
and 11) Three-axis stabilized
Ku: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth transponders (AMC-9)
Configuration
Transmitter Ku: twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth transponders
C: 3700–4200 MHz Ka: twelve 125 MHz spot-beam transponders (3 x 39 MHz
20 W SSPAs (AMC-9, -10, -11) subchannels each)
Two sets of 15 amplifiers for 12 transponders (AMC-9)
Transmitter
Two sets of 16 amplifiers for 12 transponders (AMC-10,
Ku: 11.7–12.2 GHz
-11)
Ku: 11.7–12.2 GHz 140 W linearized TWTAs, two groups of 18 amplifiers for
12 transponders
110 W TWTAs, two sets of 16 amplifiers for 12 transponders
Ka: Authorized to transmit in the 18.6–18.8, 19.7–20.2 GHz
(AMC-9)
bands
Receiver 75 W linearized TWTAs, two groups of 9 for 6
C: 5925–6425 MHz, two active plus two spare receivers (AMC-
9, -10, -11) Receiver
Ku: 14.0–14.5 GHz, two active plus two spare receivers
Ku: 14.0–14.5 GHz, two active plus two spare receivers (AMC-
9) Ka: Authorized to receive in the 28.4–28.6, 29.5–30.0 GHz
bands
Antenna Two groups of 2 for 1 and two groups of 7 for 5
C-band coverage:
AMC-9: 48 states, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean, Central Antenna
America Ku band antenna coverage: 50 states
AMC-10: 50 states, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean Ka band antenna polarization: RHCP transmit, LHCP Receive
AMC-11: 50 states, Canada, Mexico, Caribbean (AMC-15)
Ku-band coverage Ka band antenna coverage: 50 states
AMC-9: 48 states, Mexico

306
 U.S. Communication Satellites

Life Hughes merged its Hughes Communications Galaxy domestic

Fifteen-year design life system with the PanAmSat international system. The combined
system carried the PanAmSat name. In December 2003, News
Orbit Corporation bought Hughes Electronics, and PanAmSat
Geostationary continued under this new ownership until August 2004 when
News Corporation sold its 80-percent interest in PanAmSat to
Orbital History the private equity firm Kolhlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. The
AMC-15: Launched 15 October 2004, tested at 136°W PanAmSat name continued throughout these business changes
longitude, then temporarily stationed at 117°W, then 113°W, [26–28].
then operational at 105°W by May 2005
Although there is no sharp dividing line between the
AMC-16: Launched 17 December 2004, initially in service at international and domestic satellites of this system, those
85°W longitude, then moved to 119°W in May 2006 that are primarily used in international service are described
Launch Vehicle: Proton M/Breeze M (AMC-15), Atlas V (AMC- in chapter 2, and those that are primarily used in domestic
16) or North American service are described in this section.
In March 2005 SES Americom announced that it contracted The satellites in international service usually have PAS (for
with Lockheed Martin to build up and launch the ground spare PanAmSat) names but occasionally Galaxy names, while those
satellite initially developed in support of AMC-10 and AMC- in North American service have Galaxy names. This section
11. This satellite, called AMC-18 [7], carries twenty-four 36 also describes the satellites of all the predecessor systems.
MHz C-band transponders. It was launched December 2006 The number of satellites that either are or once were a part
into the 105°W geostationary orbit location. of Western Union, SBS, Hughes Communications, and now
In April 2006 SES Americom ordered AMC-21, a Ku- PanAmSat is quite large. Table 6.3 provides a summary listing
band satellite for use at 125°W longitude, from Alcatel Alenia. organized by name. Company and satellite details follow the
Orbital Sciences will supply the bus, and Sea Launch is the table.
launch provider.
****** Westar
1. Combination of SES and GE Americom Creates the The first set of Western Union satellites were Westar I, II,
World’s Premier Satellite Services Provider,” ASTRA press and III. They were nearly identical to the Canadian Anik A
release (28 March 2001), http://www.ses-global.com/media/ satellites. Shown in Fig. 6.43, the satellite was spin-stabilized;
archive_02_01.shtml (July 2005). the body and all equipment within it spun; only the antenna
was despun. The antenna was 1.5 m in diameter and was fed
2. “SES Global Corporate Information,” http://www.ses-
by an array of three horns that produced a pattern optimized
global.com/corporate/group.htm (July 2005).
for CONUS. A fourth horn provided a lower-level beam for
3. “SES Americom,” http://www.ses-americom.com/ Hawaii. The communication subsystem had 12 channels
index.html (July 2005).
4. Federal Communications Commission Public Notice,
“Grant of Authority,” Report No. SAT-00236 (20 August
2004).
5. L. Dayaratna et al, “Multi Output Frequency Generation
System for AMC 15 16 Spacecrafts,” AIAA 2004-3105,
22nd AIAA International Communications Satellite Systems
Conference and Exhibit 2004, (Monterey, California, 9–12
May 2004).
6. Space News, “Big EchoStar Deal Validates SES Glo-
bal’s U.S. Wholesaler Strategy,” (29 March 2004), p. 24.
7. “SES GLOBAL Announces AMC-18”, SES Americon
press release (23 March 2005), www.ses-americom.com/
media/2005/03_23_05.html (July 2005)

PanAmSat Family
Western Union was one of the original domsat licensees and
began operations of its Westar satellites in 1974 [1–25]. In 1976,
SBS was formed by some of the original domsat applicants;
SBS received a license in 1977 and had its first satellite in
operation at the beginning of 1981. Hughes Communications
received a license in 1980 and began operations with its Galaxy
satellites in 1983.
In 1988, Hughes purchased Western Union’s system, and
in 1989, it purchased the three newest SBS satellites. In 1997, Fig. 6.43. Westar I through III satellite.

307
North American Satellites

Table 6.3. Satellites of the PanAmSat Family Serving the United States

Satellite Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status
Westar I 1974 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1983
Westar II 1974 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired
Westar III 1979 Hughes Space and Communications. C Retired 1990
Westar IV 1982 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1991
Westar V 1982 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1992
Westar VI AsiaSat 1 1984 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired
SBS 1 1980 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1990
SBS 2 1981 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1994
SBS 3 1982 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired
SBS 4 1984 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired
SBS 5 1988 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 2000
SBS 6 1990 Hughes Space and Communications C In use, 74°W
Galaxy 1 1983 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1994
Galaxy 1R 1992 Hughes Space and Communications C Launch Failure
Galaxy 1R 1994 Hughes Space and Communications C In use, 133°W, to be replaced by
Galaxy 15
Galaxy 2 1983 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 1994
Galaxy 3 1984 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired
Galaxy 3R Anik E2R 1995 Hughes Space and Communications C/Ku Retired 2006
Galaxy 4 1993 Hughes Space and Communications C/Ku In-orbit failure (total loss), 1998
Galaxy 4R 2000 Boeing Satellite Systems C/Ku In use, 99°W
Galaxy 5 1992 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired 2005
Galaxy 6 Westar VI-S 1990 Hughes Space and Communications C Retired
Galaxy 3C C/Ku In use 95°W
Galaxy 7 1992 Hughes Space and Communications C/Ku In orbit failure (total loss)
Galaxy 9 1996 Hughes Space and Communications C In-orbit spare, 91°W
Galaxy 10 1998 Hughes Space and Communications C/Ku Launch Failure
Galaxy 10R 2000 Boeing Satellite Systems C/Ku In use, 123°W
Galaxy 12 2003 Orbital Sciences Corporation C In use, 125°W
Galaxy 13 Horizons 1 2003 Boeing Satellite Systems C In use, 127°W
Galaxy 14 2005 Orbital Sciences Corporation C In use, 125°W
Galaxy 15 2005 Orbital Sciences Corporation C In use, 133°W
Galaxy 16 2006 Space Systems/Loral C/Ku Launched
Galaxy 17 Alcatel Alenia Space C/Ku In build, 2006 delivery
Galaxy 18 Space Systems/Loral C/Ku In build, 2007 launch
Horizons 2 Orbital Sciences Corporation Ku Operational late 2007

with a bandwidth of 36 MHz each. Figure 6.44 illustrates the Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 305 W at beginning of life, 260
communication subsystem of these satellites. Each channel W minimum after 7 years
had a single TWTA. The satellite had no spare TWTAs, but it Spin-stabilized, 100 rpm, ±0.1 deg accuracy
was expected that 10 of the 12 channels would be operable at Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, liquid monopropellant
the end of the satellite’s 7-year life, which was true for both for on-orbit use
Westar I and II in 1981. Details of the Westar I through III
satellites are as follows. Configuration
Satellite Twelve 36 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters
Hughes HS 333 bus Capacity
Cylinder, 191 cm diam, 170 cm body height, 353 cm deployed Up to 1200 one-way voice circuits or one TV program per
height repeater
297 kg in orbit, beginning of life

308
 U.S. Communication Satellites

Transmitter conflicts developed that resulted in the termination of the

3702–4178 MHz joint Western Union and NASA use of the satellites. TDRSS
One 5 W TWTA per repeater (no TWTA redundancy) satellites 1 to 6 retained the Advanced Westar equipment,
although it was used only on satellites three, four, and six.
EIRP per repeater at edge of coverage: 34 dBW (CONUS), 24 The C-band channels on those three satellites were leased to
dBW (Puerto Rico), 27 dBW (Alaska, Hawaii)
Columbia Communications for a use described in chapter 2.
Receiver In 1980, Western Union ordered a Westar IV satellite,
5927–6403 MHz primarily to ensure that it had no satellite capacity gap before
Advanced Westar was available. Westars V and VI were added
Two receivers (one on, one standby), 8 dB noise figure
within a year. With the end of Advanced Westar, the company
G/T at edge of coverage: –7 dB/K (CONUS), –8 dB/K (Alaska), applied for permission to build Westars VII and VIII. Westar
–13 dB/K (Hawaii), 17 dB/K (Puerto Rico) VIII was not built. Westar VII was renamed Westar VI-S after
Antenna the Westar VI problem (see below); later it was sold, prior to
launch, to Hughes Communications and became Galaxy 6.
One 152 cm diam reflector with three feed horns combined for
coverage of CONUS and Puerto Rico, separate feed horns for
Figure 6.45 shows how these satellites appeared in their on-
Alaska and Hawaii, linear polarization orbit configuration, and Fig. 6.46 shows the communication
subsystem. Details of the Westar IV through VI satellites are
Telemetry and command as follows.
Telemetry: each satellite uses two of 4198.25, 4198.75, and Satellite
4199.25 MHz Hughes HS 376 bus
Command: 6420 MHz Cylinder, 2.16 m diam, 6.83 m height in deployed condition
Life 583 kg (IV, V)/608 kg (VI) in orbit, beginning of life
Seven-year design life Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 840 W at beginning of life, 694
W at end of life
Orbit
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, approximately 60 rpm
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, liquid monopropellant
Orbital history propulsion for on-orbit use
Westar I: launched 13 April 1974, turned off
April 1983, moved out of synchronous orbit
Westar II: launched 10 October 1974,
service life about 10 years, then moved
above synchronous orbit
Westar III: launched 10 August 1979, in
5927–6403 3702–4178
use until January 1990, turned off, moved D
above synchronous orbit
Delta 2914 launch vehicle

Management Channel
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for 1
Western Union TW
Operated by Western Union 3
TW
The first Westar was launched in April 1974
and the second in October 1974. Regular 5
service started in July 1974 with five TW
Western Union terminals in major urban C
7
areas of CONUS. Westar III was launched TW
in August 1979. Westar I was removed from
service in April 1983, Westar II the next 9
TW
year. Westar III was included in the Westar
TD TD TW
satellites sold to Hughes Communications 11
in 1988. It was turned off in 1990. TW
2225
Advanced Westar, proposed as the S H C
second-generation space segment, and the 2225
NASA TDRSS space segment are integrated
into a common satellite design. The basic TD TD TW Same for channels
design is described in the TDRSS section 2,4,6,8,10,12
later in this chapter. The satellite has three
communication subsystems: S-band for
TDRSS, C-band for Advanced Westar, Fig. 6.44. Westar I through III communication subsystem.
and K-band for either system. However,
309
North American Satellites

Configuration
Twenty-four 36 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters,
dual-polarization frequency reuse Fig. 6.45. Westar IV through VII satellite.

Capacity
Up to 1200 one-way voice circuits or 64 Mbps or one TV
program (analog FM transmission) per repeater

Transmitter
3702–4198 MHz
One TWTA per repeater plus six spares per satellite; 7.5 W (IV,
V)/8.2 W (VI) per TWTA
EIRP per repeater at edge of coverage: 34 dBW (IV, V)/34.5
dBW (VI) (CONUS); 32.2 dBW (IV, V)/30 dBW (VI) (Alaska);
30 dBW (IV, V)/29.1 dBW (VI) (Hawaii); 27.1 dBW (IV, V)/27.9
dBW (VI) (Puerto Rico)

Receiver
5927–6423 MHz
Two active plus two spare receivers
G/T at edge of coverage: –6 (IV, V)/ –4 (VI) dB/K (CONUS), –7
(IV, V)/ –6 (VI) dB/K (Alaska), –7 (IV, V)/ –9 (VI) dB/K (Hawaii),
–7 (IV, V)/ –6 (VI) dB/K (Puerto Rico)

Antenna
Two 1.83 m diam paraboloids with polarizing grids, one behind
the other; primary beam shaped to cover CONUS, Alaska,
and Puerto Rico; secondary beam to cover Hawaii; orthogonal orbit, and the communications equipment were mounted on a
linear polarizations platform that was despun during satellite operations.
The communication subsystem had 24 channels and
Telemetry and command transmitted and received 12 on each of two orthogonal linear
Telemetry: two frequencies in 4190–4200 MHz polarizations. Signals received on one polarization were
Command: in 6415–6425 MHz transmitted on the opposite one. The dual-polarized main
beam covered CONUS, Alaska, and the Caribbean, with lesser
Life gain for the latter two. A secondary beam covered Hawaii
Ten-year design life with only one polarization in Westar IV and V, but both in
Westar VI. Internally the subsystem was typical of many other
Orbit
communications satellites of its time, with broadband receivers
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.1° N-S and E-W and individual TWTAs for each channel.
Orbital history Westars IV and V were launched in 1982 and were in use
Westar IV: launched 26 February 1982, in use until 1991, later
through 1991 and 1992. Westar VI was launched in February
moved above synchronous orbit 1984 but was left in a low orbit because of a perigee motor
failure. A rescue plan [24] was devised that involved numerous
Westar V: launched 9 June 1982, in use until 1992, later moved
adjustments to the satellite orbit, while adapters were designed
above synchronous orbit
and built to hold the satellite in the shuttle. A shuttle mission
Westar VI: launched 3 February 1984 (deployed from shuttle, in November 1984 rendezvoused with the satellite. Two
3 February), PAM failure left satellite in low orbit, recovered astronauts, working outside the shuttle, captured the satellite
and returned to Earth November 1984, later relaunched as
and secured it in the shuttle bay. The satellite was returned
AsiaSat 1
to Earth and was refurbished and offered for sale. It became
Delta 3910/PAM launch vehicle (IV, V), shuttle/PAM launch AsiaSat 1, which is described in chapter 8. Westar VII became
vehicle (VI) Westar VI-S and was part of the 1988 sale of all Westar
Management satellites to Hughes Communications. Westar VI-S had not
Developed by Hughes Aircraft for Western Union
been launched at the time of the sale; with minor modifications
it became Galaxy VI.
Operated by Western Union Westar IX through XI were planned Ku-band (12 and 14
Westars IV through VI were larger and had more capacity than GHz) satellites. They were authorized by the FCC but never
the earlier satellites. Except for communication subsystem built.
details, the satellites were the same as the SBS satellites. They Prior to the sale to Hughes Communications, Westar
had a cylindrical body covered with solar cells except for a band satellites were operated from a control center at a Western Union
that was a thermal radiator. Additional power was generated by ground terminal in New Jersey. Western Union had ground
a cylindrical array that surrounded the main body during launch terminals near six other major urban areas. These were sold
and was deployed in orbit. The antenna, which was deployed in separately from the satellites. They were used for transmission

310
 U.S. Communication Satellites

H C
Vertical H C Horizontal
polarization polarization
C D D
C D D
P
P

T TW 3700–
2V
4200
T TW
4V

T TW
6V

T TW
8V
C C
T TW

S T T H 10V T TW

2225 12V T TW
5925–
6425 Receiver 2
T TW
S S
Receiver 3 11V
T TW
S Receiver 4 H 9V
T TW

T TW
7V
C
C CONUS, Alaska, and Caribbean T TW
5V
H Hawaii
Not on Westar IV–V T TW
3V

T TW
1V

T TW

Same as above, except low

number channels in center

Fig. 6.46. Westar IV through VII communication subsystem.

of telephone and message traffic. Several other companies had 1. D. B. Nowakowski, “The Western Union Integrated
their own ground terminals that they used with the Westars for Satellite/Voice/Data Network,” Paper 18B, National Telec-
telephone, data, and video conferencing. The biggest use of ommunications Conference: NTC ’73 (November 1973).
Westar satellites was for distribution of television programs. For 2. S. N. Verma, “Westar Communication Characteristics,”
example, from 1978 to 1991 the Public Broadcasting System National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’74 (Decem-
used Westar to distribute four programs to almost 200 ground ber 1974).
terminals associated with its member stations. Numerous
companies used Westar to distribute regular programming or 3. E. D. Hilburn, “How Westar Will Affect U.S. Domestic
occasional events to cable television systems. Other uses of Communications,” Signal, Vol. 28, No. 7 (March 1974).
Westar included transmission of facsimile pages of The Wall 4. H. R. Johnson, “Western Union’s Domestic Satellite
Street Journal to more than a dozen printing plants around Program,” Signal, Vol. 28, No. 9 (May/June 1974).
the nation. Transmission techniques used on Westar satellites 5. S. N. Verma, “U.S. Domestic Communication System
include FDM/FM, TDMA at burst rates up to 62 Mbps, TV/ Using Westar Satellites,” World Telecommunication Forum
FM, and low-rate data with spread spectrum coding. Conference Proceedings (October 1975).
******

311
North American Satellites

6. D. J. Lee, “System Performance of America’s First 23. G. D. Dill and G. C. Jenkins, “TDMA in the Dow Jones
Domestic Communications Satellite—Westar,” EASCON ’74 & Company, Inc. Satellite Communications Network,” Paper
Convention Record (October 1974). 30.1, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’80
7. G. L. Sarver, “Satellite Communications for Off-Shore (November 1980).
Oil Operations Using Westar,” National Telecommunications 24. Aviation Week & Space Technology (13 February
Conference: NTC ’75 (December 1975). 1984), p. 19; (25 June 1984), p. 22; (1 October 1984), p. 28;
8. J. Ramasastry, “Western Union’s Satellite-Switched (22 October 1984), p. 21; (5 November 1984), p. 21; (19
TDMA Advanced Westar System,” Paper 78-602, AIAA 7th November 1984), p. 16.
Communications Satellite System Conference (April 1978). 25. S. N. Verma and W. F. Callanan, “Westar Satellite
9. C. L. Washburn, “Westar Operations as Part of the Network and In-Orbit Performance,” Paper 3.3, International
Western Union Integrated Transmission System,” Paper 78- Conference on Communications: ICC ’84 (May 1984).
540, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems Conference 26. PanAmSat United States Securities and Exchange
(April 1978). Commission 10-K Filing, http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/
data/1037388/000104746905007256/a2154134z10-k.htm
10. J. E. D. Ball and P. Rubin, “Communication Satellites
(December 2004).
for Public Television,” IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting,
Vol. 24, No. 2 (June 1978). 27. PanAmSat News Release, “PanAmSat Corp. to Be
Acquired by KKR in $4.3 Billion Transaction,” (20 April 2004).
11. J. W. VanCleve, “Operation and Control of an Inte-
grated Satellite/Terrestrial Transmission Network,” Paper 28. PanAmSat Internet Site, http://www.panamsat.com/
25.4, International Conference on Communications: ICC ’77 (August 2005).
(June 1977).
12. J. Ramasastry, “Advanced Westar SS/TDMA System,”
Fourth International Conference on Digital Satellite
Satellite Business Systems
Communications (October 1978). SBS was the fourth domestic system to be authorized and the
first to use the 12 and 14 GHz frequencies [1–18]. When the
13. S. N. Verma and D. Fraley, “Sixty-Two Mb/s system was authorized, IBM, Aetna, and Comsat Corporation
Transmission via Westar Satellites,” Paper 11.2, National each owned one-third of SBS. In 1984, Comsat sold its
Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’78 (December 1978). shares to the other two partners. In 1985, IBM and Aetna sold
14. S. N. Verma, J. Ramasastry, and W. R. Monsees, “Digital SBS to MCI Communications Corporation. Aetna received
Speech Interpolation Applications for Domestic Satellite cash and IBM received MCI stock plus ownership of SBS
Communications,” Paper 14.4, National Telecommunications Satellites 4 through 6. IBM transferred these three satellites to
Conference: NTC ’78 (December 1978). a subsidiary, IBM Satellite Transponder Leasing Corporation.
15. S. N. Verma and S. Salamoff, “A Medium Rate This subsidiary and its three satellites were sold to Hughes
Integrated TDM/TDMA Satellite System,” Paper 80-0553, Communications in 1989. Among the SBS satellites, the
AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference first five had the same design; SBS 6 is larger and has more
(April 1980). channels and higher performance.
SBS satellites 1 through 5, shown in Fig. 6.47, were
16. S. N. Verma and W. F. Callanan, “Westar Satellite very similar in design to Anik C and several other domestic
System Expansion,” Paper 58.4, International Conference on satellites. During launch, the satellite was a compact cylinder.
Communications: ICC ’81 (June 1981). In orbit, the antenna unfolded from one end of the satellite,
17. S. N. Verma et al., “An Automated Satellite Carrier and a cylindrical solar array was deployed axially at the other
Monitoring System,” Paper F5.5, 1982 Globecom Conference end. When the solar array was deployed, it revealed the main
Record (November 1982). cylindrical body of the satellite, which was also covered with
18. P. Schneider, “The Western Union Telegraph Company’s solar cells except for a mirrored band that serves as a thermal
Satellite Switched TDMA Advanced Westar System,” Acta radiator. The satellite details of the SBS 1 through 5 satellites
Astronautica, Vol. 8, No. 3 (March 1981). follow.
19 J. E. D. Ball, “The Planning and Implementation of the Satellite
Public Television Satellite Interconnection System,” SMPTE Hughes HS 376 bus
Journal, Vol. 87, No. 12 (December 1978). Cylinder, 2.16 m diam, 6.60 m height in deployed condition
20. R. E. Wetmore, “System Performance Objectives 553 kg (1–4)/approximately 617 (5) kg in orbit, beginning of
and Acceptance Testing of the Public Television Satellite life
Interconnection System,” SMPTE Journal, Vol. 88, No. 2 Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 900 (1–4)/approximately 1000
(February 1979). (5) W nominal, approximately 830 (1–4) W minimum after 7
years
21. J. T. Ragan, “Satellite Distribution—Broadcast Ser-
vices,” Paper 12.2, National Telecommunications Conference: Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, 50 to 90 rpm (50 rpm nominal),
NTC ’79 (November 1979). antenna pointing to better than 0.05°
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, monopropellant liquid
22. J. T. Ragan, “Satellite Distributed Broadcast Services at propulsion for on-orbit use
Western Union,” Paper 80-0566, AIAA 8th Communications
Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980).

312
 U.S. Communication Satellites

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.03° N-S and E-W (goal),
±0.05° (maximum)

Orbital history
SBS 1: launched 15 November 1980, spare in 1986, moved
above synchronous orbit in 1990
SBS 2: launched 24 September 1981, in use in 1991, 97°W
longitude, moved above synchronous orbit in 1994
SBS 3: launched 11 November 1982, moved above synchronous
orbit
SBS 4: launched 30 August 1984, (deployed from shuttle, 31
August), in use until 1993, retired in 2000
SBS 5: launched 8 September 1988, last in use at 123°W
longitude, retired in 2000
Delta 3910/PAM launch vehicle (1 and 2), shuttle/PAM (3 and
4), Ariane/PAM (5)

Management
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Satellite Business
Systems
The communication subsystem was relatively simple. As
shown in Fig. 6.48, it had 10 channels that used a common
broadband receiver and individual transmitters. There were 16
Fig. 6.47. SBS satellites 1 to 5.
transmitter sections, each consisting of a low-level amplifier
and a 20 W TWTA connected through switching networks
to provide six spares for the 10 channels. The antenna was
hinged for deployment and for north-south pointing. East-
Configuration west pointing was accomplished by adjusting the pointing
Ten 43 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters (1–5), plus of the despun communications equipment shelf on which
four 110 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters on the
the antenna was mounted. Pointing control was derived from
orthogonal polarization (5)
signals produced by a four-horn monopulse network integrated
Transmitter with the regular receive horns. The receiving and transmitting
11.703–12.188 GHz antenna feeds were separate multihorn arrays, which provided
a weighted beam that was strongest in the eastern part of the
One 20 W TWTA per repeater plus six (1–4) and ten (5) spares
United States, as noted in Table 6.4 and Fig. 6.49.
per satellite, five channels may be switched to use two TWTAs
in parallel (5) The fifth satellite had four additional channels, each with
110 MHz bandwidth. They were accommodated by using
Minimum 40.0 dBW EIRP over most of CONUS, 41.7 dBW receiving and transmitting polarizations orthogonal to those
over most of the eastern third of CONUS (1–4)
used for the basic 10 channels. The number of driver amplifiers
Receiver and TWTAs was increased to 24, providing 10 spares on the
14.003–14.488 GHz satellite. Also, the antenna feed structure had been enlarged to
provide coverage of Alaska and Hawaii. Satellite weight and
Redundant receivers (one on, three spare) power-generating capability were increased slightly to accom-
G/T –2.5 dB/K over most of CONUS, 0 dB/K over most of the modate the extra equipment.
eastern third of CONUS
Table 6.4. Minimum Performance Requirements
Antenna
Two 1.83 m diam paraboloids occupying the same aperture and Region Receive G/T Transmit EIRP
with orthogonal linear polarizations, beam shaped for CONUS (dB/K) (dBW)
coverage and weighted to emphasize eastern part of CONUS
1 +2.0 43.7
(see SBS coverage regions figure for details), 10 transmit and
15 receive feed horns, additional feed horns for Alaska and 2 0 41.7
Hawaii (5) 3 –2.5 40.0

Telemetry and command 4 –5.5 37.0

Telemetry: in 12.19–12.2 GHz band 5 –4.5 38.0
Command: in 14.494–14.5 GHz band 6 –5.5 39.0
San Francisco +0.5 42.0
Life
Seven-year (1–4) and ten-year (5) design life Los Angeles –0.3 41.2

313
North American Satellites

SBS ordered three satellites at the

end of 1977 and one more each in 1982, 11.7 – 12.2 GHz
14.0 – 14.5 GHz
1983, and 1985. The first was launched C
late in 1980 and the second in 1981. 2
R T TW R
The third was launched in November
1982 on the first shuttle flight to deploy 4
T TW
R R
commercial payloads, and the fourth
was launched in August 1984. The fifth R T TW R
was launched in September 1988.
SBS Satellite 6 is a larger satellite 6
R T TW R C
that provides significantly more
capacity than the earlier SBS satellites. 8
R T TW R
It appears similar to the original SBS
satellites but is larger in diameter T T
R T TW R
and in height. The antenna and the S
10
lower solar panel stow for launch and R T TW R
deploy in orbit in the same way as the S T T
other SBS satellites. Besides size, the S H R T TW R
difference in the support subsystems 9
includes a change to a NiH2 battery S T T R T TW R
and the use of all internal propulsion. S 7
The satellite contains a solid propellant R T TW R
perigee stage and a bipropellant T T
liquid subsystem used for perigee R T TW R
augmentation, the apogee maneuver, 2.3 GHz 5
and on-orbit control. R T TW R C
The communication subsystem 3
uses dual-polarization frequency reuse. R T TW R
Ten channels are on one polarization R May be switched to any of
four states: R T TW R
and nine on the other. Each has a
43 MHz bandwidth. The two input 1
R T TW R
polarizations are connected to two of
the four receivers. In the transmitter
R T TW R
section, there are 30 driver amplifiers
and TWTAs. Each channel uses one
amplifier set with 11 spares available. Fig. 6.48. SBS 1 through 4 communication subsystem.
The TWTA power is 41 W—about
twice the power in the previous satellites. Also, as with SBS half of CONUS), 41 to 44 dBW (populous parts of Alaska), 45
5, the antenna pattern includes Alaska and Hawaii. SBS 6 was dBW (Hawaii)
launched in 1990, although an earlier launch was desired.
Other satellite details of SBS 6 are as follows. Receiver
14.0–14.5 GHz
Satellite
Four receivers (two on, two standby)
Hughes HS 393 bus
G/T: r–0.6 dB/K (90% of CONUS), r1.4 dB/K (most of eastern
Cylinder, 3.6 m diam, 3.6 m height stowed for launch, 9.4 m
half of CONUS), –3.6 dB (Hawaii, Alaska)
height deployed in orbit
Approximately 1090 kg in orbit, beginning of life; approximately Antenna
1035 kg after 10 years Two 2.4 m diam parabolic reflectors occupying the same
Solar cells and NiH2 batteries, 2240 W minimum after 10 aperture and using orthogonal linear polarizations, beam
years shaped for CONUS plus Alaska with weighting for eastern
CONUS, secondary beam for Hawaii
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, antenna pointing to better than 0.05°
Unified bipropellant propulsion for perigee maneuver Telemetry and command
augmentation, apogee maneuver, and on-orbit use Telemetry: in 11.7–12.2 GHz band
Configuration Beacons: 12.195, 12.198 GHz
Nineteen 43 MHz bandwidth single-conversion repeaters, dual- Command: in 14.0–14.5 GHz band
polarization frequency reuse
Life
Transmitter Ten-year design life
11.7–12.2 GHz
Orbit
One 41 W TWTA per repeater plus 11 spares per satellite
Geostationary, stationkeeping to ±0.03° N-S and E-W (goal),
EIRP: r41 dBW (95% of CONUS), r44 dBW (most of eastern ±0.05° (maximum)
314
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U.S. Communication Satellites

Orbital history
SBS 6: launched 12 October
1990, in use, first at 95°W
longitude, currently at 74°W
longitude
Ariane launch vehicle

Management
Developed by Hughes Air-
craft Company for Satellite
Business Systems, sold to
Hughes Communications prior
to launch
Operated by PanAmSat
The SBS network was designed
to provide integrated voice
and data services primarily to
large corporations that have
facilities at several sites in the
United States. The SBS design
was unique in serving only
CONUS and in using digital,
demand-assigned TDMA Fig. 6.49. SBS coverage regions.
links for all transmissions.
The system as originally
operated followed this plan, with corporate customers served 4. H. A. Rosen, “The SBS Communication Satellite—
by means of either on-site, dedicated terminals or by sharing An Integrated Design,” EASCON ’78 Conference Record
a terminal with several customers in a local area. In an effort (September 1978).
to increase revenue, SBS began offering long-distance service 5. B. Goode, “Demand Assignment as Part of the SBS
to residential customers as well. SBS also provided general- TDMA Satellite Communication System,” EASCON ’78
purpose long-distance communications between a number of Conference Record (September 1978).
their own terminals for residential customers and for business
customers who were too small to justify the equipment 6. R. W. McCabe, “Satellite Business Systems—Innovative
necessary for a dedicated network. Other uses of the satellites Services for Business Communications,” 1978 National
included a small amount of broadcast television distribution Computer Conference, AFIPS Conference Proceedings, Vol.
and some occasional-use video conferencing. With the change 47 (June 1978).
in ownership to MCI, beginning in 1986, traffic between the 7. D. H. Westwood, “Customer Premises RF Terminals
satellite links and MCI’s terrestrial facilities was rebalanced to for the SBS System,” Paper 6.3, International Conference on
optimize the use of each. Only SBS 6 is currently operating, Communications: ICC ’79 (June 1979).
providing service from 74°W longitude. 8. H. Schnipper, “The SBS System and Services,” IEEE
SBS satellites were controlled from TT&C sites at Castle Communications Magazine, Vol. 18, No. 5 (September
Rock, Colorado, and Clarksburg, Maryland. Both sites had the 1980).
same TT&C equipment, but the system data processing and
control center was at the Maryland site. The Colorado site was 9. H. Schnipper, “Market Aspects of Satellite Business
the primary beacon transmitter. The satellites used the receive Services,” EASCON ’80 Conference Record (September
beacon for antenna pointing control. The Castle Rock site, now 1980).
owned and operated by PanAmSat, is home to 20 antennas and 10. W. H. Curry, “SBS System Evolution,” Comsat
is used in support of primary and backup Telemetry, Tracking Technical Review, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Fall 1981).
and Command (TT&C) activities for PanAmSat’s fleet. Control
11. G. G. Churan and W. E. Leavitt, “Summary of the
of SBS 6 is now done by PanAmSat.
SBS Satellite Communications Performance Specifications,”
****** Comsat Technical Review, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Fall 1981).
1. M. T. Lyons and P. C. Dougherty, “Spacecraft Design 12. M. D. Gordon, and J. Bleiweis, “The SBS TT&C
for the SBS System,” Paper 78-545, AIAA 7th Communications System,” International Telemetering Conference Proceedings
Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978). (November 1981).
2. J. D. Barnla and F. R. Zitzmann, “Digital Communications 13. C. Emmert, V. Riginos, and J. Potukuchi, “In-Orbit
Satellite System of SBS,” Paper 7-2, EASCON ’77 Conference Measurement of the SBS Satellite,” Paper 82-0465, AIAA
Record (September 1977). 9th Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March
3. C. Kittiver and F. R. Zitzmann, “The SBS System— 1982).
An Innovative Domestic Satellite System for Private-Line 14. T. M. Straus and J. P. Godwin, “Ku-Band Terminal
Networks,” Paper 76-307, AIAA/CASI 6th Communications Design Tradeoffs,” Paper 82-0533, AIAA 9th Communication
Satellite Systems Conference (April 1976). Satellite Systems Conference (March 1982).
315
 7. European Satellites

E
uropean involvement in communication satellites ESA developments have provided, and are expanding, an
started with ground terminals participating in trans- industrial base and spacecraft technology for use by other
mission experiments using Echo (1960), Telstar communication and broadcasting satellite programs. These
(1962), and Relay (1963). Satellite manufacturing began with programs, discussed herein, included several European na-
subcontracting on the Intelsat satellite developments. Outside tional satellites, which were, however, broader than national
the Soviet Union, the first European communication satellites in their coverage and competing with one another. These na-
were the Franco-German Symphonie and the British military tional programs have mostly consolidated into pan-European
satellite Skynet 11, both launched in 1974. Next was the Italian systems, of which Eutelsat and Luxembourg’s SES (Socittt
Sirio experiment launched in 1977. In parallel with these Europtenne des Satellites) Astra are the largest. In addition,
programs, about 10 Western European nations were defining a increasing capabilities of communication satellites have made
pan-European communication satellite program. This program, it possible for these systems to expand their coverage to newer
managed by the European Space Agency (ESA), launched markets in Eastern Europe, Russia, and central Asia.
a test satellite in 1978 and improved operational satellites The United Kingdom’s Skynet and NATO, the French Syra-
beginning in 1983. The operational satellites are managed by cuse 3, and the Italian Sicral military satellites are described in
Eutelsat, an organization created for this purpose. The Eutelsat chapter 4. Because of the Cold War, satellite communications
system has deployed several generations of satellites and is in the former Soviet Union developed independently of efforts
providing many types of communication services in Europe, in Western Europe. The different political climate of the 1990s
North Africa, the Middle East, and many nations of the former contributed to some collaborations, the most notable of which
Soviet Union. is the SESAT satellite developed by Russian and French com-
Through ESA, the European nations have also developed panies for Eutelsat. SESAT is described in this chapter, but
large communication satellites, Olympus and Artemis (Ad- because of the historical separation, other Soviet and Russian
vanced Relay and Technology Mission). All of these satellites satellites are described in chapter 5.
are discussed in this chapter.

European Space Agency

ESA [l-101 was formed in May 1975 by a merger of the 2. H. Tolle, “Management Problems in European
European Space Research Organization (ESRO) and the Projects,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol.
European Launcher Development Organization. ESA has 16 27, No. 5 (May 1974).
member nations and a cooperative agreement with Canada. Not 3. “Britain and ESA,” Spaceflight, Vol. 16, No. 4 (April
all the nations participate in every program, but most programs 1974).
are supported by at least eight. Each nation’s contributions to
an ESA program may vary from about 1 to 60 percent of the 4. H. K. Hartbaum, “The Applications Satellite Program-
total program cost-France, Germany, Italy, and Great Britain A Challenge to the European Communications Industry,”
are the largest contributors. It is normal for contracted work Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 27, No. 3
on each ESA project to be distributed among the countries in (March 1974).
proportions closely matching their contributions. This results in 5. Aviation Week & Space Technology (6 September
more complicated industrial teaming arrangements than exist 1976), p. 96; (27 September 1976), p. 67; (17 October 1977),
in the United States and contributes to greater management p. 113; (13 March 1978), p. 71; (3 March 1980), p. 89; (9
complexity and higher overhead costs [2]. However, teaming March 1981), p. 88; (14 March 1983), p. 100; (21 March
arrangements for commercial projects are simpler. 1983), p. 68.
ESA has several communication satellite projects. The 6. R. Gibson, “European Communication Satellite Sys-
first was the Orbital Test Satellite (OTS), which was a preop- tems,” Proceedings of the 28th International Astronautical
erational test for a European regional communication system.
Congress, “Using Space Today and Tomorrow,” Vol. 2,
The operational satellites were called the European Com- Communications Satellite Symposium (September 1977).
munication Satellite (ECS) series and have evolved into the
Eutelsat system. Marecs was a derivative of ECS designed for 7. R. Gibson, “Satellite Communications: ESA at the
communication with ships; it is described in chapter 3. Olym- Crossroads,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 17, No. 3 (March 1980).
pus was a program with many communications and spacecraft 8. B. L. Herdan, “European MultipurposeTelecommunica-
technology demonstrations accomplished using a single large tion Satellite: Development Plans,” Paper 80-0508, AIAA 8th
satellite. The Artemis program is a single satellite for data re- Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980).
lay and land mobile communications demonstrations.
9. P. BartholomCandS. Dinwiddy, “European SatelliteSys-
****** tems for Business Communications,”Paper 5 1.5,International
1. T. F. Howell, “Satellite Communications in the 1980’s- Conference on Communications: ICC ’80 (June 1980).
A European View,” Paper 73-148, AAS 19th Annual Meeting 10. “Programmes Under Development and Operations,”
(June 1973). Reprinted in Advances in the Astronautical later “Programmes in Progress,” appears in every issue of ESA
Sciences, Vol. 30 (1974). Bulletin; Bulletins available at http://www.esa.int/esapub/pi/
bulletinPI.htm (4 April 2005).
375
European Satellites

Orbital Test Satellite

(OTS)
The OTS [l-2.51 was a part of
the European Communication
Satellite Program. The primary
objective of the overall program
was to make available to European
post and telecommunications authorities satellite links
for a significant portion of the intra-European telephone,
telegraphy, and telex traffic in the 1980s, as well as to satisfy
Fig. 7.1. OTS satellite.
the requirements of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU)
for Eurovision relay. The program had three phases leading
to an operational system: phase 1 (1970-1971) included One 20 W TWTA (traveling wave tube amplifier) per repeater,
system studies and initial technology development; phase 2 plus two redundant TWTAs
(1972-1977) included additional technology development, Peak ElRP (effective isotropic radiated power) per repeater:
communication system definition, and the development and 38.5 dBW (40 MHz repeaters), 47.5 dBW (120 MHz repeaters),
launch of OTS; phase 3 (1977-1980) was the procurement and 41 .I dBW (5 MHz repeater)
launch of operational satellites. (After the plan was formulated,
phase 2 slipped about 1 year and phase 3 about 2 years.) Receiver
OTS was basically experimental in nature, but was de- 14.1525-14.1925 GHz (two 40 MHz channels on orthogonal
signed with a configuration similar to that expected for the polarizations)
operational satellites. The objectives of the OTS program were 14.2425-14.3625 GHz (two 120 MHz channels on orthogonal
to polarizations)
demonstrate the performance and reliability of the satel- 14.455-14.460 GHz (two 5 MHz channels on orthogonal
lite subsystems, polarizations)
demonstrate the proposed operational capabilities and Two receivers (one on, one standby) per polarization (40 and
provide the capacity for preoperational transmissions, 120 MHz channels)
gain experience in communication satellite system op-
One receiver per polarization (5 MHz channels)
erations,
perform propagation measurements at 11 and 14 GHz. Parametric amplifier
The satellite was three-axis-stabilized with two solar arrays 1000 K system noise temperature
that deployed after synchronous orbit had been achieved. The Peak G/T: -3.6 dB/K (40 and 120 MHz channels), -1 .O dB/K (5
solar arrays rotated about their axes to track the sun. The main MHz channels)
body of the satellite was a hexagonal prism with a maximum
diameter of about 7 ft. The six communication antennas were Antenna
mounted on the Earth-viewing end of the satellite body. The Three Eurobeam A (two receive, one transmit), 4.25 x 7.5
OTS characteristics are summarized as follows. deg at -3 dB contour, approximately 26.5 dB peak gain, linear
polarization
Satellite
Hexagonal prism body, 85 in. diam, 77 in. height, 28.3 ft tip to Two Eurobeam B (one receive, one transmit), 3.5 x 5 deg
tip of deployed solar arrays at -3 dB contour, approximately 29.1 dB peak gain, circular
polarization
955 Ib in orbit, beginning of life
One spot beam (transmit), 2.5 deg at -3 dB contour,
Sun-trackingsolar array and NiCd batteries, 750 W initially, 555 approximately 35.5 dB peak gain, linear polarization
W minimum after 3 years
(Gains are measured at input to receive filter or output of
Three-axis stabilization, k0.17 deg (pitch and roll), k0.5 deg transmit filter)
(yaw), 3 sigma, nominal 0.2 deg antenna pointing accuracy
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, liquid hydrazine Telemetry and command
propulsion for on-orbit use Telemetry: 137.05 MHz (launchthrough initialization,operational
backup), 11575 GHz (operational orbit)
Configuration Beacon: 11.786 GHz
Six double-conversion repeaters (two 40 MHz, two 120 MHz,
two 5 MHz bandwidth), dual-polarization frequency reuse Command: 149.34 MHz (launch through initialization, opera-
tional backup), 14.125 GHz (operational orbit)
Transmitter
Life
11.490-11.530 GHz (two 40 MHz channels on orthogonal
polarizations) Three-year design life
11.580-11.700 GHz (two 120 MHz channels on orthogonal Orbit
polarizations) Geostationary, was 1O"E longitude, moved to 5"E longitude in
11.7925-11.7975 GHz (two 5 MHz channels on orthogonal 1982, stationkeeping to kO.1" N-S and E-W
polarizations)

376
 European Space Agency

Orbital history Communication Channels

OTS 1: launch vehicle failure, 13
September 1977
OTS 2: launched 11 May 1978, in 14302.5
regular use until the end of 1983, used
in tests for several more years; moved
out of geostationary orbit in January
1991
Delta 3914 launch vehicle

Management
Developed by Hawker Siddeley
Dynamics (later British Aerospace
Dynamics Group), prime contractor
for MESH (a west European industrial
consortium) for ESA
13312.5 10650 not shown
Operated by ESA Beacon
The OTS communication subsystem
had characteristics identical to those
planned for operational satellites, except 14457.5
for a reduced number of channels.
During the time of the OTS design, the
operational satellites were expected
to have six 40 MHz and six 120 MHz Polarization
channels grouped in pairs with the two Circulation
H Horizontal 13312.5 10650 11786
channels of each pair sharing t he same Vertical Beacon
frequencies by means of orthogonal
polarizations. OTS had one pair of 40 Fig. 7.2. OTS communication subsystem.
MHz channels and one pair of 120
MHz channels. In addition, there was a pair of 5 MHz beacon (time division multiple access). The 40 MHz channels were
channels. also used for frequency-modulated television signals. The
The communication channels used orthogonal linear PO- receiving antennas for all of these channels and the transmit-
larizations with redundant dual-polarization receiving anten- ting antenna for the 40 MHz channels had beamwidths cov-
nas. These antennas were connected to redundant wideband ering all of Europe plus a portion of North Africa. This was
receivers that had parametric amplifier front ends. After the the Eurobeam A coverage shown in Fig. 7.3. This coverage
receivers, the four channels were separated and each passed was required, because the EBU must serve points as widely
through separate filters, IF (interned-
ate frequency) amplifiers, upconvert-
ers, and 20 W TWTAs. The two 40
MHz channels were transmitted by a
single antenna that radiated dual or-
thogonal linear polarizations. The 120
MHz channels shared a single dual-
polarization transmit antenna that had
a narrower beamwidth.
The beacon transponder had sep-
arate receiving and transmitting an-
tennas, each accommodating both
orthogonal circular polarizations. The
transponder had two complete parallel
sets of equipment that could be oper-
ated simultaneously, with each chan-
nel associated with one polarization.
The transponder also generated and
transmitted an unmodulated beacon at
a frequency below the 5 MHz repeater
band.
The 40 and 120 MHz channels
were both used for telephony trans-
missions with QPSK (quadriphase
shift keying) modulation and TDMA Fig. 7.3. European ground terminal sites.

377
European Satellites

separated as Iceland, the Azores, and Israel. The 120 MHz Satellite Systems Conference (April 1976). Reprinted in
channels used a spot-beam transmitting antenna with a 2.5 deg Satellite Communications: Future Systems, Progress in
beamwidth, which included the terminals handling about 85 Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 54, D. Jarett, ed. (1977).
percent of the telephony traffic. The beacon channel used an- 9. H. K. Ball and E. Mondre, “The Modular Repeater of
tennas with an intermediate beamwidth (Eurobeam B in Fig. the European Communication Satellite (ECS) and the Orbital
7.3). This channel was used for propagation measurements Test Satellite (OTS),” Journal of the British Interplanetary
and experimental transmissions by small terminals, for ex- Society, Vol. 27, No. 5 (May 1974).
ample, an antenna diameter of approximately 3 m. More than
30 ground terminal sites (generally only one per country) ex- 10. R. C. Collette, “The European Communication Satellite
pected in the operational system are shown; a few were built Programme and the Orbital Test Satellite,” Journal of the
in time to participate in OTS testing. British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 29, No. 5 (May 1976).
When the final design of OTS was started in 1974, the 11. A. J. Bayliss and A. Dickinson, “The Orbital Test
satellite was sized for a Delta 2914 launch vehicle. Later, it Satellite of ESA and Its Associated Test Programme,” Acta
was redesigned to take advantage of the larger capacity of the Astronautica, Vol. 5 , No. 5-6 (May-June 1978).
Delta 3914. In the payload, the redesign consisted of the ad-
12. ESA Bulletin, No. 14, Special Issue (May 1978):
dition of the extra TWTAs in the wideband channels and the
addition of the second beacon channel. The first launch, in a. R. Collette, B. Stockwell, and P. BartholomC, “The
September 1977, was unsuccessful because the launch vehicle Orbital Test Satellite.”
exploded shortly after liftoff. A spare satellite was success- b. C. Wearmouth, “The OTS Developmenflest Pro-
fully launched in May 1978. This satellite was used through gramme-Contractor Summary.”
late 1984 beyond its design life. c. P. BartholomC and S. Hanell, “The Orbital Test
****** Programme.”
1. R. C. Collette and B. Stockwell, “The OTS Project,” d. P. Barthmann, “The CEPT Programme of
Paper 74-495, AIAA 5th Communications Satellite Systems Experiments for OTS.”
Conference (April 1974). 13. C. Wearmouth and D. E. McLaurin, “The Develoument
of the Orbital Test Satellite,” Paper 76-246, AIAA/CAkI 6th
2. C. Wearmouth, “The Current Status of the Orbital Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1976).
Test Satellite Programme,” World Telecommunication Forum
Reprinted in Satellite Communications: Future Systems,
Conference Proceedings (October 1975).
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 54, D. Jarett,
3. European Conference on Electrotechnics: EUROCON ed. (1977).
’74, April 1974, reprints of Session C-12, European Experi-
14. R. D. McQueen, “The Impact of the Communications
mental Satellite System:
Mission on the System Design of the Orbital Test Satellite,”
a. P. BartholomC, “OTS-A Forerunner of a European Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 30, No. 4
Communication Satellite System.” (April 1977).
b. G. P. Cantarella, A. W. Preukschat, and C. 15. P. J. Bartholomk, E. Ashford, and C. D. Hughes, “Early
Wearmouth, “OTS and the Orbital Test Programme.” Results of OTS’s Performance in Orbit,” ESA Bulletin, No. 16
c. E. Mondre and W. Greiner, “Repeater Subsystem (November 1978).
for OTS.” 16. P. J. BartholomC, “The European OTS/ECS Programme
d. A. Bayliss, “A Guide for OTS Communications of Communication Satellites,” EASCON ’76 Conference
Experiments.” Record (September 1976).
e. H. Mahner, “Earth Stations for the OTS System.” 17. P. BartholomC, “The Orbital Test Programme,”
f. S. Hanell, P. BartholomC, and W. Lothaller, “Experi- Proceedings of the 28th International Astronautical Congress,
mental Data Transmission Capability of OTS.” “Using Space Today and Tomorrow,” Vol. 2, Communication
4. H. Falk, “European Satellites to Fly,” IEEE Spectrum, Satellite Symposium (September 1977).
Vol. 11, No. 8 (August 1974). 18. H. J. O’Neill and B. Salkeld, “IBA Experiments with
5. S. Tirro and A. Bayliss, “The Utilization Programme the Orbital Test Satellite,” International Broadcasting Con-
of the Orbital Test Satellite,” Paper 76-247, AIAA/CASI 6th vention, IEE Conference Publication No. 166 (Sept. 1978).
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1976). 19. B. Stockwell, “Procurement of the Orbital Test Satel-
6. R. R. Willett, “Proposed European Communication lite,” ESA Bulletin, No. 17 (February 1979).
Satellite System,” Proceedings of the IEE, Vol. 121, No. 6 20. R. C. L. Collette, E. W. Ashford, and C. D. Hughes,
(June 1974). “OTS’s First Year in Orbit,” ESA Bulletin, No. 19 (August
7. M. Lopriore, H. K. Ball, and E. Mondre, “Design of the 1979).
14/11 GHz Repeater for the European Orbital Test Satellite,” 21. J. R. Lewis, J. E. Golding, and R. J. Kernot, “The
International Conference on Communications: ICC ’73 (June OTS Test Programme,” Journal of the British Interplanetary
1973). Society, Vol. 32, No. 5 (May 1979).
8. P. BartholomC, “The European Communications 22. D. McLaurin and T. J. P. Cunan, “In-Orbit Performance
Satellite System-A Review of Current and Planned of the Orbital Test Satellite (OTS),” Journal of the British
Activities,” Paper 76-243, AIAAKASI 6th Communications Interplanetary Society, Vol. 32, No. 5 (May 1979).

378
 European Space Agency

23. C. D. Hughes and R. A. Gough, “In-Orbit Measurements 4. H. K. Ball and E. Mondre, “The Modular Repeater of
of OTS Payload Performance,” Paper 80-0510, AIAA 8th the European Communication Satellite (ECS) and the Orbital
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980). Test Satellite (OTS),” Journal of the British Interplanetary
Reprinted in ESA Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1980). Society, Vol. 27, No. 5 (May 1974).
24. A. S. Fagg and J. B. MacLauchlan, “Operational 5. P. J. BartholomC,“The European OTSECS Programme
Experience on OTS-2,” Paper 80-0577, AIAA 8th Com- of Communication Satellites,” EASCON ’76 Conference
munications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980). Record (September 1976).
25. Space Broadcasting and Broadcasting, Vol. 1, No. 2 6. P. J. BartholomC and S. E. Dinwiddy, “Concept and
(June 1983); Vol. 2, No. 4 (December 1984); Vol. 6, No. 1-2 Characteristics of the European Communication Satellite
(May 1988). System,” 1975IEEE Intercon Record (April 1975).
7. S. E. Dinwiddy, “ECS: Evolution of a Satellite System
Design,” International Conference on Communications: ICC
European Communication Satellite ’77 (June 1977).
The ECS [ 1-1 11 is an operational satellite based on the OTS 8. P. BartholomC, “The European Communications Satel-
technology. Although Europe has well-developed terrestrial lite Programme,” ESA Bulletin, No. 14 (May 1978).
communications facilities, a satellite system was needed to
help handle increased traffic, provide an alternate path for 9. W. P. Robins and M. Salter,“A Communications Satellite
critical services, and improve communications (especially System for Europe,” Journal of the British Interplanetary
television distribution) with noncontinental points such as the Society, Vol. 26, No. 5 (May 1973).
Azores. The initial satellite capacity requirements were derived 10. W. E. Lothaller, “System Considerations for European
from studies of European traffic levels during the 1980-1990 CommunicationSatellites,” International Conference on Com-
decade. The satellite system was sized to accommodate about munications: ICC ’72 (June 1972).
half of all transmissions’between points separated by more
11. A.Russo,“LaunchingtheEuropeanTelecommunications
than 800 km.
Satellite Program,” chapter 10 in Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty
The OTS/ECS program started in the early 1970s with
Years of Satellite Communication, A. J. Butrica, ed., NASA
the development of a baseline design for ECS. The purpose
History Office, Washington, D.C. (1997).
of the study was to determine what technology should be
tested on the OTS for ECS. Since then, the ECS design was
reconsidered several times; the present design uses 80 MHz
bandwidth transponders rather than the 40 and 120 MHz com-
01ympus
bination used in OTS. Also, ECS has three spot beams rather The Olympus satellite [l-261 development began in 1982.
than the one used on OTS. However, even with these design Former program names include Large Telecommunication
differences, all OTS developments were applicable to ECS. Satellite (L-Sat), Heavy Telecommunications Satellite (H-
ESA managed the development and launch of the ECS for the Sat), and Phebus. The use of “large” or “heavy” in the earlier
Eutelsat organization, which contributed toward the develop- program names was because the satellite was about twice the
ment cost. In use, the satellites are known as the Eutelsat I size of ECS. The program direction was guided by several
generation; they are described in the Eutelsat section later in studies of future communication satellite needs and how
this chapter. European industry could satisfy these needs. The objectives
of the program were (1) to develop and demonstrate a large
****** satellite platform, and (2) to develop communications
1. R. R. Willett, “Proposed European Communication hardware for, and provide an orbital demonstration of, several
Satellite System,” Proceedings of the IEE, Vol. 121, No. 6 new communications services.
(June 1974). The Olympus spacecraft was designed to be adaptable to
a variety of payloads within the following payload limits:
2. P. BartholomC, “The European Communications
6.5 kW power demand in sunlight, 3 kW in eclipse, 590 kg
Satellite System-A Review of Current and Planned Acti-
including antennas. In addition, the spacecraft was required
vities,” Paper 76-243, AIAAKASI 6th Communications
to provide adequate space for payload mounting (especially
Satellite Systems Conference
(April 1976). Reprinted in
Satellite Communications: Fig. 7.4. Olympus satellite
Future Systems, Progress in
Astronautics and Aeronautics,
Vol. 54, D. Jarett, ed. (1977).
3. R. C. Collette, “The
EuropeanCommunicationSatel-
lite Programme and the Orbital
Test Satellite,” Journal of the
British Interplanetary Society,
Vol. 29, No. 5 (May 1976).

379
European Satellites

multiple antennas) and thermal radiators. Another Olympus Transmitter

requirement was compatibility with both Ariane and shuttle TVB: 12.169GHz(beam 1)and 12.092or 12.245GHz(beam2)
launches. (ITU-International Telecommunication Union-broadcasting
Many aspects of the Olympus design-structural strength, satellite channels 24, 20, 28)
solar-array mechanisms, and thermal control-were sized for Four 230 W (215 W end of life) M A S , one on plus one
the maximum payload capacity rather than for the require- spare per beam
ments of the actual payload. The north and south panels of the Peak ElRP 62.4 dBW (beam I ) , 62.7 dBW (beam 2)
spacecraft primarily supported payload equipment on the in-
side and thermal radiators on the outside. The east, west, and BSP: 12.525 and 12.550 GHz (18 MHz channels), 12.530 and
12.570 GHz (30 MHz channels)
back (i.e., anti-Earth side) panels, together with a central cyl-
inder, which was the primary structure, supported propulsion, Four 30 W TWTAs
power, TT&C (telemetry, tracking, and command), and con- 45.6 dBW ElRP at edge of coverage
trol subsystems. Deployable antennas were mounted on the COM: in 18.8-1 9.5 GHz band
east and west panels. Other antennas, as well as the remaining
payload hardware, were mounted on the Earth-viewing face. Three 30 W TWTAs, two on plus one spare
The solar cells were mounted on a flexible blanket; the arrays 52 dBW ElRP at edge of coverage
were deployed in orbit using a telescoping mast. The propul- PROP: 12.5, 19.77, and 29.66 GHz
sion subsystem was a liquid bipropellant type and was used Two 10 W M A S at 20 GHz, one on plus one spare, two 5 W
for both the apogee maneuver and on-orbit control. Spacecraft M A S at 30 GHz, one on plus one spare, transistor amplifier
and payload details are as follows. at 12.5 GHz
Satellite 24 dBW ElRP at 20 and 30 GHz, minimum over Europe; 10
Rectangular body 1.8 x 2.1 x 3.1 m, height of body plus antennas dBW ElRP at 12.5 GHz, minimum over Earth
approximately 5.1 m, span of solar array approximately 26.2 m
Approximately 1360 kg in orbit, beginning of life
Receiver
TVB: in 17.6-18.1 GHz band
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiCd and NiH, batteries,
approximately 3500 W beginning of life Two receivers with FET (field effect transistor)
preamplifiers, one on plus one spare
Three-axis stabilization using reaction wheels on three
orthogonal axes 5.8 dB receiver noise figure, 0 dB/K GTT
Unified bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and on- BSP: 13.175 or 14.100 GHz, and 13.200 or 14.125 GHz (18
orbit use MHz channels);
13.180 or 14.105 GHz and 13.220 or 14.145 GHz (30
Configuration MHz channels)
TV broadcast payload (TVB): three 27 MHz bandwidthchannels, Four receivers, all active
two of which are used at a time
+2.9 dB/K GTT at edge of coverage
Business services payload (BSP), also called specialized
services payload: four 18 MHz bandwidth channels, or one or COM: in 28-28.7 GHz band
two may be switched to 30 MHz, satellite switched TDMA, and Two receivers with parametric amplifiers, one on plus one
frequency reuse spare
20/30 GHz communications payload (COM): two 40 MHz 4.5 dB receiver noise figure, +8 dB/K GiT at edge of
bandwidth channels, or one 700 MHz bandwidth channel coverage
20/30 GHz propagation payload (PROP): beacons at 12.5,
19.77, and 29.66 GHz
Beam 1 Beam 2
v v
RHC

12.092 or
12.245 GHz

Fig. 7.5. Olympus television broadcast payload.

380
 European Space Agency

+
11700
k
+$
.-
Q
U
L
0
ma
11725
+ Bc
3
Q
c
I3
0
a
+6
11725

-b

11700

13275
Notes
a. Beams A, B, and D use vertical polarization on the downlink, horizontal on uplink;
beams C and E are opposite.
b. IF filters associated with these switches are not shown.Two 18-MHz bandwidth
filters are centered at 825 MHz; 30-MHz bandwidth filters are centered at 830
and 845 MHz.
c. Output switching includes 18-MHz bandwidth filters are centered at 12,525 and
12,550 MHz and 30-Mhz bandwidth filters centered at 12,530 and 12,570 MHz.

Fig. 7.6.Olympus business services payload.

Orbital history
TVB: 1.O x 2.0 m reflector, 1 x 2.4 deg beam, steerable within Launched 12 July 1989, Ariane launch vehicle; end of life
Europe (beam 1); 1.2 m reflector, 1.5 deg beam, steerable August 1993
within Europe (beam 2); 0.48 m reflector, 2 x 3.3 deg beam for
European coverage (receive); all use circular polarization Management
BSP: 1.2 m reflector with five feed horns to form five Developed for ESA by British Aerospace with subcontractors
adjacent beams, 1.2 deg (transmit), 1.1 deg (receive), linear from 11 European countries and Canada; Selenia (Italy) had
polarization prime responsibility for the payloads
COM: two 0.8 m reflectors, each forming one beam, 1.2 deg Olympus had four payloads. The television broadcast payload
(transmit), 1 deg (receive), each steerable within Europe, linear had two channels, each connected to a separate, steerable
polarization transmit antenna. One channel was used for preoperational
PROP: three horns, 17.5 deg (Earth coverage) at 12.5 direct-to-home broadcasting in Italy. The other was used for
GHz, 9 deg (centered on Europe) at 20 and 30 GHz, linear direct-to-home broadcasting experiments and was available
polarization to European nations on a time-shared basis. It was also used
for broadcasting multilingual programs to all of Europe for
Telemetry and command reception by larger terminals. The second channel had a
Telemetry: in 2200-2290 MHz band choice of two frequencies and two polarizations for flexibility
Command: in 2025-21 10 MHz band in matching TV broadcast system characteristics specified for
each nation at a 1977 ITU conference. The first channel had
Life characteristics matching the specifications for Italy.
Ten-year design life, 5 years of mission operations planned The payload had three antennas, one for reception and two
for transmission. The Italian transmit antenna had circuitry for
Orbit deriving antenna-pointing information by tracking a ground-
Geostationary, 19"W longitude; moved below synchronous based beacon. The payload had redundant wideband receivers
altitude at end of life

38 1
European Satellites

and redundant transmitters with 230 W helix

type TWTAs for each channel.
The business services payload, or special-
ized services payload, demonstrated concepts -19 GHz
-28 GHz
for transmission of digital data between small
terminals (e.g., 3 m antennas) at many sites.
The downlink was at 12 GHz; the uplink could
I I
be either 13 or 14 GHz and was accommo-
dated by switching the local oscillator in the
satellite. A single antenna fed by five horns
generated five adjacent beams, which together
covered most of Europe. Frequency reuse
was demonstrated in two pairs of spatially
separated beams. The communications equip-
ment had four channels. Channel bandwidth
was 18 MHz, or one or two channels could
be switched to 30 MHz bandwidth. Input and
output switches could form many one-to-one
connections between these channels and the
receive and transmit beams. In addition, in the
central section of the channels at an intermedi-
ate frequency of 825 MHz was a TDMA switch
matrix that could change receiver-to-transmitter
connections up to 256 times per 20 msec frame. x 43
This switch could connect a receiver to one or F.S.
several transmitters. Payload demonstrations
primarily used QPSK transmissions with a 25
Mbps TDMA rate in the 18 MHz channels, and
either one television signal or four FDMA (fre- -
quency division multiple access) video confer- 4 x34 b x2
ences in the wider channels.
The 20/30 GHz communications pay-
load had two antennas, each of which could '
I x34 b x3
be steered toward any point in Europe. The F.S. Frequency
electronics supported two channels. The two source
X One linear
were transmitted through separate antennas; polarization x3
reception could use either or both antennas. Y Orthogonal
The payload had redundant receivers and three polarization
transmitters. The payload was used for both (b)
data and video transmissions to demonstrate
Fig. 7.7. Olympus 20/30-GHz payload ( a ) communications (b)propagation.
satellite hardware and system operation in the
20/30 GHz frequency bands. These bands had
more spectrum allocated to space communications than the demonstrations were conducted by government organizations,
4/6 GHz and 12/14 GHz bands combined. Thus, they would universities, scientific organizations, private common carri-
gradually come into use over the next decade as the demand ers, and equipment manufacturers. The television broadcast
for satellite capacity continued to increase. A disadvantage payload, besides TV broadcasts to Italy, was used for other
was that the propagation impairments caused by rain increased TV broadcasts, sound broadcasts, educational TV, and interac-
with frequency. tive video services. The business services payload was used
Because of this problem, Olympus had a 20/30 GHz propa- for SS-TDMA tests, distribution of video to small (e.g., 0.9 m
gation payload. The output of an onboard frequency source diam antenna) terminals, two-way, low-rate data communica-
was multiplied to produce frequencies at about 20 and 30 tions to very small terminals, electronic document delivery,
GHz. These were transmitted through antennas whose beams and other services. The 20/30 GHz payload uses included
covered all of Europe for use in propagation measurements. business communications, broadcast of high-definition TV
The transmitted signals were not modulated. From the same (HDTV), data relay to and from low-orbit satellites, video-
frequency source, a 12.5 GHz beacon was derived. This was conferencing, education, and other projects with digital data
transmitted on an Earth-coverage beam and was intended both and video transmissions. The propagation payload was used at
for use in propagation measurements and as a tracking beacon many places in Europe and two in North America.
for all Olympus ground terminals. In January 1991, one of the two solar arrays failed, but the
Olympus was launched in 1989. All four payloads were in satellite continued in service. In March, the one remaining
use for more than 100 different experiments. Experiments and Earth sensor began having problems. This led to more com-
plex satellite operations, which, combined with the failure of

382
 European Space Agency

the sensor and operator error, led to loss of all attitude and 12 B. L. Herdan and B. N. F. Eddleston, “Design and
orbit control in May 1991. The satellite began spinning and Development of the European Large Telecommunication
drifting, internal temperatures dropped below freezing, and Satellite (LSat),” Paper 80-0551, AIAA 8th Communications
the batteries discharged. Work began immediately to regain Satellite Systems Conference (April 1980).
control of the satellite, as it drifted around Earth. By August, 13. H.-H. F r o m and J. Chapin, “L-Sat-An Opportunity
the satellite was stabilized and again under ground control; it for Pan-European Satellite Broadcasting Experiments,”
completed a journey around Earth and was again positioned at International Broadcasting Convention, IEE Conference
19”W longitude. Subsequent testing showed that performance Publication No. 220 (September 1982).
changed very little from before the problem, although a sub-
stantial amount of propellant was consumed in the problem 14. R. Bonhomme, W. Greiner, and N. Neale, “Payload
and during recovery. Technology for the European Large Telecommunications
Payload operations resumed in September 1991 and con- Satellite (LSat),” Paper B 1.2, International Conference on
tinued through August 1993, when an onboard attitude control Communications: ICC ’83 (June 1983).
problem again caused the satellite to begin spinning and drift- 15. S. E. Dinwiddy, “Communications Experiments
ing. Because there was not sufficient fuel to reestablish the and Demonstrations at 20/30 GHz Using L-Sat,” Paper
orbit, operations were terminated later that month. 17.1, First Canadian Domestic and International Satellite
****** Communications Conference (June 1983).
1. G. Perrotta, “The Italian Sirio 12-18 GHz Experiment: 16. H.-H. Fromm and R. Bonhomme, “The L-Sat Broadcast
Payload and Its Application,” Paper 17.7, First Canadian
The Forerunner of 20-30 GHz Preoperational Satellites,”
Paper 78-631, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems Domestic and International Satellite Communications Con-
Conference (April 1978). ference (June 1983).
2. T. F. Howell, “Communications Mission and System 17. R. Bonhomme, B. L. Herdan, and R. Steels, “Devel-
opment and Application of the New Technologies in the ESA
Aspects of the European Regional Satellite System,” ESA
Journal, Vol. 4, No. 3 (1980). Olympus Programme,” Paper 84-0706, AIAA loth Commu-
nications Satellite Systems Conference (March 1984).
3. J. J. Dechezelles and F. Caneparo, “From Symphonie
18. R. Bonhomme and R. Steels, “Development and
to Phebus-Steps in Innovating for Communication Satellites,”
Application of the New Technologies in the ESA Olympus
Paper 78-624, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite Systems
Conference (April 1978). Programme,” ESA Journal, Vol. 8, No. 4 (1984).
19. J. R. Norbury, “Propagation and Communications
4. B. L. Herdan, “The Ariane Heavy Satellite and Its Tele-
vision Broadcast Package: The First of a New Generation of Experiments with Olympus Satellite,” Communications-An
European Satellites,” Paper 78-632,AIAA 7th Communications Industry on the Move, IEE Conference Publication 262 (May
Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978). 1986).
5. M. Lopriore and G. Perrotta, “The Millimeter Wave 20. N. Watt, “Multibeam SS-TDMA Design Considerations
Communications Transponder for the H-Sat Experiment,” Related to the Olympus Specialized Services Payload,” IEE
Proceedings, Vol. 133, Part F, No. 4 (July 1986).
Symposium on Advanced Satellite Communications Systems,
(Genoa, Italy, December 1977). 21. C. D. Hughes and P. BartholomC, “The Olympus
Utilization Programme,” ESA Bulletin, No. 50 (May 1987).
6. Flight International (23 July 1977), p. 267; (22 April
1978), p. 1114; (16 January 1982), p. 136; (28 May 1983), p. 22. C. D. Hughes and P. BartholomC, “Plans for the Use
1458; (8 August 1987), p. 20. of the Olympus Satellite,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 17, No. 9
7. Aviation Week & Space Technology (8 August 1977), (September 1988).
p. 61; (17 October 1977), pp. 94, 135; (4 January 1982), p. 23; 23. J. H. Paul, “The Large Telecommunications Satellite
(2April 1984), p. 52; (31 August 1987), p. 11; (29 July 1991), Olympus,” ESA Bulletin, No. 58 (May 1989).
p. 60. 24. B. J. Culham, “The Olympus Spacecraft Antenna
8. R. C. Collette and B. L. Herdan, “Satellite Broadcasting Farm,” 1989 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and
in Europe and the Associated European Space Agency Propagation (June 1989).
Programme,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 25. D. E. B. Wilkins, “The Olympus Recovery: ‘Mission
Vol. 32, No. 7 (July 1979). Impossible’?,’’ SpaceJEight,Vol. 33, No. 11 (November 1991);
9. B. L. Herdan, “The ESA Large Telecommunication also ESA Bulletin, No. 68 (November 1991).
Satellite Program,” Paper 5 1.4, International Conference on 26. C. Bailey et al., “The End of the Olympus Mission,”
Communications: ICC ’80 (June 1980). Guidance and Control 1994, Advances in the Astronautical
10. B. L. Herdan, “The Role of the L-Sat Programme in Sciences, Vol. 86 (American Astronautical Society, 1994).
the Evolution of European Communications Satellites,” ESA
Bulletin, No. 24 (November 1980).
11. P. D. Biggs and J. L. Blonstein, “L-Sat-Europe’s Artemis
Satellite for the Eighties,” Journal of the British Interplanetary The ESA Data Relay and Technology Mission was approved
Society, Vol. 34, No. 2 (February 1981). in 1989 and included in the ESA long-range plan in 1992. The
Mission includes Artemis [ 1-30] and the Data Relay Program.

383
European SatelIites

The goal of Artemis is to demonstrate technologies needed over the period of 11 months until it reached its destination in
for data relay and for mobile communications. The Artemis geostationary orbit.
satellite is more than an experiment. It demonstrates data These series of maneuvers required significant software
relay satellite services using S-band, Ka-band, and optical modifications for new attitude control laws and data-handling
communications and is part of the ESA data relay system. For functions, as well as new flight procedures. Thanks to the re-
the optical communications links the Silex (Semiconductor programmable onboard control concept, the sizable software
Intersatellite Link Experiment) equipment was developed for modifications were uplinked as “software patches” to Artemis
both Artemis and the low-orbit, Earth resources satellite, Spot for implementation.
4. Artemis also demonstrates land mobile communications While Artemis was en route to its intended orbit, testing
and serves as an in-orbit backup for the currently operating of its payloads, spacecraft modes, and equipment were con-
European Mobile System (EMS) payload on Italsat 2. ducted. Testing of the payloads encountered some challenges.
Artemis also has a navigation transponder, which is part of Nonetheless, the commissioning tests for the payloads were
a European program to augment the U.S. Global Positioning successfully completed, and the spacecraft reached a fully op-
System (GPS) for aircraft navigation. In the area of spacecraft erational mode and was able to provide its intended services.
technology development, Artemis has ion thrusters and a The most impressive demonstration was of its SILEX payload,
precision accelerometer. The latter continued microvibration which relayed a remarkable quality image from Spot 4.
measurements, important for design of optical communication The highly efficient and successful perigee/apogee ma-
payloads, that began on Olympus. neuvers represent a major advancement of ion propulsion
In 1996, ESA and Japan agreed to a cooperative program technology. Also, thanks to the extraordinary ion propulsion
using Artemis. Japan was to launch the satellite and partici- maneuvers, Artemis ended up with enough chemical propel-
pate in the data relay experiments. However, in the latter half lant to function properly for 10 years.
of 2000, developmental problems of Japan’s HII-A rocket Despite the unique and successful recovery operation of
launcher led to delays in its satellite launch schedule and sub- Artemis, in 2003 ESA encountered challenges in securing
sequent postponement of the Artemis launch. Having already funding for operation of Artemis from its Italian partner,
endured a slip in the Artemis launch schedule, ESA decided the largest contributor to the development of Artemis. After
instead to use the European Ariane-5 launcher for the Artemis months-long struggles, Italy finally agreed to fund Artemis
satellite [20-211. operations for 2 years with a sum of $9 million. A few months
In July 2001, the Artemis satellite (Fig. 7.8) was launched later, Artemis from its geostationary orbit relayed the first
aboard the Ariane-5 launcher. However, the upper stage of the image from the Earth observation satellite Envisat down to
launch malfunctioned and put Artemis into an abnormal, low- ESA’s ESRIN data-processing center [25-271.
energy orbit at only half the distance to geostationary orbit. The Artemis mission, with its creative rescue operation
For conventional satellites, such a malfunction would usually team, managed to overcome a series of unfortunate events.
mean a dead mission. Yet due to a fortuitous combination of Nonetheless, its key distinguishing aspects that set it apart
spacecraft technologies onboard Artemis and innovative con- from other communication satellites are its series of innova-
trol procedures devised by the spacecraft control team, the tive achievements. Namely, Artemis completed the first orbital
satellite was not only guided to its intended orbit, but its pay- transfer to geostationary orbit using an ion propulsion system,
loads were fully operational and put to use at the time users withstood the longest operational orbital drift, experienced the
came to rely on it. first major reprogramming of a telecommunications satellite,
The rescue operation began with a determination that the and delivered the first optical interorbit satellite link [22-241.
chemical propellant onboard the satellite was not enough to The ground transmits three links to Artemis at 29 GHz.
correct the anomalous orbit and provide normal orbital cor- One is a data relay forward link to be retransmitted via either
rections for station-keeping purposes for 10 to 15 years. With S-band or Ka-band interorbit link to a low-orbit satellite (see
that in mind, the ion propulsion system onboard Artemis Fig. 7.9 for the Artemis data-relay payload); another is a for-
was put to creative use to supplement the orbital correction ward link to be retransmitted by Silex. The third uplink has
endeavor. One of the most important steps early on in commands for Artemis. Artemis transmits up to six links to
the recovery mission was a series of chemically the ground at 19 GHz. One is satellite telemetry; another is
propelled perigee bums to lift Artemis beyond
the destructive radiation belts. Following the
perigee burns were apogee burns to circularize the
orbit and reduce its inclination and place Artemis into a
safe intermediate orbit 5000 km below the GEO belt, where
it was controlled by a new global ground station network. Fol-
lowing the placement into the intermediate orbit, Artemis with
its new experimental ion propulsion system, along with new
attitude control methods, was placed on a slow and steady
route to geostationary orbit. The Artemis ion-propulsion sys-
tem consisted of four ion engines mounted in pairs for redun-
dancy on the comers of the satellite. For purposes of raising
the satellite’s in-plane orbital radius, the satellite was rotated
90 deg in the orbital plane from its nominal orientation,
and the ion thrusters with their low-power thrusts gradually
nudged the satellite in its in-plane orbit about 20 km per day Fig. 7.8.Artemis satellite.

384
 European Space Agency

data from the ion thruster and accelerometer packages. The is necessary on user satellites. For S-band use, the antenna is
remaining four are data relay return links; one is from Silex; command pointed. The S-band and Ka-band interorbit link
the remainder are up to three from the Ka-band interorbit link frequencies have been coordinated with the United States
or one from the S-band interorbit link. Interorbit links are in- and Japan so that each of their relay satellites may support
terconnected with the up and downlinks through tuneable fre- the other’s user satellites. The payload accommodates more
quency conversions to or from a fixed intermediate frequency frequencies than can be simultaneously used so that users can
of 5.5 GHz. be assigned to specificfrequencies without mutual interference.
The S- and Ka-band antenna can point anywhere within 10 Artemis can transmit 100 bps to 1 Mbps at S-band and 1 kbps
deg of nadir; this affords coverage of any relay service user to 10 Mbps at Ka-band, and can receive 100 bps to 3 Mbps at
satellite up to about 550 nmi altitude. At Ka-band a beacon is S-band and 1 kbps to 150 Mbps at Ka-band.
transmitted through a horn antenna to aid the users in interorbit The optical communication payload on Artemis is called
link acquisition. The Artemis Ka-band antenna is coupled to a OPALE (Optical Payload for Inter Satellite Link Experiment).
tracking receiver that tracks a user’s communication signal with It is split into two units. One includes equipment that must
a sequential lobing technique; therefore, no beacon transmitter be close to the optics; this unit has fine pointing optics and is

28.5-30 GHz

SY
Fig. 7.9. Artemis data relay payload.

385
European Satellites

mounted on a two-axis gimbal that does coarse pointing. The antenna near the optical payload is for Ku-band links. Two
other unit is in the satellite body and includes all equipment masts extend from the forward face of the satellite body; one
that does not need to be on the gimbal. The payload can supports the feed horn for the 19/29 GHz reflector, and the
both transmit and receive data. Spot 4 transmitted data at 50 other supports the S-band telemetry and command antenna,
Mbps to Artemis but is only equipped to receive a beacon which is used until the satellite is on station and transfers to
without data. In 2002, the Artemis optical data relay payload 19/29GHz telemetry and command.All other communications
completed in-orbit testing with the Optical Ground Station in equipment is contained within the satellite body. Satellite and
the Canary Islands, which was built by ESA and Instituto De payload details follow.
Astrofisica de Canarias. Bidirectional data transfer, 50 Mbps Satellite
to Artemis and 2 Mbps from Artemis, was demonstrated with Rectangular body 3.5 x 2.7 x 2.3 m, deployed solar arrays span
the Japanese OICETS. 25 m, deployed antenna reflectors span 7.9 m
The mobile communications payload L-band antenna
generates four beams. One is called “global”; it covers all of Approximately 1270 kg dry weight
Europe except Iceland, plus the Mediterranean and some of Solar arrays and NiH, batteries, 2600-3000 W minimum at end
North Africa. The other three beams are spot beams, with their of life
long axes approximately north-south. The three spots, which Three-axis attitude control using reaction wheels and momen-
overlap somewhat, cover 90 percent of the area as the global tum wheels, approximately 0.1 deg accuracy
beam. Both circular polarizations are available in the global Unified liquid bipropellant propulsionfor apogee maneuver and
beam and the center spot to allow tests of dual-polarization on-orbit use, ion thrusters for north-south stationkeeping (but
frequency reuse. The east and west spots were used in tests of see text for actual use during orbit raising)
dual-beam, spatially isolated frequency reuse.
Land mobile forward links are transmitted from fixed Configuration
ground stations to Artemis at Ku-band and retransmitted to 19 GHz downlinW29 GHz uplink (19/29): two uplinks (one to
mobile users at L-band. Fixed frequencies are used on these Ka or S forward link, one to optical forward link) switchable
uplinks. In the satellite the band is downconverted twice, among 12 frequencies, up to four downlinks (three from Ka
and then each channel is tightly filtered using SAW (surface return link or one from S return link, one from optical return
link) switchable among four frequencies plus one spacecraft
acoustic wave) devices. The following upconversion to L-band experiment data downlink
uses synthesizers tuneable in 0.5 MHz steps; this allows the
channel frequencies to be adjusted to minimize interference Ka-band interorbit link (Ka): one forward link switchable among
with other L-band satellites. The L-band signals are amplified six frequencies on each of two polarizations, and three return
links switchable among eight frequencies on each of two
by eight solid-state amplifiers. These amplifiers are preceded polarizations
and followed by beam-forming matrices. Each channel is
switched to one of six matrix input ports, amplified in all eight S-band interorbit link (S): one forward link and one return, each
amplifiers, and appears at the corresponding output port. The tuneable over the band
six ports correspond to the beam and polarizationcombinations Optical interorbit link (0):one forward link at up to 2.048 Mbps,
mentioned above. and one return link at up to 30 Mbps
Land mobile return links are at L-band from the mobile Ku-band/L-band mobile links (Ku/L): three 1 MHz bandwidth
users to Artemis and then at Ku-band to the fixed ground and three 4 MHz bandwidth forward (Ku-band up, L-band down)
stations. Downconversion from L-band is accomplished channels, three 1 MHz bandwidth and three 4 MHz bandwidth
with tuneable synthesizers, again to optimize frequencies for (each filtered to four 900 kHz bandwidths) return (L-band up,
minimum interference.The channels are filtered, upconverted, Ku-band down) channels, all channels tuneable in L-band; up
and amplified for transmission to the fixed stations. No direct to 445 simultaneous users; dual-beam and dual-polarization
frequency reuse in L-band
mobile user-to-mobile-userlinks are possible.
The navigation payload was added to Artemis in 1997; it Ku-band/L-band navigation (N): one Ku-band uplink with both
was considered for addition to Italsat 2, but could not be done Ku-band and L-band downlinks, 4 MHz bandwidth
because of the earlier launch date of that satellite. The payload Transmitter
receives a Ku-band uplink through the land mobile payload’s
19/29: 18.1-20.2 GHz, four 30 W TWTAs available for up to four
Ku-band antenna. This signal has a 500 bps information links, EIRP 41 3-48.6 dBW
rate and is spread using a code of the same nature as, but
orthogonal to, the GPS codes. The signal is rebroadcast at Ka: 23.175-23.475 GHz, 61.3 dBW EIRP; beacon at 23.545 or
both Ku-band and L-band. The navigation payload is shown 23.55 GHz; three 30 W M A S (forward link, beacon, spare)
at the bottom of Fig. 7.10. S: 2.025-2.110 GHz, 35 W SSPAs (one on, one redundant),
The Artemis satellite design is derived and enlarged from ElRP switchable from 25-45 dBW in 1 dB steps
that used for Italsat. The data relay satellites share the bus 0:near0.8 micron, GaAlAs laser diodes, 60 mW communication
design and, where possible, share spares with Artemis. The (one laser on, two spares), 10 W beacon (19 lasers on)
medium-size antenna on the body of the satellite is for the 19 Ku: 12.731-12.75 GHz, two SSPAs (one on, one spare); 7 dBW
and 29 GHz links with large ground terminals in Europe. The ElRP per carrier for up to 445 carriers
nearest large deployed reflector is for L-band, and the other L: 1530-1 559 MHz, twelve 13 W SSPAs in four groups with two
is for S-band and Ka-band interorbit links. The box with a on, one spare in each group; 19 dBW ElRP per carrier for up to
circular aperture, near the 19/29 GHz antenna, is the steerable 280/445 carriers (European/spot beam)
portion of the optical communications payload. A small
N: 1575.42 MHz, 16 W solid-state power amplifier

386
 European Space Agency

I
r
A

13.87!
GHz

1530-
1559

L --------
Redundant section not shown

1631.5-1 660.5 8 lines

I

Filter

C
+A
as below

12.748 GHz

M I
-----------------
I. I. Redundant section not shown

-
1127
+
1575.42

u+v
11.1726 GHz
u SY Tuneable Synthesizer

Fig. 7.10.Artemis mobile communications and navigation payloads.

387
European SatelIites

Receiver Agency,” Space Communications, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1992).

19/29: 28.6-29.8 GHz, G/T up to 7 dB/K over service area 4. R. Giubilei, M. Marinelli, and A. Morando, “Payload
Ka: 25.475-27.475 GHz, two LNAs with 4.5 dB noise figure Architectures for the European Data Relay System,” Space
(one on, one spare), GTT 22.3 dB/K Communications, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1992).
S: 2200-2290 MHz, two LNAs with 1.6 dB noise figure (one on, 5. S. E. Dinwiddy and A. Dickinson, “The European Data
one spare), G/T 6.8 dB/K Relay System,”AIAA Paper 92- 1883,AIAA 14th International
0: near 0.85 micron, Si avalanche photo diode Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1992).
Ku: 14.231-14.5 GHz, G/T -1.4 dB/K 6. E. Battifoglia, “Directing the Data,” Space, Vol. 8, No.
L: 1631.5-1660.5 MHz, G/T -2/0 dB/K (European/spot beam) 2 (April-May 1992).
N: 13.875 GHz 7. A. Sbardellati et al., “The Communication Payload of
the Artemis European Satellite,” Paper 94-0905, AIAA 15th
Antenna International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
19/29: 99 cm diam reflector with two feeds (one for 21.5”E, one (February 1994).
for 59”E)
8. M. Alberty et al., “Direct Detection Optical Intersatellite
Ka: 2.8 m diam reflector, steerable up to 10 deg from nadir, Communication;Silex CommunicationEquipment: Status and
both circular polarizations, open loop or closed loop pointing; Further Perspective,” Paper 94- 1159,AIAA 15th International
horn with 20 deg beamwidth for beacon transmission
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
S: shares Ka reflector, open loop pointing 1994).
0: 25.4 cm diam telescope, 8R50-microradian beamwidth for 9. M. Faup, G. Planche, andT.Tolker-Nielsen,“Experience
datdacquisition, left-hand circular polarization Gained in the Frame of Silex Programme Development and
Ku: 2.8 m diam reflector, single beam covering Europe, both Future Trends,” Paper AIAA-96-1078, 16th International
linear polarizations Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
L: shares Ku reflector, multiple feeds generate a “global” beam 1996).
covering Europe and the Mediterranean plus three partially 10. L. Miracapillo, T. Sassorossi, and R. Giubilei, “The
overlapping spots covering a similar area, dual circular
polarizations for the global and central spot beams, left-hand
L-band Land Mobile Payload (LLM) Aboard Artemis,” Paper
circular polarization for the outer spot beams AIAA-96- 1086, 16th International Communications Satellite
Systems Conference (February 1996).
N: shares Ku reflector; L-band horn antenna, circular
polarization 11. A. Dickinson et al., “The Artemis Programme,” ESA
Bulletin, No. 91 (August 1997).
Telemetry and command 12. R. Giubilei, T. Sassorossi, and R. D’Elia, “The L-
Telemetry: in 2200-2290 MHz band (launch through initializ- band Land Mobile (LLM) System: Key Technologies and Its
ation, operational backup), 20.086 GHz (operational orbit)
Exploitation,” Space Technology, Vol. 17, No. 2 (1997).
Beacon: 23.540, 23.545 GHz (Artemis to user satellites)
13. R. Giubilei and L. Miracapillo, “The L-band Land
Command: in 2025-2110 MHz band (launch through Mobile (LLM) System: Access Schemes Trade-off,”
initialization, operational backup), 29.887 GHz (operational Proceedings of the Fifth International Mobile Satellite
orbit)
Conference (1997).
Life 14. A. Pullara et al., “The Artemis Payloads and Their
Ten-year design life Evolution Towards Navigation,” Paper AIAA-98-1332, 17th
International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
Orbit (February 1998).
Geostationary, 21.5”E
15. J. Sandberg, “Artemis, S-Band and Ka-Band Inter
Orbital history Orbit Link,” Paper AIAA-98-1393, 17th International
Launched 12 July 2001, ESA Ariane-5 launch vehicle Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February
1998).
Management 16. T. Pirard, “Artemis: Next European Technological
Developed by Alenia Spazio, later Alenia Aerospazio, then Satellite,” Spaceflight, Vol. 40, No. 9 (September 1998).
again Alenia Spazio as prime contractor of a European team of
companies, for ESA 17. T. Tolker-Nielsen and J-C. Guillen, “Silex: The First
Operated by ESA
European Optical Communication Terminal in Orbit,” ESA
Bulletin, No. 96 (November 1998).
****** 18. “Artemis, European Satellite for Advanced Commu-
1. H. Lechte et al., “ESA’s Advanced Relay and Tech- nications and Data Relay,” http://www.alespazio.it/ artemis/
nology Mission,” ESA Bulletin, No. 62 (May 1990). artemis.htm (23 August 1999).
2. A. Eickinson, “The Data-Relay Preparatory Pro- 19. “Laser Optical System in Orbit,” Spaceflight, Vol. 40,
gramme,” ESA Bulletin, No. 61 (February 1990). No. 9 (September 1998).
3. R. C. L. Collette and E. W. Ashford, “The 20. “Japan Postpones Satellite Launch-Again,” Reuters,
Telecommunications Programme of the European Space (27 September 2000).

388
 European Space Agency

21. ESA News, “New Launcher for Artemis Spacecraft,” age area is the same plus the portion of North Africa and the
17 January 2001, http://www.esa.int/export/esaCP/GGGYKU Middle East bounded by 30”N latitude and 45”E longitude.
LVPHC-index-O.html(22 January 2001). The EMS payload receives both the forward and return
22. ESA, “ESA’s Artemis Satellite Reaches Geostationary uplinks, frequency translates them, and amplifies them for
Orbit-From Total Loss to Full Recovery,” ESA INFO 04- downlink transmission. Filtering is accomplished at several
2003, 18 February 2003, http://www.esa.int/exportJesaCP/ locations in the payload; the tightest uses SAW devices op-
SEMCVYlA6BD-index-2.html(26 February 2003). erating at about 150 MHz. To reduce susceptibility to passive
intermodulation products, which are a concern for all L-band
23. G. Oppenhauser and A. Bird, “Artemis Finally Gets to systems, separate antennas are used for L-band transmission
Work!” ESA Bulletin, No. 114 (May 2003). and reception. An additional relief from possible hardware
24. G. Oppenhauser and A. Bird, “Artemis-A ‘Lost problems is obtained by connecting each of the four L-band
Mission’ On Course to Full Recovery,” ESA Bulletin, No. 110 power amplifiers to a separate antenna feed element, thereby
(May 2002). doing power combining in free space rather than in hardware.
Details of the Italsat 2 EMS payload follow.
25. “Italy and Artemis,” SpaceNews, editorial (14 July 2003).
Configuration
26. P. de Selding, “ESA Secures Funds to Operate Artemis,”
SpaceNews, (13 October 2003). Three 4 MHz bandwidth forward (Ku-band up, L-band down)
channels, three 4 MHz bandwidth (each filtered to four 0.9 MHz
27. ESA News, “Artemis Relays First Images for Envisat,” bandwidths) return (L-band up, Ku-band down) channels; up to
ESA PR 16-2003, 19 March 2003, http://www.esa.int/export/ 600 simultaneous users with voice activation
esaCP/SEM29Q2A6BD-index-O.html(25 March 2003).
Transmitter
28. M. R. Garcia-Talavera et al., “Preliminary Results of
L: 1530-1534, 1540-1544, 1555-1559 MHz, eight 23 W
the In-orbit Test of Artemis with the Optical Ground Station,” SSPAs in four groups with one on, one spare, 42.5 dBW ElRP
Free-Space Laser Communication Technologies X I V , Society over coverage area
of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (2002), pp. 38-49.
Ku: 12.736-12.74, 12.741-12.745, 12.746-12.75 GHz, two 4.5
29. T. Furniss, “ESA Works to Save Technology Satellite,” W SSPAs (one on, one spare), 32 dBW ElRP over coverage
SpaceJEight,Vol. 43, No. 9 (September 2001). area
30. L. Mazzini and V. Tamilia, “The Artemis Satellite Unex- Receiver
pected Trip to GEO Orbit,” Space Technology, Vol. 24, No. 1
L: 1631.5-1635.5, 1641.4-1645.5. 1656.5-1660.5 MHz, G/T
(2004). -2/0 dB/K
Ku: 14.236-1 4.24, 14.241-1 4.245, 14.246-1 4.25 GHz, G/T
-1.4 dB/K
European Mobile System
ESA studied mobile communications in the early to mid- Antenna
1980s and conducted the PRODAT experiments from 1987 L: two offset-fed parabolic antennas (one transmit, one receive)
to 1993. PRODAT used the Marecs satellites (chapter 3) for each with a four-feed cluster, using the two large reflectors
transmission of digital messages between mobile users and already part of Italsat, circular polarization
fixed stations. ESA also conducted technical and marketing Ku: one parabolic antenna, linear polarization
studies of satellite systems for voice and data service to mobile
users, leading to a demonstration, starting in 1994, using the Life
Marecs satellite. The successor to both of these activities is Seven years (same as Italsat)
the initial EMS. The primary space portion of EMS [l-91
is a payload built for Italsat 2. The backup is the mobile ******
communications payload on Artemis. 1. G. Perrotta et al., “First Generation Payload for Euro-
Italsat 2 differs from Italsat 1 (described in the Italsat sec- pean Communications with Land Mobiles in L-Band: the Ital-
tion) in not having the propagation experiment, having larger sat F-2 Spacecraft Study Case,” Space Technology, Vol. 11,
solar arrays that generate about 300 W additional power, and No. 3 (1991).
some changes to the primary payload. These changes afford
the capacity to add the EMS payload. The EMS payload com- 2. F. Ananasso and I. Mistretta, “System Architecture
municates with fixed ground stations at Ku-band and with and Market Aspects of an European Land Mobile Satellite
mobile terminals at L-band. It is used for two types of traffic. System via EMS,” Paper 92-2055, AIAA 14th International
One is messaging, based on the PRODAT experience. This Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March
traffic uses BPSK (binary phase shift keying) at 1500 bps in 1992).
the forward (to mobiles) direction and QPSK at 600 bps with 3. A. Jongejans et al., “The European Mobile System,”
spreading for CDMA (code division multiple access) in the Proceedings of the Third International Mobile Satellite
return (from mobiles) direction. The business networks traf- Conference (June 1993).
fic will use QPSK at 6.4 kbps for voice and 2.4 kbps for data 4. A. Pullara and S. Fagioli, “EMS: System Key Aspects
with spreading for CDMA in both directions. The Ku-band and Technological Experiments,” Paper 94-09 14, AIAA 15th
coverage area of the payload includes all of western and cen- International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
tral Europe and most of the Mediterranean. The L-band cover- (February 1994).

389
 Next Page

European Satellites

.
n 1631.5-1 660.5

900 kHz 12.736-

1491.5 143.5 12.75 GHz

900 kHz
0

1511.5 148.5
0
0

900 kHz b
C
Tb
12596

900 kHz b
0
0

900 kHz
1491.5 153.5

1 1
7
1530-
1559
14.236-
14.25 GHz

4 MHz

1390

12286

Fig. 7.11. European mobile system communication subsystem.

390
 8. Asian Satellites
now building an entire, large communications satellite. Japan

T
his chapter describes the domestic and regional
satellites of countries in Asia [1-61. A domestic satellite has also built several experimental satellites, which were
is a communication satellite primarily serving a single described in chapter 1.
country. A regional satellite is a communication satellite A common purpose for the satellites described here is to
serving a group of affiliated countries. In the 1970s domestic overcome natural barriers to communications, for example,
satellites were typical, but by the 1990s, increasing satellite deserts, mountains, dense forests, and oceans. The benefits of
capabilities led to almost all satellite programs of one nation the satellite systems include much lower cost than terrestrial
serving customers in nearby nations. Examples are antenna alternativesand ability to provide nationwide communications.
beams on Indonesian, Thai, and Malaysian satellites that each In addition, these Asian nations view a satellite system as a
cover all of these countries plus the Philippines. The AsiaSat means for national technological advancement. Furthermore,
and APT satellitesare examples of regional satellites with very social benefits such as education and telemedicine are often
large coverage areas, including all of Asia and portions of some cited as goals; however, the responsible government ministries
other continents. Satellite systems for mobile users, including often lack the budgets to develop these programs
two owned in Asia, are described in chapter 3. Although Russia, * * * * * I
Turkey, and the Middle East are geographicallymostly in Asia,
Russian satellites are described in chapter 5, Turkish satellites 1. T. J. Logue, “Satellite Communications in Asia-The
in chapter 7, and Middle Eastern satellites in chapter 9. Race is On!” Via Satellite, Vol. 9, No. 1 (January 1994).
The title of this chapter indicates that Asian nations own 2. K. Kuhns, “Asia-Pacific Transponders: A Seller’s
the satellites. Most of the satellites described were produced in Market,” Via Satellite, Vol. 9, No. 1 (January 1994). 4

North America and Europe. In these programs the owner has 3. S. Chase, “A New Golden Age of Asia-Pacific
participated in the design and manufacture to some degree in Communications via Satellite,” Via Satellite, Vol. 10, No. 1
order to develop national capabilities. The nations purchasing (January 1995).
the satellitesoften have greater participationin the development
of ground stations to be used with the satellites, and almost 4. N. W. Davis, “Asia’s Communications Market Booms,”
always are trained to operate the satellites, using control Aerospace America, Vol. 33, No. 1 (January 1995).
equipment supplied and initially operated by the manufacturer. 5. S. Chenard, “Asian Satellite Update,” Via Satellite, Vol.
As exceptions, India and China have produced satellites using 11, No. 8 (August 1996).
some equipment supplied from Europe and North America,
6. J. Careless, “Asia-Pacific VSATs,” Via Satellite, Vol.
and Japan has integrated large indigenous communications
12, No. 6 (June 1997).
payloads with spacecraft produced in the United States and is

Japan
Japanese involvement in satellite communications [1-1 11 Satellite were each followed by additional satellites, with
began in the early 1960s. In 1964, television broadcasts increasing portions supplied by Japanese industry. Although
from the Tokyo Olympic Games were transmitted to the used for some practical communications, these satellites were
United States by satellite. Within Japan, the National Space still government-controlled demonstrations not available for
Development Agency (NASDA) had the responsibility for full commercialdevelopment.In fact, commercialdevelopment
development of launch vehicles and applications satellites. was not possible at that time because, like the space industry,
Within the applications programs the primary activities were the government controlled the communications industry, and
in communications and broadcasting. The emphasis on space the government-owned Nippon Telephone and Telegraph
communications is a result of the crowding of extensive (NTT) provided all communications.
existing communications facilities in urban areas, the By 1982, criticism of these policies emerged, primarily
difficult geographic problems (islands and mountains) of the from Japanese businesses wanting new communication
nonurban areas of the country, and the need for alternativesfor services. These services were not to be available on the
terrestrial communication paths disrupted by natural disasters. CS2 satellites, and users did not want to wait for the CS3
Considerableterrestrialuse of the lower microwavefrequencies satellites. The years 1982 to 1984 were a period of debate in
has led to extensive efforts to investigate higher frequencies. Japan, both in government and industry, between those who
Consequently, most of the communications equipment in favored development of new services and those who favored a
Japanese satellites operates at frequencies between 10 and 35 protected industry. The United States also pressured Japan to
GHz. open its communications market to foreign suppliers, which
The first large NASDA-sponsored satellites were the Com- would help to ease the balance of payments problem.
munications Satellite, launched in 1977, and the Broadcasting At the end of 1984, Japan enacted legislation containing
Satellite, launched in 1978. These satellites were obtained major policy changes [7], which became effectiveinApril 1985.
from the United States under a policy that called for purchasing The changes included ending NTT’s monopoly on providing
available foreign technology while concurrently developing communications,selling 50 percent of NTT to private investors
domesticcapabilitiesformaximumusein all satellitesandlaunch in 5 years, permitting private firms to purchase and operate
vehicles. The Communications Satellite and Broadcasting foreign satellites, and permitting up to one-third foreign

459
Asian Satellites

ownership in companies providing domestic communication Broadcasting Satellites, their semicommercial successors of
services. As a result of this legislation, three partnerships the mid-to-late 1990s, N-Star and BSat (Broadcasting Satellite
were formed to develop and operate communication satellites, Systems Corp.), the two purely commercial satellite programs
primarily to provide business communications and television (JCSat and Superbird), and the Data Relay Test Satellite.These
broadcasting. programs are summarized in Table 8.1. Because of Japan’s
The first two partnerships, JCSat (Japan Communications location, launch dates stated in Japanese time are usually one
Satellite,Inc.) and SCC (Space CommunicationsCorporation), day later than the launch site dates in the descriptions that
filed satellite applications with the government in early follow the table.
1985, which were approved in June. The approvals included ******
authorization to use the 12 and 14 GHz bands previously
used in Japan only for terrestrial communications. The third 1. F. Ikegami and S. Morimoto, “Plans for the Japanese
partnership filed an application in mid-1985. The government Domestic Satellite CommunicationSystem,” Paper 4G. 1,1972
did not approve this application, but did approve a new IEEE Intercon Record (March 1972).
application in 1991. The third partnership then merged with 2. M. Hirai et al., “Development of Experimental and
one of the others in 1993. __
Applications Satellites,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 8-9
The .change in national policy and the growth of (August-September 1980).
private communication satellite systems have reduced 3. Aviation Week & Space Technology (13 August 1973),
the government’s involvement in satellite development to p. 19; (4 March 1974), p. 16; (22 April 1974), p. 23; (17
experimental satellites that demonstrate new technologies and March 1975), p. 61; (1 March 1976), p. 52; (4 October 1976),
services. These satellites were described in chapter 1. The p. 24; (17 October 1977), p. (3 March 1980), pp. 92,
remainder of this section describes the Communications and

Table 8.1. Japanese Satellites

Satellite Name Alternate Name LaunchYear Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status

cs Sakura 1977 Ford Aerospace and Communications C, Ka Retired, moved above
geosynchronous orbit
CSZA, 28 Sakura-2A, 2B 1983,1983 Ford Aerospace and Communications C, Ka Retired, moved above
geosynchronous orbit
CS3A, 3B Sakura-3A, 3B 1988,1988 Ford Aerospace and Communications C, Ka Retired, moved above
geosynchronous orbit
BSE Yuri 1978 General Electric Ku Retired, moved above
geosynchronous orbit
BSZA, 28 Yuri-PA, 2B 1984,1986 General Electric Ku Retired, moved above
geosynchronous orbit

BS2X 1990 General Electric Ku Destroyed at launch

BS3A, 3B Yuri-3A, 3B 1990,1991 Nippon Electric and General Electric Ku Retired, moved above
geosynchronous orbit
BS3H 1991 General Electric Ku Destroyed at launch
BS3N 1994 Nippon Electric and General Electric Ku In use
JCSat 1 , 2 1989 Hughes Aircraft Ku Retired, moved above
geosynchronous orbit
JCSat 3 1995 Hughes Space and Communications C, Ku In use

JCSat 4 JCSat R 1997 Hughes Space and Communications C, Ku In use, then fleet spare, then in use
to replace JCSat 1 8
JCSat 5 JCSat 1B 1997 Hughes Space and Communications Ku Failed June 2005
JCSat 6 JCSat 4A 1999 Hughes Space and Communications Ku In use
JCSat 110 JCSat 7, N-Sat 110, 2000 Lockheed Martin Ku In use
Superbird D, Superbird 5
JCSat a JGSat 2A 2002 Boeing Satellite Systems C, Ku In use
JCSat 9 2006 Lockheed Martin S, C, Ku In use
JCSat 10 2006 Lockheed Martin C, Ku Launched August 2006
JCSat 11 JCSat R Lockheed Martin C, Ku Launch scheduled for 2007
Horizons 1 Galaxy 13 2003 Boeing Satellite Systems Ku In use
Horizons 2 Orbital Sciences Ku Launch planned for 2007

460
 Japan

234; (9 March 198l), p. 107; (10 August 1981), p. 61; (8 6. M. Miura, “Perspective of Satellite Communicationsin
March 1982), p. 107; (5 April 1982), p. 13; (26 April 1982), Japan,” Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 56, No. 8 (August
p. 15; (31 January 1983), p. 23; (14 March 1983), p. 112; (11 1989).
April 1983), p. 86; (30 January 1984), p. 19; (13 February 7. Aviation Week & Space Technology (25 June 1984), p.
1984), p. 125; (21 May 1984), p. 18; (23 July 1984), p. 72; 190; (7 January 1985),p. 26; (1 1 March 1985), p. 57; (15 April
(17 September 1984), p. 20; (3 June 1985), p. 72; (24 June 1985), p. 22; (1 July 1985), p. 16; (15 July 1985), p. 22; (19
1985), p. 15; (19 August 1985), p. 13; (25 November 1985), August 1985), p. 13; (13 January 1986), p. 134; (3 February
p. 13; (6 January 1986), p. 21; (20 January 1986), p. 25; (24 1986), pp. 42, 59; (28 April 1986), p. 133; (12 May 1986), p.
February 1986), p. 66; (10 March 1986), p. 138; (9 June 31.
1986), p. 29; (7 July 1986), p. 27; (11 July 1988), p. 11;
(19 December 1988), p. 11; (26 February 1990), p. 32; (12 8. A. Fujii, “VSATs in Japan,” International Journal
March 1990), p. 53; (16 April 1990), p. 28; (10 September of Satellite Communications, Vol. 11, No. 4 (July-August
1990), p. 30. 1993).
4. R. Hayashi,Y. Furuhama, and N. Fugono, “Propagation 9. N. W. Davis, “Asia’s Communications Market Booms,”
Characteristics for Millimeter and Quasi-Millimeter Waves Aerospace America, Vol. 33, No. 1 (January 1995).
by Using Three Japanese Geostationary Satellites,” Acta 10. T. Iida, “Japan’s Telecommunications: New Initiatives
Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 11 (November 1980). in Space Communications,” Space Communications, Vol. 9,
5. T. Mori and T. Iida, “Japan’s Space Development No. 4 (April 1992).
Programs for Communications: An Overview,” ZEEE 11. G. Francis, “Satellites in the Land of the Rising Sun,”
Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 5, No. 5 Via Satellite, Vol. 11, No. 10 (October 1996).
(May 1987).
Table 8.1. Japanese Satellites (continued)

Satellite Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status
Superbird A 1989 Ford Aerospace and Communications X, Ku, Ka Failed, moved above
geosynchronous orbit
Superbird B 1990 Ford Aerospace and Communications X, Ku, Ka Destroyed at launch
Superbird 8 Superbird E or A1 1992 Ford Aerospace and Communica- X, Ku, Ka Moved above geosynchronous orbit
tions, later Space Systems/Loral
Superbird A Superbird 81 or B2 1992 Ford Aerospace and Communica- X, Ku, Ka Moved above geosynchronous orbit
(used only in early life of tions, later Space Systems/Loral
satellite)
Superbird C 1997 Hughes Space and Communications Ku In use
Superbird 4 Superbird 82 2000 Hughes Space and Communications, Ku, Ka In use
later Boeing Satellite Systems
Superbird 5 Superbird D, N-Sat 110, 2000 Lockheed Martin X, Ku In use
JCSat 110, JCSat 7
Superbird 6 Superbird A2 2004 Boeing Satellite Systems Ku, Ka Moved above geosynchronous orbit

Superbird 7 Mitsubishi Electric Ku Launch planned 2008

N-Star A, B 1995,1996 Space Systems/Loral S, C, Ku, Ka In use; N-Star A to be replaced by
JCSat 9
N-Star C 2002 Orbital Sciences and Lockheed s, c In use
Maltin
BSat-la 1997 Hughes Space and Communications Ku In use
BSat-1b 1998 Hughes Space and Communications Ku In use
BSat-2a 2001 Orbital Sciences Ku In use
BSat-2b 2001 Orbital Sciences Ku In use
BSat-2c 2003 Orbital Sciences Ku In use
BSatda Lockheed Martin Ku Launch scheduled for 2007
DRTS Kodama 2002 Mitsubishi Electric S, Ka In use
MTSAT-1 1999 Space Systems/Loral Destroyed during ascent
MTSAT-1R Himawari 6 2005 Space Systems/Loral L, Ku, Ka In use
MTSAT-2 2006 Mitsubishi Electric L, Ku, Ka In use
MBSAT 2004 Space Systems/Loral S, Ku In use

46 1
Asian Satellites

Communications Satellites (CS, CS2, CS3) already heavily used in Japan for terrestrial services, and the
The objectives of the Communications Satellite program [l- resulting interference to satellite links would overly constrain
291 were to Earth terminal locations. The satellite antenna was a despun
provide, in combination with terrestrial facilities, high- horn whose axis was coincident with the satellite spin axis. It
capacity links between urban centers, was mechanically despun, and the antenna beam was reflected
toward Earth by a reflector oriented 45 deg from the spin axis.
provide new and/or improved services to small islands
The reflector was not exactly flat but was contoured to shape
located away from the primary islands of Japan,
the K-band (20 and 30 GHz) beam to match the geography of
be available as an alternate transmission path for any the main Japanese islands. The 4 and 6 GHz beams used the
terrestrial facilities damaged by natural disasters. same antenna but were circular and of a size that covered all
The program used two frequency bands, 4 and 6 GHz and islands to be served by CS.
20 and 30 GHz. The latter band supported the first objective; CS2 satellites were developed to follow the CS satellite
the former supported the second. Both bands were available in support of operational communications links. The
for emergency use. The program included three generations of newer satellites were almost identical to the CS. The CS2
satellites, CS, CS2, and CS3. communication subsystem, like the CS, had two 4 and 6 GHz
The first phase of the program was based on the Medium channels and six 20 and 30 GHz channels. The bandwidths had
Capacity Communications Satellite for Experimental Purpose, been reduced but were still more than adequate for the chosen
commonly called the CS. The CS, launched in 1977, was used data rates. The communication subsystem configuration was
for a variety of tests and preoperational system demonstrations. modified, primarily to improve reliability. Also, improvements
Activities included transponder characterization,tests of several in microwave electronics since the CS was built resulted in
transmission and multiple access techniques, satellite control some satellite performance increases.
experience, and propagation measurements. After launch, the CS2A was launched early in 1983 and was named Sakura.
CS was renamed Sakura, which translates to Cherry Blossom. CS2B was launched later in 1983. The 4 and 6 GHz channels
The satellite was spin-stabilized with a despun antenna, were used with a 109 Mbps QPSK (quadriphase shift keying)
very similar to the NATO I11 satellite. The solar array was TDMA (time division multiple access) network to transmit
identical, and many support subsystems were derived from telephone and television between Tokyo and remote islands
NATO I11 subsystems. The communication subsystem and such as Okinawa. The 20 and 30 GHz channels were used
antenna were new designs. This satellite had eight channels, with a 65 Mbps BPSK (binary phase shift keying) TDMA
each with a 200 MHz bandwidth. Two channels were in the network for telephone transmissions between eight major
4 and 6 GHz band used by many commercial satellites. The cities. Fixed terminals for these links had 12 m antennas.
other six channels were in the 17.7 to 21.2 GHz and 27.5 to Transportable terminals for each frequency band, with about
31 GHz bands. This was the first use of these frequencies for 3 m diam antennas, provided FDMA (frequency division
communication links, although other satellites had equipment multiple access) links. All these links were for public or
for special transmissionsfor propagation measurements at these government communications. NTT, which provided all public
frequencies. They were selected because the allocated bands at communications, used both C-band and four K-band channels.
lower frequencies (i.e., 4 to 6 GHz and 11 to 14 GHz) were Various government agencies and public utilities used the
other two K-band channels. Business communications, like
Communications A those available on the many U.S. domestic satellites, were not
despun antenna

YA planned until introduction of the CS3 satellites at the end of the

1980s. Only 20percent of one K-band channel was allocated for
testing business communications. This was a disappointment
to many businesses that desired such a service.
The CS3 satellites were developed to continue the commu-
nication services started with the CS2 satellites. CS3 provided
improved capacity, owing both to more transponders and
higher performance in each, and greater reliability.The external
appearance of these satellites was the same as for CS and CS2.
The one major construction difference was that CS3 has two
internal equipment shelves.The lower was for mounting support
equipment, the upper for the communication subsystem. The
other major change on CS3 was the use of GaAs (gallium
arsenide) solar cells rather than silicon cells. This was the
first use of GaAs cells on any communication satellite. Their
benefits, relative to silicon, were 50-percent greater efficiency
at end of life plus lower sensitivity to operating temperature
and radiation effects. The increased power permitted operation
of more transponders. Also, larger batteries permitted the use
of all transponders in eclipse rather than only two on CS2. The
CS3 communication subsystem had two C-band and 10 K-band
channels. The C-band section had the same configuration as
CS2, but field effect transistor amplifiers replaced the TWTAs
Fig. 8.1. Japanese communicationsatellite (CS, CS2). (traveling wave tube amplifier).

462
 Japan

. . competition. The Japanese reluctantly

agreed, and direct plans for CS4 were
dropped. Nevertheless, the government
did require some new satellite capacity
L - in 1995 to replace the CS3 satellites. To
I 6045,6305 3820,4080 3 fulfill this need, in summer 1991 NTT
requested proposals for a new series of
satellites. These N-Stars are described
later in this section.
Details of the CS, CS2, and CS3
satellites are as follows.
Satellite
Cylinder, 2.18 m diam, 2.23 m (CS)/2.06 m
(CS2)/2.34 m (CS3) height, overall height,
2225 3.53 m (CS)/3.30 m (CS2)/3.53 m (CS3)
Approximately 340 kg (CS)/350 kg
27.65 17.85 (CS2)/550 kg (CS3) in orbit, beginning of
27.95 18.15 life
28.55 18.75 Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 529 W
28.85 19.05 (CS)/540 W (CS2) at beginning of life,
29.65 19.85
29.95 GHz 20.1 5 GHz 422 W minimum after 3 years (CS), 409
W minimum after 5 years (CS2), 840 W
minimum after 7 years (CS3)
Spin-stabilized, approximately 90 rpm,
*0.3/*0.2 deg antenna pointing accuracy
25.3 GHz (CS, CSUCS3)
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver,
hydrazine propulsion for on-orbit use

Configuration
C-band: two 200 MHz (CS)/180 MHz
(CS2, CS3) bandwidth single-conversion
repeaters
K-band: six 200 MHz (CS)/130 MHz (CS2)
bandwidth double-conversion repeaters,
Fig. 8.2. CS communication subsystem. ten 100 MHz bandwidth single-conversion
repeaters (CS3)
The K-band section had several changes: Capacity
There were more channels, each with a smaller C: 672 two-way voice circuits, or 432 voice circuits plus one
bandwidth, yet still more than sufficient for the 65 TV program, or 192 voice circuits plus two TV programs per
Mbps transmission used with CS2. repeater (CS2, CS3)
Newly developed GaAs FET (field effect transistor) K: 1920 two-way voice circuits per repeater (CS2, CS3)
preamplifiers at the uplink frequency provided
amplification before frequency conversion. This Transmitter
permitted a change from double- to single-conversion C: 3820 and 4080 MHz
transponders, with an attendant weight savings and 6 W M A (CS, CS2)/7 W FET (CS3) per repeater, one
improved performance. spare (CS2, CS3)
Transmitter redundancy was added. 29.5 dBW (CS, CS2)/31 dBW (CS3) minimum ElRP per
The two CS3 satellites were launched in 1988 and were repeater
among the first satellites launched by the Japanese H- 1. The K: 17.7-21.2 GHz band (see Figs. 8.2,8.3, and 8.5)
applications, transmission formats, and ground stations used
5 W (CS, CS2)/10 W (CS3)TWTA per repeater, five spares
with CS2 continued with CS3. These new satellites still were
(CS3)
not directed toward business communications, but business
users were able to look toward the new private communication 37 dBW (CS, CS2)/38.7 dBW (CS3) (main islands), 33.4
satellite systems about to be launched. The CS3 continued to dBW (CS3) (Okinawa) minimum ElRP per repeater
be primarily for government and public communications. Receiver
Studies of a CS4 series began prior to the CS3 launches. C: 6045 and 6305 MHz
However, as part of the U.S.-Japan trade negotiations, the
United States argued that CS4 was an operational satellite, not Active plus spare receiver
an experimental one, and hence should be procured by open Noise figure 9 dB (CS)/4 dB (CS2)/3.5 dB (CS3)
G/T -8 dB/K (CS), -6 dB/K (CS2), -4 dB/K (CS3)
463
Asian Satellites

n Orbital history
CS: launched 15 December 1977, turned
off and moved above geosynchronous
orbit after CS2 launches
I Delta 2914 launch vehicle
6045,6305 3820,4080 CS2A: launched 4 February 1983, turned
off and moved above geosynchronous
orbit after CS3 launches
CS2B: launched 5 August 1983, turned
off and moved above geosynchronous
orbit after CS3 launches
Japanese N-2 launch vehicle
CS3A: launched 19 February 1988
moved above geosynchronousorbit 1997
or 1998
27.625 7.825 CS3B: launched 16 September 1988
27.865 8.065 moved above geosynchronousorbit 1998
28.105 8.305 or 1999
28.465 8.665
28.705 8.905 Japanese H-1 launch vehicle
28.945 GH; 9.145 GHz
Management
Developed by Ford Aerospace and
Communications Corporation under
contract to Mitsubishi (Nippon Electric
developed part of the CS communication
subsystem and all of the CS2 and CS3
communication subsystems) for National
Space Development Agency (NASDA) of
Japan
Operated by NASDA (CS)TTelecom-
munication Satellite Corporation (since
1992, Telecommunications Advancement
Organization) of Japan (CS2, CS3)
-
t - ******
17.105 GHz
Fig. 8.3. CS2 communication subsystem.

K: 27.5-31.0 GHz band (see Figs. 8.2, 8.3, and 8.5)

Two active plus two spare receivers
Noise figure 13 dB (CS)/8 dB (CS2)/5 dB (CS3)
G/T -4.4 dB/K (CS), -3.8 dB/K (CS2), -0.7 dB/K (CS3)
(main islands), -6.7 dB/K (CS3) (Okinawa)
Antenna
Despun horn and 45 deg contoured reflector, 94 cm diam
aperture, circular polarization
C: 25 dB minimum gain (main and outlying islands)
K: 33 dB minimum gain (main islands only) (CS, CS2, CS3), 27
dB gain (Okinawa) (CS3)

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: 2286.5 MHz (CS), 3950 MHz (CS, CS2, CS3)
Beacon: 19.45 GHz (CS, CS2, CS3)
Command: 21 10.8 MHz (CS), 6175 MHz (CS, CS2, CS3)
Life
Three-year (CS)/5-year (CS2)n-year (CS3) design life

Orbit
Geostationary, kO.1 O (CS, CS2)/*0.05° (CS3) E-W and N-S
stationkeeping Fig. 8.4. CS3 satellite.

464
 Japan

6045,6305 3820,4080

-
~ T C-

I
K-Band

27.625 17.825
27.745 17.945
27.865 18.065
27.985 18.185
28.105 18.305
28.465 18.665
28.585 18.785
28.705 18.905
28.825 19.025
28.945 GHz 19.145 GHz

Receiver 3 -

Fig. 8.5. CS3 communicationsubsystem.

465
Asian Satellites

1. M. Hirai et al., “Development of Experimental and 15. Y. Nagai et al., “Design and Characteristicsof the CS-2
Applications Satellites,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 8-9 On-Board Communication Equipment Engineering Models,”
(August-September 1980) Paper 54.1, International Conference on Communications:
2. R. Hayashi, Y. Furuhama, and N. Fugono, “Propagation ICC ’81 (June 1981).
Characteristics for Millimeter and Quasi-Millimeter Waves 16. T. Tada et al., “CS Flight Data Analysis During 5 Years
by Using Three Japanese Geostationary Satellites,’’ Acta In-Orbit Operation,” Paper 22.8, First Canadian Domestic
Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 11 (November 1980). and International Satellite Communications Conference
3. T. Ishida et al., “Program of Medium-Capacity (June 1983).
Communications Satellite for Experimental Purpose,” Paper 17. T. Okamoto et al., “Communications Transponder
76-244, AIAAKASI 6th Communications Satellite Systems Performance for Japanese Communications Satellite-2 and
Conference (April 1976). Prospects for the Future Systems,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 10,
4. H. Hyams, “Design of the CS Communications No. 9 (September 1983).
Subsystem,” Paper 76-293, AIAAKASI 6th Communications 18. R. Suzuki et al., “Japanese Commercial TDMA
Satellite Systems Conference (April 1976). System,” Sixth International Conference on Digital Satellite
5. M. Kudo et al., “The Design of the Communications Communications (September 1983).Reprintedin International
Antenna for CS,” Paper 76-252, AIAAKASZ 6th Commu- Journal of Satellite Communication, Vol. 1, No. 2 (October-
nications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1976).Reprinted December 1983).
in Satellite Communications: Advanced Technologies, 19. K. Miyauchi, H. Yamamoto, and K. Kondo, “Commu-
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 55, D. Jarett, nication Equipment Technologies of Japanese Domestic
ed. (1977). Communication Satellites,” Paper 84-0681, AIAA IOth
6. H. Kaneda and K. Tsukamoto, “Experiments in the CS Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1984).
Program,” Paper 78-616, AIAA 7th Communications Satellite 20. Y. Nagai and S. Kato, “CS-3 Systems and the
Systems Conference (April 1978). Technical Prospects of Its Successor,”Paper 3.4, International
7. C. L. Cuccia, “Transponder and Antenna Design Conference on Communications: ICC ’84 (May 1984).
Problems at Millimeter Wavelengths for 20-30 GHz Commu- 21. R. Tanaka, “30/20 GHz Domestic Satellite
nication Satellites,”Symposium onAdvanced Satellite Commu- Communication System in the Public Communication
nications Systems, Genoa, Italy (December 1977). Network of Japan,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 72, No. 11
8. M. Hirai and H. Uda, “Experiment Programme for the (November 1984).
Japanese Communications Satellite,” Symposium on Advanced 22. Y. Otsu et al., “Japan’s CS-2 Pilot Program,” Earth-
Satellite Communications Systems, Genoa, Italy (December Oriented Applications of Space Technology, Vol. 5 , No. 4
1977). (1985).
9. K. Tsukamoto, N. Imai, and Y. Ichikawa, “Present 23. R. Suzuki andH. Hayashizaki, “NTT Domestic Satellite
Status and Future Plans of Japanese CS and BSE Programs,” Communications Systems,” Earth-Oriented Applications of
in Astronautics for Peace and Human Progress, Proceedings Space Technology, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1986).
of the XXZXth International Astronautical Congress (October 24. Y. Otsu et al., “Japan’s CS (Sakura) Communications
1978). SatelliteExperiments,”in six parts, ZEEE Transactionson Aero-
10. T. Saruwatari et al., “DigitalTransmission Experiments space and Electronic Systems, Vol. 22, No. 3 (May 1986).
with the CS Satellite,” Fourth International Conference on 25. Y. Shikata, M. Eguchi, and K. Funakawa, “High-speed
Digital Satellite Communications (October 1978). Digital Switched-Services Network Encompassing the CS-2
11. K. Tsukamoto et al., “Experimental Program and Communications Satellite System,” Paper 16.2, International
Performance of Japan’s Communication Satellite (CS) and Its Conference on Communications: ICC ’86 (June 1986).
First Results,” IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 26. M. Tanaka et al., “30/20 GHz and 6/4 GHz Band
27, No. 10 (October 1979). Transponder Development for Communications Satellite CS-
12. K. Tsukamoto, H. Fuketa, and Y. Ichikawa, “Present 3,” Paper 16.5,International Conference on Communications:
and Future Aspects of Japanese ‘CS’Program,” Paper 80-0471, ZCC ’86 (June 1986).
AIAA 8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference 27. K. Hashimoto et al., “Pilot Program and Operational
(April 1980). Reprinted in Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Users of CS-2 Communication Satellite in Ka-Band,” Acta
Vol. 18, No. 3 (May-June 1981). Astronautica, Vol. 16 (1987).
13. T. Ishida et al., “Satellite Communication Experiments 28. T. Mori and T. Iida, “Japan’s Space Development
of CS,”Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 8-9 (August- September Programs for Communications:An Overview,” IEEE Journal
1980). on Selected Areas of Communications, Vol. 5, No. 5 (May
14. K. Miyauchi, “NTT’s Domestic Satellite 1987).
Communication System,” IEEE Communications Magazine, 29. M. Miura, “Perspective of Satellite Communications in
Vol. 18, No. 5 (September 1980). Japan,” Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 56, No. 8 (August
1989).

466
 Japan

the BS2 satellites used a Japanese launch vehicle rather than

the U.S. vehicle used for the BSE.
The communication subsystem was relatively simple and
supported only two channels. The antenna pattern was shaped
to provide coverage of both the main and outlying islands of
Japan. There were two categoriesof differencebetween the BSE
and BS2. One was adjustments in the frequencies,polarization,
and some other parameters to conform to the decisions of the
1977 ITU (International Telecommunication Union) satellite
broadcasting conference. The other was changes as the result
of improvements in electronics; these are noted on Fig. 8.7.
The following details apply to both satellites.
Satellite
Rectangular body, approximately 1.2 m square, height
approximately0.9 m, overall height (body, apogee motor nozzle,
and antenna) 3.0 m (BSE)/2.9 m (BS2), overall span 8.9 m
354 kg in orbit, beginning of life
Sun-tracking solar array and NiCd batteries, 1000 W minimum
at beginning of life (BSE), 780 W minimum after 3 years (BSE),
900 W minimum after 5 years (BS2)
Three-axis stabilization, k0.2 deg (BSE)/rtO.l deg (BS2)
pointing accuracy (3s)
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, monopropellant
hydrazine for on-orbit use

Configuration
Two single-conversion channels, 50 and 80 MHz (BSE)/27
Fig. 8.6. Japanese Broadcasting Satellite (BS2). MHz (BS2) bandwidth

Capacity
Broadcasting Satellites (BSE, BS2, BS3) One TV signal per channel
In Japan, satellite television broadcasting [l-381 is used to Transmitter
extend current broadcastingto outlying areas and house- 11.95-12.00 GHz and 12.05-12.13 GHz (BSE)
holds on the main islands that have poor reception or none,
11.906-1 1.933 GHz and 11.983-1 2.01 0 GHz (BS2), ITU
overcome degradations of urban-area terrestrial television broadcasting channels 11 and 15
broadcasting owing to blockage and interference,
Three transmitters (two on, one standby)
provide new broadcasting services,
promote technological developments,
provide an alternative to terrestrial
equipment, which may be damaged by
14.21-14.31 G H z ( ~ ) 11.91-1 2.01 GHz(~)
natural disasters.
The first satellite in the program was the
Medium Scale Broadcasting Satellite for
Experimental Purpose (BSE or BS). It was
named Yuri (Lily) after launch. This satellite
was used for many technical measurements;
Operationaltesting, especiallywith transportable
terminals; and experience in the control of a
three-axis-stabilized satellite. The operational
phase of the program used the BS2 satellites,
followed by the BS3 satellites.
The BSE and BS2 satellites were very
similar in design. Both were three-axis-
stabilized with deployed solar arrays. All
equipment was contained within or on the (a)14.25-14.43 in BSE
sides of the rectangular body. The single large @)TDin BSE
antenna was fixed to the satellite. The BS2 had (C)TW in BSE
improvements intended to increase its life to 5 (d)l 1.95-1 2.1 3 in BSE
years, compared with 3 years for BSE. Also, Fig. 8.7. Broadcasting Satellite communication subsystem (BS2).

467
Asian Satellites

Management
Developed by General Electric under
contract to Tokyo Shibaura (Toshiba)
for National Space Development
Agency (NASDA) of Japan
Operated by NASDA (BSE)/Telecom-
munications Satellite Corporation
(since 1992,TelecommunicationsAd-
vancement Organization) of Japan
(BS2)
The BSE was launched in April 1978.
Television broadcasting ceased in June 1980
with the failure of the last TWTA. Activities involving the
satellite, which did not depend on the TWTAs, continued until
January 1982, when the attitude control fuel was exhausted.
BS2A was launched early in 1984. Within 3 months, two of
Fig. 8.8. BS2X, 3H satellite. the three TWTAs had failed, reducing the satellite capacity to
one channel. This upset the plans for operational broadcasting
and caused a reassessment of Japanese practices in buying
satellites. Considerable effort was devoted to identifying
the problem and correcting it on BS2B. In 1985, BS2A had
100 W output per channel problems with attitude control and power, and its status was
EIRP per channel: 55 dBW minimum for primary area, dBW reduced to experimental. The BS2B was launched in February
minimum for fringe areas 1986, a year later than planned because of the BS2A problems.
In early summer, it experienced an attitude control problem,
Receiver which was fixed by switching to the redundant controller.
14.25-14.30 GHz and 14.35-14.43 GHz (BSE) Transmissions to the BSE and BS2s originated from either
14.206-14.233 GHz and 14.283-14.310 GHz (BS2) a fixed main terminal near Tokyo or transportable terminals.
Two receivers (one on, one standby) The BSE terminal had an 8 m antenna; BS2 terminals 2.4 m
antennas for use in the main islands and 4.5 m antennas for the
8.5 dB (BSE)/ 17.5 dB (BS2) noise figure
remote islands. Home receiving antennas were as small as 0.7
Antenna m in the main islands and up to 2.4 m in the remote islands.
Single parabolic reflector, 1.04 x 1.58 m, 1.4 x 2 deg beamwidth In December 1986, two-channel operational broadcasting
(at -4 dB), 40.3 dB peak transmit gain, center-fed (BSE)/offset- began. About 100,000 homes were equipped to receive the
fed (BS2); three feeds are used together to shape the beam broadcasts. In July 1987, 24 hr broadcasting began. By the
(77% of the power goes through the main feed); linear (BSE)/ beginning of 1989,1.3 million homes were equipped to receive
circular (BS2) polarization the broadcasts; a year later, the number was over 2 million. To
reliably support this service, NHK, the national broadcasting
Telemetry and command company, required a backup satellite in orbit. Since BS2A had
Telemetry: in 2200-2290 MHz band (BSE, BS2), 11.7125 GHz only one functioning TWTA, it was not an adequate backup,
(BSE), in 11.7-12.2 GHz band (BS2) so NHK ordered an interim satellite, which was designated
Command: in 2025-21 10 MHz band (BSE, BS2), 14.0125 GHz BS2X. This satellite was intended to guarantee operations until
(BSE), in 14.0-14.5 GHz band (BS2) the next regular generation, BS3A and BS3B, was available.
BS2X was originally built for the US. television
Life broadcasting system of Satellite Television Corporation. When
Three-year (BSE)/5-year (BS2) design life those plans were canceled, the satellite became available
Orbit for purchase. After the NHK purchase, the satellite required
a different receiver, copied from other satellites, retuning of
Geostationary, 11O"E longitude, kO.1 O E-W and N-S station-
keeping transmitter components, and changes in the antenna beam-
forming network. Details of BS2X follow.
Orbital history SatelIite
BSE: launched 7 April 1978, operations ceased June 1980 Rectangular body, 1.32 x 2.03 x 1.12 m, span of solar array
owing to TWTA failures, satellite life ended January 1982 16.8 m
Delta 2914 launch vehicle Approximately 640 kg in orbit, beginning of life
BS2A: launched23 January 1984, early failures reduced status Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiCd batteries, approximately
to experimental, moved above geosynchronous orbit, April 2500 W at beginning of life, approximately 2000 W at end of life;
1989 batteries support only housekeeping functions during eclipse
BS2B: launched 12 February 1986, backup satellite after BS3A Three-axis stabilization, k0.1 deg accuracy, using a pivoted
initialization, then moved above geosynchronous orbit momentum wheel and magnetic torquers
Japanese N-2 launch vehicle Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver, hydrazine propellant
for on-orbit use

468
 Japan

Three-axis-stabilized, using a pivoted

momentum wheel and magnetic torquers,
antenna-pointingaccuracy kO.1 deg
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver,
monopropellant hydrazine for on-orbit use

Configuration
Three 27 MHz bandwidthplus one 60 MHz
bandwidth single-conversiontransponder

Transmitter
In the 11.75-12.01 GHz band (27 MHz
transponders), and 12.61-12.67 GHz
Fig. 8.9. BS3A, 3B, 3N satellite. One active plus one spare 120 W TWTA
for each 27 MHz transponder, one 20 W
M A for the 60 MHz transponder
ElRP 55.5 dBW over Japanese main
islands, 46.5 dBW minimum over outlying islands (27
Configuration MHz transponders); 48 dBW over main islands (60 MHz
Three 27 MHz bandwidth single-conversiontransponders transponder)
Transmitter Receiver
In the 11.71-12.01 GHz band In the 14.05-14.31 GHz band (27 MHz transponders) and
One active plus one spare TWTA per transponder, 230 W at 14.34-14.4 GHz
beginning of life, 200 W at end of life One active and one spare receiver
Receiver Antenna
In the 14.01-14.31 GHz band One offset-fed parabolic reflector 79 x 170 cm., two feed horns,
One active plus two spare receivers right-hand circular polarization

Antenna Telemetry and command

One 2.16 m diam parabolic reflector, multihorn feed to produce Telemetry: in 2200-2290 MHz and 11.7-12.2 GHz bands
beam shaped to cover Japan, circular polarization Command: in 2025-21 10 MHz and 14.0-14.5 GHz bands
Life Life
Seven-year design life Seven-year design life
Orbit Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to kO.1 "N-S and E-W Geostationary, 11O"E longitude, stationkeeping to kO.1"N-S
and E-W
Orbital history
Destroyed by launch vehicle explosion during ascent, 22 Orbital history
February 1990 BS3A launched 28 August 1990, in use until after the BSatl s
Ariane launch vehicle were in operation, then moved above geosynchronous orbit
BS3B launched 25 August 1991, in use until after the BSatl s
Management were in operation, then moved above geosynchronous orbit
Developed for NHK by GE Astro Space
Japanese H-I launch vehicle
The destruction of BS2X forced NHK to depend on BS2B alone, BS3N launched 8 July 1994, orbital spare
since BS2A had reached the end of its useful life by early 1989.
The next step was to wait for the two BS3 satellites. A contract Ariane launch vehicle
for their development was awarded in fall 1985. BS3 supported Management
broadcasting of three channels and had a separate channel
Developed for NASDA by NEC (communications payload and
for experimental broadcasting of high-quality television. The command and telemetry) and GE Astro Space (spacecraft)
satellite life, transmitter power, and some other performance
characteristicswere improved from the BS2 design. The satellite Operated by Telecommunications Satellite Corporation (since
and broadcasting characteristicsfollow. 1992, Telecommunications Advancement Organization) of
Japan until November 1998, then by Broadcasting Satellite
Satellite System Corporation
Rectangular body, 1.37 x 1.77 x 1.71 m, height including The BS3A was launched in August 1990 and placed into
antennas 3.2 m, span of solar arrays approximately 15 m
synchronousorbit 2 days after launch. Initial tests revealed that
Approximately 590 kg in orbit, beginning of life the solar arrays were producing only 75 percent of their expected
Sun-tracking solar array and NiCd batteries, approximately output power. This failure allowed use of three transponders
1950W at beginningof life, batteries support only housekeeping early in the satellite life, but only two later in its life. A solar
functions during eclipse
469
Asian Satellites

flare in March of 1991 further reduced the available power, 5. “AdaptingaSatelliteDesigntoDifferingCommunication

preventing use of three transponders during the summer of that Missions,” Telecommunication Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4 (April
year. To maintain three transponders in operation, one from 1976).
BS2B was used. Several changes had been made in BS3B as a 6. L. T. Seaman, “Japanese Broadcast Satellite,” Acta
result of the power problem and other anomalies experienced Astronautica, Vol. 5, No. 5-6 (May-June 1978).
by BS3A after launch. BS3B performed well in all on-orbit
tests and was put into operation at the end of November 1991, 7. L. T. Seaman, “Japanese Broadcast Satellite,”EASCON
at which time BS2B was retired. ’76 Conference Record (September 1976).
Because of the continuing satellite problems, in mid-1990 8. Y. Ichikawa, “The Results of Initial Checkup of
the Japanese ordered another satellite, BS3H. This satellite was Japanese Broadcasting Satellite for Experimental Purpose,”
a copy of BS2X and was the second of two satellites built for IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 24, No. 4 (December
SatelliteTelevision Corporationbut never used. It had the same 1978).
communication subsystem modifications as BS2X. The BS3H 9. K. Tsukamoto, “Technical Aspects of the Japanese
was destroyed by an Atlas launch vehicle malfunction during Broadcasting Satellite Experiments,” IEEE Transactions on
ascent on 18 April 1991. Because of this loss, the Japanese Broadcasting, Vol. 24, No. 4 (December 1978).
ordered BS3N in 1992. It has three transponders in a design
similar or identical to BS3B. BS3N was launched successfully 10. H. Kaneda and K. Tsukamoto, “Experiments in the
in 1994 and is an in-orbit spare for BS3A and BS3B. Program of Japanese Medium-Scale Broadcasting Satellite
April 1991 marked the beginning of broadcasts by Japan for Experimental Purpose,” Paper 78-583, AIAA 7th
Satellite Broadcasting, a commercial company. Previous Communications Satellite Systems Conference (April 1978).
broadcastshadonly been by NHK, the nationalpublicbroadcaster. 11. T. Ishida, S . Soejima, and Y. Ichikawa, “Present
By law, both were required to depend on subscription fees for a Situation of Japanese Satellite Broadcasting for Experimental
majority of their support; advertising was limited to a minority Purpose,” IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 25, No. 4
of support. However, although about 4 million households (December 1979).
could receive satellite broadcasts in 1991, either by their own
antennas or through shared antennas or cable systems, only 60 12. Y. Otsu et al., “Propagation Measurements and TV-
percent were paying the subscriptions. By 1993, the number of Reception Tests with the Japanese Broadcasting Satellite for
households that could receive broadcasts had increased to seven Experimental Purposes,” IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting,
million. Japan Satellite Broadcasting used one transponder to Vol. 25, No. 4 (December 1979).
provide a mix of entertainment, sports, and other programs. 13. N. Imai, S. Sonoda, and Y. Ichikawa, “Experimental
NHK used one transponder for news and sports, and another for Results of Japanese BSE Program in the First Year,” Paper 80-
entertainment and cultural programs. In 1992, Satellite Digital 0569,AIAA8th Communications Satellite Systems Conference
Audio Broadcasting Corporation began broadcasting a number (April 1980).
of audio channels with very high sound quality.
The next generation of satellites were
not BS4, but BSat 1A and 1B (described in a
following subsection),reflecting a change from
government to commercial operation of the
satellites.
I*****

1. M. Hirai et al., “Development of

Experimental and Applications Satellites,”
Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 8-9 (August-
September 1980).
2. R. Hayashi, Y. Furuhama, and N.
Fugono, “Propagation Characteristics for
Millimeter and Quasi-Millimeter Waves by
Using Three Japanese Geostationary Satellites,”
Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 11 (November
1980).
3. T. Ishida et al., “Program of Medium-
Scale Broadcasting Satellite for Experimental
Purpose,” Paper 76-255, AIAAKASI 6th
Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(April 1976).
4. W. Johnson and H. Reichert,
“Developmentof a Medium Scale Broadcasting
Satellitefor Experimental Purposes,” WESCON 1.73 GHz
Technical Papers (September 1975).
Fig. 8.10. BS3A, 3B communication subsystem.

470
 Japan

14. T. Ishida et al., “Satellite Broadcasting Experiments of International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
BSE,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 8-9 (August- September (March 1988).
1980). 30. K. Arai et al., “In-Orbit Performance of Broadcasting
15. S. Shimizu and K. Arai, “Operational Achievements Satellite 2B,” Paper 88-0880, AIAA 12th International
with Japanese Broadcasting Satellite for Experimental Purpose Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March
(BSE),” IEEE 1980 International Microwave Symposium 1988).
(May 1980). 31. S. Miura et al., “Electrical Performance of BS-
16. K. Yamamoto, K. Sugimori, and T. Kimura, 3 Shaped-Beam Antenna,” Paper 88-0876, AIAA 12th
“Development of 12 GHz TWT for Broadcasting Satellites,” International Communications Satellite Systems Conference
IEEE 1980 International Microwave Symposium (May (March 1988).
1980). 32. T. Akanuma et al., “Development Activities of 12 GHz,
17. M. Yamamoto and S. Sonoda, “Evaluation of Service 120W TWTA for Japanese Broadcasting Satellites of BS-3,”
Area in the Satellite Broadcasting by the BSE,” IEEE 1980 Paper 88-0833, AIAA 12th International Communications
International Microwave Symposium (May 1980). Satellite Systems Conference (March 1988).
18. R. Takahashi, “Planning and Experimentation for 33. M. Matsushita and S. Yokoyama, “Experience on
an Operational Broadcasting Satellite for Japan,” Paper Operating a DBS System (BS-2) in Japan,” IEEE Transactions
73.4, National Telecommunications Conference: NTC ’80 on Broadcasting, Vol. 34, No. 4 (December 1988).
(November 1980). 34. S. Miura, “Overview of Next Japanese Direct
19. N. Imai et al., “Experimental Results of the Japanese Broadcasting Satellite (BS-3):’ Paper 90-0797, AIAA 13th
BSE Program,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 7, No. 11 (November Communication Satellite Systems Conference (March 1990).
1980). Reprinted in Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 35. Y. Takahashi, “The Development of Satellite
19, NO.4 (July-August 1982). Broadcasting in Japan,” Space Communications, Vol. 8, No.
20. K. Arai et al., “BSE In-Orbit Performance and 5&6 (November 1991).
Operational Summary,” Paper 82-0461, AIAA 9th 36. W. L. Morgan, “Broadcast Satellites for Japan,”
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (March Satellite Communications (February 1992).
1982).
37. S. Miura et al., “The Performance of Japanese Direct
21. K. Iwasaki et al., “Results of the BSE Experiment,” Broadcasting Satellite (BS-3) On Orbit,” Paper 92-2035,
Paper 82-0503, AIAA 9th Communications Satellite Systems AIAA 14th International Communications Satellite Systems
Conference (March 1982). Conference (March 1992).
22. S. Shimosekoet al., “SatelliteBroadcastingExperiments 38. “Broadcasting Satellites,” yyy.tksc.nasda.go.jp/ Home/
and In-Orbit Performance of BSE,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 9, Satelliteshs-e.htm (8 September 1999).
No. 8 (August 1982).
23. Special Issue on the Japanese Broadcast Satellite, IEEE
Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 28, No. 4 (December JSAT
1982). Eleven papers on the program, the satellite, uses of the Japan Communications Satellite (JCSat) [ 1-81, established
satellite, and propagation. in 1985, was the first of the two private Japanese systems to
24. S. Sonoda, “BS-2 SpacecraftDesign,With Emphasis on begin operating. The company started as a partnership of C.
Shaped Beam Antenna,” Paper 22.5, First Canadian Domestic Itoh and Mitsui of Japan with Hughes Electronics. By 2005 the
and International Satellite Communications Conference (June shareholders were NTT and its subsidiaries and three banks.
1983). In 1993, Hughes sold its portion of the company, which then
merged with Satellite Japan Corporation to form Japan Satellite
25. Y. Nakamura, “The Operational Broadcasting Satellite Systems (JSAT), but the satellites retain the JCSat name. In
System for Japan,” Paper 35.4, International Conference on 2000 the formal name of the corporation was shortened to
Communications: ICC ’84 (May 1984). JSAT. Over the period 2000 to 2003 it acquired ownership
26. Y. Nakamura, “The Operational Satellite Broadcasting of the N-Star satellites (described below). JSAT is operating
System in Japan,” Tenth International Broadcasting as a wholesaler of communication services, leasing satellite
Convention, IEE Conference Publication No. 240 (September capacity to other organizations. Its satellites are controlled
1984). Reprinted in Journal of the Institution of Electronic from an operations center and ground station in Yokohama,
and Radio Engineers, Vol. 55, No. 10 (October 1985). with a backup station in Gunma, about 80 miles away.
27. M. Miura, “Perspective of Satellite Communicationsin The first two JCSat satellites were identical; the design was
Japan,” Telecommunications Journal, Vol. 56, No. 8 (August similar in many ways to SBS (Satellite Business Systems)-
1989). 6 and Intelsat VI. It was a large cylinder with an antenna
and telescoping solar array that were deployed in orbit; see
28. M. Matsushita and T. Hasegawa, “NHK’s Satellite Fig. 8.11. The central portion of the upper solar array was a
Broadcasting System and Its Operation,”EASCON Conference mirrored radiator for heat generated by the communication
Record (September 1986). subsystem. This subsystem was mounted on a despun shelf
29. T. Hasegawa, “An Overview of the Japanese directly behind the radiator. The shelf also supported the
Satellite Broadcasting Program,” Paper 88-0807, AIAA 12th antenna, which was pointed using information derived from

47 1
Asian Satellites

Transmitter
12.25-1 2.75 GHz
One 20 W TWTA per transponder plus eight spares per
satellite
ElRP 51 dBW over central Japan, 49 dBW over 80% of land
area, 46 dBW over 95% of land area

Receiver
14.0-14.5 GHz
Four receivers (two active, two spare)
FET preamplifiers, 3.0 dB noise figure
GTT 12 dB/K over central Japan, 10 dB/K over 90% of land
area

Antenna
Dual-gridded offset-fed parabolic reflector, 2.4 m diam, ortho-
gonal linear polarizations; multihorn feed arrays, one per
polarization, shaped beam for four main Japanese islands plus
Okinawa

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: in 12.25-12.75 GHz band
Command: in 14.0-14.5 GHz band

Life
Ten-year design life

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to *0.05"N-S and E-W

Orbital history
JCSat 1: launched 7 March 1989, in use until 1997 at 150"E
longitude, moved above geostationary orbit in 1998
Fig. 8.11. JCSat I and 2 satellite. JCSat 2: launched 31 December 1989, in use at 154"E
longitude until replaced by JCSat 2A (JCSat 8) in 2002, moved
above geostationary orbit in 2002
tracking a ground-transmitted beacon. Further JCSat 1 and 2
satellite details are as follows. Ariane launch vehicle (l), Titan Ill (2)

Satellite Management
Hughes HS 393 bus Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Japan Commu-

-
Cylinder, 3.7 m diam, 3.4 m heiaht - stowed for launch, 10 m nications Satellites, later Japan Satellite Systems
height in orbit Operated by Japan Communications Satellite, later Japan
1364 kg in orbit, beginning of life Satellite Systems
Solar array and NiH, batteries, 2350 W
at beginning of life, 1800 W minimum
after 10 years 1
14.0-14.5 GHz
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, antenna
r
pointing accuracy0.05 deg by tracking
an uplink beacon il
L
Unified bipropellant propulsion for
perigeeaugmentation,apogeemaneu-
ver, and on-orbit use (solid perigee
motor on JCSat 2)
12.25-
Configuration 12.75 GHz
Thirty-two 27 MHz bandwidth single-
conversion transponders, dual-
polarization frequency reuse

Capacity
45 Mbps or one TV signal per
transponder Fig. 8.12. JCSat I and 2 communication subsystem.

472
 Japan

The JCSat contract required delivery in orbit of tested satellites

This required the manufacturer to make all arrangements for
launch, transfer orbit control, and in-orbit testing. The two
satellites were launched in March and December 1989; each
began operational service about 6 weeks after launch.
Two-thirds of the transponders on the two satellites were in
use by the fall of 1990.Uses included digital data transmissions,
television distribution for network broadcasters and cable
systems, transmission of live television news from remote
locations, video conferencing, educational television for both
high schools and businesses, and digital voice. Many users
were connected to the operations center using voice circuits
through the satellite; these provide good coordination and
speedy action if problems occur. Ground antenna sizes varied
between 1.2 and 11 m. Until 1995, the two satellites were
confined to domestic use; in that year the Ministry of Posts and
Telecommunications gave permission for international use.
From that time JSAT began to develop international business
using coverage that existed in the satellites’ antenna patterns
for China, Taiwan, Korea, and Hawaii. JCSat 1 developed a
fuel leak, which reduced its operational life. It was replaced
Fig. 8.13. JCSat 2A coverage areas.
temporarily by JCSat 4 in 1997 and for the long term by JCSat
5 the next year. JCSat 2 remained in use until 2002.
JCSat ordered its third satellite in October 1993 and its not required for the mission of this satellite.
fourth in December 1995 [9]. The purpose of the third (which In January 2005 JCSatlB had a 1-day outage owing to
might have used equipment left over from the 1992 satellite an attitude control problem that occurred during a maneuver.
contract canceled when Satellite Japan Corporation merged This problem recurred in July 2005. The satellite could not be
with JCSat) is to increase coverage and capacity; the fourth is recovered quickly, so JCSat R was moved and took over traffic
an in-orbit backup. The fourth operated for a while as JCSat 4 that had been on JCSat 1B. JCSat 11, ordered in September
then was designated JCSat R (for reserve). The fifth satellite 2005, will become the new JCSat R.
was ordered in June 1996 to replace JCSat 1, and the sixth was The satellites are built in two modules. One has all the
ordered in December 1996 to provide more capacity for the primary structure,propulsion,battery, and supportsfor the solar
digital television broadcasting started on JCSat 3 (Fig. 8.14). arrays and antennas.The other module has the communications
The manufacturer delivered the third satellite in orbit; launches electronics and the thermal control, including radiators on the
for the others were arranged by JSAT. north- and south-viewing faces of the satellite body, for the
These satellites have a design very different from the first high-power amplifiers. Additional JCSat 3 to 6 information is
two satellites.The third and fourth satelliteseach have the same as follows, tagged with the satellite number where there are
Ku-band bandwidth as the earlier satellitesbut with three times differences among them.
the power per transponder. In addition, they have 12 C-band Satellite
transponders. JCSat 3 and 4 have three Ku-band antennas, one Hughes HS 601 bus
with a deployed reflector for coverage of Japan and the other
two on the Earth-viewing face of the satellite body; the smaller Rectangular body approximately 2.4 x 2.4 x 2.0 m, 7.5 m span
for coverage of eastern Asia and India, the larger for Australia across deployed reflectors, 26.2 m solar array span
and New Zealand. The other deployed reflector is for the C- 1841 kg in orbit, beginning of life
band antenna with coverage of eastern and southern Asia and Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH, battery, 5200 W maximum,
Hawaii. All the reflectors are shaped to beginning of life
generate the desired coverages with
a single feed horn per antenna. The
communication subsystem allows
cross-band transponders with up to 10
C-band uplinks connected to Ku-band Fig. 8.14. JCSat 3, 4 satellite.
downlinks and up to 10 Ku-band uplinks
connected to C-band downlinks.
JCSats 5 and 6 (Fig. 8.16), later known as JCSats 1B
and 4A, have similar Ku-band capabilities as JCSat 3 and 4
but do not have the C-band transponders [lo, 111. The weight
savings is used for more fuel for a longer life. JCSats 5 and 6
do not have the antennas on the satellite body; otherwise their
external appearance is the same as JCSats 3 and 4. On JCSat
5, one of the deployed reflectors is for coverage of Japan,
the other for coverage of Asia and Hawaii. On JCSat 6, both
antennas are for coverage of Japan; international coverage is

473
Asian Satellites

One 95 W linearized TWTA for each of twelve 36 MHz

bandwidth transponders, one 60 W linearized TWTA for
each of the other transponders;transponders combined to
76 MHz bandwidth have 190 W power; six spares; edge of
beam ElRP 46 dBW (Japan beam), 38,44dBW (two Asia
beams), 54 dBW (Hawaii beam) (5)
One 75 W linearized TWTA per transponder plus eight
spares (6)

Receiver
C: 6225-6485 MHz (3,4)
Two active plus two spare receivers (3,4)
Edge of beam G/T -5 dB/K (Asia beam), -9 dB/K (Asia
and Pacific beam) (3)
Ku: 13.75-14.5GHz
Four/six active plus two spare receivers (3/4)
Edge of beam G/T +2 dB/K (Japan beam), -7,-1 dB/K
(two Asia beams) (3)
Edge of beam G/T +2 dB/K (Japan beam), -7,-1 dB/K
(two Asia beams), -1 dB/K (Hawaii beam) (5)
Fig. 8.15. JCSat 3 coverage areas.
Antenna
Three-axis-stabilized using gimballed momentum wheels; C: one deployed, shaped reflector, octagonal perimeter with
primary antenna pointing reference is a beacon transmitted by 2.2 m diam, one feed horn, dual linear polarizations, cross-
either ground control station; pointing accuracy is k0.05 deg polarization isolation r27 dB (3,4)
(pitch and roll) for the antenna tracking the beacon, kO.1 deg Ku: one deployed, shaped reflector, octagonal perimeter with
(pitch and roll) for other antennas, k0.3 deg (yaw) 2.2 m diam, one feed horn each plus four tracking feed horns
Liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuvers and on- on one of them; two body-mounted antennas with shaped-
orbit use surface reflectors, octagonal perimeter with 1.5 and 1.8 m
diameters, one feed horn each: dual linear polarizations,cross-
Configuration polarization isolation 230 dB (3,4)
C: 12 transponders with 36 MHz bandwidth, up to 10 Ku: two deployed, shaped reflectors, octagonal perimeter with
transponders'uplinksmay be switchedto Ku-bandtransponders' 2.2 m diam, one feed horn each plus four tracking feed horns
downlinks, dual-polarizationfrequency reuse (3,4) on one of them; dual linear polarizations, cross-polarization
isolation r30 dB (5, 6)
Ku: 12 transponders with 36 MHz bandwidth and 16 with 27
MHz bandwidth, four of which may be combined into two Telemetry and command
transponders of 54 MHz bandwidth; 10 additional uplink
frequencies with 36 MHz bandwidth available which may be Telemetry: in 12.2-12.75 GHz band via communications or
switched to C-band transponders' downlinks; dual-polarization omnidirectional antenna
frequency reuse (3,4) Beacon: 3930 MHz, 12.247and 12.7475GHz (3,4)
Ku: 16 transponders with 27 MHz bandwidth and 16 Command: in 13.75-14.5GHz band via communications or
transponders with 36 MHz bandwidth, four of which may be omnidirectional antenna
combined into two transponders of 76 MHz bandwidth, dual-
polarization frequency reuse (5) Life
Ku: 32 transponders with 27 MHz bandwidth, dual-polarization Twelve/fifteen-yearfuel life (345-6)
frequency reuse (6)
Orbit
Transmitter Geostationary, stationkeeping to approximately k0.05"N-S and
C: 3940-4200 MHz (3,4) E-W
One 34 W solid-state amplifier per transponder plus two Orbital history
spares per six transponders (3,4);
edge of beam ElRP 36 JCSat 3:launched 28 August 1995,128"E longitude
dBW (Asia beam), 28 dBW (Asia and Pacific beam) (3)
JCSat 4, R: launched 16 February 1997,originally in use at
Ku: 12.2-12.75GHz 124"E longitude, then spare at various longitudes, moved to
One 63 W linearized TWTA per transponder plus six 150"E longitude in July 2005 to replace JCSat 1 B
spares; edge of beam ElRP 46 dBW (Japan beam), 38,44 JCSat 5, IB: launched 2 December 1997, in use at 150"E
dBW (two Asia beams) (3) longitude until July 2005
One 95 W linearized TWTA for each of four 36 MHz JCSat 6,4A:launched 15 February 1999,124"E longitude
bandwidth transponders, one 63 W linearized M A for
each of the other transponders: transponders combined to Atlas IlAS launch vehicle (3,4,6),Ariane (5)
54 MHz bandwidth have 125 W power; six spares (4)

474
 Japan

Management
Developed by Hughes Space and Communications Company
(a unit of GM-Hughes Electronics) for Japan Communications
Satellites, later Japan Satellite Systems, later JSAT
Operated by Japan Communications Satellites, later Japan
Satellite Systems, later JSAT
JSAT and SCC were competing for rights to operate a Ku-band
satellite at 110"E longitude. The government of Japan resolved
the conflict in 1998 by assigning half the rights to each, to
be implemented on a shared satellite controlled by SCC. The
satellite is described in the following Superbird subsection.
JSAT calls its half of the satellite JCSat 7 or JCSat 110.
In April 2000 JSAT ordered JCSat 8 [ll-121 as a
replacement for JCSat 2. The new satellite has a broad C-band
beam with coverage including Mongolia, China, India, and the
continental and island nations east and south of them through
Australia and New Zealand. The C-band beam also covers
Hawaii. The Ku-band beam is focused on Japan. JCSat 8 was
launched in March 2002. After in-orbit testing, it was renamed
JCSat 2A and replaced JCSat 2, which was then moved above
the geostationary orbit.
The appearance of JCSat 8 is like that of JCSat 5 and 6
(Fig. 8.16), except that each solar array has only three panels
instead of four. One of the two antenna reflectors deployed to
the side of the satellite body is for C-band communications;
the other is for Ku-band communications. Additional details
about JCSat 8 follow. Fig. 8.16. JCSut 5, 6 satellite.
Satellite
Boeing 601 bus
Span across deployed antennas 7.6 m, span of solar arrays
21 m
2600 kg at launch, 1600 kg in orbit, beginning of life Antenna
Deployed, sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH, battery, 4.1 kW, Two 2.2 m diam deployed reflectors, one each for C-band and
beginning of life, 3.4/3.7 kW end of life (equinoxlsolstice) Ku-band
Three-axis stabilized Life
Liquid apogee motor and bipropellant liquid propulsion for on- Eleven years design life
orbit use
Orbit
Configuration Geostationary, stationkeepingto approximately *0.05"N-S and
C-band: 11 transponders with 36 MHz bandwidth and 5 E-W
transponders with 54 MHz bandwidth
Ku-band: 16 transponders with 57 MHz bandwidth Orbital history
JCSat 8,2A: 28 March 2002, in use at 154"E longitude
Transmitter Ariane 4 launch vehicle
C: in 3700-4200 MHz
34 W SSPAs (&lid-state power amplifier) Management
Developed by Hughes Space and Communications, later
Ku: 12.25-1 2.75 GHz Boeing Satellite Systems for JSAT
120 W M A S Operated by JSAT
57 dBW ElRP at edge of main Japanese islands, 48 dBW
at edge of beam
In April 2003 JSAT ordered JCSat 9 from Lockheed Martin.
The next month JSAT announcedthat it would lease some of the
Receiver capacity on this new satellite to NTT DoCoMo as a replacement
C: in 5900-6500 MHz for N-Star A. See N-Star below for further information about
JSAT and NTT. JCSat 9 has C-band and Ku-band for fixed-site
-1 0 dB/K GTT at edge of beam
communications throughout Asia and C-band and S-band for
Ku: 14.0-1 4.5GHz mobile communications. It was launched in April 2006 and is
+10 dB/K G/T at edge of main Japanese islands, +2 dB/K operated at 132"E longitude, the longitude of N-Star A.
at edge of beam In April 2004 JSAT ordered JCSat 10 from Lockheed
Martin. It has 12 C-band and 30 Ku-band transponders for

475
Asian Satellites

4090 kg at launch, 2630 kg in orbit, beginning of

life
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH, batteries, 9900
W beginning of life, 8600 W end of life
Three-axis-stabilized using gimballed momentum
wheels
Unified liquid bipropellant propulsion for apogee
maneuver and on-orbit use plus ion propulsion for
north-south stationkeeping
Configuration
C: Twenty-four transponders, details under Galaxy
13 in chapter 6
Ku:Twenty-four36 MHz bandwidthsingle-conversion
transponders, dual-polarizationfrequency reuse

Transmitter
Ku-band: 11.7-1 2.2 GHz
Twenty-four active plus 8 spare 108 W linearized
TWTAs
ElRP 48 dBW over eastern CONUS, 44 dBW over
Fig. 8.17. JCSat 9 satellite. United States, Puerto Rico, 40 dBW over southern
half of Canada, Mexico and parts of Caribbean
communications throughout Asia, and will operate at 128"E Receiver
longitude after in-orbit testing. In September 2005 JSAT Ku-band: 14.006-14.497 GHz
ordered JCSat 11 from Lockheed Martin. It too will have C- GTT +2 dB/K over much of United States, -2 dB/K over all of
band and Ku-band for fixed-site communications and will be United States, Puerto Rico, and southern half of Canada, -6
an in-orbit backup for other JCSat satellites after its launch in dB/K over Mexico and parts of Caribbean
2007.
Few details about these satellites have been announced Antenna
[13-151. All three use LockheedA2100AX bus and have a 12- Ku-band: horizontal and vertical linear polarization
year life. JCSat 9 had a mass of approximately 4500 kg at
launch. It is shown in Fig. 8.17. The larger antenna reflector is Telemetry and command
for S-band links with mobile terminals; the smaller reflectors Telemetry: in 3700-4200 MHz band
are for C-band and Ku-band. JCSat 9 was launched by a Sea Beacons: 11.700 GHz (vertical polarization), 12.199 GHz
Launch Zenit in April 2006. JCSat 10 was launched by an (horizontal polarization)
Ariane rocket in August 2006. Command: in 5925-6425 MHz band
In summer 2001 JSAT, through a new subsidiary JSAT
International Inc. (JII), and PanAmSat established a joint Life
venture named Horizons Satellite [16] in which JII and Fifteen-year design life
PanAmSat are equal partners. The companies ordered a
satellite named both Galaxy 13 and Horizons-1 [ l l , 17-18]. Orbit
Galaxy 13 refers to the C-band payload, which is owned and Geostationary, stationkeeping to +_0.05"N-Sand E-W
used by PanAmSat, whereas Horizons-1 refers to the Ku-
band payload jointly owned by JSAT and PanAmSat through Orbital history
Horizons Satellite. The satellite was launched in September Horizons-l/Galaxy 13: launched 20 September 2003, in use,
127"W longitude A
2003 and put into service in January 2004
A goal of the joint venture is to improve connectivity Sea Launch Zenit launch vehicle
between the North American satellite services of PanAmSat In June 2005 JSAT and PanAmSat announced the Horizons-2
and the Asian satellite services of JSAT. For this, the Horizons- satellite [ 19-21], to be jointly owned through equal ownership
1 satellite, which has coverage (Fig. 8.18) of North America, of the companies Horizons Satellite Holdings and Horizons-2
is connected through a JSAT teleport in Hawaii to JSAT's Satellite. This satellite is being developed by Orbital Sciences
satellites and through a PanAmSat teleport in California to and will be launched in 2007 by a Sea Launch Zenit launch
PanAmSat's Pacific Ocean satellites. vehicle from its launch site in Kazakhstan. Horizons-2 will
Details about Horizons-1 and its Ku-band payload follow; replace PanAmSat's SBS-6 at 74"W longitude. Horizons-2 is
the Galaxy 13 C-band payload description is in chapter 6. being developed using Orbital Sciences' moderate size STAR
Satellite bus. It will have a mass of approximately 2300 kg at launch
Boeing 601HP bus and a 20-transponder Ku-band payload. Details of the design
Rectangular body, span of solar array 26.2 m, span of deployed have not been announced.
antennas 7.0 m ******

476
 Next Page

Japan

1. F. L. Judge and L. N.
Chapman, “A Private Commu-
nications Satellite System for
Japan,” Space Utilization and
Applications in the PaciJic, Ad-
vances in the Astronautical
Sciences, Vol. 73 (1990).
2. “First Privately-Owned
Japanese Satellite in Position
Over Longitude 150” East,” Air-
craft Engineering, Vol. 61, No. 4
(April 1989).
, 3. “First Privately-Owned
Japanese Satellite in Operation,”
Telecommunication Journal, Vol.
56, No. 9 (September 1989).
4. L. Canin, “The JCSat
System,” Paper 90-0826, AZAA
13th International Communi-
cation Satellite Systems Con-
ference (March 1990).
5. W. L. Morgan, “Smooth
Sailing for JCSat,” Satellite Com-
munications (March 1990).
6. Y. Nagai et al., “New Asia Fig.8.18. Horizons-I coverage area.
Regional Satellite System JCSat-
3,” Paper 96-0997, AIAA 16th International Communication 14. “JSAT Corporation Awards Lockheed Martin
Satellite Systems Conference (February 1996). Contract for Second A2100 Satellite” (20 April 2004), www.
7. Y. Nagai, N. Kamiya, and Y. Hayasaka, “JCSAT lockheedmartin.com/wms/findPage.do?dsp=fec&ci= 14905&r
Satellite, Present and Future,” Space Communications, Vol. sbci=O&fti=112&ti=O&sc=400(29 August 2005).
14, No. 4 (1997); also Paper 98-1253, AZAA 17th International 15. “JSAT Corporation Awards Lockheed Martin
Communications Satellite Systems Conference (February Contract for Third A2100 Satellite,” ( 3 October 2005), www.
1998). lockheedmartin.com/wms/findPage.do?dsp=fec&ci= 17184&r
8. “JCSAT 1, 2,’’ www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/ sbci=O&fti=l1l&ti=O&sc=400 (3 October 2005).
bss/factsheets/376/jcsat~l~2/jcsat~l~2.html (December 16. “PanAmSat And JSAT Unite To Expand Ku-Band”
1996), (26 August 2005). (1 August 2001), www.panamsat.com/news/pressview.
9. “JCSAT-3, 4: Expanded Communications for Japan,” asp?article=1243, and “JSAT and PanAmSat to Develop
www.hughespace.com/factsheets/60l/jcsat34/ jcsat34.html (9 Joint Satellite Business” (1 August 2001), www.jsat.net/en/
September 1999), and www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/ release/2001/010801.html(l2 September 2005).
bss/factsheets/60l/jcsat34/jcsat34.html,May 1997 (26 August 17. Boeing, “Galaxy XIIUHorizons-1, One Spacecraft for
2005). Two Missions” (October 2001), www.boeing.com/defense-
10. “JCSAT-5,6:JSAT Expands Constellationwith JCSAT- space/space/bss/factsheets/60l/galaxy-xiii-horizons-l/
5 and JCSAT-6,” www.hughespace.com/factsheets/60l/jcsat~ galaxy-xiii-horizons-1 .html (12 September 2005).
5-6/jcsat-5-6.html (9 September 1999), and www.boeing. 18. PanAmSat, “Horizons 1,” www.panamsat.com/global-
com/defense-~pace/space/bss/factsheets/60 l/jcsat-5-6/jcsat- networkhorizons-1 .asp (19 September 2005).
5-6.htm1, February 1999 (26 August 2005). 19. JSAT, “Notice Concerning JSAT-PanAmSat Joint
11. JSAT, “Satellite Table,” with links to tables of details Satellite Business in North America” (27 June 2005), www.
and to data sheets for individual satellites (2005), www.jsat. jsat.net/en/release/20050627.htm1(12September 2005).
net/en/satellite/list.html(29 August 2005). 20. Orbital Sciences, “Orbital Receives Contract For
12. Boeing, “JCSat-8: JSAT Orders 7th Satellite from Horizons-2 Commercial Communications Satellite’’ (30
BSS” (June 2000), www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/ August 2005), www.orbital.com/Template.php?Section=
bss/factsheets/60l/jcsat-8/jcsat-8.html(29 August 2005). News&NavMenuID=32&template=PressReleaseDisplay.
13. “JSAT Corporation Awards Lockheed Martin php&PressReleaseID=521(12 September 2005).
Commercial Space Systems Contract for Powerful A2100 21. Sea Launch, “Sea Launch Signs with PanAmSat for
Satellite” 30 April 2003), www.lockheedmartin.com/wms/ Second Land Launch Mission” (6 September 2005), www.
findPage.do?dsp=fec&ci=11717&rsbci=O&fti=112&ti=O&sc boeing.com/news/releases/2005/q3/nr~050906s.html ( 12
=400 ( (29 August 2005). September 2005).

477
 9. African, Middle Eastern, South American,
and Australian Satellites
This chapter describes the domestic and regional satellites As examples of exceptions, Brazil has done final testing of
of countries in Africa, the Middle East, South America, and some satellites built for it in North America, and Israel has
Australia [l].A domestic satellite is a communication satellite produced satellites using some equipment supplied from Eu-
primarily serving a single country; a regional satellite is a rope and North America
communication satellite serving a group of affiliated countries. A common purpose for these satellites is to overcome
Arabsat, serving the African and Middle Eastern countries natural barriers to communications, for example, deserts,
of the Arab League, is an example of a regional satellite. In mountains, dense forests, and oceans. The benefits of satel-
the 1970s domestic satellites were typical, but by the 1990s, lite systems over terrestrial alternatives are much lower costs
increasing satellite capabilities led to almost all satellite and much more easily provided nationwide communications.
programs of one nation serving customers in nearby nations. In addition, a satellite system is viewed by these nations as a
The title of this chapter indicates the nations that own the means for national technological advancement. Social benefits
satellites. Most of the satellites described were produced in such as education and telemedicine are often cited as goals;
North America and Europe. In these programs the owner however, the responsible government ministries often lack the
participated in the design and manufacture to some degree in budgets to develop these programs
order to develop national capabilities. The nations purchasing ******
the satellites often have greater participation in the develop-
ment of ground stations to be used with the satellites, and al- 1. G. Francis and R. Fernandez, “Satellites South of the
most always are trained to operate the satellites using control Border,” Via Satellite, Vol. 12, No. 2 (February 1997).
equipment supplied and initially operated by the manufacturer.

Arabsat
The League of Arab States began considering a regional satellite Europe and one from Canada. A contract was awarded in May
communications system [l-21 in 1967. In 1974, the Arab states 1981 to Aerospatiale with Ford Aerospace for three satellites,
agreed to form the Arab SatelliteCommunicationsOrganization, two to be launched plus a ground-based spare.
which came into existence at the end of 1976 and today has 21 The Arab satellites, soon named the Arabsat 1 generation
member nations. SaudiArabia has about a 37-percentinvestment [3-lo], were developed by a team of European and U.S. com-
share in Arabsat (and has had the largest share throughout the panies. They include equipment used for other satellites, par-
organization’s history); other shares vary between 0.1 percent ticularly Intelsat V and Telecom 1. The satellite, shown in Fig.
and 15 percent. At its formation, technical and administrative 9.1, is a three-axis-stabilized design with solar arrays and an-
committees began preparatory work for the Arabsat system. tennas. The solar arrays are partially deployed in the transfer
The objective of the system is to promote economic, social, and orbit, in which three-axis stabilization is used. The antennas
cultural development in the Arab world by are deployed in synchronous orbit. The body is assembled in
providing reliable communication links between Arab modules. The north, south, and Earth-viewing faces hold the
states, communication subsystem and thermal radiators. The other
providing communications in rural areas, three faces hold support equipment and the two large anten-
developing Arab industrial capabilities in space-related nas. A central cylinder is a structural complement to the main
technologies, rectangular structure and contains the bipropellant propulsion
introducing new communications services such as subsystem. The command subsystem includes a decryptor to
video conferencing, facsimile, and remote printing of prevent unauthorized parties from controlling the satellite. Ar-
newspapers. absat 1 satellite details are as follows.
Within the area served by Arabsat, it is easier to establish
satellite links than terrestrial links because of the great dis- Satellite
tances and large deserts. The Arabsat satellites are in three Rectangular body, 87 X 60 X 63 in., east-west span with
generations, as shown in Table 9.1. antennas deployed approximately 18.5 ft, span of deployed
solar arrays 69 ft
1500 Ib in orbit, beginning of life
Arabsat 1 Sun-tracking solar arrays and batteries, 1300 W minimum at
The Arabsat Organization decided to purchase satellites, end of life
launch services, and major ground facilities internationally, Three-axis stabilization using momentum wheels, i O . 1 deg
but to develop some ground equipment within the Arab antenna pointing accuracy
nations. This work, plus training to operate and maintain the
system, fulfilled the third objective of the Arabsat system. Two Unified bipropellant propulsion for apogee maneuver and on-
orbit use
satellite proposals in 1980 received in response to an Arabsat
request were rejected. A modified request was issued, and five Configuration
proposals were received, two each from the United States and C-band: twenty-five 33 MHz bandwidth repeaters
559
African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites

Table 9.1. Arabsat Satellites

Name Alternate Name Launch year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status
Arabsat lA, 1B 1985 Aerospatiale s, c Retired 1992,1993; drifting
Arabsat 1C lnsat 2DT 1992, sold to lnsat in Aerospatiale s, c Retired 2003
1997
Arabsat 1D Anik D2 1984, bought by Arabsat Spar Aerospace C Retired 1995; moved above
in 1993 geostationary orbit
Arabsat 1DR Telstar 301 1983, leased by Arabsat Hughes Aircraft Company C Retired late 1996; moved above
1995 geostationary orbit
Arabsat 2A 1996 Aerospatiale C, Ku Retired mid 2005; moved above
geostationary orbit
Arabsat 28 1996 Aerospatiale C, Ku In use
Arabsat 2C PanAmSat 5, Badr-C 1997, leased by Arabsat Hughes Space and Communications C (Ku not used by In use
from 2003 Arabsat)
Arabsat 20 Hot Bird 5, Eurobird 2, 1998, leased by Arabsat Matra-Marconi Ku In use
Badr-2 from 2003
Arabsat 3A Badr-3 1999 Aerospatiale Ku In use
Arabsat 4A 2006 Astrium C, Ku Stranded in low orbit by launch
failure, then put into Ocean
Arabsat 48 Badr-4 2006 Astrium Ku Launched November 2006

Badr-6 Astrium C, Ku Launch planned for 2008

CIS-band: one 33 MHz bandwidth repeater Life

Dual-polarizationfrequency reuse in C-band Seven-year design life

Capacity Orbit
C: 8000 voice circuits plus seven TV signals Geostationary, stationkeepingto kO.1 " N-S and E-W
CIS: one TV signal Orbital history
Transmitter Arabsat 1A: launched 8 February 1985, in operation until 1992,
drifting in geostationary orbit
C: 3700-4198 MHz, 8.5 W output per repeater, 31 dBW
minimum ElRP per repeater at edge of coverage Ariane launch vehicle
CIS: 2560.5 or 2634.5 MHz, switchable by ground command, Arabsat 1B: launched 17 June 1985 (deployed from shuttle 18
approximately 80 W output via summing any two of three 50 W June), in operation until 1993, drifting
M A S (traveling wave tube amplifier), 41 dBW minimum ElRP ShuttlelPAM-D launch vehicle
at edge of coverage
Arabsat 1C: launched 26 February 1992, was 31"E longitude,
Receiver sold to lnsat and moved to 55"E longitude at end of 1998, in
C: 5945-6423 MHz use there a few years
CIS: 5927-5960 MHz Ariane launch vehicle
GIT (gain-to-noise-temperatureratio) 27.5 dBlK over coverage Arabsat 1D: was Anik D2, moved to 19"E longitude early 1994,
moved above geostationary orbit by late 1995
area

Antenna Management
One offset-fed parabolic reflector for C-band transmit, 56 in. Developed for Arab Satellite Communications Organization
square with rounded corners; 13 feed horns; 23 dB gain at (Arabsat) by Aerospatiale with Ford Aerospace and
edge of coverage, circular polarization Communications as a major subcontractor
One offset-fed parabolic reflector Operated by Aerospatiale for 2 years, then by Arabsat
for C-band reception, 51 in. diam,
17 feed horns, 23 dB gain at edge
of coverage, circular polarization
One planar slotted waveguide
array for S-band transmit, 31 X 47
in., 22.7 dB gain at edge of coverage, linear
polarization

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: near edges of 3700-4200 MHz band
Command: near lower edge of 5925-6425 MHz band Fig. 9.1. Arabsat I satellite.

560
 Arabsat

training Arabsat personnel in satellite

operations. This control contract was
extended into a third year; subsequently,
satellite control has been done by citi-
zens of Arab nations.
Although the Arabsat system had
great promise, during the first 5 years
after launch the satellites were underuti-
lized. By 1989, approximately one-third
of the capacity of one satellite was in
use, mostly for telephony. Several rea-
sons contributed to this underutilization.
One is that satellite charges are no less
than those of Intelsat, giving no incen-
tive to move traffic from Intelsat to Ar-
absat. Another is that some Arab nations
built and are building new terrestrial
communications facilities that divert
traffic from Arabsat. A third reason is
Fig. 9.2. Arabsat I coverage area. that Egypt was expelled from the Arab
League in 1979 for signing the Camp
David agreements with Israel. Although
The Arabsat 1 communication subsystem uses the 4 and 6 later returned to membership, Egypt never made the expected
GHz frequency bands, plus one downlink near 2.5 GHz. large use of, and investment in, Arabsat. Through 1989, the 2.5
The uplink consists of thirteen 33 MHz bandwidth channels GHz television broadcasting capability had not been used at all
spaced 37 MHz center-to-centeron each of two polarizations. because there was no agreement on programming that could be
They are received via the circular 6 GHz antenna and fed to acceptable to all the member nations. The disagreements were
redundant receivers. Twenty-five channels are retransmitted at both political and religious, further complicated by significant
4 GHz using the square, deployed antenna. The other channel dialectical differences among the Arab countries.
may be switched to either of two frequencies near 2.6 GHz Because of the underutilization, Arabsat revenues were far
and is transmitted through the rectangular planar antenna on below past expectations. Hence, the organization was working
the Earth-viewing face of the satellite body. The switchable to maximize the lifetimes of the satellites in orbit while encour-
frequencies allow this channel to be used on both orbiting aging additional uses to boost revenues. From October 1989
satellites without any potential for mutual interference. through September 1992, 12 transponders were leased to India
In late 1981, a temporary problem arose concerning because of a capacity shortage caused by Insat problems. By
whether or not the U.S. subcontractor would be granted an 1992, use of the satellites by Arab-owned commercial television
export permit for the equipment it was developing. The ratio- broadcasters began increasing. By 1994,Arabsat lC, which was
nale was that Libya and South Yemen, considered unfriendly launched in 1992, was more than half occupied by these broad-
to U.S. interests, were part of Arabsat and that the satellite casters and a few non-Arab broadcasters. Nevertheless, the Ar-
might have a military use. Within 6 months, the issue was absat system cannot be considered a financial success.
resolved in favor of the export permit. Satellite development The first two Arabsats were taken out of operation in 1992
continued and two satellites were launched in 1985, one and 1993. One replacement was Arabsat lC, which came into
each by Ariane and the shuttle. The first satellite experienced use prior to 1A being turned off. The other was the Canadian
solar-array deployment problems, which were overcome, Anik D2, which was sold to Arabsat in the spring of 1993. It
and attitude control problems, corrected by switching to a was renamed Arabsat 1D and moved early in 1994. Telesat
redundant unit. Canada remotely controlled the satellite for Arabsat through
The 4 and 6 GHz transponders’ allocation was 10 to inter- the Arabsat control terminal in Tunisia. Although the satellite
national telephony using FDM (frequency division multiplex- was beyond its nominal design life, it was expected to be us-
ing)/FM/FDMA (frequency division multiple access), two to able until early 1996, shortly before Arabsat 2A was launched.
international telephony using SCPC (single channel per car- In fact, it was used until mid-1995. To continue service, Tel-
rier)/FM/FDMA, one for international television distribution, star 301 was leased and named Arabsat 1DR from the begin-
three for emergency communications, and nine for domestic ning of 1995 until fall of 1996 by which time Arabsat 2A had
use by Arabsat members. The one 2.5 GHz channel was been launched and in-orbit testing completed.
planned for television broadcasting, primarily for community
reception. Television transmissions used FM. International
transmissions were between terminals supplied by the mem- Arabsat 2
bers, typically one per member, with an 11 m antenna. The 2.6 Replacements for these satellites are the Arabsat 2 satellites
GHz television reception terminals may have 2.4 m antennas. [ 10-141. Initial procurement of these satellites was delayed
Arabsat had two control terminals built, each with two anten- until after the Gulf War, when near the end of 1992,
nas. The primary one is in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; the alternate announcements of a contract award were made. However, by
is in Tunis, Tunisia. The satellite contractor was responsible April of the next year the contract was awarded to a different
for satellite control for the first 2 years, during which it was company. The explanation for the change seems to be that

561
African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites

8 transponders (36 MHz), 12 (8 active, 4 spares) 57 W

M A S ;ElRP 41 dBW over Arab world, 31 dBW in adjacent
areas including all of Europe
Ku: 12.5-1 2.75 GHz
Each transponder has one 90 to 95 W M A , five spares;
43 to 47 dBW EIRP over most of Arab world

Receiver
C: 5925-6425 MHz
GTT >-6 dB/K over Arab world, 2-9 dB/K in adjacent
areas
Ku: 13.75-14 GHz
GTT 0 to -4 dB/K over most of Arab world
\ A Antenna
- - - Ku-Band C: deployed, offset-fed, shaped reflectors, 2.1 X 2.1/1 .5 m diarn
-C-Band (transmitlreceive), dual circular polarizations
Fig. 9.3.Arabsat 2 coverage areas and EIRF! Ku: deployed, offset-fed, dual-gridded, shaped reflector, 1.6 m
diam (receive and transmit), dual linear polarizations
the first company objected to some of the financial terms that
Telemetry and command
Arabsat demanded.
The Arabsat 2 satellite design is a typical three-axis-sta- Telemetry: 3703.1 and 4199.9 MHz
bilized design with deployed solar arrays. These satellites Command: 5925.5 and 6424.2 MHz
continue the C-band operations of the Arabsat 1 satellites and Beacon: 12.518 GHz
add Ku-band. Arabsat 2 does not have the S-band broadcast-
ing downlink, which was rarely used on Arabsat 1. Ku-band Life
television broadcasting to relatively small ground terminals, Twelve-year design life; fuel for 15-1 6 years
not considered practical at the time the S-band payload was
specified for Arabsat 1, has been successful on other satellites, Orbit
so Arabsat 2 followed the trend. The C-band coverage (shown Geostationary
in Fig. 9.3) has been expanded beyond the Arab countries to
Orbital history
include much of Europe, central Africa, some of the Asian
CIS republics, and India. The Ku-band coverage (also in Fig. Arabsat 2A: launched 9 July 1996, in use, 26"E longitude
9.3) is tailored to the Arab countries. Arabsat 2A was used pri- Arabsat 2B: launched 13 November 1996, in use, 30.5"E
marily for television distribution and broadcasting; Arabsat 2B longitude
was used for telephony, data networks, intermediate data rate Ariane 4 launch vehicle
and business services mirroring those of Intelsat, occasional
television services, and the domestic satellite communications Management
networks of four Arabsat members. Additional Arabsat 2A and Built by Aerospatiale with Alcatel as payload subcontractor
2B information follows. Operated by Arabsat
Satellite Arabsat 2A was in use until the summer of 2005 and then was
Aerospatiale Spacebus 3000 bus moved above the geostationary orbit. Arabsat 2B was still in
Rectangular body, 1.8 X 2.3 X 2.3 m, span of deployed solar operation in summer 2006. Arabsat leased PanAmSat 5, moved
arrays 25 m it to 26"E longitude at the beginning of 2003, and named it
1071 kg dry, 2280 kg in orbit beginning of life Arabsat 2C. PanAmSat 5 had been removed early in its life
from its primary mission owing to a battery problem. Because
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH, batteries, 5300 W end of life of this problem, not all of its transponders could be operated
Three-axis-stabilized during eclipses. This deficiency does not affect the Arabsat
Liquid propulsion use because the lease is only for the C-band transponders, not
the Ku-band transponders. The Eutelsat satellite Hot Bird 5
Configuration was taken out of its primary service owing to a solar-may
C: twenty 36 MHz and two 54 MHz bandwidth transponders degradation. In fall 2002 it was moved to 33"E longitude as
Ku: eight 36 MHz and four 30 MHz bandwidth transponders Eutelsat's Eurobird 2, and in spring 2003 it was moved to 26"E
longitudewhere a number of Ku-band transponders were leased
Transmitter by Arabsat to make up for the failure of some transponders
C: 3700-4200 MHz on Arabsat 3A. Arabsat named these leased transponders
14 transponders (36 and 54 MHz), twenty 15 W solid-state Arabsat 2D. Both Arabsats 2C (described in chapter 2) and
power amplifiers in 2 groups of 10 for 7; ElRP 35 dBW 2D (described in chapter 7) continued in use through the end
over Arab world, 31 dBW in adjacent areas including most of 2005 [14].
of Europe

562
 Arabsat

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: 11.703 and 11.707 GHz
Command: 17.302 and 17.305 GHz

Life
Twelve-year design life, 15-year fuel life

Orbit
Geostationary
Orbital history
3A: launched 26 February 1999, in use, 26”E longitude
Ariane 4 launch vehicle
Fig. 9.4. Arabsat 3A Ku-band coverage area and EIRP.
Management
Built by Aerospatiale (later Alcatel) with Alcatel as payload
subcontractor
Arabsat 3
Operated by Arabsat
In 1996, Arabsat held a competition and awarded a contract
for another satellite. At that time the satellite had various
names, such as Arabsat 2C, 2BSS, and BSS 1. Later the name Arabsat 4
was fixed at Arabsat 3A [15-171. Arabsat 3A uses Ku-band
frequencies adjacent to those of Arabsat 2A, and with the two The contract for two Arabsat 4 satellites was announced in
satellites at the same longitude a single Earth terminal antenna October 2003 [18-19]. It includes modifications to the Arabsat
can receive from both satellites.Arabsat’s plan is to emphasize control centers in SaudiArabia and Tunis. The two satellitesare
high-power television broadcasting from 26”E longitude using being developed by EADS Astrium using the Eurostar 2000+
these two satellites. To this end, the primary traffic on Arabsat bus with payloads from Alcatel Space (Alcatel Alenia Space
3A is digital television, although there is also a small amount from 2005). Design life is 15 years. The body size is 2.9 by 2.5
of digital data traffic. The Arabsat frequency plan allows for by 1.8 m with a solar-array span of 32 m. The satellites have a
another satellite at 26”E longitude. launch mass near 3300 kg and a design life of 15 years.
The coverage of Arabsat 3A (Fig. 9.4) has the highest Arabsat 4A has 24 C-band transponders and 16 Ku-band
power toward the Arab world, but also includes much of west- transponders. Arabsat 4B has 28 Ku-band transponders, 16
ern and central Europe in order to reach Arab speaking peo- in the broadcasting-satelliteallocation, 11.7 to 12.5 GHz, and
ples in those countries. The basic satellite design is the same 12 transponders in 12.5 to 12.75 GHz. Uplinks are in 17.3 to
as Arabsat 2 except for increased power; that change with the 18.1 and 13.75 to 14.0 GHz. Each satellite has two deployed
removal of C-band supports more and higher-power Ku-band 2.5 m diam reflectors, one to each side of the satellite body
transponders.Additional Arabsat 3A information follows. plus a 1.35 m diam reflector on the Earth-viewing face of the
satellite body. The coverage area will include the Arab states,
Satellite parts of Africa and Europe, and west Asia.
Aerospatiale Spacebus 3000 bus Both satellites were to be put into service at 26”E longi-
Rectangular body, span of deployed solar arrays 95 ft tude. However, Arabsat 4A was launched on 1 March 2006
Dry weight 2650 Ib into an incorrect orbit owing to premature shutdown of the
Proton launch vehicle’s upper stage. The satellite did not
Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH, batteries, 6400 W end of have enough fuel to reach geostationary orbit, so Arabsat and
life
the insurers decided to remove it from orbit into the ocean.
Three-axis-stabilized This action was taken later the same month. Arabsat 4B was
Liquid propulsion launched 9 November 2006 on a Proton launch vehicle.
Configuration
******
Twenty 34 MHz bandwidth transponders, dual-polarization 1. M. M. Abdallah, “The Arab Satellite,” Telecommu-
frequency reuse nication Journal, Vol. 44, No. 9 (September 1977).
Transmitter 2. H. M. Shaweesh, “Future Satellite Broadcasting and
11.7-12.1 1 GHz Distribution in the Arab World,” International Broadcasting
Convention, IEE Conference Publication No. 166 (September
140 W M A S , in two groups of 14 (10 active, 4 spares); ElRP 1978).
44-48 dBW over Arab world and much of Europe
3. H. M. Shaweesh, “Satellite Community TV Direct
Receiver Reception Applications in the Arab World,” Conference
17.3-17.71 GHz Proceedings, International Telecommunicationand Computer
G/T +0.2 to -3.8 dB/K over Arab world and much of Europe Exposition (Zntelcom ’80),(November 1980).
4. A. Al-Mashat, “The Arab Satellite Communication
Antenna System,” Paper 82-0469, AIAA 9th Communications Satellite
Dual linear polarizations, 30 dB cross-polarizationisolation Systems Conference (March 1982).
563
African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites

5. A. Al-Mashat, “Arabsat System: Regional Telecommu- 12. C. Bulloch, “Arabsat and Turksat,” Via Satellite, Vol.
nication Programme for the Arab States,” Telecommunication 11, No. 11 (November 1996).
Journal, Vol. 52, No. 2 (February 1985). 13. C. Bulloch, “Satellite TV in the Middle East,” Via
6. Space Communication and Broadcasting, Vol. 3, No. 3 Satellite, Vol. 11, No. 2 (February 1996).
(September 1985). 14. Space Corner, “Le fil d’actualitt Arabsat,” (in French)
7. Aviation Week & Space Technology (30 September eurespace.online.fr/Bulletin/Arabsat.htm (4 January 2006).
1974), p. 22; (24 March 1975), p. 11; (23 June 1975), p. 47; 15. Arabsat, “Satellite Generations,” www.arabsat.com/
(21 July 1975), p. 56; (26 April 1976), p. 21; (17 October genrat.htm (20 September 1999) and www.arabsat.com/
1977), p. 93; (8 December 1980), p. 11; (9 November 198l), satgen/index.asp (3 January 2006).
p. 22; (7 December 198l), p. 25; (1 February 1982), p. 27; (13
December 1982), p. 70; (21 May 1984), p. 176; (25 March 16. “ARABSAT 3A: Direct Broadcast Television Satellite
1985), p. 22; (8 April 1985), p. 17; (24 June 1985), p. 27; (7 for the Arab League Countries,” www.alcatel.com/telecom/
October 1985), p. 13; (20 May 1991), p. 27. space/telecom/arabsat.htm (23 June 1999), (20 September
1999).
8. C. Bulloch, “Arabsat-A Neglected Asset,” Space
Markets, Vol. 5 , No. 1 (1989). 17. M. Williamson, “Arabsat-3A:’ Via Satellite, Vol. 14, No.
5 (May 1999).
9. P. Vizier, “Arabsat Communication Antennas,” IEEE
International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation (June 18. EADS Space, “EADS Astrium Awarded Contract by
1989). Arabsat for Two Satellites’’ (21 October 2003), wwwspace.
eads.net/press-center/archives/2003/106-en(4 January 2006).
10. C. Bulloch, “Satellite TV in the Middle East,” Via
Satellite, Vol. 10, No. 3 (March 1995). 19. Alcatel, “Alcatel Space to Build Payloads for Two
New Arabsat Satellites’’(21 October 2003), www.alcatel.com/
11. Arabsat I1 brochure, Alcatel Espace, Courbevoie, space/pressreleases2003.htm (4 January 2006).
France (June 1993).

Brazil
Long-distance communications in Brazil were transformed of Embratel were transferred to a new company, Star One,
from primitive to modern between 1965 and 1985. In 1965, owned 80 percent by Embratel and 20 percent by SES Global
when Brazil joined Intelsat, high-frequency radio was the of Luxembourg [ 171.
common long-distance transmission medium. In 1969, The liberalizing of communications regulations in Brazil
Brazil started using Intelsat for international links. By 1972, opened the door for competition.‘In 1999, Loral Skynet do
a new microwave system linked major Brazilian cities, but Brasil began service with a leased satellite. Its own satellite,
troposcatter was the means for communicating with most Estrela do Sul, was launched in 2004. See the Loral Skynet
interior points of the country. Some satellite communication section of chapter 2.
experiments were conducted in the early 1970s using ATS
3. Domestic satellite communications started in 1974 with a
leased Intelsat transponder and two Earth terminals. By 1979, Brasilsat A
the system had expanded to 2.5 transponders and six terminals. In the mid-l970s, the government requested, and received,
In another 5 years, it had expanded to seven transponders and proposals for its own satellite but then canceled the project for
more than 200 terminals, most for television reception. Since economic reasons. However, as the use of Intelsat increased,
then, two Brasilsat A satellites were brought into operation the economics of the domestic satellite became better, relative
and gradually replaced with four second-generation Brasilsat to the lease costs. In addition, a dedicated satellite would
B satellites. In 2006 the first third-generation satellite, Star provide greater operational flexibility. Therefore, in 1981,
One C1, will be launched. These satellites are described here. a new set of proposals was received, and in the next year a
A smaller, low-orbit program, Satelites de Coleta de Dados satellite development contract was awarded. The satellite was
(data-collection satellites) is described in chapter 3. part of the Sistema Brasileiro de Telecomunicagdespor Sattlite
Satellite communications in Brazil developed under (SBTS), more commonly called Brasilsat [ 1-71. With the
Empresa Brasileira de Telecomunicagdes (Embratel), which development of the second-generation satellites, the original
was created by the government in 1968. In 1982 Embratel satellites have become the Brasilsat A generation.
was authorized to develop its own satellite systems, which led The satelliteshad a spin-stabilizeddesign used for many other
to the first Brasilsat launch in 1985. Through a privatization satellites of that era. The solar panel consisted of two cylinders;
auction conducted by the Brazilian government in 1998, the outer one surrounded the inner for minimum size during
the U.S. company MCI acquired a controlling interest (i.e., launch and was deployed in orbit. A thermal radiator occupied
72 percent) in Embratel Participagdes (Embrapar), which the middle portion of the inner solar panel, within which was
controlled Empresa Brasileira de Telecomunicagdes. The the basic structure of the satellite. Support subsystems were
controlling interest in Embrapar was acquired in 2004 by mounted on the structure, which included a central bearing
Teltfonos de Mtxico (Telmex). In 2000, the satellite holdings and motor to despin the communication subsystem equipment
shelf. The antenna was in an open area at the top of the inner

564
 Brazil

Configuration
Twenty-four 36 MHz single-conversion repeaters, dual-
polarization frequency reuse

Transmitter
3702-4198 MHz
Five 9 W TWTAs for each group of four repeaters
ElRP 34 dBW per repeater over >90% of Brazil

Receiver
5927-6423 MHz
Four receivers (two active, two spare)
G/T2-4 dB/K
Antenna
Two 71 in. diam parabolic reflectors sharing the same aperture
using orthogonal linear polarizations, beam shaped to Brazil,
27 dB gain over >90% of the country, >24 dB gain everywhere,
15 feed horns
Telemetry and command
Telemetry: in the 3700-4200 MHz band
Command: in the 5925-6425 MHz band

Life
Eight-year design life

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to *0.1" (or better) N-S and E-W

Orbital history
Brasilsat A1 : launched 8 February 1985, N-S stationkeeping
stopped November 1994, satellite transferred to PanAmSat
November 1997 and moved to 144"W longitude, moved above
geostationary orbit by 2003
Brasilsat A2: launched 28 March 1986, spare with some use,
92"W longitude then other longitudes, N-S stationkeeping
Fig. 9.5. Brasilsat A satellite. stopped August 1996, moved above geostationary orbit by 2005
Ariane launch vehicle
solar panel at launch and rotated to its operating position when Management
the satellite reached geostationary orbit. Developed by Spar Aerospace with Hughes for Embratel
The communication subsystem had 24 transponders. The 4
Operated by Spar Aerospace for 6 months, then by Embratel
and 6 GHz frequency bands were used, with dual-polarization
frequency reuse. An array of feed horns, in combination with The satellites were controlled from a system operations center
the large reflector, formed a beam optimized for coverage of in Guaratiba, near Rio de Janeiro. Much of the satellite control
Brazil. The receivers and transmitters, and their redundancy equipment was provided by the satellite contractor, who
arrangements, were the same as on contemporary satellites operated the satellites for their first 6 months in orbit while
that used the same frequency band. Brasilsat A details follow. training Brazilian operators. Primary uses of the satellites
Satellite were long-distance telephony and television distribution.
Telephony between major cities used FDM/FM, but other
Hughes HS 376 bus
telephony and data links used SCPC/FM. The two satellites
Cylinder, 85 in. diam, 116 in. height (stowed), 23 ft height were underutilized, with the second being used only for
(deployed) occasional tests. About half of the first satellite was used for
1470 Ib in orbit, beginning of life telephony and the other half split between television networks,
Solar cells and NiCd batteries, 985 W beginning of life, 800 W teleconferencing,and spare transponders,plus one transponder
after 8 years for military use.
Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, approximately 60 rpm spin rate,
Reasons for the underutilization were at least twofold.
antenna pointing accuracy k0.05 deg One was that Embratel was a monopoly with strict control of
satellite use, which prevented the development of many com-
Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver and hydrazine mercial applications that flourished in some countries. The
propulsion for on-orbit use

565
African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites

Horizontal
polarization

3700-4200 5925-
6425

Fig. 9.6.Brasilsat A communication subsystem.

other reason was that the social ministries in the government

were not involved in planning for the use of the satellites, and
even 5 years after launch still lacked the budget and expertise
c
Brasilsat B
to develop social applications. The first reason was removed In 1989, Brazil concluded a competition for its second
in 1995 when the Brazilian constitution was amended to end generation of satellites and announced its choice of contractor
the government’s monopoly on communication services and and launch vehicle. By the beginning of 1991,construction of
to allow private investment, both domestic and foreign, in the satellites had not started. The delay caused by extended
these services. negotiations on the satellite configuration and offset work to
Brazilian content of its first Earth terminals, in the 1970s, Brazilian contractors and by problems in arranging financing.
was small. Guided by a definite intention to be self-suf- The Brasilsat B contract included two satellites, options for
ficient in space-related technologies, Brazil became almost two more, improvements to the control station at Guaratiba,
entirely self-sufficient in Earth terminal manufacturing in the and equipment for a backup control station at Tangua [8-141.
first half of the 1980s.Because of the limitations mentioned The first option, for satellite B3, was exercised in December
above on use of the satellites, the number of terminals grew 1995,and the second, for satellite B4,in June 1998.
slowly until the mid-1990s. Since then the number of termi- The satellites were manufactured in the United States,
nals has increased to an estimated 7 million by 2005,mostly but final testing of satellites B1 and B2 was done in Brazil
receive only. at the National Institute for Space Research. Some of the

566
 Brazil

ground-station work was done by the Brazilian company Pro-

mon Engenharia. The C-band payload continues the service
provided by Brasilsat A with four additional transponders and
flexible coverage. The coverage includes the national beam
used on Brasilsat A with new regional and transnational beams
on satellite B2. All three coverages are achieved with the same
antenna. The regional beam is for the populous coastal area
of Brazil (the coast southward from the easternmost bulge),
especially for business communications in the cities of Belo
Horizonte, Curitiba, Rio de Janeiro, and Siio Paulo. The trans-
national beam includes most of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay,
and Paraguay. All transponders may be connected to the na-
tional beam, or some of them may be individually switched
to other beams or to combinations of the national beam and
either of the other beams.
Besides the C-band payload, there is a single X-band tran-
sponder for military use on satellites B 1 and B2. This transpon-
der has a circular antenna beam covering all but the southern
tip of South America, northward almost to Florida, and east-
ward almost to west Africa. Removal of the X-band transpon-
der allowed use of higher C-band amplifier power on satellites
B3 and B4. Additional Brasilsat B information follows.
Satellite
Hughes HS 376W bus
Cylindrical body, 3.65 m diam, satellite height 3.43 m stowed
for launch, 8.3 m deployed height
1052 kg in orbit, beginning of life
Solar cells and NiH, battery, 1800 W
Spin-stabilized,gyrostat
Bipropellant liquid propulsion for apogee maneuver and on-
orbit use

Configuration
C: twenty-seven 36 MHz and one 33 MHz bandwidth Fig. 9.7. Brasilsat B satellite.
transponders, dual-polarization frequency reuse
X: one 60 MHz bandwidth transponder (Bl, B2)
Telemetry and command
Transmitter
Telemetry: in the 3700-4200 MHz band
C: 3625-4200 MHz
Beacons: 4198.5 and 4199.0 MHz (Bl), 4199.0 and 4199.5
Twenty-four transponders, each with one 13115.3 W solid- MHz (B2), 4198.5 and 4199.5 MHz (B3), 4198.5 and 4199.8
state power amplifier (B1-B2/B3-B4) MHz (84)
Four transponders, each with one 15.5n6.5 W solid-state Command: in the 5925 to 6425 MHz band
power amplifier (B1-B2/B3-B4)
Approximately six spare amplifiers Life
ElRP 36-39 dBW (national beam), 38-42 dBW (regional Twelve- and 12.6-year design life (Bl-B2/B3-B4), service life
beam) forecast matches design life
X: 7315-7375 MHz, 40 W TWTA, 33 dBW ElRP (Bl, B2) Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeepingto kO.1 (or better) N-S and E-W
O
Receiver
C: 5850-6425 MHz, G/T -2.5 dB at edge of national beam Orbital history
X: 7965-8025 MHz (Bl, 82) Brasilsat B1: launched 10 August 1994,70"W longitude, in use
Brasilsat B2: launched 28 March 1995, 65"W longitude, in use
Antenna
C: deployed, offset-fed parabolic reflector, 2.44 m diam, dual Brasilsat B3: launched 4 February 1998, 84"W longitude, in use
linear polarizations, 33 dB cross-polarization isolation Brasilsat B4: launched 17 August 2000, 92"W longitude, in use
X: horn, 25 cm diam, circular polarization (B1, B2) Ariane 4 launch vehicle

567
African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites

Management
Built by Hughes Space and Communications
Company
Operated by Embratel

Star One C
The third generation of Brazil's satellites have the Star One
name, reflecting the organizational changes made in 1998 and
2000. This generation has two satellites, C1 and C2 [14-161.
The Star One C1 contract was signed in mid-2003, replacing a Fig. 9.8. Star One CI and C2 satellite.
contract announced in 2001 and confirmed in 2002, involving
a joint effort of Star One and Andesat. The C2 contract was
signed in January 2005. Orbit
There is also a Star One C12, which comprises 18 tran- Geostationary, 65"W and 70"W longitude
sponders purchased by Star One on SES Americom's AMC-12 Orbital history
satellite. These transponders are connected to a South America Star One C1: launch might occur by the end of 2006
beam. The satellite is described in chapter 2.
The C1 and C2 satellites have the same design (see Fig. Star One C2: launch planned for 2007
9.8). They each have C-band transponders and one X-band Ariane 5 launch vehicle
transponder to replace those on the B1 and B2 satellites, and
Ku-band transponders for growth. The 16 Ku-band 36 MHz Management
equivalent bandwidth transponders are actually 12 transpon- Developed by Alcatel Space, from 2005 Alcatel Alenia Space,
ders of this bandwidth and two with twice the bandwidth. In for Star One
Ku-band, two of the 36 MHz bandwidth and the two wider Operated by Star One
transponders can be switched between the Brazil beam and
the Mercosul (Spanish Mercosur, short for southern common
market) beam. Few Star One C details have been announced; Brazilian Geostationary Satellite
those that have been are listed below. Studies of the Brazilian Geostationary Satellite system began
Satellite in 2003 [18-191. This system plan includes several satellites
Alcatel Spacebus 3000B3 bus launched in 2009 or later. Their purposes are communications,
4100 kg at launch
Sun-tracking solar arrays, 8.8 kW
Three-axis stabilization

Configuration &44.5 dBW

C-band: twenty-eight 36 MHz bandwidth transponders,
dual-polarizationfrequency reuse
X-band: one transponder
Ku-band: twelve 36 MHz bandwidth and two 72 MHz
bandwidth transponders

Transmitter
C: 3625-4200 MHz
Minimum EIRP: 36 dBW over most of South America,
some of the Caribbean, and most of Florida; 39 dBW
over Brazil
X: in 7250-7750 MHz
Ku: 10.95-1 1.2 and 11.7-1 2.2 GHz 48.5 dBW
EIRP: 43.5 dBW minimum over Brazil, 48-49.5 dBW
over eastern and southeastern cities (Brazil beam);
44.5 dBW minimum over southern half of South
America, 48.5 dBW minimum over major cities in the
region (Mercosul beam)

Receiver
C: 5850-6425 MHz
X: in 7900-8400 MHz
Ku: in 13.75-14.5 GHz
Fig. 9.9. StarOne CI and C2 coverage areas.

568
 Australia

air traffic control, national security, and meteorology for Brazil com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/376/brasilsat-b/
and the surrounding ocean areas as well as for possible service brasilsat-b.html (January 2006).
to other countries of South America. 12. “The SBTS (Brazilian System of Satellite Tele-
****** communications)” (16 June 1999), www.embratel.com.br/
ingles/tecnologidindex.html(20September 1999).
1. D. L. Doan et al., “Anik D, Brasilsat and GStar Shaped
Beam Antennas,” Paper 29.5, First Canadian Domestic and 13. “Technical Documents,” www.embratel.com.br/ingles/
International Satellite Communications Conference (June tecnologidindex.html(20 September 1999).
1983). 14. Star One, “Our Fleet,” www.starone.com.br/english/
2. B. M. Berridge and N. M. G. Freitas, “The Design starone/nossa-frotd(6 January 2006).
of the Brazilian Domestic Satellite System-SBTS,” Paper 15. Alcatel Alenia Space, “Star One Telecommunication
20.5, First Canadian Domestic and International Satellite Satellites” (October 2005), www.alcatel.com/space/pdf/
Communications Conference (June 1983). telecom/StarOnegb.pdf (6 January 2006).
3. J. C. F. Albernaz, “Brazilian Satellite Communications 16. Alcatel Space Press releases (6 January 2006)
Program,” New Directions in Satellite Communications, H. E.
Hudson, ed. (Artech House, Dedham, Massachusetts, 1985). a. “Alcatel Signs a 150 Million US Dollar Contract
with Embratel to Build the Star One C2 Satellite” (26
4. Aviation Week & Space Technology (23 September January 2005), www.alcatel.com/vpr/?body=www.home.
1974), p. 23; (24 February 1975), p. 22; (17 March 1975), alcatel.com/vpr/vpr.nsf/DateKey/260 12005-2uk.
p. 61; (7 December 198l), p. 25; (17 May 1982), p. 23; (13 b. “Alcatel Space Signs a 190 million US Dollar
December 1982), p. 70; (23 August 1990), p. 13. Contract with Star One to Build and Deliver in Orbit
5. Satellite Communications (January 1984), p. 34; (July the Star One C1” (17 June 2003), satellitewww.alcate1.
1984), p. 24; (September 1984), p. 76; (April 1985), p. 45; com/vpr/index.j html?body=www.home.alcatel.com/vpr/
(March 1988), p. 33; (February 1989), p. 14; (June 1989), p. archive.nsf/Archiveuk/B5F1ECOE673456MC1256E1400
42; (July 1990), p. 29. 330A7A?opendocument.
6. A. C. G. Ribas, “The Implementation of the Brazilian c. “Star One and Andesat Will Jointly Operate the
Domestic Satellite System,” TelecommunicationJournal, Vol. New Satellite to Be Built by Alcatel Space” (24 May
54, No. 10 (October 1987). 2002), www.alcatel.com/vpr/index.jhtml?body=www.
7. G. S. Nettleton and E. G. McAnamy, “Brazil’s home.alcatel.com/vpr/archive.nsf/Archiveuk/ 6DC5COA1
Satellite System, The Politics of Applications Planning,” EFC45843C1256CC90042B113?opendocument.
Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 13, No. 2 (June 1989). d. “Star One Selects Alcatel Space to Enlarge Satellite
Fleet” (5 October 2001), www.alcatel.com/vpr/index.
8. Brasilsat B fact sheet, Hughes Space and Commu- jhtml?body=www.home.alcatel.com/vpr/archive.nsf/
nications Company (May 1993). Archiveuk/14BFBE5CD4FAClEEC1256B3600491053?0
9. P. H. Wertheim and D. Abrantes, “New Satellite pendocument.
Ventures in Brazil,” Via Satellite, Vol. 9, No. 12 (December 17. Embratel Investor Relations, “About Embratel
1994). Participa@es,” www.embratel.com.br/Embratel02/cda/portal/
10. P. H. Wertheim and D. Abrantes, “Brazil: Satellite 0,2997,RI-1-1115,00.html(6 January 2006).
Options Multiply,” Via Satellite, Vol. 10, No. 10 (October 18. Minist6rio da Defesa, “Semin6rio Apresenta Satelite
1995). GeoestacionArio Brasileiro,” (in Portuguese) (17 May 2005),
11. “Brasilsat B: Second-Generation Spacecraft for www.defesanet.com.br/md/satelite_geo.htm (16 January 2006).
Brazil” (January 1998), www.hughespace.com/factsheets/376/ 19. Atech, “Brazilian Geostationary Satellite,” www.atech.
brasilsat-bhasilsat-b.html, (July 1999), and www.boeing. br/-new/en/negocios/projetos.php?id=47 (16 January 2006).

Australia
In the large undeveloped and sparsely populated regions the fall of 1979, the Canadian Hermes satellite (CTS) was
of Australia, means of communications and broadcasting used for demonstrations of television broadcasting to small
were either unreliable or nonexistent prior to the 1970s. terminals at numerous locations. Distribution of television to
Satellite communications were able to provide the needed 50 isolated communities began in 1980 using an Intelsat satel-
improvements at lower cost than terrestrial alternatives. The lite. Between mid-1979 and April 1982, satellite specifications
first study of an Australian domestic system was conducted in were developed, a government-owned operating company
1966. In 1969, Australia began routing some transcontinental (Aussat Proprietary Limited) was formed, and a satellite con-
telephone circuits through the Intelsat system. During 1970, tract was signed.
experiments were conducted using ATS 1 to gather data that In 1991, the government decided to privatize Aussat and
would be useful in planning a domestic satellite system. invited bids. In January 1992, Aussat was sold to a group with
Studies continued through the 1970s [l-31. In mid-1979, a 5 1-percent Australian investment to satisfy the government’s
the government made a decision to implement a system. In requirement for a local ownership majority; the remainder of

569
African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites

the investment was split between Bell South of the United

States and Cable & Wireless of the United Kingdom. The
new owner is called Optus Communications; Optus is derived
from the Latin verb meaning to choose. Since then the satel-
lites have the Optus name. Near the beginning of 1999, the Fig. 9.10. Aussat A satellite.
corporate name was changed to Cable & Wireless Optus to
reflect Cable & Wireless’s change from minority to majority
ownership. In the second half of 2001 Optus became a wholly
owned subsidiary of SingTel (formerly Singapore Telecom),
and hence sometimes is known as SingTel Optus.
The Aussat and Optus satellites are listed in Table 9.2.

Aussat A
The satellites were originally called Aussats. With the
development of a second generation, the first satellites were
designated Aussat A. The Aussat A design [4-181 is basically
the same as many others, for example,Anik C, Telstar 3, Galaxy
I, and Palapa B. It is a dual-spin satellite with a deployable
solar array. Support subsystems are mounted on the spinning
section, and the communication subsystem is on a despun
platform. The three dual-polarizedreflectors are mounted on a
common structure, which is deployed in orbit.
The satellite has transmit antenna beams for all six of its
service areas and receive antenna beams for national and
Papua New Guinea (PNG) coverage. The two larger reflectors
seen in the illustration of the satellite in Fig. 9.10 are used for
PNG and spot beams. The smallest reflector is used for na-
tional beams.
Aussat A has 15 communicationstransponders, 11 low-power
and four high-power. Because of the two types of transponders
and the many antenna beams, the communicationsubsystem has
many switching matrices (see Fig. 9.12). The receivers cover the A3, additionalfeed horns were added to form a southwest Pacific
entire 500 MHz uplink bandwidth, with one connected to each beam as an alternativeto the PNG beam. Aussat A details follow.
of the three antenna beams. The input switch for transponders 1 Satellite
through 8 connects each transponder to either national or PNG Hughes HS 376 bus
receiver output. Uplinks for these transponders use one polariza- Cylinder, 2.2 m diam, 2.9 m height stowed, 6.3 m height
tion; the uplinks for transponders 9 through 15 use the other. The deployed
high-power (30 W) transmitters and their redundancy switches 6541696 kg in orbit, beginning of life (Al, A21A3)
are in the center of the diagram; the low-power (12 W) transmit-
ters are in the upper and lower parts of the diagram. Following Solar cells and NiCd batteries, approximately 1050 W at
the transmitters are the output switches, which connect each beginning of life, approximately 860 W minimum at end of life
transponder to one antenna beam. The transponders,with a band- Spin-stabilized, gyrostat, antenna pointing to k0.05 deg or
width of 45 MHz, are spaced 64 MHz center-to-center in each better
polarization. This wide spacing was necessary to make the tran- Solid rocket motor for apogee maneuver and hydrazine
sponder switching and combining hardware practical. In satellite propulsion for on-orbit use

Table 9.2. Aussat and Optus Satellites

Name Alternate Name Launch Year Manufacturer Band Mid-2006 Status
Aussat A1, A2 1985,1985 Hughes Aircraft Company Ku Retired, moved above
geosynchronous orbit
Aussat A3 Optus A3 1987 Hughes Aircraft Company Ku In use (inclined orbit)
Optus B1 Aussat B1 1992 Hughes Aircraft Company L, Ku In use
Optus B2 Aussat B2 1992 Hughes Aircraft Company L, Ku Destroyed during launch
Optus 83 Aussat B3 1994 Hughes Aircraft Company L, Ku In use
Optus c1 Optus and Defence C1 2003 Mitsubishi Electric UHF, X, Ku, Ka In use
Optus Cl/D
Optus D1 2006 Orbital Sciences Ku Launched October 2006
Optus D2 Orbital Sciences Ku Launch planned for 2007

570
 Australia

F Command and

Despun
forward
thermal
barrier
r telemetry antennas

ANTENNA
MODULE

reflector antennas (3)

Antenna positioning

Forward
solar panel
DESPUN
Mirror
SHELF
thermal
radiator

Power supply
Bearing
TWT (19)

Aft thermal
barrier

Aft solar
I
panel

Apogee motor

Fig. 9.1I . Aussat A satellite details.

Configuration ElRP per transponder at edge of coverage: 34/38 dBW in

Fifteen 45 MHz bandwidth single-conversion transponders, national beams (2-3 dB higher over >90% of country) 41/45
dual-polarization frequency reuse dBW in Papua New Guinea beam, 29/34 dBW in southwest
Pacific beam (A3 only), 38/42 dBW in spot beams (5 dB higher
Transmitter in most areas) (12/30 W TWT)
12.254-12.748 GHz
Receiver
Eleven active plus two spare transmitters with 12 W TWTs for 14.002-1 4.496 G H ~
transponders 1-6 and 9-1 3
Three active plus two spare receivers
Four active plus two spare transmitters with 30 W TWTs for
transponders 7, 8, 14, 15 G/T at edge of coverage: -3 dB/K in national beams, -1 dB/K
in Papua New Guinea beam
57 1
African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites

PNG SWP C
~ ~ ~ W
~

$sip$$
"A
+
NA

I I

NA, NB National A, B
PNG Papua New Guinea
SE Southeast spot
NE Northeast spot
C Central spot
W West spot
SWP Southwest Pacific
(satellite A3 only)
(HI Horizontal polarization
(V) Vertical polarization

n n
- -
7 NA
SE
1748
NA 8
Receiver 2

SWP,
PNG
_.,
15 NB
NE
C
14 NB
NE
C

Receiver 5
A d

572
A A

Fig. 9.12. Aussat A communication subsystem.

NB
C
NB
NE
 Australia

Antenna
Three offset-fed parabolic reflectors; one 0.61 m diam for
national beams receive and transmit; one 1.O m diam for Papua
New Guinea beam and southwest Pacific beam (A3 only)
transmit and northeast and southeast spot beams transmit;
one 1.09 m diam for Papua New Guinea beam and southwest
Pacific beam (A3 only) receive, and west and central spot
beams transmit; all use linear polarizations; 32 dB minimum
cross-polarizationisolation

Telemetry and command

Telemetry: 12.74975 GHz and one other (Al), 12.7485 and
12.74975 GHz (A2), 12.74825 and 12.74975 GHz (A3)
Command: in 14.0-14.003 and 14.497-14.5 GHz

Life
Ten-year design life, fuel load for 8 years

Orbit
Geostationary, stationkeeping to +0.05"N-S and E-W

Orbital history
Aussat A1 : launched 27 August 1985 (deployed from shuttle,
27 August), in use at least through 1992 at 160"E longitude,
above geostationary orbit in 1995
Aussat A2: launched26 November 1985 (deployedfrom shuttle,
27 November), in use at least through 1992 at 156"E longitude,
spare at 164"E longitude, moved above geostationary orbit by
end of 2001
Aussat A3: launched 15 September 1987, in use at 152"E
longitude, later 164"E longitude, inclination reached 7 deg in
2005
Shuttle/PAM-D launch vehicle (At, A2), Ariane launch vehicle
(A3)
Management
Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for Aussat Proprietary
Ltd., a government corporation
Operated by Aussat, later by Optus
Aussat categorized its services into television and radio, voice
and data, and offshore. The first category is the largest and
includes broadcastingto homes, distributionto network stations
and closed-circuit TV systems, and transmission of news
from remote locations. The voice and data category includes
government communications for aeronautical control and
other applications, the public telephone network, and business
communications. The offshore category is the transponders
leased to New Zealand. The transponders connected to the
PNG antenna beams were planned for domestic telephony
and broadcasting under the direction of the PNG government.
However, they were not used. Switches and feed horns
added to the A3 satellite allow use of these transponders on
a southwest Pacific beam. This beam is in use for domestic
communications in New Zealand. Technically, it can be used
for communications between Australia and New Zealand, but
Australia's policy is to use Intelsat for international satellite
communications.
Home broadcasting uses the high-power transponders
and spot beams. Home receivers with 1.2 to 1.5 m antennas
can receive one television and three radio programs. This
broadcasting is aimed at the more than million people who
have poor quality or no television service. Aussat has Earth
Fig.9.13. Aussat A service areas. terminals in all the major cities for voice and television
573
African, Middle Eastern, South American, and Australian Satellites

transmissions. Voice signals are SCPC/CFM (companded The primary Ku-band Optus B payload provides 15
frequency modulation) for low density and 2 Mbps QPSK transponders, as does Aussat A. The differences are wider
(quadriphase shift keying) for high density. By 1988, about 350 transponder bandwidth, higher transmitter power, national
other Earth terminals were in use; some are for government bearb weighted to favor the populated parts of the country, and
communications, but more are private terminals for business considerable flexibility to serve New Zealand. The satellites
communications. Antenna sizes vary from 2.4 to 13 m. could handle international traffic between the two countries if
About 2000 terminals are used for television reception by Australianpolicy moves away from 100-percentuse of Intelsat.
organizations, and thousands more are used at homes. These Optus B has no PNG beam; it has a New Zealand spot beam,
Earth terminals are built in Australia. but no broad southwest Pacific beam; the four Australian spot
Three satellites were built; two were launched in 1985. beams are the same as those on Aussat A.
Their capacity was assigned before launch, owing to a surge The mobile services payload is partially integrated with the
in demand as the system neared operations. Therefore, Aussat primary payload because it uses Ku-band for links between
launched the third satellite as soon as possible. Each of these base stations and satellites. It uses L-band for links between
satellites was in use within weeks after launch. Aussat, and mobile terminals and the satellites. This payload is used for
later Optus, controls the satellites from an operations center public and private telephone and data circuits and for short
in Sydney through TT&C (telemetry, tracking, and command) digital messages. Requests and assignments are made over
sites in Sydney and Perth. special signaling channels connecting users to the Network
Management Center. The short messages are sent over the
signaling channel. Digital data is transmitted at 2400 or 4800
Optus B bps and voice at 4800 bps encoded to 6400 bps. Base stations
Aussat was considering a fourth satellite but turned its are either private or multiuser sites operated by Optus. Mobile
planning toward a second-generation system, Aussat B, later terminals are of several types for voice, data, or messages.
Optus B [ 16-32]. Discussions with potential contractorsbegan The primary and redundant Network Management Stations
in 1986, formal proposals were received at the end of 1987, are physically separated but electronically connected. They
and a contractor was selected in June 1988. The contract was monitor the status of both satellites and base stations, allocate
for satellites B1 and B2, delivered in orbit, and some new system resources, assign calls to channels, communicate
equipment for the ground control center. Satellite B3 was via signaling channels to set up calls, and can provide base
added to the contract immediately after the loss of B2. station services to connect calls to terrestrial networks. The
The Optus B satellite design is different from that of Aussat outbound signaling channel to the mobile terminals operates
A (see Fig. 9.14). The B satellites are three-axis-stabilizedwith time-division-multiplexedat 9600 bps; the inbound signaling
solar arrays and antennas that deploy in orbit. Although three- is random access at 2400 bps over multiple channels. Besides
axis communication satellites were already common, Optus the signaling channels, about 1000 communication channels
B was the first three-axis commercial communication satellite are available.
from this manufacturer.The primary, Ku-band payload of Optus At the first launch of Optus B1, the launch vehicle
B is very similar to that of Aussat A, which will allow an easy thrust was low after ignition and was shut down before
transition between the two. Unlike Aussat A, the B satellites liftoff. The satellite was successfully launched on the
have additional payloads: an operational L-band mobile next attempt. Optus B2 was destroyed by the impact of
communications payload, a laser retroreflector for precise supersonic air flow when the launch vehicle shroud failed
ranging in support of time-synchronization transmissions, during ascent. Optus B3 was launched in August 1994
and a 28 GHz beacon for propagation studies. The reflectors and is in operation. Satellite and payload characteristics of
deployed from the satellite body are for the primary payload. Optus B follow.
The array of circles on the Earth-viewing face of the satellite Satellite
body is for the mobile services payload; the retroreflector and
28 GHz antennas are beside the array. Hughes HS 601 bus
Body 2.29 rn cube, span of deployed antennas 11.1 rn, span of
deployed solar arrays 20.6 rn

Fig. 9.14. Optus B satellite.

574
 Next Page

1659 kg in orbit, beginning of life

Sun-tracking solar arrays and NiH, batteries,
more than 3200 W at beginning of life
Three-axis-stabilized using double-gimballed
momentum wheels
Solid rocket motor for perigee maneuver,
liquid bipropellant propulsion for perigee
maneuver augmentation, apogee maneuver,
and on-orbit use

Configuration
Ku: Fifteen 54 MHz bandwidth single-
Limiter and linearizer
f Australia

U
.-C

+NA
+SE
+W
conversion transponders, dual-polarization -
a,
C
frequency reuse
L: Two 14 MHz bandwidth transponders, one
Ku-band receive and L-band transmit (to
mobiles), one L-band receive and Ku-band
transmit (from mobiles) 14.003-14.495 GHz
Ka: One beacon

Transmitter
Ku: 12.255-1 2.747 GHz
NA
Two rings of eleven 50 W linearized NZ 12.225-
TWTs each, eight active and three 12.747 GHz
spares (16 active TWTAs support the
15 Ku transponders plus the L to Ku
transponder)
ElRP 40-51 dBW per transponder
L: 1545-1 559 MHz
150W output by combining multiple 30 W
solid-state power amplifiers with several
spares available
ElRP 48 dBW over >90% of Australia, NB
46.5 dBW over all of Australia and
coastal waters NE
Ka: approximately 28 GHz ~ -
.-
ca,
C
Receiver
Ku: 14.003-14.495 GHz NZ
1646.5-1 660.5 GHz
Two active and three spare receivers C

G/T -3 dB/K minimum

L: 1646.5-1 660.5 MHz
One active and one spare receiver
G/T -1.5 dB/K over 90% of Australia
1545-1 5 i9 GHz
Antenna I
Ku: Three offset-fed parabolic reflectors, two
1.1 x 1.5 m, one 1.8 x 2.3 m; one smaller L
reflector forms a national and New Zealand
receive beam and northeast and southeast
transmit beams; the other forms a national
receive beam and central and western
NA, NB National beams
transmit beams; the larger reflector forms NE Northeast spot
national and New Zealand transmit beams; SE Southeast spot
each reflector uses dual linear polarizations; C Central spot
Earth coverage horn for beacon W West spot
NZ New Zealand *Six parallel amplifiers
L: An array of 30 short backfire elements, in each path
L L-band national beam
national coverage transmit and receive
beams, circular polarization
Ka: Two horn antennas, one for each linear Fig. 9.15. Optus B communication subsystem.
polarization, national coverage
575
 10. Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

T
here are many satellites that do not fall into any of Some experimental or educational communication satel-
the previous categories. Some of these systems do lites are described in previous chapters. These include those of
not approach other programs in terms of satellite size, nations with no other communication satellites in orbit: Por-
expenditure, or communication capacity, but they illustrate the tugal’s PoSat (chapter 7), Pakistan’s Badr (chapter S), Chile’s
variety of applications found for satellite communications. The FASat, and South Africa’s Sunsat (both in chapter 9). This
majority of satellites described in this chapter are generally section does include smaller satellites of nations with larger
smaller than satellites discussed elsewhere in this book; communication satellites in orbit; examples are South Korea’s
associated with educational, experimental, humanitarian, Kitsats and Thailand’s TMSat.
or scientific missions; and developed by government Satellites with scientific or calibration payloads are de-
organizations, universities, or other nonprofit groups. scribed in the second section of the chapter. Some of these
Of particular note are the OSCAR satellites developed satellites had payloads that consisted of one or more beacon
by amateur radio operators. Although physically small, these transmitters. These satellites, and beacons on larger commu-
satellites are the product of international cooperation and nication satellites (listed in Appendix C), have been used in
have been used by more than 10,000 people in more than 100 measurements of various characteristics of the atmosphere
countries. Several satellites are also used to promote science and in testing of communication techniques to combat atmo-
education in schools or to support operations of humanitarian spheric effects. These scientific and calibration satellites have
organizations. been used by system operators to gain experience in satellite
Many of these satellites are part of satellite engineering operations or to check ground-control networks.
and technology programs at universities and are typically used Satellites using the amateur radio service for communi-
to provide spacecraft engineering experience for students, as cations between ground terminals and the satellite generally
well as research opportunities for both students and staff. The use several specific frequency bands [2,3]. General frequency
satellites often combine Earth imaging, communications, and band callouts in text or tables within the first section of this
scientific payloads. Increasing interest in building and launch- chapter refer to the frequency band ranges within the amateur
ing small satellites by educational institutions throughout the radio service listed in Table 10.1
world has motivated at least one group of universities to de- For convenience, prefixes are used in small-satellite de-
velop a standardized small satellite structure and launch de- scriptions to indicate their size class [4]. The convention shown
ployment system. This system, called CubeSat, is built around in Table 10.2 is used in this chapter. Note that some satellite
satellites that are cubical structures with 10 cm sides and have builders may use a somewhat different convention when nam-
a mass of approximately 1 kg. CubeSats are described in more ing or referring to their own satellites.
detail later in this chapter. Many small experimental and educational satellites have
A small number of the satellites in this chapter have been been carried into orbit as groups of three or more satellites
used to explore commercial satellite-based ventures. Of par- riding on a single launch vehicle. In January 1990 an Ariane
ticular note are the AMRAD-OSCAR 27 satellite launched in launch vehicle carried six small satellites into orbit as second-
1993 and the LatinSat series of satellites (now AprizeSat) that ary payloads (OSCARs 14 through 19). In January 2000, a
were launched in 2002 and 2004 to demonstrate a non-real- U.S. Air Force Minotaur vehicle launched 11 micro, nano and
time data delivery service for mobile and remote terminals. picosatellites into orbit. A NASA Athena-1 carried four small
These systems are sometimes referred to as “Little Leo” sys- satellites into orbit in September 2001. Russian Dnepr launch
tems (see chapter 3). vehicles have been used a number of times to launch multiple
It remains to be seen if the interest in the development of small satellites into orbit: in September 2000 a Dnepr rocket
small satellites, either as educational and experimental projects launched at least three small satellites, in December 2002
or as commercial projects, will continue to grow and mature
with time. For example, most launches of small satellites are Table 10.1. Frequency Band References
designed for use as individual vehicles on solitary missions. Reference Frequency Range (MHz)
Alternatively, missions that take advantage of a deployed con- 10 m 28.0-29.7
stellation of small satellites are still in the experimental and
VHF 144-146
demonstration phase [ 11.
The first section of this chapter describes those commu- UHF 432-438
nication satellites used for experimental, educational, or hu- L 1260-1 270
manitarian missions. These include amateur radio OSCAR S 2400-2438
satellites and the Radio Sputnik series. Next is a description
of other experimental or educational satellites that have been
launched and do not belong to either the OSCAR or Radio Table 10.2. Small Satellite Classes
Sputnik series, namely ARSENE, Healthsat, Surfsat, UN- Class Mass (kg)
AMSAT, Tsinghua, SNAP, FedSat, Latinsat, Saudicomsat, Miniature Satellites 200t to 51
Nanosat, and PCSat. The CubeSat project follows. Lastly, the
Microsatellites 50-1 1
section provides a sampling of experimental and educational
satellites currently in development, including AMSAT-Phase Nanosatellites 10-1 1
3E, ANUSAT, BlueSat, Mesbah, SATEDU, and Smartsat. Picosatellites 1 0-0 1

593
Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

a Dnepr carried six satellites into orbit, and in June 2004 a October 2003, http://www.aiaa.org/aerospace/Article.cfm?iss
Dnepr launch included a number of small satellites. A single uetocid=411&ArchiveIssueID=43 (August 2006).
Dnepr launch vehicle failure in July 2006 resulted in the loss 2. “ARRL Band Plan,” http://www.arrl.org/FandES/field/
of 14 CubeSats. regulations/bandplan.html(July 2006).
****** 3. “Satellite Operating Frequencies,” AMSAT, http://www.
1. M Caceres, ‘‘Tracking Non-kaditional Satellite amsat.org/amsat-new/satellites/frequencies.php(July 2006).
Customers,”Teal Group Industry Insights,AerospaceAmerica, 4. J. Wertz and W. Larsen, Space Mission Analysis and
Design (Springer, 1999), p. 853.

Amateur and Educational Satellites

Amateur radio OSCAR satellites began in the 1960s and have but suffered either a launch failure or operational failure and
continued uninterrupted since then. In the 1980s other groups, consequently did not receive an OSCAR designation.
not solely focused on amateur radio, followed their example. Amateur radio satellites can be roughly classified into three
The outgrowth of these amateur radio developments is a group categories or phases that represent the growing technical so-
of satellites that combine communications with Earth imag- phistication of these satellites [52]. Phase I was characterized
ing, space science, education, humanitarian, and commercial by low Earth-orbit satellites with short lifetimes that were pre-
missions. The educational use involves both secondary schools dominantly beacon-transmittingsatellites. Examples of Phase
and universities; the humanitarian use is communications in I spacecraft include OSCARs 1, 2, and 3. Phase I1 satellites
support of medical and other activities in remote areas. In the were also low Earth-orbiting satellites, but their orbits were
1990s, the space programs of several nations began with the higher and lifetimes significantly longer. Examples of Phase
launch of one of these small satellites. I1 satellites include OSCARs 6 through 8, 9, and 11. Phase
I11 satellites are designed to be launched into highly elliptical
Molniya orbits, and their payloads are both higher in power
OSCAR and more varied in capability. Examples of Phase I11 satel-
lites include AMSAT Phase 3A, AMSAT-OSCAR 10 (AM-
OSCAR (Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio) is a SAT Phase 3B), AMSAT-OSCAR 13 (AMSAT Phase 3C), and
space project started in 1960 by amateurs in California, most AMSAT-OSCAR 40 (AMSAT Phase 3D).
of whom were professionally involved in space technology ac- The educational aspects of these satellites are varied. Their
tivities. The OSCAR satellites [ 1-92] are launched as second- downlinks are receivable with small ground terminals that may
ary payloads occupying excess, and otherwise unused, launch- be taken to schools, and radio contacts through the satellites
vehicle capability. Hence, the orbit of the primary payload on are used to teach students about the communication capabili-
the launch vehicle determines the satellites’orbits. The techni- ties of orbiting satellites. Their images of the Earth are used to
cal sophistication and human participation in OSCAR-related increase student interest in satellites and Earth sciences. These
projects have grown substantially over the past four decades. student experiences can lead to specific lessons, such as under-
Table 10.3 is a summary of satellites launched through 2006 standing the laws of orbital motion. Furthermore, students at
that have received an OSCAR designation or that, in some many universities have received academic and practical train-
cases, were intended to receive such a designation. (These ing while participating in design, construction, and operation
satellites have no relation to a series of U.S Navy navigation of a satellite.
satellites also named OSCAR.) In recent years, groups not
directly associated with amateur radio have developed some
of these satellites. However, most have received an OSCAR OSCAR 1,2,3
designation because they include a communications payload The first two satellites, OSCAR 1 and 2, were launched in De-
operating in amateur-radio frequency bands; some also oper- cember 1961 and June 1962. These nanosatellites transmitted
ate in adjacent non-amateur bands. beacon signals with simple modulation. Each weighed about
To receive an OSCAR designation, a satellite operator 4.5 kg and operated about 400 hr.
must have coordinated the use of amateur radio frequencies OSCAR 3 was the first amateur communication satellite.
through the International Amateur Radio Union and the Ra- The satellite repeater had a 50 kHz bandwidth operating in the
dio Amateur Satellite Corporation (commonly known as AM- 144 to 146 MHz band. This microsatellite operated more than
SAT), the satellite must have achieved orbit, and once in or- two weeks until the battery was depleted. Radio operators in the
bit one or more of the satellite’s transmitters must have been United States, Canada, and Europe established a number of two-
successfully activated in the amateur radio service. Satellites way links. One-way transatlantic links were established twice.
receiving an OSCAR designation are often known by both an OSCAR 4 also had a communications repeater with a 10 kHz
original satellite name and by their OSCAR designation. For bandwidth. However, because of a launch vehicle failure, the
example, a Japanese satellite built under the name Fuji 2 be- desired orbit was not achieved, and only a few two-way contacts
came known as Fuji-OSCAR 20 after its successful launch. were established.However, one of these was the first direct satel-
For completeness, this section includes a number of satellites lite link between the United States and the Soviet Union. These
that were intended for operation in the amateur radio service four satellites form the first phase of amateur satellite work.

594
 Amateur and Educational Satellites

OSCAR5,6,7,8
In 1969, AMSAT was formed to continue
the OSCAR project and expand it to in-
ternational participation. OSCAR 5 was
a beacon satellite prepared by amateurs in
Australia. It was the first OSCAR to have
a command subsystem, an important step
toward long-life, complex satellites. This
satellite and OSCARs 6, 7, and 8 were the
second phase of amateur satellites, char-
acterized by multiyear lives in low orbits.
The on-orbit configuration of the OSCAR
7 and 8 satellites can be seen in Fig. 10.1.
OSCARs 6 through 8 had command
subsystems and were powered by solar ar-
rays coupled with rechargeable NiCd bat-
teries. These microsatellites used magnets
to provide two-axis stabilization, aligning
the spacecraft axis with the local geomag-
netic field. Portions of these satellites were
built in the United States, Australia, West
Germany, Canada, and Japan; they were as-
sembled in the United States. Although am-
ateurs did almost all the labor, government
and industrial organizations donated many
hardware items. The design lives of these
three satellites were 1, 3, and 3 years, re- Fig. 10.1. OSCARs 7 and 8 satellites.
spectively,but each operated about 5 years.
OSCAR 6 had a communication repeater with a 100 lcHz several-hundred milliwatts. Other experiments were a magne-
bandwidth; it received at 146 MHz and transmitted at 29.5 tometer, two particle counters, a CCD (charge-coupled device)
MHz. Figure 10.2 provides a block diagram of the OSCAR 6 camera with 256 by 256 elements, and a speech synthesizer.
communication subsystem. OSCAR 7 had two repeaters. One The camera and two microwave antennas were mounted on the
was the same as OSCAR 6 except for a slight frequency change Earth-viewing side. High-frequency antennas extended from
and increased output power. The other received at 432 MHz several parts of the body. The magnetometer was deployed on
and transmitted at 146 MHz. An onboard timer automatically a gravity-gradient stabilization boom on the anti-Earth end of
switched from one repeater to the other every 24 hr. This timer the body. Solar cells on the four sides of the body, plus nickel
was part of the control circuitry that automatically switched cadmium batteries, provided an average power of about 25 W.
one repeater on in a low-power mode when the battery was UoSAT-OSCAR 9 was launched in October 1981.Although
discharged to a certain point. On several occasions, these two initial operations were difficult, the university considered the
satellites were used together with a 432 MHz uplink to OSCAR time a good learning experience. In the following years, the
7, a 146 MHz intersatellite link, and a 29 MHz downlink from satellite continued to operate at full capacity until it reentered
OSCAR 6. OSCAR 8 also had two repeaters. One was the same Earth’s atmosphere in October 1989.
as OSCAR 7, operating at 146/29 MHz. The other received at
146 MHz and transmitted at 435 MHz. Only one repeater was
on at a time. AMSAT Phase 3A
AMSAT Phase 3A was the beginning of a phase of ama-
teur communication satellites characterized by long life and
UOSAT-OSCAR9 (UOSAT1) high-altitude orbits. The miniature satellite was shaped like a
OSCAR 9, or UoSAT 1, was the first satellite built by the Uni- three-pointed star. It was designed to be spin-stabilized and
versity of Surrey, England. The goal of UoSAT 1 was to dem- had magnetic torquers to control the spin orientation. The spin
onstrate the development of low-cost sophisticated satel-
lites and to use these satellites to promote space science
and engineering in education. The smallness and sophis-
tication of the UoSATs centered on the use of technol-
ogy. The application of UoSATs to education broadened
the role of OSCARs beyond amateur communications 145.95 29.55
and involved direct contact with the satellites from simple
ground terminals at schools of all levels.
The UoSAT 1 microsatellite transmitted telemetry and
experiment data on 146 and 435 MHz beacons. Beacons 35.6
for propagation research were at 7, 14, 21, and 29.5 MHz
and 2.4 and 10.4 GHz. Transmitter powers were 100 to Fig. 10.2. OSCAR 6 146 MH7/29 MHz communication subsystem.

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Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

Table 10.3. OSCAR Summary

Primary Body Shape, Mass Primary Frequency Launch Altitude, Inclina- Mid-2006
Name(@ Nation Size (cm) (kg) Payload(s) Bands Date tion (Km, deg) Status
OSCAR 1 us. 15 x 30 x 30 4.5 Beacon VHF 12 Dec 1961 -241 x 473,81 Operated 18 days,
reentry Jan 1962
OSCAR 2 us. 15 x 30 x 30 4.5 Beacon VHF 1 June 1962 -185 x 371,74 Operated 18 days,
reentry June 1962
OSCAR 3 us. 18 x 30 x 43 15 Repeater VHF 9 March 1965 900,70 Operated 16 days
OSCAR 4 us. Tetrahedron, 48 13 Repeater VHF, UHF 21 Dec 1965 -185 x 33360,27 Operated 3 months,
on a side reentry Apr 1976
Australia-OS- Australia 15 x 30 x43 18 Beacons 10 m, VHF 23 Jan 1970 1455,102 Operated 2 months
CAR 5
OSCAR 6 us. 15 x 30 x 43 18 Repeater 10 m, VHF 15 Oct 1972 1451,102 Operated to June 1977
OSCAR 7 us. Octagonal cylin- 29 Repeaters 10 m, VHF, UHF 15 Nov 1974 1447,101 Operated until
der, 43 x 43 mid-1981
OSCAR 8 us. 46 x 46 x 46 27 Repeaters 10 m, VHF, UHF 5 Mar 1978 901,99 Operated until June
1983
UOSAT-OSCAR9 U.K. ~ 43 x43 x 74 -50 Science and education See text 9 Oct 1981 474,98 Operated until reentry
experiments Oct 1989
AMSAT Phase 3A Germany Three arm star, 43 -91 Repeaters VHF, UHF, L 23 May 1980 None Launch failure
high x 127 span
AMSAT-OSCAR 10 Germany Three arm star, 43 -91 Repeaters VHF, UHF, L 16 June 1983 4021 x 35760,27 Not operational
high x 127 span
UOSAT-OSCAR11 U.K 36 x 36 x 58 -50 Digital store and forward VHF, UHF 1 Mar 1984 686,98 Sporadic beacon
operations
Fuji-OSCAR 12 Japan 26-sided polyhe- -50 Repeater VHF, UHF 12Aug 1986 1492,50 Operated until
dron, 46 diam November 1989
AMSAT-OSCAR 13 Germany Three arm star, 43 -91 (t50 Repeaters VHF, UHF, L, S 15 Jun 1988 667 x 38170 Operated until 1996,
high x 127 span fuel) reentry Dec 1996
UOSAT-OSCAR14 U.K. 36 x 36 x 61 45 Digital store and forward VHF, UHF 21 Jan 1990 793,99 Operated until
November 2003
UOSAT-OSCAR 15 U.K. 36 x 36 x61 45 Technology experiments VHF, UHF 21 Jan 1990 793,99 Transmitters failed
after 1 day
AMSAT-OSCAR 16 US. 23 x 23 x 23 10 Digital store and forward VHF, UHF, S 21 Jan 1990 793,99 Partial operations
DOVE-OSCAR 17 US. 23 x 23 x 23 10 Digital store and forward, VHF, UHF, S 21 Jan 1990 793,99 Ceased transmitting
digital voice March 1998
Weber-OSCAR 18 US. 23 x 23 x 30 12 Digital store and forward, VHF, UHF 21 Jan 1990 793,99 Not operational
video experiments
Lusat-OSCAR 19 U.S., 23 x 23 x 23 10 Digital store and forward VHF, UHF 21 Jan 1990 793,99 Transmitting a
Argentina beacon only
Fuji-OSCAR 20 Japan 26-sided polyhe- 50 Repeater VHF, UHF 7 Feb 1990 1320,99 Not operational
dron, 46 diam
AMSAT-OSCAR 21 Russia Package on host Repeater, digital store and VHF, UHF 21 Jan 1991 982,83 Host turned off
(RS 14) satellite forward September 1994
UOSAT-OSCAR22 U.K 30 x 30 x 61 -45 Digital store and forward, VHF, UHF 17 July 1991 763,99 Not operational
video, spacecraft tech
nology experiments
Kitsat-OSCAR 23 Korea 30 x30 x 61 -45 Digital store and forward, VHF, UHF 10 Aug 1992 1512,66 Not operational
digital signal processing
ARSENE-OSCAR France Hexagonal cyl- 150 with Repeater, digital store VHF, UHF, S 11 May 1993 18,500 x 36,000,5 Failed in first year
24 inder, 89 diam x perigee and forward
61 tall motor
Kitsat-OSCAR 25 Korea 36 x 36 x 66 49 Digital store and forward, VHF, UHF 26 Sep 1993 791,99 Not operational
video, digital signal pro-
cessing
Italy-OSCAR 26 Italy 23 x 23 x 23 10 Digital store and forward VHF, UHF 26 Sep 1993 791,99 Not operational
AMRAD- us. 23 x 23 x 23 10 Repeater, digital store VHF, UHF 26 Sep 1993 791,99 Operational
OSCAR 27 and forward
PoSAT-OSCAR 28 Portugal 36 x 36 x 66 50 Digital store and forward VHF, UHF 26 Sep 1993 791,99 Operational

596
 Amateur and Educational Satellites

Table 10.3. OSCAR Summarv (Continued)

~~~

Primary Body Shape, Mass Primary Frequency Launch Altitude, Inclina- Mid-2006
Name(s) Nation Size (cm) (kg) Payload(s) Bands Date tion (Km, deg) Status
UNAMSAT 1 Mexico 23 x 23 x 23 10 Store and forward VHF, UHF 28 March I 995 None Launch vehicle failure
transopnder
TechSat l a Israel 45 x45 x 45 60 Digital store and forward, VHF, UHF, L 28 March 1995 None Launch vehicle failure
science
Fuji-OSCAR 29 Japan 26-sided polyhe- 50 Repeater, digital store and VHF, UHF 17 Aug 1996 791 x 1325,99 Partially operational
dron, 46 diam forward
Mexico-OSCAR 30 Mexico 23 x 23 x 23 10 Digital store and forward VHF, UHF 5 Sep 1996 1000, a3 Failed after one day
Thai-Microsatel- Thailand 35 x 35 x 65 49 Imaging, digital store and VHF, UHF 10 July 1998 ai5,gg Not operational
lite-OSCAR 31 forward
Gurwin-OSCAR 32 Israel 45 x 45 x45 60 Digital store and forward, VHF, UHF, L ioJuiyi99a a15,99 Operational
science
SEDSat- us. 36 x 36 x 30 36 Communications, imaging 10 m, VHF, 24 oct 1998 556 x 1075 Partially operational
OSCAR 33 UHF, L
PANSAT- us. 26-sided polyhe- Digital communications UHF 2a oct 1998 536,2a Not operational
OSCAR 34 dron, 48 diam
Sunsat-OSCAR 35 South Africa 46 x 46 x 61 59 Imaging, Communications VHF, UHF, L, S 23 Feb 1999 649 x a7i196 Failed in February 2001
UOSAT-OSCAR 36 U.K. 100 (diameter) x 350 Imaging, communications VHF, UHF, L, S 21 Apr 1999 650,65 Not operational
ao (height)
Arizona State- U.S. 25 x 32 5.8 Space science, commu- VHF, UHF 27 Jan 2000 750 x aoo, loo Failed in first day
OSCAR 37 nications
OPAL-OSCAR 38 US. 20 x 20 x 20 23.1 Picosat launch platform UHF 27 Jan 2000 799 x 746,100 Not operational
StenSat U.S. 10 x 7.5 x 2.5 0.2 Communications VHF, UHF 10 Feb 2000 by Failed at launch
OPAL
Thelma and us. 20 x 7.5 x 2.5 0.6 Lightning Detection VHF 12 Feb 2000 by Failed at launch
Louise OPAL
Weber-OSCAR 39 U.S. Telemetry, small satellite VHF, UHF, S 27 Jan 2000 733 x 788, l o o Not operational
launch platform
AMSAT-OSCAR 40 Germany 3 arm star, -2m 646 Communications See text 16 Nov 2000 Molniya Propulsion system fail-
span, 70 cm high ure Nov 2000, partially
in use until Jan 2004
ARISS (Amateur International Communications VHF, UHF First delivery 8 Hosted on the ISS Operational
Radio on the ISS) Sept. 2000 (via
STS 106)
Saudi-OSCAR 41 Saudi Arabia 23 x 23 x 23 10 Communications (analog VHF, UHF 26 Sep 2000 632 x 664,64.6 Some service through
transponder) 2003
Saudi-OSCAR 42 Saudi Arabia 23 x 23 x 23 10 Communications (digital VHF, UHF 26 Sep 2000 632 x 664,64.6 Unknown
transponder)
Starshine- us. 94 (diameter) 91 Educational VHF 30 Sep 2001 500,67 Reentered 21 Jan 2003
OSCAR 43
Nav-OSCAR 44 U.S. Communications VHF, UHF 30 Sep 2001 Intermittent operation
Nav-OSCAR45 US. -I a Space science VHF, UHF 30 Sep 2001 aoo, 67 Not operational
Malaysian- Malaysia 69 x 36 x 36 50 Communications VHF, UHF 26 Sep 2000 636 x 654,64.7 Not operational
OSCAR 46
BreizhSAT- France Communications VHF 3 May 2002 800 Retired
OSCAR 47
BreizhSAT- France Communications UHF 3 May 2002 800 Retired
OSCAR 48
AATiS-OSCAR 49 Germany 34 x 34 x 20 30 Communications VHF, UHF 20 Oec 2002 650,65 Not operational
Saudi-OSCAR 50 Saudi Arabia 10 Communications VHF, UHF 20 December 631 x 63a,64.5 Operational
2002
AMSAT-OSCAR 51 US. 25 x 25 x 25 11.1 Communications VHF, UHF, L, S 29 June 2004 a17 x 697,98.3 Operational
VUSat-OSCAR 52 India 63 x 63 x 55 42.5 Communications VHF, UHF 5 May 2005 632 x 621,973 Operational
express- European UHF, S 27 October Not Operational
OSCAR 53 Space 2005
Agency

597
Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

Table 10.3. OSCAR Summary (Continued)

Primary Body Shape, Mass Primary Frequency Launch Altitude, Inclina- Mid-2006
Name(s) Nation Size (cm) (kg) Payload(s) Bands Date tion (Km, deg) Status
Amsat-OSCAR 54 Russia Beacon VHF 3 Feb 2006 Deployed from ISS Reentered
(Suitsat-1 )
Cubesat-OSCAR Japan 1ox1ox10 <1 Beacons VHF, UHF 30 Jun 2003 830 x 800, 98 7 Operational
55 (Cute 1)
CubeSat- Japan 20x l o x 10 2 Store and forward UHF, L 21 Feb 2006 700 x 280,98 2 Operational
OSCAR 56 transponder
(Cute 1.7tAPD)
Cubesat-OSCAR Japan 1ox1ox10 1 Beacon UHF 30 Jun 2003 817 x 832,98 7 Operational
57 (CubeSat
XI-IV)
Cubesat-OSCAR Japan 1ox1ox10 1 Beacon UHF 27 Oct 2005 709 x 682, 98 2 Operational
58 (CubeSat XI-V)

axis was to be oriented so that, at apogee, the antennas would cations. The motivation for this payload came from Volunteers
point toward the center of Earth. A microprocessor was used in Technical Assistance, a U.S. organization providing tech-
to monitor telemetry and was designed to have considerable nical support to field workers in developing countries. These
autonomous control capability. All electronics were mounted workers often were in areas where traditional international
in the arms of the satellite. A motor located in the center of the communications facilities did not exist. The UoSAT 2 payload
satellite was to be used to raise its orbital apogee and inclina- demonstrated the practicality of using a small satellite to fill
tion. The objective of the selected orbit was to provide long- this need. Because of the low altitude, both ground and satel-
duration coverage to the largest possible number of amateur lite transmitter powers were low, but simultaneous visibility
radio operators. The satellite had two repeaters: One was de- to the two communicating parties was rare; hence, the store-
signed for a 4351146 MHz combination; the other was intended and-forward mode of operation. UoSAT 2 also had the speech
to be the first amateur use of a higher uplink frequency (1269 synthesizer of UoSAT 1, a 384 by 256 element CCD camera,
MHz) coupled with a 435 MHz downlink. and several space science experiments.
The West German AMSAT organization had the central Radio amateurs in many countries and Antarctica used the
role in AMSAT Phase 3A and the follow-on AMSAT Phase digital communications payload. They transmitted messages
3B. It received support and equipment from several European through terrestrial radio packet networks to gateway stations,
countries and the United States. An attempt to place AMSAT which sent the messages to the satellite. Besides the digital
Phase 3A into orbit was made on 23 May 1980, but the failure communications links, satellite command links exist at 144,
of the first stage of the Ariane launch vehicle destroyed the sat- 437, and 1268 MHz. Telemetry can be transmitted at 145.8,
ellite. This satellite did not receive an OSCAR designation. 435.0, and 2401 MHz.
UoSAT 2 was built in less than 6 months, which was the
time between NASA's announcement of a secondary satel-
AMSAT-OSCAR 10 (Phase 3B) lite launch opportunity and the launch date. UoSAT 2 was
AMSAT-OSCAR 10, or AMSAT Phase 3B, was an identical launched in March 1984 to an altitude of about 686 km.Like
miniature satellite to AMSAT Phase 3A. An exploded view of UoSAT 1, UoSat 2 had early problems with satellite control,
OSCAR 10 is shown in Fig. 10.3. It was launched in June 1983 but subsequently the satellite performed well. At the end of
and encountered some difficulties that resulted in a less than 1990, it was in good health and being used regularly. By 1994,
optimum orbit. The use of the satellite for communications portions of the satellite had failed, but the remainder was still
started in August 1983. The orbit of OSCAR 10 caused the in use; by 2005 it was providing only sporadic contacts.
satellite to be in regions of high radiation for many hours per
day, which caused failures of the satellite's solid-state memory
device after a few years. By 1990, altitude control capabilities Fuji-OSCAR 12
declined, but the satellite was still useful for communications. Fuji-OSCAR 12 was the first Japanese amateur satellite. Its
Because the solar arrays could not be kept in the optimum original name was Japanese Amateur Satellite (JAS) la, but
orientation, power generation declined, thereby limiting the it was renamed Fuji after launch. Hence, it was also Fuji-OS-
amount of time the satellite could be used. Nevertheless, com- CAR 12 or FO 12. The microsatellite weighed 50 kg and had a
munication was still possible in 1999 but had stopped com- communications payload with two modes. One was a nonpro-
pletely by 2005. cessing repeater with a 100 kHz bandwidth; the uplink was at
146 MHz and the downlink at 436 MHz. The other mode was
a digital processing repeater with four fixed uplink and down-
UOSAT-OSCAR11 (UOSAT2) link frequencies in the same bands as the other repeater. Only
UoSAT-OSCAR 11 was UoSAT 2. Mechanically, and in ap- one mode was active at a time. Fuji was launched in August
pearance, this microsatellite was very similar to UoSAT 1. The 1986 on the first test flight of the Japanese H-1 launch vehicle.
primary payload was for digital store-and-forward communi- It operated until 1989.

598
 Amateur and Educational Satellites

AMSAT-OSCAR 13 (Phase 3C)

AMSAT-OSCAR 13 was another German AMSAT project,
similar in design and orbit to OSCAR 10. The miniature
satellite was also known as AMSAT Phase 3C, AMSAT-
OSCAR 13, or A 0 13. It had a communications payload
that operated in four different modes. All of these modes
were nonprocessing repeaters; the differences were the
frequencies. The uplink and downlink frequency combi-
nations were approximately 435 and 146 MHz with 150
kHz bandwidth, 1269 and 436 MHz with 290 kHz band-
width, 144 and 436 MHz with 50 kHz bandwidth, and 436
and 2401 MHz with 36 kHz bandwidth. In 1993, the 436
MHz transmitter failed, but the other transmitters remained
active. OSCAR 13 was launched in June 1988. The end of
its life was caused by lunar and solar perturbations of its
orbit, causing atmospheric drag to increase, which led to
atmospheric reentry at the end of 1996.

UoSAT-OSCAR 14,15 (UoSat 3,4)

UoSAT-OSCARs 14 and 15 were launched together in
January 1990, both mounted on the secondary payload
platform of an Ariane launch vehicle. These two microsat-
ellites share the same design, and were launched together
with OSCARs 16 through 19.
UoSAT-OSCARs 14 and 15, or UO 14 and UO 15, were
UoSATs 3 and 4. Prior to launch, they were UoSATs D and
E. These two satellites took over the missions and payloads
of UoSAT C, whose launch opportunity was eliminated by
changes to the NASA launch schedule. Since the Ariane
launch required smaller satellites, two satellites were used
to replace one.
UoSAT-OSCARs 14 and 15 were rectangular boxes
about 36 cm square and 61 cm tall. Each weighed 45 kg
and had a 6 m boom that deployed from the top surface
to provide gravity-gradient stabilization. OSCAR 14’s
primary payload was for digital store-and-forward com-
munications, a technological advancement from the simi-
lar payload on OSCAR 11. The uplink was at 146 MHz,
the downlink at 435 MHz. This payload had 4 Mbytes of
memory, in contrast to only 128 Kbytes on OSCAR 11.
OSCAR 22 supported the same communication services as
OSCAR 14. For a year both were used for a mix of amateur
and humanitarian communications.In 1992, to improve ef-
ficiency, OSCAR 14 was dedicated to humanitarian com-
munications and OSCAR 22 to amateur communications.
HealthNet was the primary user of OSCAR 14. This ser-
vice provided assistance to medical schools and person-
nel in many African countries via communications with
counterparts in Britain, Canada, Ireland, Australia, and the
United States. Further information on HealthNet is pro-
vided below. In March 2000 OSCAR 14 was placed back
into amateur radio service after its digital store-and-for-
ward capability was lost. The satellite’s mission was finally
ended in November 2003 when its batteries failed.
OSCAR 15 was a technology demonstration satellite.
It had a parallel computing experiment, samples of new
GaAs, InP, silicon solar cells from several manufacturers,
and a CCD camera. Both OSCAR 14 and 15 had radiation
Fig. 10.3. OSCAR 10 satellite and satellite details. measurement sensors. OSCAR 15’s transmitters failed af-
ter the first day in orbit. It took a long time to discover

599
Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

the cause; although it was known quickly that there was no unique payload. This subsystem was built by radio amateurs in
general satellite failure because a ground station with a large Argentina and was the first space hardware from that country.
antenna and sophisticated processing had detected radiation All four satellites worked properly after launch. OSCAR
from the satellite receiver’s local oscillator. The conclusion of 17 quit transmitting in 1998. OSCAR 18 suffered several out-
the failure investigation was that outgassing had caused corona ages owing to software problems but was operational through
(electrical arcing) that damaged the transmitters. at least 1997. Only the packet mode on OSCAR 16 was par-
tially operational in late 2005. All communications functions
on OSCAR 19 had failed by late 2005, and the satellite was
AMSAT-OSCAR 16 (Pacsat), DOVE-OSCAR 17 only transmitting a CW beacon. OSCARs 16 and 19 were pri-
(DOVE), Weber-OSCAR 18 (Webersat), Lusat- marily intended for amateur communications, while the other
OSCAR 19 (Lusat) two were aimed at promoting scientific education through use
OSCARs 16 through 19 shared the same basic spacecraft bus by schools.
design. The microsatellites were rectangular boxes 23 cm
square. Three were 23 cm tall; OSCAR 18 was 30 cm tall. The
three weighed 10 kg each, and OSCAR 18 weighed 12 kg. The Fuji-OSCAR 20 (Fuji 2)
satellite components were mounted on boards that were sup- Fuji-OSCAR 20 was Fuji 2 or FO 20. It was originally built
ported in metal frames. These frames, when bolted together, as a backup for OSCAR 12 and designated JAS-lb. Since the
were the main structure of the satellite. Solar cells were placed launch of OSCAR 12, experience with that satellite was used to
on fixed sides of this structure. The single antenna on the @p redesign portions of the second satellite. Like OSCAR 12, the
was for 146 MHz; the four elements on the bottom were the microsatellite was a nearly spherical, 26-sided structure with
437 MHz antenna. a diameter of about 46 cm and a weight of 50 kg. An illustra-
OSCARs 16, 17, and 19, shown in Fig. 10.4, were built by tion of the satellite is shown in Fig. 10.5. OSCAR 20 had the
AMSAT. OSCAR 18 was built by Weber State College in Utah. same processing and nonprocessing modes as OSCAR 12 with
All four satellites had the same design and same subsystems, almost identical frequencies.It was launched in February 1990,
except for payloads. All four had a digital store-and-forward was in partial use by 1999, and not operational by 2005.
payload with a 146 MHz uplink and 437 MHz downlink. The
memory size was 8 Mbytes; data rates were 1200 and 4800
bps. The satellite computer varied transmit power to match the AMSAT-OSCAR 21 (RS 14)
power available on the satellite. Maximum power was 4 to 5 W. OSCAR 21 was a Russian satellite, RS 14, described below
OSCAR 16, A 0 16, or Pacsat, also had a 2401 MHz downlink with the Radio Sputnik series.
for transmission of the store-and-forward packet messages.
OSCAR 17 was called DOVE (Digital Orbiting Voice Experi-
ment) or DO 17 because of its digital voice synthesizer. OS- UOSAT-OSCAR22 (UOSAT5)
CAR 18, Webersat or WO 18, had several video experiments UoSAT-OSCAR 22, or UO 22, was UoSAT 5. Prior to launch
including a CCD camera and a CCD spectrometer. OSCAR 19 it was UoSAT F. The microsatellite was a replacement for and
had an additional telemetry subsystem and transmitter as its had the same design as UoSAT 4. The main payloads on Uo-
SAT 5 were store-and-forward communications and a CCD
imager. The CCD size was 576 by 578 pixels; its output was
digitized to 256 amplitude levels. The images were stored in
the satellite’s memory for later transmission to the ground.
The communications uplink to UoSAT 5 was at 145.9 MHz
Fig. 10.4. OSCARs 16, 17, 19 satellites and the downlink at 435.12 MHz; standard transmissions were
9.6 kbps FSK (frequency shift keying).

Fig. 10.5 Fuji-OSCAR 20 satellite.

600
 Amateur and Educational Satellites

were in the band 145.85 to 146 MHz, and the downlinks near
435.174 and 436.5 MHz. FSK communications at 9.6 kbps
were standard; the signal-processing experiment on Kitsat 2
allowed use of 38.4 kbps. Kitsat 2 had two receivers and 2 W
and 5 W transmitters for packet communications. During and
after a hurricane in Hawaii in 1992, both Kitsat 1 and UoSAT
5 were heavily used in support of disaster relief and in sending
personal messages between those in the disaster and family
members elsewhere. Launched in 1992 and 1993, neither was
operational by 2005.

ARSENE-OSCAR 24
ARSENE-OSCAR 24 is described later in this chapter.

Italy-OSCAR 26 (ITAMSAT)
Italy-OSCAR 26 is ITAMSAT, the Italian amateur satellite. It
was built by radio amateurs in Milan, members of the AM-
SAT-Italy organization, and used Italian parts except for the
GaAs solar arrays and NiCd batteries. The ITAMSAT nano-
satellite was a stack of five electronics modules and used the
design of OSCARs 16 and 19. It had the same appearance as

Fig. 10.6. UoSAT-OSCAR22 (UoSat 5) satellite.

Figure 10.6 shows the in-orbit view and Fig.

10.7 shows the assembly of UoSAT 5. The body
was composed of 12 modules. Each was an alumi-
num frame holding electronics. When the frames
were assembled, they became the primary structure
of the satellite, and the solar arrays were attached
to them. The cylinder in the top module of the as-
sembly figure contained the gravity gradient boom,
which was deployed in orbit to stabilize the satel-
lite. This same design was used on several other
satellites from the University of Surrey and Surrey
SatelliteTechnology, the commercial affiliate of the
university. OSCAR 22 was launched in July 1991,
was still operational in 1999, and was no longer op-
erational in 2005.

Kitsat-OSCAR 23,25
Kitsat-OSCARs 23 and 25, KO 23 and 25, were Ko-
rea’s Kitsat 1 and 2 (or A and B). The microsatellite
Kitsat 1 was developed at the University of Surrey
in a cooperative effort with the Satellite Technology
Research Center of the Korean Advanced Institute
of Technology. A group of Korean engineers went
to Surrey for academic training leading to master’s
degrees and for practical training by involvement in
design and construction of the satellite and a ground
control station placed in Korea. Kitsat 1’s design was
a copy of UoSAT 5; the microsatellite Kitsat 2 was
designed and built in Korea with a similar design.
Each of the Kitsats had a digital store-and-
forward packet communications payload, a CCD
camera (two on Kitsat 2), and a digital signal pro-
cessing experiment. The uplinks to both satellites Fig. 10.7. UoSAT-OSCAR 22 satellite details.
Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

those satellites and the same store-and-forward packet com- Mexico-OSCAR 30 (UNAMSAT-2)
munications payload. The uplinks, near 145.9 MHz, are FSK UNAMSAT was a small satellite program at the Autonomous
at 1.2,4.8, or 9.6 kbps; the downlinks, near 435.85 MHz, were National University of Mexico (UNAM, from the Spanish
BPSK (binary phase shift keying) at the same rates. Launched
word order of the university’s name) [53-551. Apparently UN-
in 1993, it was operational as late as 1999 but not by 2005.
AMSAT evolved from the earlier Satex program. The purpose
of these programs was to develop both space technology and
AMRAD-OSCAR 27 (EYESAT) the knowledge and skills of the personnel involved.
AMRAD-OSCAR 27 is a combination of commercial and The UNAMSAT nanosatellites had a packet radio communi-
amateur interests. Interferometrics Corporation built the nano- cation subsystem with uplinks near 145.8 MHz and downlinks
satellite as a precursor to a “Little LEO’ commercial commu- near 437.1 MHz; the data rate was 1200 bps. They also had a
nication system (see chapter 3.) Launched in 1993, the satellite pulsed transmitter near 42 MHz, the purpose of which was to
also has an amateur payload built by the Amateur Radio Re- detect meteorites by the reflection of the pulses from the trail
search and Development Corporation, an amateur radio club. of ionized air created by the passage of the meteorite through
Hence the satellite is known either as EYESAT or AMRAD- the atmosphere. The satellite body was a cube with sides mea-
OSCAR. The satellite design is very similar to that of OSCAR suring about 23 cm. Solar cells covered the sides, and they had
16 and ITAMSAT (OSCAR 26). Operation of the amateur a mass of about 10.4 kg.
payload is secondary to the commercial use of the satellite. Spare parts from UNAMSAT 1 (see above) were used to
Amateur operations can be either frequency translation of FM construct UNAMSAT 2. It was launched on a Russian Cosmos
transmissions or digital store-and-forward packet transmis- rocket on 5 September 1996 into an orbit at about 1000 km
sions. The uplink is at 145.85 MHz; the downlink at 436.8 altitude and 83 deg inclination. Ground stations received te-
MHz. AMRAD-OSCAR 27 was operational in late 2005. lemetry for a day, after which time the battery was discharged.
The battery could not be recharged because the satellite’s re-
ceiver had failed, thereby preventing commanding. The prob-
POSAT-OSCAR28 (POSAT1) able cause of the failure was very low temperatures caused by
PoSAT-OSCAR 28 was PoSAT, built in Surrey for Portugal the satellite being shadowed for hours prior to separation from
and launched in 1993. The microsatellite design is that of Uo- the upper stage of the rocket.
SAT 5. The amateur payload is a store-and-forward packet
type with uplinks near 145.95 MHz and downlinksnear43525 Thai-Microsatellite-OSCAR31 (TMSAT 1)
MHz; data rates are 9.6 or 38.4 kbps. Additional information is
in the Portugal section of chapter 7. Mahanakorn University of Technology in Thailand cooper-
ated with the University of Surrey in the United Kingdom and
Surrey Satellite Technology to train Thai engineers in space
UNAMSAT 1, Techsat l a technology through the construction of a Thai microsatellite
UNAMSAT 1, from Mexico, and Techsat la, from Israel, were called TMSat 1561. The satellite, also known as Thai-Micro-
destroyed by the failure of a Russian Start rocket in March 1995. satelite-OSCAR 31, was built in the United Kingdom with the
Prior to the launch, this arrangement,along with the fact that the participation of engineers from Thailand. The satellite design
launch vehicle was a converted military missile, was lauded as had been used for a number of prior satellites. The satellite
a sign of greatly reduced world tensions. However, one stage of body was about 35 by 35 by 65 cm; a long boom for grav-
the launch vehicle failed, and the satellites fell into the Pacific ity-gradient stabilization was deployed in orbit. The mass of
Ocean. Neither satellite was assigned an OSCAR designation. the satellite was about 48.7 kg; solar cells generated 35 W of
A second satellite of each of these types was launched later; power. TMSat had a communication subsystem with a store-
they are described below (see the description for OSCAR sat- and-forward capability. The uplinks were near 147 MHz with
ellites 30 and 32). 9.6 kbps FSK modulation, and the downlinks were near 435
MHz with 9.6 or 38.4 kbps FSK modulation. Other equip-
ment on the satellite included a digital signal processor, a GPS
Fuji-OSCAR 29 (Fuji 3) receiver, two microprocessors, and CCD cameras taking 100
Fuji-OSCAR 29 is another Japanese satellite, also known as km square images with 100 m resolution and 1500 km square
JAS 2 or Fuji 3. Launched in 1996, the appearance of the mi- images with 3 km resolution. TMSat was launched 10 July
crosatellite is the same as the earlier Fuji satellites. It has both 1998 as a secondary payload on a Russian Zenit. It was not
analog and digital communications.The analog repeater band- operational in 2006.
width is 100 kHz; the uplink is 145.95 MHz, and the down-
link is 435.85 MHz. The digital equipment uses frequency Gurwin-OSCAR 32 (Techsat lb)
and phase shift modulation at 1200 and 9600 bps with uplinks
between 145.85 and 145.91 MHz and a downlink at 435.91 Two Techsat satellites were built under the direction of the
MHz. The satellite also has a digital voice downlink that re- Technion, the Israel Institute of Technology [57-591. Only one
peats information received from a control station, and a pro- microsatellite build was planned, but the Israeli government
cessor with 2 Mbytes of memory. The satellite was partially agreed to fund a replacement satellite after the first was
operational in mid-2006. destroyed by the failure of its launch vehicle (see above). Both
satellites included payloads for amateur communications and
for science and education.The science and education payloads
on the first satellite consisted of an Earth-imaging camera, a

602
 Amateur and Educational Satellites

GPS receiver for position determination, a star sensor for at-

titude determination, and a radiation measurement instrument.
Many hardware items were donated by Israeli industry to help
the Techsat project to gain space experience. AMSAT-Israel
was involved in the design of the satellite and was to be re-
sponsible for the operation of it. Techsat was also named Gur-
win in honor of a U.S. philanthropist who made a donation
toward the cost of its development.
The Techsat satellites were 44.5 cm cubes with a mass of 60
kg. They were three-axis-stabilized,with body-mounted solar
cells generating about 15W. The first satellite had five-channel
receivers at 145.9 MHz and 1269 MHz. Both receivers had
downconversions to 10.7 MHz, where the filters separated the
channels, followed by five 1200 bps FSK demodulators. The
demodulated signals were fed to a computer. The computer
fed two modulators that could use FSK, MSK (minimum shift
keying), or PSK format. The output of one modulator was mul-
tiplied to 435.225 MHz, the other to 435.325 MHz; following
amplification, both signals were sent through a combiner to
a crossed-dipole antenna. The 146 MHz antenna consisted of
four quarter-wavelength rods, and the 1269 MHz antenna was
a patch.
Techsat lb, Gunvin 11, includes a digital amateur radio Fig. 10.8. PANsat-OSCAR 34 satellite.
payload, a CCD camera for Earth imaging, and science experi-
ments: an X-ray detector, ozone detector, charged-particle de-
tector, superconductivity experiment, and laser retro reflector and practical education in space engineering. PANSat-OSCAR
for ground-based ranging to the satellite. The amateur radio 34 was launched in 1998. The satellite, shown in Fig. 10.8, had
payload consists of a digital packet store-and-forward system, a nearly spherical body with 26 sides; solar cells covered 17
one operating with uplinks near 145.9 MHz and downlinks sides and antennas were attached to four other sides. It had a
near 435.2 MHz; the other operated with uplinks near 1269 no-longer operating digital communication payload that was
MHz and downlinks near 435.2 MHz, but is currently not op- unique in using spread-spectrummodulation. The payload op-
erational. The satellite, now designated as OSCAR 32, was erated in a half-duplex mode (transmit only or receive only,
launched by a Russian launch vehicle in July 1998, and was not both simultaneously) using 436.5 MHz for both transmis-
still operational in early 2006. sion and reception at a rate of 9842 bps. The payload had 9
Mbytes of memory for storage of messages. In late 2005 the
satellite was only transmitting a telemetry signal and was not
SEDSat-OSCAR33 operational in mid-2006.
Students developed OSCAR 33, SEDSat, at the University
of Alabama in conjunction with the independent organiza-
tion Students for the Exploration and Development of Space Sunsat-OSCAR 35
(SEDS). The microsatellite body was nearly a cube, with so- Sunsat-OSCAR 35 was a miniature satellite built by the Uni-
lar cells on five faces. Six antennas extended from the body, versity of Stellenbosch in South Africa. It is described in the
three of which were deployed on orbit. Payloads were amateur South African section of chapter 9.
communications and multispectral Earth imaging. In addition,
the satellite demonstrated new attitude control and position
determination techniques, including use of a GPS receiver, UOSAT-OSCAR36 (UOSAT12)
and a new nickel-metal-hydride battery. The communications UoSAT 12, shown in Fig. 10.9, was a satellite built by Sur-
payload had one section with an uplink at 145.95 MHz and a rey Satellite Technology as an internally funded research and
downlink at 29.4 MHz, and a second section with an uplink at development project [60-631. The project goal was to develop
1266.7 MHz and a downlink at 437.9 MHz. Each had an aver- and demonstrate a modular minisatellite platform, called the
age transmitter power of 3 W and a maximum of 15 W. The MiniSat-400, suitable for payloads in the 300 to 500 kg range.
former, for analog signals, was used the first six months of the It carried both a communications payload and an Earth-imag-
satellite’s life; the latter, for digital rates of 9.6 and 57.6 kbps, ing payload, and was successfully launched in April 1999.
was used subsequently. The satellite, launched in 1998, was The communications payload included 4 VHF telecom-
not operational in 2005. mand receivers operating near 146 MHz, 2 UHF telemetry and
data downlinks that supported store-and-forward communica-
tions operating near 437 MHz, a high-power UHF amplifier
PANSat-OSCAR 34 for experimental communications with “microterminals,” and
OSCAR 34 was PANSat, the Petite Amateur Navy satellite de- a MERLION payload that consisted of 2 L-band (1260 to 1270
veloped at the Naval Postgraduate School in California. The GHz) receivers and 2 S-band (2400 to 2450 MHz) transmitters
project was undertaken as a means to provide both theoretical configured as an L/S-band transponder. The MERLION pay-
load was jointly developed with Nanyang Technical University

603
Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

amateur radio frequencies for communications, and thus was

given the OSCAR designation Weber-OSCAR 39. Very little
additional information is available on this satellite.
ASUSATl was the product of a nanosatellite project be-
gun in October 1993 at Arizona State University [65-671. It
was a student designed and built satellite, and the goal of the
project was to perform meaningful science in space. More
than 400 students participated in the project from inception
through the end of its mission. Mission objectives included
spectral imaging, experimentation with a global positioning
system, achievement of three-axis passive attitude stabiliza-
tion, achievement of low-cost attitude determination to 10 deg
of accuracy, achievement of autonomous operation, demon-
stration of a communications capability through telemetry and
command functions, and the provision of an analog voice re-
peater using amateur radio frequency bands. The satellite was
small at 5.8 kg.
ASUSATl was successfully deployed from the launch
vehicle using the JAWSAT structure, and telemetry and com-
mand operations were established. However, telemetry indi-
cated that the onboard battery was not being charged because
of an unknown failure. The mission ended about 14 hr after de-
Fig. 10.9. UoSAT-OSCAR36 (UoSat 12) satellite. ployment, when the battery was fully discharged. This satellite
was given the OSCAR designation Arizona State-OSCAR 37.
in Singapore, and was designed to investigate improved cov- Students in the Space Systems Development Laboratory of
erage of Earth’s equatorial regions by low Earth-orbiting Stanford University developed OPAL [68, 691. The primary
satellites. The L-band uplink and S-band downlink were both mission of the OPAL microsatellite was to deploy six picosat-
frequency agile, and the transponder could operate in either ellites into orbit. Secondary mission payloads included a suite
transparent mode or in a processing mode. Uplink signals of accelerometers and a fluxgate magnetometer. Communica-
could be routed to an onboard digital signal processor for tions with the satellite were via the UHF amateur radio band.
modulation and coding experiments, as well as for channel OPAL was successfully deployed from the JAWSAT struc-
characterization measurements. ture, and then OPAL in turn successfully deployed all six of
A Russian Dnepr rocket, a demilitarized SS18 ICBM, its even smaller satellites. The satellite is shown in Fig. 10.10.
launched the satellite. UoSAT 12 provided multispectral im- Stensat was a very small picosatellite developed as a hobby
ages of Earth during its first months in orbit. by a small group of engineers in the United States that included
amateur radio operators [70]. The satellite was 10 by 7.5 by 2.5
cm in size, and the payload was a low-power (hundreds of mil-
Arizona State-OSCAR 37 (ASUSATl), OPAL- liwats) analog FM voice repeater that was designed to operate
OSCAR 38, Weber-OSCAR 39 (JAWSAT) on the UHF and VHF amateur radio bands. The satellite was
On 27 January 2000, a modified Minotaur ICBM carrying deployed from OPAL on 10 February 2000, but no radio signal
the upper stage of a Pegasus XL launcher placed a number was heard from the satellite. It was not given an OSCAR des-
of microsatellites and nanosatellites in orbit from Vandenberg ignation. The Stensat picosatellite is shown in Fig. 10.11.
Air Force Base in California. Orbital Sciences developed the
modified Minotaur launch system. The primary payload was
JAWSAT, and this satellite contained additional small satel-
lite payloads. JAWSAT deployed three microsatellites and
one nanosatellite: Falconsat (a technology-testbed microsat-
ellite developed by the U.S. Air Force Academy), OCS (an
optical calibration microsatellite developed by the U.S. Air
Force), ASUSATl (a communications nanosatellite developed
by students at Arizona State University), and the microsatel-
lite OPAL. OPAL (Orbiting Picosat Automatic Launcher) in
turn contained six picosatellites that it later deployed. These
included Stensat (a communications satellite), two tethered
DARPNAerospace Corporation satellites designed to conduct
intersatellite communications experiments (Picosat 1.O), and
a set of three satellites from Santa Clara University designed
to conduct a VLF wave experiment (named JAK, Thelma, and
Louise).
JAWSAT (Joint Air Force Weber Satellite) successfully
served as a platform from which to launch the smaller ASU-
SAT1, OPAL, Falconsat, and OCS satellites [64]. It used Fig. 10.10. OPAL-OSCAR 38 satellite.

604
 Amateur and Educational Satellites

The satellite had a mass of 646 kg, and the spin-stabilized

structure was over 2 m in diam and about 70 cm high. Figure
10.12 shows the on-orbit configuration of AMSAT-OSCAR
40, and Fig. 10.13 shows some of the details of the satellite.
It was launched as a copassenger with PanAmSat 1R on an
Ariane 5 launch vehicle on 16 November 2000. Shortly after
launch a plugged vent valve in the propulsion system prob-
ably caused a buildup of fuel pressure in cooling coils around
the motor bell housing, and this eventually led to a localized
explosion onboard the satellite. AMSAT-OSCAR 40 was re-
covered several weeks after the explosion, but a number of
subsystems were no longer functioning. In January 2004 the
satellite suffered a catastrophic failure of the main battery, and
Fig. 10.11,StenSat picosatellite. the satellite was lost.

JAK, Thelma, and Louise were three picosatellitesdesigned Saudi-OSCAR 41, Saudi-OSCAR 42
by a group of women undergraduate engineering students at (SaudiSat 1-a, 1-b)
Santa Clara University [7 1,721.The project was calledArtemis The Space Research Institute at the King Abdu-
and was conducted from the Santa Clara Remote and Extreme laziz City built these two 10 kg nanosatellites for Science and
Environments Mechanisms Laboratory at the university, now Technology in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Besides carrying a pay-
known as the Robotic Systems Laboratory. Thelma and Louise load for the Aprize data system (see chapter 3), Saudi-OSCAR
measured 20 cm by 7.5 cm by 2.5 cm, and their main payload 41 carried an analog transponder, and Saudi-OSCAR 42 car-
was a VLF receiver intended to measure RF signals in the vi- ried a digital transponder. Both satellites were designed with
cinity of 5 kHz from lightning discharges in the atmosphere. a VHF uplink and a UHF downlink operating in the amateur
Each satellite had a different signal threshold, and measure- radio bands. Saudi-OSCAR 41 had a transmitter output power
ments from the two satellites were to be compared. The third of 1 w.
satellite,JAK, was a simple beacon transmitter to calibrate sig- The satellites were successfully launched together from the
nal levels from very small satellites. Communication with the Baikonur Cosmodrome on a converted Soviet ballistic missile
satellites was to be in the VHF amateur radio band. All three on 26 September 2000. In April 2002 the Space Research In-
satellites were successfully deployed by OPAL, but no signals stitute announced that Saudi-OSCAR 41 was open for amateur
were detected from any of them after deployment. radio use, and signals were received for at least some time,
although by 2003 Saudi-OSCAR 41 was out of service and in
a test mode. The Space Research Institute reported that Saudi-
AMSAT-OSCAR 40 OSCAR 42 was also doing well in orbit after launch, but its
(AMSAT Phase 3D) use by the amateur radio community appears to be limited.
AMSAT-OSCAR 40 was the fourth in a series of Phase 3 AM- The operational status of either satellite in mid-2006 was not
SAT satellites 173,741. It was developed primarily in Germany known.
but had wide international participation and took longer than
10 years to complete and launch. Like earlier satellites in this
series, it was intended for a highly elliptical orbit and had ex- Starshine-OSCAR43
tensive capability for communications in the amateur radio Starshine-OSCAR43, or Starshine 3, was a miniature satellite
bands in both digital and analog transmission modes. project designed to provide an aerospace educational opportu-
Analog uplink passbands: 21.21 to 21.25 MHz, 24.92 to nity to precollege students [75]. The satellite, built by the U.S.
24.96 MHz, 145.84 to 145.99 MHz, 435.55 to 435.80 Naval Research Laboratory with assistance from many edu-
MHz, 1269.25 to 1269.50 MHz, 1268.325 to 1268.575 cational organizations and aerospace companies, was a 94 cm
MHz, 2400.35 to 2400.60 MHz, 2446.45 to 2446.70 sphere covered with 1500 mirrors that had been polished by
MHz, and 5668.55 to 5668.80 MHz. an estimated 40,000 student volunteers. Morning and evening
. Analog downlink passbands: 145.805 to 145.955 MHz, passes were visible over a wide range of latitudes to ground
435.475 to 435.752 MHz, 2400.225 to 2400.475 MHz, student observers, who calculated the changing orbital period
2401.225 to 2401.475 MHz, 10451.025 to 10451.275 caused by the aerodynamic drag of its low Earth orbit. The
MHz, and 24048.025 to 24048.075 MHz. satellite carried a command receiver and a telemetry transmit-
Digital uplink passbands: 145.80to 145.84 MHz, 435.30 ter that used the VHF amateur radio band, and hence earned its
to 435.55 MHz, 1269.00 to 1269.25 MHz, 1268.075 to OSCAR designation. Starshine-OSCAR43 was launched on a
1268.325 MHz, 2400.10 to 2400.35 MHz, 2446.20 to NASA Athena I launch vehicle from Kodiak Launch Complex,
2446.45 MHz, and 5668.30 to 5668.55 MHz. Alaska, 29 September 2001, along with three other small satel-
lites-NAV-OSCAR 44 (PCSat), NAV-OSCAR 45 (Sapphire),
Digital downlink passbands: 145.955 to 145.990 MHz,
and PICOSat (A 67 kg U.S. Air Force experimental test satel-
435.90 to 436.20 MHz, 2400.65 to 2400.95 MHz, lite built by Surrey Satellite Technology). Starshine-OSCAR
2401.65 to 2401.95 MHz, and 10451.45 to 10451.75
43 reentered the atmosphere on 21 January 2003.
MHz.

605
Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

NAV-OSCAR 44 (PCSat)
Students at the U.S. Naval Academy built NAV-
OSCAR 44 (PCSat or Prototype Communica-
tions Satellite) to provide a hands-on experience
in satellite system design, test, and operation
[76, 771. Its payload was a satellite-based posi-
tion and reporting system for mobile ground
users, extending an existing terrestrial position
and reporting system. The payload used the VHF
and UHF amateur radio bands. NAV-OSCAR 44
was launched 30 September 2001 on an Athena 1
launch vehicle from the Kodiak Launch Complex
in Alaska. The position and reporting system was
successfully activated and used. In October 2002
PCSat and an amateur radio payload onboard the
International Space Station (ISS) successfully
Fig. 10.12. AMSAT-OSCAR 40 satellite.
conducted joint operations, providing ground
users with double-hop communications. After
21 months of successful operation the batteries
failed. In 2005 the satellite was providing inter-
mittent operations that depended on the amount
of available sunlight on the solar panels.

NAV-OSCAR 45 (Sapphire)
NAV-OSCAR 45 (Sapphire, or Stanford Au-
dioPhonic PHotographic InfraRed Experiment)
was built by Stanford University’s Space Sys-
tems Development Laboratory; it was the first
Satellite QUIck Research Testbed (SQUIRT)
satellite and the second SQUIRT satellite to
fly (OPAL-OSCAR 38 was the first) [78]. Stu-
dents at Washington University in St. Louis also
participated by preparing the microsatellite for
flight. The satellite provided an educational ve-
hicle for teaching students about system engi-
neering and satellite design. The primary pay-
load of the satellite consisted of devices called
tunneling horizon detectors that were supplied
by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. In a joint effort
with the Naval Academy, Sapphire also carried a
satellite position and reporting system like that
on NAV-OSCAR 44. Sapphire was launched on
30 September 2001 on the same Athena I launch
vehicle as PCSat and Starshine. The satellite
was still operating in February 2002, although
it is believed that a problem during ejection of
the satellite from the launch vehicle caused the
satellite to initially spin backward. Difficulties
with the spin state of the satellite interfered with
the collection of data from the tunneling hori-
zon detectors. At least some parts of the satellite
were still working as late as July 2004, and the
satellite was not operational in mid-2006.
~

Malaysian-OSCAR 46 (TiungSAT-1)
Malaysian-OSCAR 46 or TiungSAT-1 was a sat-
ellite development project started by the prime
minister of Malaysia in 1997 [79-821. The
Malaysian government formed a government-
Fig. 10.13. AMSAT-OSCAR 40 (AMSAT Phase 3 0 ) satellite details.
owned company called Astronautic Technology
606
 Amateur and Educational Satellites

(Malaysia) Sendirian Berhad to administer the program. Sur- and amateur radio UHF band for the downlink. The downlink
rey Satellite Technology in the United Kingdom built the power level is 250 mW. The satellite was still operational in
microsatellite, and it was given the name “Tiung” (Myna or mid-2006.
Mynah) after the singing Malaysian bird. The program trained
8 Malaysian engineers in the design and construction tech-
niques used for spacecraft. There were two primary payloads, AMSAT-OSCAR 51 (Echo)
a remote sensing system that included multispectral imaging AMSAT-OSCAR 5 1 is an 11 kg amateur radio communica-
capability and a digital store-and-forward communications tions microsatellite that was built by the AMSAT organization
system. The communications system operated in the amateur in North America [85-871. The project was initiated in Octo-
radio VHF and UHF bands, and this earned the satellite its OS- ber 2001 and draws on the heritage and experience of earlier
CAR designation. There were three receivers operating near AMSAT satellites-AMSAT-OSCAR 16, DOVE-OSCAR 17,
145 MHz and two redundant transmitters operating near 437.3 Weber-OSCAR 18, Lusat-OSCAR 19, and AMRAD-OSCAR
MHz at power levels between 2.5 and 10 W. 27. The structure is a cube, 25 cm on each side, and consists
The satellite was successfully launched on 26 September of a stack of six aluminum trays that house the communica-
2000 on the same Dnepr launch vehicle that launched Saudi tions electronics, bus electronics, and the battery system. The
OSCAR 41 and 42. The satellite provided both multi-spectral satellite has an active magnetic attitude control system. The
imagery and amateur radio communications services after satellite’s power system can generate about 20 W of power
launch. It was not believed to be operating in late 2005. in sunlight using six solar panels attached to the sides of the
cube. Figure 10.14 is an illustration of the satellite.
The payload of the satellite supports both analog and digi-
BreizhSAT-OSCAR 47 and 48 tal communication modes. It has an analog FM repeater that
(Idefix CU1 and CU2) receives signals in the VHF band near 146 MHz or at L-band
These were two very small satellites that were developed by near 1269 MHz, and transmits signals in the UHF band near
AMSAT-France (Idefix is a French name from a comic strip 435 MHz or at S-band near 2401 MHz. The satellite can also
named Asterix, and Breizh represents a region in France). operate in digital modes with uplinks near 146 MHz and 1269
They were affixed to the third stage of an Ariane 4 launch MHz, and downlinks near 435 MHz or 2401 MHz. The digital
vehicle and launched on 3 May 2002 along with the main pay- modes include both a digital repeater mode and a store-and-
load for the flight, SPOT 5. The satellites remained fixed to forward mode that can operate at rates between 9.6 and 76.8
the third stage of the rocket and operated off of battery power kbps, although 9.6 kbps and 38.4 kbps are the more common
until the batteries were exhausted. Both satellites transmitted rates in use. Figure 10.15 shows the communications block
narrowband FM voice messages and digital telemetry data us- diagram of the satellite. The UHF transmitters have a maxi-
ing the amateur radio VHF band (BreizhSAT OSCAR 47) and mum power output of 8 W. One of the receivers is a single
the amateur radio UHF band (BreizhSAT OSCAR 48). Brei- all-mode receiver capable of operating over a wide range of
zhSAT OSCAR 47 lasted 32 days, and BreizhSAT OSCAR 48 bands from the 10 m to the 23 cm amateur radio bands. Three
lasted 14 days before depleting its battery. antennas are used-a 46 cm VHF whip antenna (receive), a
turnstile antenna for UHF operations (transmit), and a combi-
nation L- and S-band “open sleeve” antenna.
AATiS-OSCAR 49 (SAFIR-M)
A German amateur radio association called “Arbeitskreis
Amateurfunk & Telekomunikation in der Schule” (AATiS),
meaning “working group for amateur radio and telecommuni-
cations in the schools,”built AATiS-OSCAR 49 [83]. The pay-
load was a store and broadcast system to support automated
position reporting, and the microsatellite was placed onboard
a small German scientific satellite called RUBIN-2. The pay-
load used uplinks in the amateur radio UHF band and down-
links in the amateur radio VHF band. A Dnepr rocket from
the Baikonur cosmodrome launched the satellite along with
SaudiSatl-C on 20 December 2002. The satellite operated un-
til about March 2003.
~~~~~~ ~~~~~~

Saudi-OSCAR 50 (SaudiSat 1C)

Saudi-OSCAR 50 (SaudiSat 1C) is the third satellite in the
SaudiSat series of satellites produced by the Space Research
Institute of King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology
in Saudi Arabia. Like the nanosatellites SaudiSat 1A and lB,
SaudiSat 1C is a 10 kg satellite [84] and was launched from
the Baikonur Cosmodrome. SaudiSat 1C was launched on 20
December 2002 along with AATiS-OSCAR 49 (SAFIR-M).
SaudiSat carries several payloads, including an amateur radio
repeater that uses the amateur radio VHF band for the uplink Fig. 10.14. AMSAT-OSCAR 51 (Echo) satellite.

607
 Next Page

Amateur, Educational, and Scientific Satellites

VHF Receiver Antenna demonstrationtestbed for future SSETI missions, and

serve as an amateur radio transponder for the remain-
der of the mission. The amateur radio communica-
tions payload was designed to operate in the amateur
radio UHF band near 437 MHz and in the amateur
radio S-band near 2402 MHz.
P The SSETI Express satellite was launched from
the Plesetsk Cosmodrome on 27 October 2005. How-
ever, not long after deployment from the Cosmos-3M
Multiband VHF VHF
multimode launch vehicle SSETI Express entered a safe mode.
The CubeSats were all successfully deployed from
the satellite, but around orbit 6, SET1 Express was
toggling between safe mode and recovery mode. Af-

+
Integratedflight computer plus
2 FSK modulators ter that time, contact with the satellite was lost caused
‘
I 6 FSK demodulators by a presumed failure in the electrical power system,

S-band L-band amplifiers

UHF Q and satellite operations were not recovered.
Figure 10.16 is a drawing of the SSETI Express
satellite and includes the CubeSat launcher (called
the T-POD). Of the CubeSats deployed by SSETI Ex-
press, CubeSat NCUBE-2, a Norwegian student proj-
ect, was not heard from after deployment. CubeSat

UHF transmit antenna

A XI-V was successfully deployed and was operational
in mid-2006. CubeSat UWE- 1 was also successfully
deployed and operated for about 21 days before it
failed. CubeSats NCUBE-2, XI-V and UWE-1 are
also discussed in the CubeSat section below.
Fig. 10.15.AMSAT-OSCAR 51 communication block diagram.

Spacecraft integration took place at SpaceQuest in Vir- AMSAT-OSCAR 54 (Suitsat-1)

ginia, and the satellite was successfully launched on 29 June In February 2006 the crew of the ISS attached a simple ama-
2004 on board a Russian Dnepr rocket. The satellite was in teur radio payload to a spacesuit that was to be discarded by
active use in mid-2006. releasing it from the station. The payload consisted of an ama-
teur radio beacon transmitter sending digitized voice, Morse
code messages, and a single slow-scan television image. Soon
VUSat-OSCAR 52 (Hamsat or VUSat) after deployment the signal became very weak. The spacesuit
The Indian Space Research Organization built VUSat-OS- later reentered the atmosphere.
CAR 52, more commonly called Hamsat, for AMSAT-India ~~ ~~~

[88, 891. The program to build the microsatellite was begun in

2001. It is a 42.5 kg spin-stabilized satellite with a rectangu- CubeSat-OSCAR 55 (Cute 1)
lar body 63 by 63 by 55 cm in size, and with body-mounted Cute 1 was the first educational and experimental nanosatel-
solar panels. The payload consists of two linear transponders lite project undertaken by the Laboratory for Space Systems at
designed for amateur radio use, one built in India and the other the Tokyo Institute of Technology. It was also a CubeSat, and
built in the Netherlands. The communications uplink to the it is described in more detail in the CubeSat section below. It
satellite is at 435.25 MHz, and the communications downlink was launched on 30 June 2003, but did not receive its OSCAR
is at 145.900 MHz. The transponders have a bandwidth of 60 designation until March 2006.
kHz, and the downlink transmit power is 1 W. Hamsat was ~~~

successfully launched on 5 May 2005 aboard an Indian Polar

Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) as a secondary payload. The Cubesat-OSCAR 56 (Cute 1.7+APD)
primary payload was an Indian Space Research Organization Cute 1.7+APD CubeSat, a successor to the Cute 1 CubeSat,
mapping satellite called Cartosat-1. Hamsat was operational is an educational and experimental nanosatellite project un-
in mid-2006. dertaken by the Laboratory for Space Systems at the Tokyo
Institute of Technology.
Cute 1.7+APD was successfully launched on a Japanese
express-OSCAR 53 (SSETI Express) JAXA M-V-8 launch vehicle from Uchinoura Space Center
SSETI (Student Space Exploration & Technology Initiative) is on 21 February 2006. The satellite was transmitting a telem-
an organization established primarily by the European Space etry signal in March 2006. Further details can be found in the
Agency to allow students from many European countries to CubeSat section below.
participate via the Internet in building the first pan-European
student satellites [90-921. SSETI Express, or XO-53, was one
of these satellite projects. The objective of the project was to Cubesat-OSCAR 57 (Cute XI-IV)
serve as a platform for launching three CubeSats (NCUBE-2, CubeSat XI-IV is sponsored by the University of Tokyo; it is
UWE-1, XI-V), take images of Earth, serve as a technology discussed in more detail in the CubeSat section below.

608
 Appendix
A. The International Telecommunication Union and Communication Satellites

T
he International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is restructuring of the ITU was approved at the 1992 Plenipo-
a specialized agency of the United Nations [l-301. In tentiary Conference with the organizational structure put into
mid-2006, 191 nations were ITU members, including place in 1993 and the new Constitution and Convention having
all the major world powers and almost all countries that full force from 1994.
use satellite communications. The objective of the ITU is The Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) is concerned
to promote international cooperation in the efficient use of with efficient management and regulation of the radio spec-
telecommunications. trum. Toward this end, the following activities are related to
From 1992 to 1994 the ITU completed a major restructur- communication satellites.
ing, the first since 1947. Prior to that restructure, the ITU was Prepare regulations.
governed by a written Convention and Plenipotentiary Con- Allocate the radio-frequency spectrum.
ferences. An Administrative Council gave direction between Register radio-frequency assignments and associated
conferences, and the daily work was carried out by a Secre- satellite orbits.
tariat led by a Secretary General elected by the conferences. Coordinate efforts to eliminate harmful interference.
Technical questions were studied and recommendations made
by both the International Radio and the Telegraph and Tele- Adopt resolutions and formulate recommendations con-
phone Consultative Committees (CCIR and CCITT, from their cerning telecommunications matters.
French names). A Bureau for Telecommunications Develop- The ITU-R includes the Radio Regulations Board, which
ment provided assistance to developing countries. The Inter- took over the duties of the old International Frequency Reg-
national Frequency Registration Board maintained the inter- istration Board. The restructuring had put its work on a two-
national list of frequencies used by terrestrial and space radio year cycle with Radiocommunication Assemblies and World
stations. Irregularly convened World or Regional Administra- Radiocommunication Conferences (WRC) every two years,
tive Radio Conferences (WARCs or RARCs) considered and in contrast to the former four-year CCIR cycle and irregular
decided upon revisions to the Radio Regulations.These Regu- WARCs. However, in 1998 the cycle was lengthened to three
lations include, among other things, the Table of Frequency years because it was found that two years did not allow suf-
Allocations. When ratified by the member nations, they have ficient preparation time between WRCs. Due primarily to ITU
the legal force of a treaty. budget limitations, the 2003 to 2007 cycle is four years long.
General WARCs were authorized to consider complete re- The primary activities of the WRCs are to revise the Radio
visions of the Radio Regulations. They were held in 1959 and Regulations.
1979. Specialized conferences were limited to the topics on ITU-R is the sector that influences communication satel-
their agendas. Conferences that emphasized satellite matters lite systems. Its work is carried out by study groups in which
included the WARC for Space Telecommunications (197 l), both government and commercial organizations take part. The
the WARC for Satellite Broadcasting (1977), the RARC for Radiocommunication Assemblies assign work to the study
Satellite Broadcasting in Region 2 (1983), the WARC for Mo- groups and approve Recommendations developed by them.
bile Services (1987), and the two-part WARC on the Geosta- Study group subjects include spectrum planning, interservice
tionary Orbit (WARC-ORB-85,88). sharing of the spectrum, fixed-satellite service, mobile and
The restructuring of the ITU was motivated by mobile-satellite services, and broadcasting and broadcasting-
accelerating technical changes and the resulting new satellite services. Nations that are active in space communi-
telecommunications services, cations have national study groups in which preparations are
merging of formerly distincttelecommunicationsservices made for participation in ITU-R study groups. The Recom-
and the merging of communicationsand computing, mendations developed by the study groups do not have the
same force as the Radio Regulations but are often accepted as
commercialization of telecommunications causing non-
government organizations to have a prominent part in international standards.
The Telecommunication StandardizationSector (ITU-T) is
international affairs,
concerned with technical and operational aspects for the stan-
desires of developing countries to quickly apply modern dardization of international communications. The Telecom-
telecommunications to meet their particular needs. munication Development Sector (ITU-D) recognizes the con-
The ITU is now governed by a Constitution, setting forth cerns of the nonindustrialized nations by putting development
its aims and structure, and a Convention, setting forth proce- on an equal basis with regulation and standardization.
dures. These documents may be revised by the Plenipotentiary The international Radio Regulations are an important
Conference, which now meets at regular four-year intervals. product of the ITU-R. Changes at WARCs over the past de-
Between Plenipotentiary meetings, a Council provides direc- cades, caused by the increasing diversity of telecommunica-
tion; Council members are 46 nations selected with regard to tions applications and the participation of many more nations
geographic distribution. As before, the daily affairs are man- in the work of the ITU, led to a complicated set of Regulations.
aged by a Secretariat headed by a Secretary General elected at The 1989 Plenipotentiary Conference established a Voluntary
the Plenipotentiary Conferences. The main work of the ITU is Group of Experts to recommend ways to simplify the Regula-
now in three sectors, each headed by an elected director. The tions. Their report to WRC-95 led to its adoption of the simpli-
fied (but still lengthy and complicated) Radio Regulations.
627
Appendix

The current Radio Regulations define about 40 radio ser- Allocations may be worldwide or for only one or two regions.
vices and specify which services are allowed to use each por- Allocations are primary, secondary, or by means of a footnote.
tion of the spectrum between 9 W z and 275 GHz. Nations This status determines the priority of the various allocations
may modify the allocations table for use within their own in interference questions. While satellites in almost all alloca-
boundaries. In the United States, this has occurred; there are tions are coordinated on a first-come, first-served basis, there
some differences in allocations and all allocations are desig- are broadcasting-satellite service and some fixed-satellite ser-
nated for Federal Government use or non-Federal Govern- vice allocations that are subject to specific ITU-R Plans, which
ment use or shared use. Furthermore, each nation authorizes, are in Appendices 30,30A, and 30B of the Radio Regulations.
uses, and assigns frequencies within its own jurisdiction. In The allocation tables also have many footnotes, which must be
the United States, the National Telecommunications and In- read with the basic allocations to get a full picture of what is
formation Administration (NTIA) in the Department of Com- allowed in each allocation.
merce controls Federal Government use of the spectrum, and Furthermore, national frequency allocations are not always
the Federal Communications Commission controls other uses identical to the ITU allocations. Therefore, while this appen-
(i.e., those'of state and local governments and all nongovern- dix presents a general picture, official allocation tables should
ment entities) [25-261. be used for detailed information. The U.S. allocation table is
The first allocations for satellite use were made in 1963; published by the NTIA, revised every four months, and by
all were in the range 3400 to 8400 MHz. Further allocations the FCC, revised as rules changes are adopted [25-261. These
were made in 1971 and 1979, and extensive additions and publications also include the ITU allocation table.
revisions have been made since then. The allocations of in- Authorization for a specific transmitter, called a radio sta-
terest to satellite communications include those for the fixed- tion by the ITU, to use the spectrum is called an assignment.
satellite, mobile-satellite, broadcasting-satellite, intersatel- The purpose of requiring assignments is to prevent harmful
lite, and amateur-satellite services. (Fixed-satellite service interference between spectrum users. The national assignment
and mobile-satellite service refer to whether the terminals, procedure is specified by each government. The international
not the satellites, are fixed or mobile.) Some links qualify to procedure is defined in the Radio Regulations. The assignment
use allocations for two types of systems. For example, in a includes conditions under which a particular frequency may
system that serves mobile terminals, the link between a satel- be used, such as transmitter power level, signal bandwidth,
lite and a fixed terminal (e.g., a shore station in a maritime antenna characteristics, and satellite orbits or longitudes in
satellite system) may use either the fixed-satellite or mobile- the geostationary orbit. Briefly, the international assignment
satellite allocations. Allocations are often given a directional process for a communication satellite, not subject to a specific
qualifier: Earth-to-space, or space-to-Earth, or space-to-space. ITU-R Plan, is as follows.

628
 A. The International Telecommunication Union and Communication Satellites

The national authoritycommunicatesbasic characteristics and by requiring nations to certify that satellite and launch
of the satellite to the ITU-R. contracts have been executed. This latter provision is called
After a review to determine compliance with the Radio administrativedue diligence. A further step, financial due dili-
Regulations, the ITU-R publishes the information. gence, was debated but not accepted; this would have required
Nations that are concerned about possible interference nations to submit a deposit when entering a satellite into the
contact the nation responsible for the satellite. ITU-R process.
The national authority sends to the ITU, and to other The increasing number of communication satellites in or-
bit, especially in C-band and Ku-band, coupled with the dif-
nations that may receive interference, additional infor- ficulty of coordinatingwith the growing number of satellites in
mation to begin a formal coordination process. the ITU-R process, has, since 1995, resulted in some conflicts
The nations, or operators designated by them, coordinate even after satellites have been launched. Some of these in-
the characteristics of their satellite systems, and modify volved Thaicom and APStar, Superbird and Agila, Eutelsat and
them if necessary, so that each can operate without Astra, and Eutelsat and Loral. Negotiations between operators
harmful interference; the ITU-R assists if necessary. or governments led to a decision in most cases. In one case,
When the coordination is complete, the nation notifies the the Radio Regulations Board had to make a judgment because
satellite to the ITU-R, which enters it in the international a statement in the Radio Regulations was vague. Regardless of
frequency list; if a satisfactory coordination cannot be changes in the ITU-R process, such cases will continue to oc-
reached, the satellite may be entered in the list with a cur because in C-band and Ku-band the geostationary orbit is
note concerning the liens against it. nearing full capacity in those arcs that are suitable for service
The foregoing process is characterized by first come, first to populous land masses.
served. Since the late 1970s, the developing countries have ex- ******
pressed a strong concern that the industrialized countries’ sat-
ellites will use up the desirable geostationary orbital locations 1. Table of Frequency Allocations 10 kc/s to 40 Gc/s,
and frequencies. This would force the developing countries, modifiedby theExtraordinaryAdministrativeRadioConference
whose use of the orbit and spectrum lags that of the industrial- to Allocate Frequency Bands for Space Radio Communication
ized countries, to use less desirable locations and/or frequen- Purposes (Geneva 1963), International Telecommunication
cies, and at greater cost. Therefore, they advocated an explicit Union, Geneva (1966).
allocation of orbit locations and frequencies to each country, 2. M. Mili, “The International Telecommunication
whereas the industrialized countries preferred a more flexible Union-Development of Modern Telecommunications,”Paper
approach. Equitable and guaranteed access to the geostationary A. 1, International Conference on Communications: ICC ’82
orbit and the method to achieve it was the subject of WARC- (June 1982).
ORB-85 and -88. The 1995 session worked out principles and
methods of planning and narrowed the choices of services and 3. D. V. Doran-Veevers, “The International Telecommu-
frequency bands to which they would apply. The 1998 session nication Union,” Paper 13.1, International Conference on
developed a global allotment plan for the fixed-satellite ser- Communications: ICC ’78 (June 1978).
vice in frequency bands little used at that time and improved 4. R. C. Kirby, “CCIR Past, Present and Future,” Paper
the coordinationprocedures for the bands in common use. The 9.1, International Conference on Communications: ICC ’79
Plan, defined in Appendix 30B of the Radio Regulations, guar- (June 1979).
antees each nation at least one orbit slot within a predefined 5. XVth Plenary Assembly of the CCIR, 1982, (Inter-
arc, and 800 MHz of bandwidth. national Telecommunication Union, Geneva, 1982), 14
Because of respect for the national sovereignty of its mem- Volumes.
bers, the ITU is not a rule-making and enforcement agency in
the way that national organizations (such as the FCC in the 6. “International Frequency Registration Board-ITU,”
United States) are. Rather, it is a forum where nations try to Paper 1A.3, International Conference on Communications:
reach consensus on regulations and recommendations, and is ICC ’82 (June 1982).
an administrative body to record and carry out the nations’ de- 7. M. K. Khabiri, “International Frequency Registration
cisions. In the process of coordination satellite systems, the Board (IFRB),” IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic
ITU-R is a clearinghouse for information and assists in coor- Compatibility, Vol. 19, No. 3 (August 1977).
dinations only when so requested by a nation. 8. W. H. Bellchambers et al., “The International
In the mid- to late-1990s there was a considerable increase Telecommunications Union and Development of Worldwide
in the national submissions to the ITU for satellites in the Telecommunications,” IEEE Communication Magazine, Vol.
bands governed by the first-come, first-served process. The 22, No. 5 (May 1984).
reasons are many and include national sovereignty, the gen-
eral increase in communications worldwide, and pursuit of 9. D. J. Withers, “The Role of CCIR InterimWorking Party
new business opportunities. This led to a processing backlog 4/1 in Satellite Communications,” Paper 43.1, International
at the ITU-R and difficulty in coordinating new communica- Conference on Communications: ICC ’84 (May 1984).
tion satellites. Many of the satellites in the ITU-R process are 10. R. E. Butler, “The Role of the ITU in the Use of the
considered to have little chance of being built and hence are Geostationary Orbit,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 17, No. 6 (June
called paper satellites. WRC-97 made a small step toward al- 1988).
leviating this problem by reducing the time period allowed for
11. G. A. Codding, Jr., “The 1989 ITU Plenipotentiary
a nation to bring a satellite into use (if not brought into use, and the IFRB,” Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 12, No. 3
the satellite is dropped from the ITU-R coordination process), (September 1988).
629
Appendix

12. S. E. Doyle, “Space Law and the Geostationary Orbit: 22. Radio Regulations, edition of 2004 (International
The ITU’s WARC-ORB-85-88 Concluded,” Journal of Space Telecommunication Union, Geneva, 2004), 4 volumes.
Law, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1989). 23. International Telecommunication Union, “About the
13. L. W. Barclay, “The Working of the CCIR,” Electronics ITU” http://www.itu.intlaboutitu/overview/index.html(30
& Communication Engineering Journal, Vol. 2, No. 6 June 2004).
(December 1990). 24. “ITU-R Recommendations,” http://www.itu.int/ ITU-
14. G. A. Codding, Jr., “Introduction: Reorganizing the R/publications/rec/index.asp(30 June 2004).
ITU,” Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 15, No. 4 (August 25. National Telecommunications and Information
1991). Administration, NTZA Manual of Regulations & Procedures
15. G. A. Codding, Jr., “Evolution of the ITU,” for Federal Radio Frequency Management, ch. 4, http://
Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 15, No. 4 (August 1991). www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/redbookdbook.html(30 June
16. A. M. Rutkowski, “The ITU at the Cusp of Change,” 2004).
Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 15, No. 4 (August 1991). 26. Federal Communications Commission, “Rules &
17. P. Cowhey and J. D. Aronson, “The ITU in Transition,” Regulations,” Code of Federal Regulations, part 2, http://
Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 15, No. 4 (August 1991). wireless.fcc.gov/rules.htm1(30 June 2004).
18. G. A. Codding, Jr., and D. Gallegos, “The ITU’s 27. Balabanov, B. and Bachvarova, S. “Satellite Network
Federal Structure,” Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 15, No. Examination and Publication Procedures-Some Problems.”
4 (August 1991). IAF Paper 01-M104, 52nd International Astronautical
Congress (October 2001).
19. “New ITU Structure,” Electronics & Communication
Engineering Journal, Vol. 5 , No. 1 (February 1993). 28. Zhao, Y. “The ITU and National Regulatory Authorities
in the Era of Liberalization.” Paper 116, AZAA 19th
20. R. R. Brown, “The ITU Response at WARC-92 to International Communication Satellite Systems Conference
Rapid Changes in the Design and Use of Communication (April 2001).
Satellite Networks,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 29, No. 10111
(October/November 1993). 29. Bloch, J. J. “Access to the GSO: Any Room Up There?’
Paper 096, AZAA 19th International Communication Satellite
21. K.-U. Schrogl, “The New Structure of the ITU- Systems Conference (April 2001).
Responses to Rapid Technological and Political Change,”
Space Communications, Vol. 12 (1994). 30. “The Radio Regulations Board.” ZTU News, No. 10
(2001).

B. The World Trade Agreements and Communication Satellites

In the 1960s, when the first communication satellites were strongly interested in satellite communications, growth was
launched, terrestrial communication services were provided restrained. In some cases, the monopoly was not interested in
by national monopolies. In some nations the monopoly or- satellite communications because it was a competitor to the
ganization was a part of the government; in others it was a terrestrial communicationsoperated by the same organization.
government-regulated company. In addition, nations made a In general, those who believe in free markets argued that mo-
distinction between national and international communica- nopoly control or other protectionist practices increased prices
tions. This legal framework became the basis for nations’ regu- to end users and hindered expansion of services.
lations of communication satellite systems. In this regulatory Although the international General Agreements on Tariffs
environment, Intelsat was created by treaty as a single interna- and Trade (GATT) had existed for many years, it regulated
tional supplier of satellite communication services. only trade in goods, not trade in services (including commu-
The first regulatory liberalization was the 1970 open entry nications). In January 1995, the World Trade Organization
decision for U.S. domestic communication satellite systems. (WTO) replaced the GATT. WTO headquarters are in Geneva.
Nevertheless, entry was open only to U.S. companies that The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) was
could demonstrate that they were financially and technically negotiated from 1994 through 1997 and entered into force in
qualified and that their services would be in the public interest. February 1998; it is administered by the WTO [l-51. GATS
The domestic satellite systems were limited to domestic ser- requires that each nation give equal treatment to all signato-
vice. A decade later this policy was gradually relaxed to allow ries, although some exceptions are allowed. For example, a
U.S.-Canada transborder services incidental to the domestic nation should give the same treatment to domestic and foreign
operations. It was not until the 1990s that the distinction be- satellite systems’ requests for operating licenses. GATS also
tween domestic and international operations was eliminated. recognizes that national regulations are necessary but requires
From the beginning of communication satellite systems that those regulations be publicly available. The formal agree-
until the 1990s, most nations required that use of the satel- ment has attachments in which about 70 nations, representing
lites systems be provided by a monopoly organization. In more than 90 percent of the world’s telecommunications mar-
some nations Earth terminals could be owned only by the mo- kets, made implementation commitments.
nopoly organization, and in most nations only domestic or- While GATS was being negotiated and afterward, many
ganizations could provide satellite communication services. nations enacted or changed domestic laws to liberalize com-
Regardless of the details, if a monopoly organization was not munications (both terrestrial and satellite). Some nations have
630
 C. Satellite Beacons for Propagation Research

privatized the national communications service provider. Dur- 1. M. E. Davis, “The WTO Agreements on Basic
ing the same period, the Inmarsat, Intelsat, and Eutelsat or- Telecommunications Services,” PaciJic Telecommunications
ganizations changed from intergovernmental to commercial Review, Vol. 19, No. 1 (September 1997); available at ftp://
organizations. In the United States several FCC decisions www.ptc.org/pub/ptr/sept97ptr.pdf (14 October 1999).
implemented GATS provisions. Also, the United States and 2. World Trade Organization, Services Gateway and
Argentina, and the United States and Mexico, enacted bi- many links shown on this page, http://www.wto.org/english/
lateral agreements that liberalized provision of communica- tratop-e/serv-e/serv-e .htm(30 June 2004).
tions services in and between them. Together, these changes
have opened markets, increased competition, and led to many 3. J. Johnson, “Global Policy Responses in the Field of
changes in ownership. However, in spite of the GATS and the Electronic Commerce,” in Electronic Commerce: Opening
national legal changes, there are countries where, in practice, Up New Opportunities for Business, P. Timmers, B. Stanford-
barriers still exist. Reasons include the limitations of the scope Smith & P. T. Kidd (Eds.), 1998, http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/
of GATS, limitations in specific national commitments, dis- ecommerce/books/newopportunities/johnson.pdf (30 June
agreements about how to apply GATS, or slowness in enacting 2004).
new legislation to implement GATS commitments.In addition, 4. A. Hannson and S. McGuire, “Commercial Space
variations in regulations and procedures among neighboring and International Trade Rules: An Assessment of the WTO’s
counties remain a frustration to communication satellite sys- Influence on the Sector,” Space Policy, Vol. 15, No. 4
tem operators. Nevertheless, there has been more change and (November 1999).
opening of satellite communications between 1994 and 2004
than in the prior 30 years. 5. S. B. Harris, “Will the FCC Live Up to its WTO
Obligations,” SpaceNews, (13 May 2002), p. 13.
******

C. Satellite Beacons for Propagation Research

The atmosphere can affect electromagnetic waves in several
ways. Parameters that can be affected include amplitude, Below 30 MHz
phase, polarization, and direction of propagation. The mag- Early in the space age, there was interest in low-frequency
nitude of each of these effects is dependent on several factors: Earth-space links. This interest was the result of terrestrial use
Frequency, polarization, and elevation angle of the wave of frequencies below 30 MHz for long-distance communica-
Ground terminal location and altitude tions. Waves at these frequencies can propagate far beyond
Time of day and year the horizon under some conditions. This feature is useful for
The condition of the atmosphere long-distance communication with satellites at low altitudes.
These disturbances need to be considered in the design of However, as the space age progressed, the performance and
communication satellite systems. Therefore, they have been, reliability of satellite-borne microwave hardware improved
and continue to be, studied in order to quantify them for use greatly, and the use of the synchronous equatorial orbit was
in communication link analyses. These disturbances are also perfected. These two developments eventually overshadowed
studied to gain knowledge about the composition and behavior interest in the lower frequencies for almost all communica-
of the atmosphere. In most cases, the quantification is statisti- tions applications.
cal rather than definitive; results are often specified by plot- The majority of experiments in this frequency range were
ting link degradation versus the probability of exceeding the oriented toward atmospheric and ionospheric physics. These
degradation. include ORBIS (1964), OV4-1 (1966), OV1-17A (1969), and
In general, measurements of atmospheric effects that are an experiment on the Space Test Program (STP) satellite S74-
made using horizontal paths cannot be accurately related to in- 2 (1976). The UoSAT 1, an amateur satellite launched in 1981,
clined Earth-space paths. Therefore, an electromagnetic wave had beacons at 7,14,21, and 28 MHz. STEP 1, destroyed dur-
propagating obliquely through the atmosphere is necessary. ing a 1994 launch, had an experiment for research into ducted
The sun can be used for a source but only for a limited set propagation between 6 and 30 MHz.
of measurements, because it is not a coherent emitter. Some
amplitude statistics can be inferred from measuring the sky VHF and UHF
noise temperature without using any signal source. However,
the most satisfactory and often the only way to measure at- Most experiments in the lower part of the VHF band, ap-
mospheric effects is to use a satellite-based signal source. proximately 30 to 100 MHz, are scientific studies. Oscar 5,
This source may be a beacon generated on the satellite or a launched in 1970, had beacons at 29.45 and 144 MHz for com-
retransmission of a signal received from a ground terminal. munications measurements. The band between 225 and 400
Occasionally,ground-based signal sources and satellite receiv- MHz is important for military communication satellites, yet
ers are used, with the received signal parameters telemetered it is characterized by significant amplitude and phase fluctua-
to the ground. tions. Therefore, several communications-relatedexperiments
Satellite beacons and transponders used in propagation re- have been conducted in this band. These experiments have
search for communicationsengineeringpurposes are discussed made use of the communications transponders of several sat-
here. This research is concentrated in three frequency bands. ellites including those of the ATS series and LES-5 and -6.
Other measurements were made using the 254 MHz beacon on

631
Appendix

Tacsat and the 40, 140, and 360 MHz beacons on the ATS 6. ATS 5 was the first satellite to have equipment for propa-
LES-3 was a beacon satellite launched in 1965 specifically as a gation measurements above 10 GHz. It was launched in 1969
signal source for propagation measurements at approximately and had an experiment with a 31.65 GHz uplink and a 15.3
240 MHz. The Defense Nuclear Agency had an experiment on GHz downlink. ATS 6 followed with a 13 and 18 GHz uplink
STP satellite P76-5 launched in 1976. This experiment trans- experiment and a 20 and 30 GHz downlink experiment. These
mitted signals at 138 MHz, 1.24 and 2.89 GHz, and at seven experiments were used for several years in the United States
frequencies in the 378 to 448 MHz band. This experiment was and for one year in Europe, while ATS 6 was stationed at 35"E
continued with a beacon on STP Satellite P83-1, which trans- longitude. The AT&T Comstar satellites had beacons at 19.04
mitted five of the same frequencies, and a similar beacon on and 28.56 GHz. The 28 GHz signal was modulated to produce
Satellite P87- 1. REX, TEX, and REX I1 have equipment for sidetones at either ~ 2 6 4 . 4or ~ 5 2 8 . 9MHz, and the 19 GHz
communications research near 300 MHz. signal was switched between orthogonal linear polarizations at
Systems for mobile users are one of the biggest satellite a 1 Hz rate. ETS-I1 was a Japanese beacon satellite that oper-
communication growth areas in the 1990s. Planning for these ated for more than one year transmitting at 1.7, 11.5, and 34.5
developments led to propagation studies between 1.5 and 2.5 GHz.
GHz, frequencies that are used for links between the satellites Several experimental communication satellites have been
and the mobile users. These studies made use of links both built to operate in the 10-30 GHz range. All are used to some
on experimental satellites, such as the Japanese ETS-V, and extent in propagation tests. Sirio was used for propagation
operational satellites, such as those of Inmarsat. measurements with both uplink and downlink signals or for
communication tests. It operated at 11.6 and 17.4 GHz. The
OTS operated in the 12 and 14 GHz bands. Of its five transpon-
Above 10 GHz ders, one was dedicated to propagation studies. Propagation
Atmospheric effects in the 2 to 8 GHz bands are relatively measurements also have been made using the Canada/NASA
mild. Measurements in this frequency range have been accom- CTS, the Japanese BS, CS, and ECS, the European Olympus,
plished using the regular equipment on communication satel- and the NASA ACTS, and were included in the experimen-
lites. By the end of the 1970s, the need for more bandwidth tal programs of the Italian Italsat and Aussat/Optus B. These
resulted in many systems to be designed using allocated bands satellites cover the allocated frequency bands at 11-12, 14,
between 10 and 15 GHz. A few systems using 20 and 30 GHz 18-20, and 28-30 GHz.
bands have been in use for years, and many new systems are Italsat also had beacons at 40 and 50 GHz to begin ex-
being brought into use in these bands. Above 15 GHz (above periments in those frequency bands. Stentor, destroyed dur-
10 GHz in tropical areas), both atmospheric gases and rain can ing launch, had beacons at 41.4 and 20.7 GHz. Anik F2 has a
have significant effects on communication links. Many experi- beacon at 40.390 GHz. The Italian DAVID (DAta and Video
ments are being conducted, particularly to quantify the attenu- Interactive Distribution) program proposes a low altitude sat-
ation and polarization effects of rain in the 10 to 30 GHz range ellite with links at 20-30 and 84-94 GHz.
of frequencies.

632
 Glossary

T
he glossary is in three sections. The first section abbreviationsand acronyms, and the third is a table identifying
includes symbols commonly used in the communication the frequency bands used by each satellite system.
system block diagrams, the second provides a list of

Block Diagram Symbols

The communication subsystem block diagrams included sion, and channel switching and combining. The following
for most of the satellites are relatively simple; they primarily symbols are common to all the block diagrams; specialized
show antennas and diplexers, amplification, frequency conver- symbols are defined in the figure in which they occur.

D Amplifier (type not specified) Modulator

Demodulator

P Parametric amplifier

Transistor amplifier 7250

Limiter

Frequency in MHz
4

D
TD Tunnel diode amplifier Channel numbers

Traveling wave tube amplifier Bandwidth

V
Indicates input to mixer from local oscillator
@
- Mixer f
Switch network - connects the two inputs to
Switch: equivalent to ++z any two distinct outputs

0 Switch: equivalent to zF 13/21 Switch network - connects any two inputs to

distinct outputs
Channel combiner (multiplexer) A switch matrix, with more than three inputs or
Four-port hybrid

Diplexer
0 outputs, which can form many different one-to-one
interconnectionsof its input and output ports;
excess input or output ports are terminated

Antenna beam forming network

Triplexer

Power splitting network Antenna (any type)

Filter nParabolic reflector

Variable power divider u Feed horn (or array of horns)

633
Glossary

Abbreviations and Acronyms

8PSK Octal Phase Shift Keying BATSAT Broadband Advanced Technology Satellite
(Teledesic)
AAP Americom Asia-Pacific
BEAR Beacon Experiment and Auroral Research (DOD)
AATiS Arbeitskreis Amateurfunk und Telekommunikation in
der Schule BFN beam forming network
ABCN Asia Broadcasting & CommunicationsNetwork BGAN Broadband Global Area Network (Inmarsat)
ACeS ASEAN Cellular Satellite system Big LEO a low Earth orbit system using frequencies between
1 and 3 GHz for voice communications with mobile
Actel African Continental Telecommunications
users
ACTS Advanced Communications Technology Satellite
BlueSat Basic LEO UNSW Experimental Satellite
(NASA)
bPS bits per second
ADCSP Advanced Defense CommunicationSatellite Program
BPSK binary phase shift keying
AEHF Advanced EHF
BS (or BSE) Medium-Scale Broadcasting Satellite for Experimen-
AFSATCOM Air Force Satellite Communications
tal Purpose (Japan)
AM amplitude modulation
BSat Broadcasting Satellite Systems Corp. and their satel-
AMC Designator used by SES Americom in their satellite lite (Japan)
numbering
BSB British Satellite Broadcasting, Ltd.
Americom American Communications (a part of General
BSkyB British Sky Broadcasting
Electric)
BSS broadcasting-satellite service
Amos Afro-Mediterranean Orbital System
CanX Canadian Advanced Nanospace experiment
AMRAD Amateur Radio Research and Development
Corporation CAS Cooperative Applications Satellite (U.S.-Canada)
AMSAT Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation CAST Chinese Academy of Space Technology
AMSC American Mobile Satellite Corporation C-band 3.4 to 7.1 GHz (in satellite communications)
ANUSAT Anna University Satellite (India) CCD charge-coupleddevice
A0 Amsat OSCAR CCIR from the French for International Radio Consultative
Committee
AP Asia Pacific
CDAS command and data acquisition station
APPLE Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (India)
CDMA code division multiple access
APMT Asia Pacific Mobile Telecommunications
CDS Capabilities Demonstration Satellite (Orbcomm)
APR Asia Pacific region
CFDM companded frequency division multiplexing
APT Asia Pacific Telecommunications
CFh4 companded frequency modulation
Arabsat Arab Satellite CommunicationsOrganization
Chinasat China TelecommunicationsBroadcast SatelliteCorp.
ARISS Amateur Radio on the International Space Station
CIFAS ConsortiumIndustriel Franco-Allemand pour le Satel-
AWA Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD)
lite Symphonie (France-Germany)
ARSENE Ariane Radio-Amateurs Satellite ENseignement Es- Commonwealth of Independent States
pace (France) C.I.S.
C/L a satellite transponder with a C-band uplink and L-
Artemis Advanced Relay and Technology Mission (European
band downlink
Space Agency)
CLS Collecte Localisation Satellites (France)
ASC American Satellite Corporation; also Afro-Asian Sat-
ellite Communications CML a joint venture of Comsat General, MCI, and Lock-
heed Aircraft, called CML Satellite Corporation
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
CNES Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (France)
AsiaSat Asia Satellite Telecommunications Company and its
satellites CNET Centre National d’Etudes TBltcommunications
(France)
AskyB American Sky Broadcasting
CNR Consiglio Nazionale della Richerche (Italian National
ASUSat Arizona State University Satellite
Research Council)
ATC Ancillary Terrestrial Component (for mobile services coded orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
satellite systems) COFDM
COMETS Communications and Broadcasting Engineering Test
AT&T American Telephone and Telegraph Company
Satellite (Japan)
ATDRSS Advanced TDRSS (NASA)
COMS Communication, Ocean and Meteorological Satellite
ATS Applications Technology Satellite (NASA) (South Korea)
AW Advanced Westar Comsat Communications Satellite (Corporation)
BAPTA bearing and power transfer assembly comsat communications satellite
CONUS Continental United States

634
 Abbreviations and Acronyms

COSPAS Cosmicheskaya Sistyema Poiska Avariynich Sudov EC Earth coverage

(Russian for Space System for the Search of Dis- ECS European Communication Satellite (see also JECS)
tressed Vessels)
EHF extremely high frequency (in science, 30 to 300 GHz;
CRCSS Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Systems in satellite communications, approximately 20 to 50
(Australia) GHz)
cis a satellite transponder with a C-band uplink and S- EIRP effective isotropic radiated power
band downlink
Embratel Empresa Brasileira de TelecomunicagSes
cs Japanese communication satellite
EMS European Mobile System
CSCI Commercial Satellite Communications Initiative
EPIRB Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon
@OD)
CTA name of a company (now part of Orbital Sciences) ERP effective radiated power
CTS Communications Technology Satellite (known as ERTU Egyptian Radio and Television Union
Hermes in Canada) ESA European Space Agency
cw continuous wave E-SAT a company name
DAMA Demand Assigned Multiple Access ESRO European Space Research Organization
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD) ETRI Electronics and Telecommunications Research Insti-
DART Demonstration of Autonomous Rendezvous tute (South Korea)
Technology ETS Engineering Test Satellite (Japan)
DASA Deutsche Aerospace Aktiengesselschaft Eureca European Retrievable Carrier
DATS Despun Antenna Test Satellite (DOD) Eutelsat a company name (formerly European Telecommuni-
DAVID DAta and Video Interactive Distribution cations Satellite Organization)
dB decibel EXPRESS EXpCrimentation of PRopagation in the EHF-band
from Stentor Satellite
dB/K antenna gain-to-noise temperature ratio expressed in
dB Faisat Final Analysis satellite
DBS direct broadcast satellite (or system) FASat Fuerza A6ea (Air Force) Sat6lite (Chile)
dBW decibel watt FCC Federal Communications Commission
DC, dc direct current FDM frequency division multiplexing
DCA Defense Communications Agency FDMA frequency division multiple access
DFH Dong Fang Hong (China) FEP FLTSATCOM EHF package
DFS Deutsche Femmeldesatellit (German Telecommuni- FET field effect transistor
cations Satellite) FLTSATCOM Fleet Satellite Communications (DOD)
DFVLR Deutsche Forschungs und Versuchsanstalt fiir Luft- FM frequency modulation
und Raumfahrt (German aerospace research center FSK frequency shift keying
and space agency, now DLR, Deutsche Forschun-
gsanstalt fur Luft- und Raumfahrt) FSS fixed-satellite service
DGA DClCgation GCnCrale pour 1’Armement (French Minis- GaAs gallium arsenide
try of Defense) GATS General Agreements on Trade in Services
DIRISI French acronym for Joint Services Network Infra- GATT General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade
structure Division
GBS Global Broadcast Service (DOD)
DISA Defense Information Systems Agency
GDA gimbaled dish antenna
DISH Digital Satellite Highway (Echostar)
GE General Electric
DNA Defense Nuclear Agency
GEMnet Global Electronic Messaging network
DOD Department of Defense
GEO geostationary Earth orbit
domsat domestic communications satellite
GEOS Geodynarnics Experimental Ocean Satellite
DOVE Digital Orbiting Voice Experiment
GGTS Gravity-Gradient Test Satellite
DPSK differential phase shift keying
GHz gigahertz (1 GHz = 1000 MHz)
DQPSK differential quadriphase shift keying
GLOMR Global Low Orbiting Message Relay
DRTS Data Relay Test Satellite (Japan)
GMSK Gaussian minimum shift keying
DSCS Defense Satellite Communication System
GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
DSI digital speech interpolation
GPS Global Positioning System
DTUsat Denmark Technical University Satellite
GRGT Guam Remote Ground Terminal (NASA)
DVB-S Digital Video Broadcasting - Satellite
GSat GTE Satellite Corporation
EBU European Broadcasting Union
GSLV Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (India)

635
Glossary

GSM Global System for Mobiles JECS Japanese Experimental Communication Satellite
GiT gain-to-noise-temperature ratio JII JSAT International Inc.
GTE General Telephone and Electronics JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory
HAUSAT Hankuk Aviation University CubeSat JSat Japan Satellite Systems Inc.
HCI Hughes Communications, Inc. K Kelvin
HEMT high electron mobility transistor Ka-band 17 to 21 GHz and 27 to 31 GHz (in satellite
communications)
HF high frequency (in science, 3 to 30 MHz)
Ka-ISL Ka-band Intersatellite Link
HGS Hughes Global Services
KARI Korea Aerospace Research Institute (South Korea)
HR Heavy route (terminal) (Canada)
KaSA Ka-band single access (TDRSS)
H-Sat Heavy Telecommunication Satellite (later Olympus)
(European Space Agency) K-band 10 to 31 GHz (in satellite communications)
Hz hertz kbps kilobits per second
IA Intelsat Americas kbyte kilobyte
IAI Israel Aircraft Industries kHZ kilohertz
IBM a company name (formerly International Business Kitcomm Kennett International Technology communications
Machines) satellite
IBS Intelsat Business Service Kitsat [South] Korean Advanced Institute of Technology
satellite
ICE Cube Ionospheric scintillation Experiment CubeSat
KO Kitsat OSCAR
ICO intermediate circular orbit; also a company name de-
rived from this KSA K-band single access (TDRSS)
IDCSP Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program Ku-band 10.7 to 14.5 GHz (in satellite communications)
IDCSPIA Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program KuSA Ku-band single access (TDRSS)
Augmentation KUTESat Kansas University’s Technology Evaluation Satellite
IDR Intermediate Data Rate (Intelsat) kW kilowatts
IDSCS Initial Defense Satellite Communication System kwh kilowatt hours
IF or I.F. intermediate frequency LAM liquid apogee motor
IFRB International Frequency Registration Board L-band 1.5 to 1.7 GHz (in satellite communications)
IMO Intergovernmental Maritime Organization LIC A satellite transponder with a L-band uplink and C-
Inmarsat International Maritime Satellite Organization band downlink
INMILSAT International Military Satellite LDR low data rate (Milstar, AEHF)
InP indium phosphide LDREX Large Deployable Reflector Experiment (Japan, part
of ETS-VIII program)
INPE Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (Brazil)
LEO low Earth orbit
INTA Instituto Nacional de TCcnica Aeroespacial (Spain)
LES Lincoln Experimental Satellite
Intelsat a company name; current also and formerly solely In-
ternational Telecommunication Satellite Organization LHCP left-hand circular polarization
Intersputnik short for Intersputnik International System and Orga- Li lithium
nization of Space Communications Little LEO a low Earth orbit system using frequencies below 1
IRIS Intercontinental Retrieval of Information by Satellite GHz for non-voice communications with mobile
users
ISRO Indian Space Research Organization
LLMS Little LEO Messaging Service
ISS intersatellite service
LMI Lockheed Martin Intersputnik
Itamsat Italian amateur satellite
LNA low noise amplifier
ITU International Telecommunication Union
LOFT1 Low Frequency Transmission through the Ionosphere
ITU-D ITU Telecommunication Development sector
LQSS Loral Qualcomm Satellite Services
ITU-R ITU Radiocommunication sector
L-Sat Large Telecommunication Satellite (later Olympus)
ITU-T ITU Telecommunication Standardization sector
(European Space Agency)
ITV instructional television (ATS 6)
L-Star Lao-Star (Laos)
IUS Inertial Upper Stage
LTWTA linearized TWTA
JAS Japanese amateur satellite
LUCE Laser Utilizing Communications Experiment (Japan)
JAWSAT Joint Air Force Weber Satellite
LUT local user terminal (Sarsat-Cospas)
JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
M2A, M2A Multi-Media Asia
JCSat Japan Communications Satellite, Inc.
MA multiple access (TDRSS)

636
 Abbreviations and Acronyms

MACSAT multiple access communications satellite (DARPA) NPO-PM Nauchno-Proizvodstvennoe Obiedinenie Prikladnoi
Mekhaniki (Russian for Scientific Production Asso-
Marecs Maritime European Communication Satellite
ciation of Applied Mechanics)
Marots Maritime Orbital Test Satellite (Europe) Nordiska Satellitaktiebolaget (Nordic Satellite
NSAB
MB multibeam Company)
Mb megabit NSS New Skies Satellites
MBA multibeam antenna NTIA National Telecommunications and Information Ad-
MBCO Mobile Broadcasting Corporation (Japan) ministration (U.S.)
MBSAT Mobile Broadcasting Satellite (Japan) NTT Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation
Mbps megabits per second OFDM orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
Mbyte megabyte OFT orbital flight test
Mcps megachips per second OICETS Optical Inter-orbit Communications Engineering Test
Satellite (Japan)
MCHI Mobile Communications Holdings Inc.
OPAL Orbiting Picosatellite Automated Launcher
MCI a company name (formerly Microwave Communica-
tions, Inc.) OPALE Optical Payload for Inter Satellite Link Experiment
(European Space Agency)
MCS maritime communication subsystem (Intelsat V)
ORBIS Orbiting Radio Beacon Satellite (DOD)
MDR medium data rate (Milstar, AEHF)
ORBIT Act Open-Market Reorganization for the Betterment of
Measat Malaysia East Asia Satellite International Telecommunications Act (U.S.)
ME0 medium Earth orbit OSCAR orbiting satellite carrying amateur radio
Mercosul Portuguese: Mercado Comum do Sul, Southern Com- OTS Orbital Test Satellite (Europe)
mon Market (of South America)
Mercosur Spanish: Mercado Comun del Sur, Southern Common
ov orbiting vehicle
Market (of South America) PAM perigee assist motor; also pulse amplitude modulation
MEROPE Montana EaRth Orbiting Picosat Explorer CubeSat PANSat Petite Amateur Navy satellite
MESH a west European industrial consortium PAS PanAmSat, formerly Pan American Satellite
MFSK multiple FSX PASI Philippine Agila SateUiteInc.
MHz megahertz PBS Public Broadcasting Service
MilSatCom Military Satellite Communication(s) PCM pulse code modulation
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology PCSat Prototype Communications Satellite (US. Navy)
MMD mean mission duration PEACESAT Pan Pacific education and communication experi-
ments by satellite (ATS)
MMW millimeter wave
Peole Preparation for Eole
MPEG Motion Picture Experts Group
Perumtel Perusahaan Umum Telekomunikasi (Indonesia)
MPSC Mabuhay Philippines Satellite Corp.
PHEMT Pseudomorphic HEMT
ms millisecond
PKM perigee kick motor
MSK minimum shift keying
PLACE position location and aircraft communication experi-
MSS mobile-satellite service ment (ATS 6)
MSV Mobile Satellite Ventures PM phase modulation
MTBF mean time before failure PNG Papua New Guinea
MTSAT Multifunctional Transport Satellite (Japan) P-POD Poly Picosatellite Orbital Deployer
MTTF mean time to failure PSK phase shift keying
MUBLCOM Multiple Path Beyond-Line-of-Sight Communications PSN Pasifik Satelit Nusantara (Indonesia)
POD)
Q-band used by some for 37.5 to 42.5 or 37.5 to 51.4 GHz
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
QPSK quadriphase shift keying
NASDA National Space Development Agency (Japan)
QZSS Quasi Zenith Satellite System (Japan)
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
RADCAL radar calibration
NB narrow band
RARC Regional Administrative Radio Conference (ITU)
NCUBE Norwegian University of Science and Technology
CubeSat Rascom Regional African Satellite Communications
Organization
NiCd nickel cadmium (battery)
RCA Radio Corporation of America
NiH, nickel hydrogen (battery)
RCS reaction control subsystem
nmi nautical mile (= 1.85 km, 1.15 statute mi)
RDSS radiodetermination-satellite service
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

637
Glossary

RESSAT Reserve Satellite (Eutelsat) Sinosat Sin0 Satellite CommunicationsCo.

REX Radiation Experiment Satellite (DOD) Sirio from the Italian words for Italian Industrial Research
RF radio frequency Satellite Organization
RFI radio frequency interference SITE satellite instructional television experiment (ATS 6)
RHCP right-hand circular polarization SLEP service life enhancement program (DOD)
revolutions per minute SMA S-band multiple access (TDRSS)
rpm
RS Radio Sputnik (Russia) SMSK serial minimum shift keying
RSC Rocket Space Corporation (Russian initials RKK) SNUG Space Network Users Guide (NASA)
RSSC Russian SatelliteCommunicationsCompany (Russian SPADE Single channel per carrier, Pulse code modulation,
name Kosmicheskaya Svyaz) multiple Access, Demand-assigned Equipment
RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generator SPC Special Project Co. (Intersputnik)
SAFIR SAtellite For Information Relay (Germany) SPCC Southern Pacific CommunicationsCorporation
SAMSO Space and Missile Systems Organization (U.S. Air SQUIRT Satellite QUIck Research Testbed
Force) (later Space Systems Division then Space and SSA S-band single access (TDRSS)
Missile Center) SSETI Student Space Exploration & Technology Initiative)
SAMT State-of-the-ArtMedium Terminal (DSCS) SSL, SSbral Space SystemsLoral
Sapphire Stanford Audiophonic PHotographic InfraRed SSMA spread spectrum multiple access
Experiment
SSPA solid-state power amplifier
SARSAT search and rescue satellite-aided tracking
Satmex Satklites Mexicanos
sss Strategic Satellite System (DOD)
SSITDMA satellite-switchedTDMA
SAW surface acoustic wave
ST Singapore-Taiwan satellite
S-band 1.7 to 2.7 GHz (in satellite communications)
STAR Satellite Television Asian Region
SBS Satellite Business Systems
STC SatelliteTelevision Corporation
SBTS Empresa Brasileira de TelecomunicaG8es
STDN SpaceflightTracking and Data Network (NASA)
SCC Space CommunicationsCorporation (Japan)
STENTOR Satellite de TkEcommunicationspour Expkriences de
SCCE Satellite Configuration Control Elements Nouvelles Technologiesen ORbite
SCD Satelite de Coleta de Dados (Brazil) STEP Satellite Telecommunications Experimental Project
SCE Selective Communication Experiment satellite (India)
@OD) STEP Space Test Experiment Platform (US. Air Force)
SCF Satellite Control Facility (U.S. Air Force) (now SCN) STGT Second TDRSS Ground Terminal
SCN Satellite Control Network (U.S. Air Force) STP Space Test Program (U.S. Air Force)
SCORE Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment STTW Shiyan Tongbu Tongxin Weixing (experimental geo-
SCPC single channel per carrier stationary communication satellite) (China)
SCT single channel transponder (AFSATCOM) STW Shiyan Tongxin Weixing (experimental communica-
SDARS satellite digital audio radio service (also known as sat- tions satellite) (China)
ellite digital audio broadcasting service) SUNSat Stellenbosch University satellite (South Africa)
SDRN Satellite Data Relay Network (Russia) SUPARCO Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
SECS small experimentalcommunication satellite (DOD) (Pakistan)
SEDsat Students for the Exploration and Development of Surfsat Summer UndergraduateResearch Fellowship satellite
Space satellite (University of Alabama) Syracuse System of Radio-Communication Using a Satellite
SES SociBtc5 Europknne des Satellites (Luxembourg) (France)
SESAT Siberian-European satellite (Eutelsat) T1 1.544 Mbps data rate; also a Teledesic experimental
satellite
SGLS Space-Ground Link Subsystem (U.S. Air Force)
Tacsat Tactical Communications Satellite (DOD)
SHF super high frequency (in science, 3 to 30 GHz; in sat-
ellite communications, either the same or 7.2 to 8.4 TAO Telecommunications Advancement Organization
GHz) (Japan)
SHVIA Satellite Home Viewer Improvement Act (U.S.) TC transformational communications
SICRAL an Italian acronym beginning Sistema Italiana de TCM trellis-coded modulation
Communicazione TCSJ TelecommunicationSatellite Corporation of Japan
SIDEX Signal Identification Experiment (DOD) TDA tunnel diode amplifier
Silex Semiconductor Intersatellite Link Experiment (Euro- TDF Tc5lkdiffusion de France
pean Space Agency)

638
 Abbreviations and Acronyms

TDMA time division multiple access U.K. United Kingdom

TDRS(S) Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (System) (NASA) UNAMSAT from the Spanish word order for National Autono-
Temisat Telespazio Micro Satellite mous University of Mexico satellite
TETR Test and Training Satellite (NASA) UNSW University of New South Wales
TEX Transceiver Experiment satellite (DOD) uo UoSAT OSCAR
TIROS Television Infrared Observation Satellite UoSAT University of Surrey (England) satellite
TITech Tokyo Institute of Technology USSB United States Satellite Broadcasting
TMI Telesat Mobile, Inc. (Canada) V-band used by some for 37.5 to 5 1.4 or 47.2 to 51.4 GHz
TMSat Thai microsatellite VHF very high frequency (in science, 30 to 300 MHz; in
satellite communications usually 137 to 150 MHz)
TRUST television relay using small terminals (ATS 6)
VITA Volunteers in Technical Assistance
TRW a company name (formerly Thompson Ram0
Woolridge) VNPT Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications
TSAT Transformational satellite VSAT very small aperture terminal
TT&C telemetry, tracking, and command WARC World Administrative Radio Conference (ITU)
TTS Test and Training Satellite (NASA) WB wide band
Tubsat Technical University of Berlin satellite WGS Wideband Gapfiller System
TV television WINDS Wideband InterNetworking Engineering Test and
Demonstration Satellite (Japan)
TWT traveling wave tube
WRC World Radiocommunication Conference (ITU)
TWTA traveling wave tube amplifier (TWT plus power
supply) WSGT White Sands Ground Terminal (TDRSS)
UAE United Arab Emirates WTO World Trade Organization
UFO UHF Follow-On satellite (DOD) X-band 7.2 to 8.4 GHz (in satellite communications)
UHF ultrahigh frequency (in science, 300 to 3000 MHz; in XDR extended data rate (AEHF)
satellite communications, 235 to 460 MHz)

639
Glossary

Frequency Table
This table indicates the frequency bands used by the satellite programs described in this book for which frequency information is
available. Communications,command, and telemetry frequencies are included. A band is marked if any part of it is used, but within
a program (i.e., one line in the table) every satellite does not necessarily use all the frequency bands marked. (Table continues for
four more pages.)
1400- 1750- 2300- 3400- 7250- 17.8-21.2, Other
Satellite 120-150 220470 1700 2290 2700 7075 8400 10.7-14.5 14.5-18.1 27.5-31 Frequen-
Proaram MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz GHz GHz GHz cies'
ACeS X X
ACTS X X
Advanced EHF X X 43-45,60
GHz
Agila X X
Amos X X
Amsat X X X X 29,1270 MHz
10,24 GHz
AMSC, TMI X X
(MSat)
Anik X X X 1200,1600
MHz
APPLE X X
Applications X X X X X X X X 860MHz,
Technology 32 GHz
Satellites
Aprize X X
APT Satellite X X
Arabsat X X X X
Argos X X X
ARSENE X X X
AsiaSat X X
Astra X X X
Aussat A X
Badr (Pakistan) X X
Bonum X
Brasilsat X X
BSat X X
BSE, BS2, BS3 X X
China Orient X X
Telecomm
Chinasat 6.7.8 X X
Communications X X
Technology
Satellite
COMS X X
Courier
cs, cs2, cs3 X X
Data Relay Test X 23,2527
Satellite GHz
DIRECTV X X X
DOD Lightsats
Dong Fang Hong X
2,2A
DSCS X X
EchoStar X X X X
'Frequencies listed are approximate; see satellite descriptions for exact values.

640
 Frequency Table

1400- 1750- 2300- 3400- 7250- 17.8-21.2, Other

Satellite 120-150 220-470 1700 2290 2700 7075 8400 10.7-14.5 14.5-18.1 27.5-31 Frequen-
Program MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz GHz GHz GHz cies’
Ekran X 714,754 MHz
Eole, Peole X X
E-Sat X
ETS, COMETS, X X X X X 23-28,38,43,
OICETS 44,47 GHz,
optical
Europe*Star X
European Space X X X X X X 23,25-27
Agency GHz, optical
Eutelsat X X X X X X 22 GHz
Express X X
Eyesat X X
Faisat X X
FASat X X
Fedsat X X
FLTSATCOM, X X X X 4345GHz
AFSATCOM
Galaxy X X
Gals (Broadcast- X X
ing)
Gals (Military) X
GE Americom X X
Globalstar X X X
Gonets X
Gorizont X X
GSAT X X X
Healthsat X X
Hellas Sat X
Hispasat X X X X X
Horizons X X
ICO X X
IOCSP X X
lndostar X X
Inmarsat X X 1176MHz
lnsat X X X X
Intelsat, lntelsat X X X X X
Americas
Iridium X X 23 GHz
ltalsat X X 40,49 GHz
Japanese ECS X X 32,35 GHz
JCSat X X
KazSat X
Kopernikus X X X
Koreasat X X X
Kupon X
LatinSat X
Leasat X
Leo One X X
Lincoln Experi- X X 36-38 GHz
mental Satellites

64 1
Glossary

1400- 1750- 2300- 3400- 7250- 17.8-21.2, Other

Satellite 120-150 220-470 1700 2290 2700 7075 8400 10.7-14.5 14.5-18.1 27.5-31 Frequen-
Program MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz GHz GHz GHz cies'
Lockheed Martin X X
Intersputnik
Loral X X
Luch X X 7OC-900 MHz
Marecs X X
Marisat X X X
MBSAT X X
Measat X X
Milstar X X X 43-45,60
GHz
Molniya X 8OC-I000
MHz
Morelos, Soli- X X X
daridad. Satmex
MTSAT X X X X X
Nahuel X
Nanosat X
NATO X X X
Newsat X
New Skies X X
Satellites
Nigeria X X X
Nilesat X X
Nimiq X X X
N-Star X X X X
optus X X X X X
Orbcomm X X
ORBIS, 9,10,13 MHz
ORBISCAL
Orion X X
OSCAR X X X 29,1270 MHz
OV4 21,34,47
MHz
P76-5, P83-1, X X 1239,2891
P87-1 MHz
Palapa X X
PanAmSat X X
PCSat X X
PoSAT X X
Potok
Radio Sputnik X X 21,29 MHz
Raduga
Rainbow X X
Rascom X X
Relay X X
Rubin X X
S80 X X
SAFIR, IRIS X X
Sarsat-Cospas X X X
Saudicomsat X X
SCD X X

642
 Frequency Table

1400- 1750- 2300- 3400- 7250- 17.8-21.2, Other

Satellite 120-150 220-470 1700 2290 2700 7075 8400 10.7-1 4.5 14.518.1 27.5-31 Frequen-
Program MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz GHz GHz GHz cies’
SCE, TEX, REX X
SCORE X
SES Americom X X
SICRAL X X X X 43-45GHZ
Sinosat X X
Sirio X X X
Sirius, Tele-X, X X
Thor
Sirius (SDARS) X X
Skynet (Loral) X X
Skynet (UK) X X X 43-45 GHz
Spaceway X
ST X X
Star One X X X
Stentor X X 41,44,45
GHz
SUNsat X X X X 1265 MHz
Superbird X X X
Surfsat X X X 32 GHz
Symphonie X X
Syncom 1 to 3 X X X
Tacsat X X X
TDRSS X X X 23,25-27
GHz
Techsat, Gurwin X X 1269 MHz
Telecom, Syra X X X X X 43-45 GHz
cuse
Telkom X
Ternisat X X
TerreStar X
Test and Training X
Satellite
Thaicom X X
Thuraya X X
TMSat X X
Tubsat X X
Turksat, Eur- X X
asiasat
TV-SaVTDF X X
UHF Follow-On x X X 43-45GHZ
UNAMSAT X X
UoSAT X X X 7, 14,21,29.
1270 MHr,
10.4 GHz
Venezuela X X
Vinasat X X
Volna X X
Wideband X X X
Gapfiller
WildBlue X
WINDS X

643
Glossary

1400- 1750- 2- 3400- 7250- 17.8-21.2, Other

Satellite 120-150 220-470 1700 2290 2700 7075 8400 10.7-14.5 14.5-18.1 27.5-31 Frequen-
Program MHz MHz MHz MHz MHt MHz MHz GHz GHz GHz cles'
Worldsat X X
Worldspace X X
XM Radio X X
XTAR, Spainsat X X X
Yarnal X X

644
 Bibliography
Error Correction

T
his bibliography is a supplement to the references
cited at the end of the satellite descriptions. It is Signaling for Mobile Satellite Channels
not exhaustive; rather, it contains material found Multiple Access (Except TDMA)
in the search for references about the satellites. Some items TDMA
are included here because of their general nature-useful Synchronization
for an overview of communication satellites, but not specific Demand Assignment and Single Channel per Carrier
enough to be referenced in the description of a particular Speech and Video Encoding
satellite. Other items are included as introductory and rep- Packet Networks
resentative information on subjects related to the satellite Orbit and Spectrum Use
descriptions contained in the book. Each item is listed only General
once; hence it may be necessary to refer to more than one General (Internet)
section of the bibliography as well as the references for a ITU Conferences
broad collection of published material on a given subject. Technical
The bibliography covers a wide range of subjects arranged Link and Network Engineering
in the following order: Link and Network Simulation and Testing
Satellites and Systems Link Budgets, Fade Mitigation, and Availability
Historical Analysis of Transmission Impairments
General (Through 1985) Atmospheric Propagation (Through 1999)
General (1986 to 1995) Atmospheric Propagation (2000 to 2006)
General (1996 to 2003) Network Scheduling and Routing
General (2004 to 2006) Resource Utilization and Capacity Optimization
General (Internet) Network Monitoring and Control
Military Network Quality
Intelsat ISDN, ATM, Internet, and Satellites (Through 2003)
Mobile (Through 1985) ISDN, ATM, Internet, and Satellites (2004 to 2006)
Mobile (1986 to 1995) VSAT Networks
Mobile (from 1996) Satellite Engineering
Broadcasting Satellite Design and Manufacturing
Europe Testing
Rural and Thin Route
Reliability
Advanced Concepts Launch Vehicles
Geostationary Platforms Orbit Determination and Control, Orbit Crowding and
System Planning and Constellation Design Debris
Applications Satellite Monitoring and Control
Operational Satellite Hardware
Experimental Communications Technology
Proposed Antennas
Ground Terminals Low Noise Amplifiers and Receivers
General Signal Processing and Routing
Small, Transportable, and Mobile Power Amplifiers and Transmitters
Military Intersatellite Links
Antennas Spacecraft Subsystems
Equipment Other Topics
Modulation and Multiple Access Social Considerations
General Policy, Economics, and Market Studies
Modulation Techniques Standardization, Regulatory, and Legal

Satellites and Systems

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66 1
INDEX
This index includes the names of satellites, satellite systems, and their sponsors, owners, and manufacturers, plus a few other organizations.
It does not include technical terms, geographic locations other than country names, or names of satellite applications and users. A table of
frequency bands used by each satellite program is presented in the glossary.

Index Terms Links

Aalborg University (Denmark) 615

AAP. See Americom Asia-Pacific
AATiS-OSCAR 607
AAU CubeSat 615
ABCN. See Asia Broadcasting & Communications Network
ACeS. See Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Cellular Satellite System; See Asian Cellular Satellite
System
Actel. See African Continental Telecommunications
ACTS. See Advanced Communications Technology Satellite
ADCSP. See Advanced Defense Communication Satellite
Program
Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) 49 632
Advanced Defense Communication Satellite Program
(ADCSP) 187
Advanced EHF (AEHF) program 232
Advanced Relay and Technology Mission (Artemis) 375 383 391 605
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) 3 187 210
See also Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
Advanced Syncom 11 18
Advanced TDRSS (ATDRSS) 339
Advanced Westar 112 309 337
Advent 187
AEHF program. See Advanced EHF program
AeroCube 616
The Aerospace Corporation 604 616
Aerospatiale 305 396 401 404 420 441
450 454 521 535 560 562
563 580
Aetna 312

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Index Terms Links

Afghanistan 550
African Continental Telecommunications (Actel) 150
AfriStar 585
Afro-Asian Satellite Communications (ASC) 160
Afro-Mediterranean Orbital System (AMOS) 581
AFSATCOM. See Air Force Satellite Communications
Agila 495 552 629
Agrani 160 537
Air Force. See U.S. Air Force
Air Force Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) 200 220
Air Force Satellite Control Facility, Air Force Satellite Con-
trol Network 194 202 207 218 219
AirTV 160
Alcatel, Alcatel Space 54 56 114 129 130 160
182 228 254 404 405 407
411 425 450 451 454 490
520 521 522 537 546 562
563 568 582 585 588 589
Alcatel Alenia, Alcatel Alenia Space 261 455 521 537 542 546
563 568 582 583 589 590
Alcatel Espace 419
Alenia 182 305 555 580
See also Alcatel Alenia Space
Alenia Aerospazio 388 405 407 446
See also Alcatel Alenia Space; Alenia
Alenia Spazio 226 344 388 446
See also Alcatel Alenia
Space; Alenia
Algeria 100 101
Alpha Lyracom Space Communications 103
See also PanAmSat
AlphaStar 346
Altair 248
Amateur Radio on the International Space Station (ARISS) 606
Amateur Radio Research and Development Corporation
(AMRAD) 602
Amazonas 451
AMC. See GE Americom; SES Americom

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Index Terms Links

American Mobile Radio Corporation 360 363

See also XM Radio
American Mobile Satellite Corporation (AMSC) 149 151 153
American Satellite Corporation (ASC) 102 284 287 295 300 367
American Sky Broadcasting (AskyB) 347
American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) 7 8 327 329 632
See also Telstar
Americom 129
See also GE Americom; SES Americom;
Worldsat
Americom Asia-Pacific (AAP) 128
See also Worldsat
AmeriStar 585
AMOS. See Afro-Mediterranean Orbital System
AMRAD. See Amateur Radio Research and Development
Corporation
AMRAD-Oscar 593 602
AMSAT. See Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation
AMSAT-Oscar 605
AMSAT-Phase 3E 593 619
AMSC. See American Mobile Satellite Corporation
Anatolia 455 498 532
Ancillary Terrestrial Component (ATC) 153 159 160 182 184
Andean Pact 591
Andesat 591
Anik 261
See also Telesat; Telesat Canada; Telesat
System
Anik A 133 261 263 267 269 307
494
Anik B 261 265 269 270
Anik C 75 118 261 267 271 275
579
Anik D 261 265 267 269 291 494
561
Anik E 261 271 282 591
Anik F 261 273 275 342 344 345
348 632

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Index Terms Links

Anna University satellite (India) 619

ANUSAT 593 619
See also Anna University satellite (India)
APMT. See Asia Pacific Mobile Telecommunications
APPLE. See Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment
Applications Technology Satellites (ATS) 11 18 133 346 501 564
569 631 632
ATS 1 to 5 19 20 22
ATS 6 21
APR. See under Intelsat
AprizeSat, Aprize Satellite 175
See also LatinSat
AprizeStar. See Aprize Satellite
APStar, APT Satellite 118 459 516 518 527 538
629
APStar IIA 114
APStar IIR 116 118
APStar V (Telstar 18) 114 118
Arabsat 100 106 271 401 408 506
510 559 588
Argentina 108 160 175 268 567 579
617 631
See also Nahuel
Argos 161 170 176 295
Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE) 501 503
Ariane Radio-amateurs Satellite ENseignement Espace (ARSENE) 593 613
Arianespace 160
ARISS. See Amateur Radio on the International Space Station
Arizona State-OSCAR, Arizona State University, ASUSAT 604
Army. See U.S. Army
ARPA. See Advanced Research Projects Agency
ARSENE. See Ariane Radio-amateurs Satellite ENseigne-
ment Espace
Artemis 46 487
See also Advanced Relay and Technology
Mission
ASC. See Afro-Asian Satellite Communications; American
Satellite Corporation

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Index Terms Links

ASEAN. See Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASEAN Cellular Satellite System. See Association of South-
east Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cellular Satellite System
Asia Broadcasting & Communications Network (ABCN) 557
Asian Cellular Satellite System (ACeS) 493
Asia Pacific Mobile Telecommunications (APMT) 160
AsiaSat 57 128 310 459 494 516
518 525 533 536
AsiaStar 585
AskyB. See American Sky Broadcasting
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 494
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cellular
Satellite System 155
Astra 121 129 292 426 629
See also SES Astra
Astra 1 426 427
Astra 2 426 434
Astra 3 426 435
Astra 4 436
Astrium 54 92 145 214 231 275
281 451 456 547 555 585
See also EADS Astrium
Astrolink 342
ASUSAT. See Arizona State-Oscar
AT&T. See American Telephone and Telegraph Company
AT&T Alascom 302
See also RCA Alascom
ATC. See Ancillary Terrestrial Component
ATDRSS. See Advanced TDRSS
Atlantic Bird 391 405 410 411
Atlantic Gate 405
ATS. See Applications Technology Satellites
Aurora 289 301 302
Aussat 35 150 366 569 632
See also Optus

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Index Terms Links

Australia 28 43 57 82 93 94
100 101 107 111 123 124
125 126 130 133 176 182
183 210 403 473 475 494
500 530 536 540 549 556
559 569 586 595 599 613
617 620
See also Aussat; Kitcomm; Optus

Badr (Arabsat) 593

Badr (Pakistan) 532
Bangladesh 550
Bankir 254
Basic LEO UNSW Experimental Satellite (BlueSat) 593 620
BATSAT. See Broadband Advanced Technology Satellite
Belarus 402
Belgium 46 173
Bell Canada 150
Bell South 570
Bell Systems 7
Bell Telephone Laboratories 7 8
See also American Tele-
phone and Telegraph Company
Bhutan 550
Big LEO 133 177 180 183 185 186
Binariang Satellite Systems 548 549 551
Blackstone Group 119
BlueSat. See Basic LEO UNSW Experimental Satellite
The Boeing Company, Boeing Satellite Systems 110 111 126 159 179 185
186 218 224 230 233 276
280 322 339 340 343 344
354 364 365 436 475 531
Bolivarsat 591
Bolivia 579 591
Bonum 255
Borealis 185
See also Ellipso

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Index Terms Links

Bosnia 187
Brasil 1(T) (satellite) 118
Brasilsat. See also Star One
Brasilsat A 317 564 567
Brasilsat B 566
Brazil 8 57 101 107 108 111
118 146 170 178 183 262
268 369 371 427 449 451
559 564 579 591
See also Embratel; Institute
Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais; Satelites de Coleta
de Dados; Star One
Brazilian Complete Space Mission 170
BreizhSAT-OSCAR 607
Bremsat 173
Britain 8 139 375 398 415 439
599
See also England; Great Britain; United Kingdom
British Aerospace 115 116 137 140 214 381
450
British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) 438 439 442
Broadband Advanced Technology Satellite (BATSAT) 344
See also Teledesic
Broadcasting Satellite, Japan 459 467 632
BS2 468
BS3 469 485
BSat 470
BSE 467
Broadcasting Satellite Systems Corp. (BSat) 460 469 485
BSat. See Broadcasting Satellite Systems Corp.
BSB. See British Satellite Broadcasting
Burma 527
See also Myanmar

Cable & Wireless 526 570

Cablevision Systems Corporation 343 348 359
Cakrawarta. See Indostar

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Index Terms Links

California Institute of Technology 618

California Polytechnic State University 614
Canada 27 28 57 64 66 70
74 76 81 85 103 108
111 113 115 117 118 129
130 140 146 149 150 151
153 159 162 164 177 185
232 261 284 290 296 305
306 323 331 332 334 342
344 345 347 351 361 364
371 372 375 381 411 476
559 561 579 582 594 595
599 630 632
See also Anik; Canadian Department of
Communications; Hermes; MSat; Nimiq; Telesat
Canadian Advanced Nanospace experiment (CanX-1) 615
Canary Islands 46
CanX-1. See Canadian Advanced Nanospace experiment
CaribStar 585
Carlo Gavazzi Space 174 620
CAS-A. See Eole
CAS-C. See Communications Technology Satellite
CAST. See Chinese Academy of Space Technology
CD Radio, Inc. 360 361
See also Sirius Satellite Radio
Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) 54 56 161 170 412 420
Chile 108 183 567 579 580 593
China 31 48 57 94 107 111
113 118 123 125 127 129
146 156 160 178 182 183
295 403 455 459 473 475
480 494 497 516 526 529
532 536 538 540 541 546
552 556 580 586 590 591
619
See also APT Satellite; Asia Pacific
Mobile Telecommunications; China Orient Telecomm;
Chinasat; ChinaStar; China Telecommunications

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Index Terms Links

China (Cont.)
Broadcast Satellite Corporation; Chinese Academy of
Space Technology
China Aerospace Corporation 516
China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation 521
China Great Wall Industry Corporation 590 591
China Orient Telecomm 523
Chinasat 295 516 518 519 521 522
524
ChinaSatcom 519
ChinaStar 516 523
China Telecomm 523
China Telecommunications Broadcast Satellite Corporation.
See Chinasat
Chinese Academy of Space Technology (CAST) 516 517 519 522 590
Chunghwa Telecom 554 555
Ciel Satellite Group 261
CNES. See Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales
Coast Guard. See U.S. Coast Guard
Colombia 101 591
Columbia Communications 74 112 113 309 337
COMETS. See Communications and Broadcasting Engineer-
ing Test Satellite
Commercial Satellite Communications Initiative (CSCI) 187
Communication, Ocean and Meteorological Satellite
(COMS) 546
Communications and Broadcasting Engineering Test Satellite
(COMETS) 32 41 487
Communications Research Laboratory (Japan) 41 45 49
Communications Satellite (CS), Japan 459 462 632
CS 462
CS2 459 462
CS3 459 462 481
CS4 463 481
Communications Technology Satellite (CTS) 27 346 632
COMS. See Communication, Ocean and Meteorological
Satellite

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Index Terms Links

Comsat Corporation 24 59 61 62 64 66
70 146 187 312 346
Comsat General Corporation 284 285 325
Comstar 323 324 328 588 632
Concordia 185
See also Ellipso
Congress. See U.S. Congress
Constellation Communications Inc. 184 186
Contel 114 287 300 335 339
Contel ASC 285 287 295 300
Continental Telephone 287 335
Cooperative Applications Satellite C (CAS-C). See Commu-
nications Technology Satellite
Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Systems (CRCSS) 617
Coronet 426
Cosmos 162 168 174 239 241 247
248 612
Cospas 162
See also Sarsat
Coupon. See Kupon
Courier 3 5 187
CP CubeSat 614
CRCSS. See Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Sys-
tems
Crimson Satellite 121
CS. See Communications Satellite, Japan
CSCI. See Commercial Satellite Communications Initiative
CTA 164 175 501
CTS. See Communications Technology Satellite
CubeSat 593 608 613 614
CUTE 608 615
Cyberstar 343
Cygnus Satellite Corporation 102
Cyprus 455

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Index Terms Links

DARPA. See Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DART. See Demonstration of Autonomous Rendezvous
Technology
DASA. See Deutsche Aerospace
DAta and Video Interactive Distribution (DAVID) 632
Data Collection Satellite program. See Satelites de Coleta de
Dados
Data Relay Program (of ESA) 383 391
Data Relay Test Satellite (DRTS) 460 487
DAVID. See DAta and Video Interactive Distribution
DBSI, DBS Industries 176
DCA. See Defense Communications Agency
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 210 212 604
See also Advanced Research Projects Agency
Defense Communications Agency (DCA) 189 194 207
Defense Information Systems Agency 189 194 207
Defense Information Systems Network 187 235
Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA) 622 632
Defense Satellite Communication System (DSCS) 189 193 194 199 203 204
204 215 220 228 235
See also Initial Defense Satellite Communication
System
Defense Systems, Inc. 625
Demonstration of Autonomous Rendezvous Technology
(DART) 212
Denmark 146 615
Denmark Technical University. See Technical University of
Denmark
Department of Defense (DOD) 11 52 59 175 187 193
200 203 205 210 219 220
229 233 234 235 621 625
See also Advanced Research Projects Agency;
Commercial Satellite Communications Initiative; De-
fense Communications Agency; Defense Information
Systems Network; U.S. Air Force, Army, Marines,
Navy; U.S. Government
Department of Space (India) 503 506 510
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Index Terms Links

Deutsche Aerospace 519 580

Deutsche Forschungs und Versuchsanstalt fur Luft und
Raumfahrt (DFVLR) 412 420
Deutscher Fernmeldesatelit (DFS) 410 422 455
Deutsche Telekom 423 434 455
DFH. See Dong Fang Hong
DFS. See Deutscher Fernmeldesatelit
DFVLR. See Deutsche Forschungs und Versuchsanstalt fur
Luft und Raumfahrt (DFVLR)
DGA (French Ministry of Defense) 54
Digital Orbiting Voice Experiment (DOVE) 600
Diplomatic Telecommunications System 235
DirectSat Corporation 355
DIRECTV 283 342 343 346 349
DISH Network. See EchoStar
DLR-Tubsat 168
DNA. See Defense Nuclear Agency
DOD. See Department of Defense
Dong Fang Hong (DFH) 516
Dornier 305 580 582
Dornier Satellite Systems of Daimler Chrysler Aerospace 521
DOVE. See Digital Orbiting Voice Experiment
DRTS. See Data Relay Test Satellite
DSCS. See Defense Satellite Communication System
DTUSat 615

e-bird. See Eutelsat, Eurobird

E-Sat 176
EADS. See European Aeronautic Defence and Space Com-
pany
EADS Astrium 55 56 92 283 401 403
404 434 435 451 455 563
Early Bird 58
East Germany 422
See also Germany
Echo 3 4 6 375 607

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EchoStar 176 281 286 306 334 342

343 344 345 355 366
ECS. See European Communication Satellite
Ecuador 591
Edusat 501 514
Egypt 157 401 561 584
Ekran 242 250
Ekspress. See Express
ELDO. See European Launcher Development Organization
Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute
(ETRI) 542 546
Ellipso 185
Embratel. See Empresa Brasileira de Telecomunicacoes
Empresa Brasileira de Telecomunicacoes (Embratel) 427 564 565 568 579
EMS. See European Mobile System
Engineering Test Satellite (ETS) 32
See also Communi-
cations and Broadcasting Engineering Test Satellite;
Optical Intersatellite Communications Engineering
Test Satellite; Wideband InterNetworking Engineering
Test and Demonstration Satellite
Engineering Test Satellite-II 32 624 632
Engineering Test Satellite V (ETS-V) 34 41 632
Engineering Test Satellite VI (ETS-VI) 36 43 487
Engineering Test Satellite VIII (ES-VIII) 43
England 4 8 59 164 214 414
417 430 442 452 580 595
See also Britain; Great Britain; United Kingdom
Eole 160
ESA. See European Space Agency
ESA Data Relay and Technology Mission 383 391
Esiafi 325 588
ESRO. See European Space Resesarach Organization;
See European Space Research Organization
Estonia 402
Estrela do Sul (Telstar 14) 114 118 324 564
ETRI. See Electronics and Telecommunications Research
Institute

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ETS. See Engineering Test Satellite; Experimental Test Satel-

lites
Eurasiasat 454
See also Turksat
EurasSpace 521
Eureca 391
Eurobird 391 401 402 408 410 562
Europe*Star 411 425 543
European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS) 231
See also EADS Astrium
European Communication Satellite (ECS) 137 139 213 375 376 379
393 410 422 632
See also Eutelsat I; See also Eutelsat
European Data Relay System 391
European Launcher Development Organization (ELDO) 375
European Mobile System (EMS) 343 384 389 443 444
European Space Agency (ESA) 46 137 173 375 443 503
608
See also Advanced Relay and Technology
Mission; European Communication Satellite; Euro-
pean Mobile System; Marecs; Olympus; Orbital Test
Satellite
European Space Research Organization (ESRO) 137 375
See also European Space Agency
Europesat 398 401 421
EuroSkyWay 443 448
Eutelsat 57 97 100 250 259 375
379 391 419 421 422 423
426 434 448 453 629 631
See also European Communication Satellite; Reserve Satellite;
Siberian-European Satellite
Atlantic Bird 115 391 405 410 411
Eurobird 391 401 402 408 410 562
Eutelsat I 391 396 402 405 413
Eutelsat II 391 393 395 405 410 579
Eutelsat III. See Eutelsat, W Series

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Eutelsat (Cont.)
Hot Bird 391 396 398 403 408 410
421 562 585
W series 391 402 410 423
EutelTracs system 133
Experimental Mobile Satellite System 34
Experimental Test Satellites (ETS) 36
eXpress (ESA). See Student Space Exploration & Technol-
ogy Initiative
Express (Russia) 114 244 248 250 256 259
Express A 250 251 259 410
Express AM 250 253 405 410
Eyesat 172

Fairchild 22 287 335

Faisat 164 174
FalconSat 604
FASat 580 593
FCC. See Federal Communications Commission
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) 57 97 101 112 115 149
153 164 165 172 174 175
176 177 180 182 185 186
284 310 317 329 342 346
351 355 359 360 363 366
628 631
FedSat 593 617
FEP. See FLTSATCOM EHF Package
Final Analysis Communication Services, Inc. 164 174
Finland 436
Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) 133 135 197 200 207 215
218 220 337
FLTSATCOM. See Fleet Satellite Communications
FLTSATCOM EHF Package (FEP) 203 221
Ford Aerospace 70 74 81 85 189 192
196 199 285 329 464 478
479 506 560
See also Space Systems/Loral

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Forpost system 169

France 8 54 57 59 70 74
76 81 85 91 114 117
140 146 160 162 169 225
228 231 232 253 305 375
396 405 410 411 413 416
419 420 421 434 436 442
449 454 503 521 522 552
581 607 613 620
See also Argos; Ariane Radio-amateurs Satellite Enseigne-
ment Espace; Eole; Europe*Star; Stentor; Symphonie;
Syracuse; TDF; Telecom
France Telecom 54 114 411 414 419
French Guiana 55 412 413
Fuji 598 600 602

G. T. Schjeldahl Company 4
G2 Satellite Solutions 532
Gabon 586
Galaxy 150 307 309 310 316 494
570
See also Horizons 1; Hughes Communications, Inc.; PanAmSat
Galaxy 13
See also Horizons 1
Gals satellite (broadcasting) 249 255 259
Gals satellite (military) 246
Gapfiller 197 200 220
See also Marisat
Gapsat 197
See also Marisat
Garuda 156
See also Asian Cellular Satellite System
Gazcom 256 257
Gazprom 256
GBS. See Global Broadcast Service
GE. See General Electric; GE Americom; GE Astro Space
GE-1A, GE-li, GE-3i 128 129

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GE Americom 113 128 176 270 285 287

293 295 297 299 301 302
305 306 439
See also Americom Asia-Pacific; SES Americom
GE Astro Space 51 122 273 295 299 330
429 469
See also General Electric; Martin Marietta Astro Space;
Radio Corporation of America
Geiser 247
Gelikon 250
GEMnet. See Global Electronic Messaging network
GEMstar. See CTA
General Electric (GE) 143 207 285 287 290 291
301 302 468
Geostar 133 295 299
Germany 8 57 59 70 74 76
81 85 91 94 117 140
165 166 171 173 174 183
230 231 234 305 375 398
404 411 415 417 419 421
422 423 425 436 442 449
453 455 503 518 522 581
582 595 605 612 616 619
See also East Germany; Europe*Star;
Kopernikus; Symphonie; Tubsat; TV-Sat; West Ger-
many
GE Satcom 121 271 287 288 301 302
See also New Skies Satellites, NSS K; Satcom
Geyser. See Geiser
Global Broadcast Service (GBS) 215 218 228
Global Electronic Messaging network (GEMnet) 175
Global Low Orbiting Message Relay (GLOMR) 210 212
Global Positioning System (GPS) (GPS is not a communica-
tion satellite and is not described in this book; these
pages refer to uses of GPS by communication satellites.) 44 55 141 144 147 161
162 165 172 173 181 281
322 344 384 452 489 492
602 603 617

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Globalstar 177 180

Globus 242
GLOMR. See Global Low Orbiting Message Relay
Glonass 141
GM Hughes Electronics 316
See also Hughes Electronics
GOES 163
Gonets, Gonets D, Gonets Dl 168
Gorizont 114 126 242 244 244 246
248 250 256 259 497 552
Government, U.S. See U.S. Government
GPS. See Global Positioning System
Great Britain 187 195 197 213 375 395
408
See also Britain; England; United Kingdom
Greece 146 423 438 455
GSat. See GTE Satellite Corporation
GSAT (India) 514
GStar 133 287 295 297
GTE Satellite Corporation (GSat) 284 297 300
GTE Spacenet 285 287 295 297 299 300
518
Gurwin 603
Guyana 56

HamSat 608
Hankuk Aviation University CubeSat 616
HAUSAT. See Hankuk Aviation University CubeSat
Hawker-Siddeley Dynamics 137 377
HCI. See Hughes Communications, Inc.
HealthSat 164 593 617
Heavy Telecommunications Satellite (H-Sat). See Olympus
Hellas Sat 423 455
Hermes 28 569
See also Communications Technology
Satellite
HiLat 623

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HISDESAT Servicios Estrategicos 226 449

See also XTAR
Hispamar 451
Hispasat 226 448 450 451
See also Amazonas
Horizons 144
See also Inmarsat
Horizons 1, Horizons 2 317 323 476
See also Galaxy 13
Horizons Satellite 476
Hot Bird 391 396 398 403 408 410
421 562 585
Hughes Aircraft Company 19 59 61 64 66 76
135 140 151 191 209 218
264 269 270 284 309 310
313 315 316 317 319 322
325 328 368 371 442 472
495 526 573 576
See also Hughes Space and Communications
Hughes Communications, Inc. (HCI) 209 284 307 309 312 315
316 321 322 349
Hughes Electronics 107 307 316 322 343 471
Hughes Global Services 455 498 529 532
Hughes Network Systems 343
Hughes Space and Communications 105 107 110 111 117 159
160 185 208 218 233 255
256 276 317 322 339 340
342 343 347 354 368 371
372 435 439 441 475 480
486 498 530 534 539 549
568
See also Galaxy; Hughes Aircraft Company
Hungary 581

i-Space project 48
IAI. See Israel Aircraft Industries
IBM Satellite Transponder Leasing Corporation 312 316

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IBS. See Intelsat Business Service

ICE Cube. See Ionospheric scintillation Experiment CubeSat
Iceland 177 213 225 378 386 395
398
ICO Global Communications 160 182 183
ICO North America 184
ICO Satellite Management 184
ICO Satellite Services 184
IDCSP. See Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program
IDCSP/A. See Initial Defense Communication Satellite Pro-
gram/Augmentation
Idefix 607
IDSCS. See Initial Defense Satellite Communication System
IMO. See Intergovernmental Maritime Organization
India 22 23 57 92 93 107
111 114 116 123 125 129
156 160 163 178 183 253
360 459 475 480 494 501
503 523 526 529 530 533
535 536 537 538 540 541
549 550 551 552 554
See also Agrani; Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment;
GSAT; Indian Space Research Organization; Insat
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) 403 503 511 513 514 515
551 608 619
Indonesia 100 115 155 156 183 457
459 492 526 538
See also Cakrawarta; Garuda; Indosat; MultiMe-
dia Asia; Palapa; Perusahaan Umum Telekomunikasi;
Telkom
Indonesian Satellite Corporation 493
Indosat 493
Indostar 492 500
Informator 169 612
Informcosmos 114 249 250
Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program (IDCSP) 11 187 191 193 198
See also Initial Defense
Satellite Communication System

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Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program/Augmenta-

tion (IDCSP/A) 191
See also Skynet I
Initial Defense Satellite Communication System (IDSCS) 189
Inmarsat 57 70 135 137 370 556
See also International
Maritime Satellite Organization; Marecs; Marisat; See
also Marecs; Marisat
Inmarsat Convention and Operating Agreements 145
INMILSAT. See International Military Satellite
INPE. See Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais
Insat 93 163 501 504
See also Intelsat, APR
Insat 1 504 507 510
Insat 2 501 507 513
Insat 3 501 511 514
Insat 4 501 513
InSpace 249
See also Informcosmos
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE) 170
Instituto Nacional de Tecnica Aeroespacial (INTA) 617
INTA. See Instituto Nacional de Tecnica Aeroespacial
Intelsat 57 112 115 119 284 323
343 631
Intelsat I 58
Intelsat II 60
Intelsat III 59 61 64 94
Intelsat IV 62 67 94 263 324
Intelsat IV-A 65 95
Intelsat V 57 67 74 79 94 113
133 139 146 559
Intelsat V-A 57 68 72 79 81 97
120
Intelsat V-AB 74
Intelsat V-B 74
Intelsat VI 74 79 81 86 90 97
471
Intelsat VII 79 84 86 90 120 481

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Intelsat (Cont.)
Intelsat VII-A 84
Intelsat VIII 76 86 120
Intelsat VIII-A 86 92 95 120
Intelsat 9 76 90 92
Intelsat 10 91
Intelsat Americas 93 114 324 331 342 343
345
Intelsat APR 93 455 521
Intelsat K 120 292
See also New Skies Satellites,
NSS K
Intelsat K-TV 91 123
Intelsat System 93
New Intelsat-Alpha (NI-Alpha) 91
Intercontinental Retrieval of Information by Satellite (IRIS) 173
Interferometrics 172
Intergovernmental Maritime Organization (IMO) 145
Interim Polar Program 225
International Amateur Radio Union 594
International Civil Aviation Organization 163
International Maritime Organization 163
International Maritime Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) 133 135 138 139 153 631
632
See also Marecs, Marisat
Inmarsat II 138 139 146
Inmarsat III 139 141 146 148
Inmarsat 4 144
Inmarsat P 146 183
Inmarsat System 145
International Military Satellite (INMILSAT) 231
International Telecommunication Satellite Organization.
See Intelsat
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 114 177 180 282 346 350
353 356 366 380 381 419
434 436 439 440 442 449
455 457 467 524 532 538
545 588 590 591 627

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Intersputnik 57 126 237 244 250 256

259
See also Lockheed Martin Intersputnik
Intersputnik International Organization of Space Communi-
cations 259
See also Intersputnik
Ionospheric scintillation Experiment CubeSat 616
IPSTAR 533 535
See also Thaicom
Iran 523 556 620
Ireland 432 443 599
Iridium 177 186
IRIS. See Intercontinental Retrieval of Information by Satellite
Iskra 612
iSky. See WildBlue
Israel 378 559 581 590 602
See also Afro-Mediterranean Orbital System
Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI) 581 583
ISRO. See Indian Space Research Organization
ISS. See International Space Station
Italsat 133 384 386 389 443 632
Italy 8 30 57 74 76 81
85 94 135 146 171 174
177 178 219 225 232 305
342 434 443 632
See also EuroSkyWay; Italsat; Itamsat; SICRAL; Sirio
Italy-OSCAR 601
Itamsat 601
ITU. See International Telecommunication Union

Japan 8 9 32 62 64 66
70 74 76 79 81 82
85 91 111 113 117 123
129 135 139 140 146 156
178 230 254 256 317 346
347 384 385 386 403 459
494 497 526 530 534 546

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Japan (Cont.)
552 554 555 594 595 598
602 608 617 619 620 624
632
See also Japanese satellites; Broadcasting Satellite, Japan;
BSat; Communications Satellite, Japan; Communica-
tions and Broadcasting Engineering Test Satellite;
Engineering Test Satellite; Fuji; National
Space Development Agency; Nippon Telephone and
Telegraph; N-Star; Space Communications Corpora-
tion; Wideband InterNetworking Engineering Test
and Demonstration Satellite; Japan Communications
Satellite, Inc.
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) 44 45 47 49 488
See also National Space Development Agency
Japan Communications Satellite, Inc. (JCSat) 460 471 484
Japanese Broadcasting Satellite 346 347
Japanese Data Relay Test Satellite (DRTS) 47
Japanese Experimental Communication Satellite (JECS) 32
Japan Satellite Broadcasting 470
Japan Satellite Systems (JSat) 317 323 471 472 475
JAS. See Fuji
JAWSAT. See Joint Air Force Weber Satellite
JAXA. See Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency
JCSat. See Japan Communications Satellite, Inc.
JECS. See Japanese Experimental Communication Satellite
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) 618
JII. See JSAT International Inc.
Joint Air Force Weber Satellite (JAWSAT) 604
JPL. See Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JSAT 471 475 479 484
See also Japan Communications Satellite, Inc.
JSat. See Japan Satellite Systems
JSAT International Inc. (JII) 476

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K-TV 91 123 455

Kakehashi. See Communications and Broadcasting Engineer-
ing Test Satellite (COMETS)
Kalpana 501 511
Kansas University’s Technology Evaluation Satellite (KUTE-
Sat) 616
KaStar. See WildBlue
Kayser-Threde 171
Kazakhstan 238 476 532 555
KazSat 555
Khrunichev State Research & Production Space Center 555
Kiku. See Engineering Test Satellite
Kirari 47
See also Optical Intersatellite Communications
Engineering Test Satellite
Kitcomm 176
KitSat 169 542 587 593 601
Kopernikus 411 422 434 455
Korea 48 178 473 490
See also Kitsat; Koreasat
Koreasat 425 542
Korea Telecom 542 544 546
KT. See Korea Telecom
Kupon 254
KUTESat. See Kansas University’s Technology Evaluation
Satellite
Kuwait 146
Kyrgyzstan 588

L-Star 557
Laboratoire Central de Telecommunications 161
Laos 557
LaoStar Co. Ltd. 557
Lapan-Tubsat 168
Large Deployable Reflector Experiment (LDREX) 44

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Large Telecommunication Satellite (L-Sat). See Olympus

Laser Utilizing Communications Experiment (LUCE) 46
LatinSat 593 617
See also AprizeSat; Latin Trade Satellite
Latin Trade Satellite (LatinSat) 175
Latvia 402
LDREX. See Large Deployable Reflector Experiment
Leasat 75 207 215 218 220
Leo One 176
LES. See Lincoln Experimental Satellite
Liberty Media, Liberty Satellite 342 345
Libya 561
Lincoln Experimental Satellite (LES) 12 133 187 189 197 200
621 631
Lincoln Laboratory. See Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy (MIT), Lincoln Laboratory of
Little LEO Messaging Service (LLMS) 173
See also Intercontinental Retrieval of Information by Satellite
(IRIS)
Little LEO satellites 133 162 164 165 174 175
176 593 602
LLMS. See Little LEO Messaging Service
LMI. See Lockheed Martin Intersputnik
Lockheed 224
Lockheed Martin 51 87 103 123 124 125
126 126 127 128 129 142
155 156 160 207 232 233
234 235 359 544
See also Martin Marietta
Lockheed Martin Commercial Space Systems 283 305
Lockheed Martin Global Telecommunications 126 128 325
Lockheed Martin Intersputnik (LMI) 126 237 259 581
LOFTI. See Low Frequency Transmission through the Iono-
sphere
Loral 57 284 286 323 342 343
345 351 357 410 629
See also Space Systems/Loral
Loral Cyberstar 343

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Loral Global Alliance 114

Loral Orion. See Loral Skynet
Loral Qualcomm Satellite Services, Inc. (LQSS) 180
Loral Skynet 114 117 118 118 268 286
323 330 331 332 332 333
343 357 540 564
Loral Skynet do Brasil 118
Loral Space and Communications 93 114 118 226 268 323
366 540
Loutch. See Luch
Low Frequency Transmission through the Ionosphere
(LOFTI) 621
LQSS. See Loral Qualcomm Satellite Services, Inc.
LUCE. See Laser Utilizing Communications Experiment
Luch (Loutch) 163 245 246 248
Lusat 600 607
Luxembourg 165 286 287 292 302 306
375 421 423 426 443 525
564
See also Astra; Societe Européenne des Satellites

M2A. See MultiMedia Asia

Mabuhay Philippines Satellite Corporation (MPSC) 495 552 553
MACSAT. See Multiple Access Communications Satellites
Malaysia 459 494 548 554 606
Malaysia-East Asia Satellite (Measat) 548
Malaysian-OSCAR 606
Marathon system 259
Marconi 450
See also Matra Marconi
Marconi Space and Defence Systems 196
Marconi Space Systems 214
Marcopolo 442
Marecs. See Maritime European Communication Satellites
Marines. See U.S. Marines
Marisat 16 133 139 146 197 261
See also Gapfiller; Gapsat; Optus

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maritime communication subsystem (MCS) 70 146

Maritime European Communication Satellites (Marecs) 31 133 137 146 375 389
Maritime Orbital Test Satellite (Marots) 137
Maroc-Tubsat 168
Marots. See Maritime Orbital Test Satellite
Martin Marietta 89 143 207 529 544
See also GE Astro
Space, Radio Corporation of America
Martin Marietta Communication Systems 285 287
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Lincoln Labo-
ratory of 6 12 187 203
Matra 414 419 450
See also Matra Marconi
Matra Marconi 92 115 116 143 451 587
Matra Marconi Space 55 56 170 214 401 435
450 544 555 585
Mayak 259
MBB 582
MBSAT 490
MCHI. See Mobile Communications Holdings Inc.
MCI Communications Corporation 312 315 347 564
MCS. See maritime communication subsystem
Measat. See Malaysia-East Asia Satellite
Media Citra 493
Media Most 255
MEROPE. See Montana EaRth Orbiting Picosat Explorer
Mesbah 593 620
Meteosat 163
Metop satellites 161
Mexico 101 183 261 366 631
Mexico-OSCAR 602
Microsat 212
microsatellites 593
MILSATCOM 218 235
Milstar 203 215 218 219 220 232
Ministry of Defence (U.K.) 196 213 214 215 231 232
MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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Mitsubishi 35 464 478 480 488 490

492 577
Mobile Communications Holdings Inc. (MCHI) 184 185
Mobile Satellite Ventures (MSV) 150 151 153 159
Mobile User Objective System (MUOS) 233
Molniya 237
Molniya 1 238 241 242
Molniya 2 238 240 259
Molniya 3 238 240 244
Mongolia 403 475 523 527
Montana EaRth Orbiting Picosat Explorer (MEROPE) 616
Montana State University 616
Morelos 366 366 371
See also Satmex
Morningstar 343
Morya 247
Most. See Bonum
Motient Corporation 150 159
Motorola 177 179
Mozhayets 613
MPSC. See Mabuhay Philippines Satellite Corporation
MSat 133 149 159 160 261 370
MSV. See Mobile Satellite Ventures
MTSAT. See Multi-functional Transport Satellite
MUBLCOM. See Multiple Path Beyond-Line-of-Sight Com-
munications
Mugunghwa 542
See also Koreasat
Multi-functional Transport Satellite (MTSAT) 489
MultiMedia Asia (M2A) 493
Multiple Access Communications Satellite (MACSAT) 210
Multiple Path Beyond-Line-of-Sight Communications
(MUBLCOM) 212
MUOS. See Mobile User Objective System
Myanmar 550
See also Burma

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N-Sat 110 479

N-Star 460 463 471 475 481
Nadezhda 162
Nahuel 268 579
NahuelSat 579
Nanosat 593 617
nanosatellites 593
NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASDA. See National Space Development Agency
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 4 8 9 10 21 22
23 24 27 28 32 39
41 49 49 51 52 60
61 112 149 160 209 212
248 309 334 335 336 337
337 338 339 340 587 593
598 599 605 618 619 626
632
National Institute of Information and Communications Tech-
nology 45 49 620
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 161 162
National Rural Telecommunication Cooperative 345
National Science Foundation 210
National Space Development Agency (NASDA) 35 38 41 43 46 47
49 459 464 468 469 487
488
National Space Research Institute (Brazil). See Instituto
Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais
NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NATO Integrated Communications System 199
NAV-OSCAR 605 606 618
Naval Communications Command 209
See also U.S. Navy
Naval Electronics Systems Command 209
See also U.S. Navy
Naval Space Command 202 218
See also U.S. Navy

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Naval Telecommunications Command 202

See also U.S. Navy
Navy. See U.S. Navy
NCUBE. See Norwegian University of Science and Technol-
ogy CubeSat
NEC. See Nippon Electric Company; See Nippon Electric
Company
Nepal 550
Netherlands 119 146 232 608
Netsat 343
Newbird 405
See Eutelsat, Atlantic Bird; See also Eutelsat,
Atlantic Bird
New Guinea 156
New ICO 184
See also ICO Global Communications
New Intelsat-Alpha 91
NewSat 457 496
News Corporation 307 343 347 349
New Skies Satellites 57 74 81 89 91 119
455
NSS-5 120
NSS-6 123
NSS-7 120 122 123 124
NSS-8 125
NSS 513 120
NSS 703 120 125
NSS 803 120 124
NSS 806 120
NSS K 120 124 292
NSS K-TV 123
New York Satellite Industries 174
New Zealand 67 130 473 475 494 530
540 573 574 576
NI-Alpha 91
Nigcomsat 590
Nigeria 590
Nihon University 616

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Nilesat 401 584

Nimbus 6 23
Nimiq 261 275 282 342 344 351
Nippon Electric Company (NEC) 35 254 464 469
Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) 459 462 463 475 481 484
NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
tion
Nordiska Satellit, Nordiska Satellitaktiebolaget (NSAB) 439 443
Nordiska Telesatelit 437
Norris Satellite Communications 342
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 187 191 198 213 215 228
231 232 375 462
North Korea 544 546
Northrop Grumman 625
Northrop Grumman Space Technology 233
Norway 57 92 101 146 213 421
436 438 443
See also Nordiska Satellit; Telenor; Tele-X; Thor
Norwegian University of Science and Technology CubeSat
(NCUBE) 608 616
NPO-PM 114 243 244 248 249 250
251 253 254 255 404 405
NPO ELAS 254
NPO Lavochkin 254
NSAB. See Nordiska Satellitaktiebolaget
NTT. See Nippon Telephone and Telegraph

OCS 604
Octets 169
Odyssey 185
OHB-System 166 173
OHB Technology 165
Ohio University 52
OICETS. See Optical Intersatellite Communications Engi-
neering Test Satellite
Olympus 375 379 384 391 443 632
OmniTracs system 133

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Index Terms Links

OPAL. See Orbiting Picosat Automatic Launcher

Optical Intersatellite Communications Engineering Test Sat-
ellite (OICETS) 32 46 386
Optus 133 570 573 574 632
See also Aussat
Orbcomm. See Orbital Communication Corporation
ORBIS. See Orbiting Radio Beacon Ionospheric Satellite
Orbital Communication Corporation (Orbcomm) 164 173
Orbital Sciences 164 166 175 212 322 323
344 438 439 476 484 486
499 501 577 625
Orbital Test Satellite (OTS) 137 375 376 410 632
Orbita network 238 240 241 242 244
Orbiting Picosat Automatic Launcher (OPAL) 604
Orbiting Radio Beacon Ionospheric Satellite (ORBIS) 621 631
ORBX 103
Orion 115 286
See also Loral Skynet; Telstar
OSCAR 162 172 175 532 593 594
615 616 618 619 631
OTS. See Orbital Test Satellite
OV1-17 621 631
OV2-5 621
OV4 621 622 631

P76-5 622 632

P83-l 623 632
P87-l 623 632
Pacsat 600
Pakistan 156 256 455 498 526 527
532 532 540 550 593
Paksat 455 498 532
Palapa 115 366 455 457 493 526
532 533 548 552 570
Palapa Pacific 492 496
Pan American Satellite 101 102
See also PanAmSat

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Index Terms Links

PanAmSat 57 101 111 273 284 286

307 354 411 426 476 529
562 605
See also Galaxy
PANSat 603
Papua New Guinea 570 573
Paracomsat 268 579
Paradigm Secure Communications 214
Paradigm Secure Services 214 231
Paraguay 567 579
PASI. See Philippine Agila Satellite Inc.
Pasifik Satelit Nusantara (PSN) 493 496
PCSat 593 605 606 618
Peole 160
Peru 101 591
Perumtel. See Perusahaan Umum Telekomunikasi
Perusahaan Umum Telekomunikasi (Perumtel) 493 495
Phebus. See Olympus
Philco 189 192 196
See also Ford Aerospace
Philippine Agila Satellite Inc. (PASI) 552
Philippines 114 129 156 459 494 495
521 523 535 546 548 552
PICOSat 605
picosatellites 593
PLACE. See position location and aircraft communication
experiment
POGS. See Polar Orbiting Geomagnetic Survey
Poland 398 417
Polar BEAR 623
Polar Orbiting Geomagnetic Survey (POGS) 624
polar programs 225
Portugal 164 410 434 452 581 593
602
PoSAT 164 452 581 593 602
position location and aircraft communication experiment
(PLACE) 22
Potok 247

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Index Terms Links

Primestar 346
Project Echo. See Echo
Project SCORE. See Signal Communication by Orbiting
Relay Equipment
PSN. See Pasifik Satelit Nusantara
PT Media Citra 501
PT Telekomunikasi 457 499
See also Perusahaan Umum Telekomunikasi

QuakeSat 615
Qualcomm 180
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) 492
QuetzSat 366
QZSS. See Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

Radar Calibration (RADCAL) 212

RADCAL. See Radar Calibration
Radiation Experiment (REX) 625 632
Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation (AMSAT) 594 595 601 603 605 607
608 612 620
Radio Corporation of America (RCA) 51 265 266 284 287 290
297 300 301
See also GE Astro Space; RCA Astro Electronics
Radio Scientific Research Institute 250
Radio Sputnik 593 600 612
Raduga 241 244 246 247 249 250
Rainbow Satellite 285 343 348 359
Rascom. See Regional African Satellite Communications
Organization
RCA. See Radio Corporation of America
RCA Alascom 284 287 301
See also Alascom
RCA Americom 287 293 301
See also GE Americom
RCA Astro Electronics 103 293 295 299 300 429
See also GE Astro Space
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Index Terms Links

RCA Globecom 284

RCA Satcom 287 288 301
See also Satcom
Regional African Satellite Communications Organization
(Rascom) 588
Relay 1 3 8 59 375
Reserve Satellite (RESSAT) 402
RESSAT. See Reserve Satellite
REX. See Radiation Experiment
Rimsat 114 244 497 538
Rocket Space Corporation (RSC) Energia 256 257
Rodnik 168
RS. See Radio Sputnik
RSCC. See Russian Space Communications Company
RSC Energia. See Rocket Space Corporation
Rubin 173 607
Russia 57 111 113 114 125 126
127 128 133 141 146 162
166 168 171 173 174 178
182 187 237 375 393 395
398 402 404 405 410 430
440 441 459 500 581 590
591
See also Soviet Union
Russian Satellite Communications Company 256 405 410
Russian Scientific Research Institute for Space Device Engineering 250
Russian Space Agency 114
Russian Space Communications Company (RSCC) 250 251 253 254 555

S80 169 176

SAFER. See Satellite For Information Relay
Sakura 462
See also Communications Satellite (CS)
Santa Clara University 604
Sapphire 605
Sarsat 162 511
Sarsat-Cospas system 162 507

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Index Terms Links

Satcom 270 288 302 306 428

See also GE Satcom; RCA Satcom
SATEDU 593 620
Satelindo. See Satelit Palapa Indonesia
Satelites de Coleta de Dados (SCD) 170 564
Satelites Mexicanos. See Satmex
Satelit Palapa Indonesia 493 498
SatelLife 164 617
Satellite Business Systems (SBS) 75 284 310 312 317 321
322 323 327 366 471 494
Satellite Control Network (SCN) 205
Satellite Data Relay Network (SDRN) 248
Satellite For Information Relay (SAFIR) 173 607
satellite instructional television experiment (SITE) 23
Satellite Japan Corporation 471 473
Satellite QUIck Research Testbed (SQUIRT) 606
Satellite Telecommunications Experimental Project (STEP) 501
Satellite Television Corporation (STC) 346 468 470
Satex 602
Satmex 366 368 371 579
Saudi-OSCAR 605 607
Saudi Arabia 178 454 559 561 563 588
605 618
Saudicomsat 593 618
SaudiSat 175 605 607
SBS. See Satellite Business Systems
SBTS. See Sistema Brasileiro de Telecomunicações por
Satélite
Scandinavia 434 436
See also Denmark; Finland; Norway; Sweden
SCC. See Space Communications Corporation
SCD. See Satelites de Coleta de Dados
SCE. See Selective Communications Experiment
scientific and calibration satellites 621
SCN. See Satellite Control Network
SCORE. See Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay
Equipment
Scotland 417

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Index Terms Links

SDRN. See Satellite Data Relay Network

Secretaria de Comunicaciones y Transportes (Mexico) 368 371
SECS. See Small Experimental Communications Satellite
SEDSat 603
SEEDS CubeSat 616
Selective Communications Experiment (SCE) 624
Selenia 446
See also Alenia Aerospazio; Alenia Spazio
SES. See SES Global; Société Européenne des Satellites
SES Americom 113 128 129 261 284 287
295 300 342 344 348 359
366 436 439 568
See also GE Americom
SES Astra 57 128 129 287 302 306
426 433 455 456
See also Astra; Société Européenne des
Satellites
SESAT. See Siberian-European Satellite
SES Global 113 128 164 302 306 427
436 439 525 564
See also Société Européenne des Satellites
SES New Skies. See New Skies Satellites
Sextets 168
Seychelles 457
Shinawatra Satellite 533
Shin Satellite 530 533 535 537
See also Thaicom
Shiyan Tongbu Tongxin Weixing (STTW) 516
Shiyan Tongxin Weixing (STW) 516
Siberian-European Satellite (SESAT) 375 402 404 410
SICRAL 225 232 375 443
Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment
(SCORE) 1 3 5
Simon Bolivar satellite 591
Singapore 146 160 494 554 604
Singapore Technologies Telemedia 493
Singapore Telecom, SingTel 554 555 570
See also Optus

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Sinosat 93 516 519 521 590

Sino Satellite Communications Company. See Sinosat
Sirio 30 375 443 516 632
Sirius (Scandinavia) 434 436 439 442 443
Sirius (U.S.) 360 361
Sistema Brasileiro de Telecomunicações por Satelite (SBTS) 564
SITE. See satellite instructional television experiment
SK Telecom 490
Skynet. See also Loral Skynet
Skynet (UK) 375
See also Loral Skynet (USA)
Skynet I 32 191 195 198 213 624
Skynet II 195 213 375
Skynet 3 213
Skynet 4 213 231
Skynet 5 214 231
SkyTerra 343 344
Slovakia 581
Small Experimental Communications Satellite (SECS) 212
SmartSat 593 620
Smolsat 168
SNAP 593 618
Société Européenne des Satellites (SES) 295 423 427 428 429 430
525
SES Americom 286 306 436 439
SES Astra 286 306 375 433 440 455
SES Global 286 306 436 439
Solidaridad 133 366 369
South Africa 104 183 587 593 603
Southern Pacific Communications Company (SPCC) 285 287 294
South Korea 123 183 425 490 527 542
593
Soviet Union 4 57 114 139 162 168
187 237 241 242 244 246
247 248 249 259 261 375
594 612
See also Russia

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Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SU-

PARCO) 532
Spacecom 582 583
Space Communications, Inc. 339
Space Communications Corporation (SCC) 460 475 478 492
Spacenet 133 287 294 299 300 302
367 518
SpaceQuest 175
Space Systems/Loral (SS/Loral) 70 74 81 85 91 93
107 117 118 119 159 182
189 192 196 199 227 256
332 333 334 343 345 354
426 441 479 484 486 490
492 506 537 540 553 577
Space Test Experiment Platform (STEP) 625 631
Space Test Program (STP) 622 631
Spaceway 342 343 344 352
Spain 225 226 395 398 417 434
448 617
SpainSat 226
SPAR Aerospace 151 270 273 565
SPCC. See Southern Pacific Communications Company
SQUIRT. See Satellite QUIck Research Testbed
SS/Loral. See Space Systems/Loral
SSETI Express 608 615
SSRD 248
SSS. See Strategic Satellite System
ST-1 554
Stacksat 624
Stanford University 604 606 614 615
Star One 129 427 564 568 591
Starshine 605
Starsys Global Positioning Inc. 176
Statsionar 241 242 244 246 506
STC. See Satellite Television Corporation
Stellat 114 405 411
Stellenbosch University 587
Stensat 604

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Stentor 54 411 632

STEP. See Satellite Telecommunications Experimental Proj-
ect; Space Test Experiment Platform
STP. See Space Test Program
Strategic Satellite System (SSS) 220
Strela 169
STTW. See Shiyan Tongbu Tongxin Weixin
Student Space Exploration & Technology Initiative (SSETI) 608
STW. See Shiyan Tongxin Weixing
Suitsat-1 608
Sunsat 587 593
SUPARCO. See Space and Upper Atmosphere Research
Commission
Superbird 79 460 478 629
Surfsat 593 618
Surrey Satellite Technology 170 452 601 602 603 605
607 618
Sweden 173 434 436 438
See also Sirius; Swedish Space Corporation; Tele-X
Swedish Space Corporation 437 439 441
Symphonic 375 411 413 501 516
Syncom 1 3 10 58 208
Syncom, Advanced 11 18
Syracuse 228 232 375 411 413 416
419

T1 344
See also Teledesic
Tacsat 133 189 197 200
See also Tactical Communications Satellite
TacSatCom II 220
Tactical Communications Satellite (Tacsat) 62
Taiwan 113 123 178 249 473 497
521 546 549 552 554
See also Chunghwa Telecom; ST-1
TASS-Loutch Telecom 248
TC concept. See transformational communications

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Index Terms Links

TDF. See Telediffusion de France

TDRSS. See Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System
Technical University of Berlin 167
Technical University of Denmark 615
TechSat 602
Tele-X 419 436 439
Telecom, Telecom France 228 410 411 412 413 559
Telecommunications Advancement Organization (Japan) 464 468 469
Telecommunications Satellite Corporation (Japan) 464 468 469
Telecomunicaciones de Mexico 371 372
Teledesic 184 342 344
Telediffusion de France (TDF) 411 419 426 436 442
Teleglobe 164 185
Telekomunikasi. See PT Telekomunikasi
Telenor 421 438 439 442 443
Telenor Satellite Broadcasting 92
Telesat, Telesat Canada 150 151 261 264 266 267
269 270 273 275 276 280
282 283 284 342 344 344
345 347 351 364 365 455
561 579
Telesat Mobile Inc. (TMI) 150 151 153 159
Telesis 552
Telespazio 171 342 446
television relay using small terminals (TRUST) experiment 23
Telkom 492 496 498
Telstar 1 3 7 9 59 115
118 286 375
Telstar 1 and 2 8 187 327
Telstar 3 (301 to 303) 323 325 327 561 570
Telstar 4 (401 to 402) 93 114 323 329
Telstar 5 through 7 93 114 323 331
Telstar 8 93 114 323 324 331 343
Telstar 10 114 116 118 324 540
See also APStar IIA
Telstar 11 (Orion 1) 114 115 117 324
Telstar 12 (Orion 2) 114 115 117 324 410
Telstar 13 93 114 324 331 357 358

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Telstar (Cont.)
Telstar 14 (Estrela do Sul) 114 118 324
Telstar 18 (APStar V) 114 118 324 540
Temisat 171 443
Tempo 347 351 354
TerreStar Networks 159 160
Test and Training Satellites (TETR or ITS) 626
TETR. See Test and Training Satellites
TEX. See Transceiver Experiment
Thai-Microsatellite-OSCAR 602
Thaicom 533 629
See also Shin Satellite
Thailand 155 156 178 210 459 494
526 527 533 557 586 602
See also Shin Satellite; TMSat
Thelma and Louise 605
Thermo Capital Partners 182
Thor 436 438 442 443
Thuraya 133 144 157
TIROS-N 161
TiungSAT 606
TMI. See Telesat Mobile Inc.
TMSat 593 602
Tokyo Institute of Technology 608 615 616
Tonga 114 126 497 538 555 588
Tongasat 325 588
Toshiba 38 254 468 490
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) 36 112 128 247 248 261
309 334 391 487
Transceiver Experiment (TEX) 624 632
transformational communications (TC) concept 235
Transformational Satellite (TSAT) program 233 235
TRIMILSATCOM 231
TRUST experiment. See television relay using small termi-
nals
TRW 62 114 185 194 202 233
335 337 339 342 625
TRW Space & Electronics 224

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Index Terms Links

TSAT program. See Transformational Satellite program

Tsinghua 593 618
ITS. See Test and Training Satellites
Tubsat 167
TU Media 490
Tunisia 271 561 563
Turkey 191 213 225 256 395 398
408 453 459 498 532
Turksat 453 455
See also Eurasiasat
Turk Telekom 454
TV-Sat 411 419 426 436 442

U.S. Air Force 17 161 207 593

Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center 189 191 192 196 207 224
230
Air Force Space and Missile Systems Organization 189 191 192 194 196 202
Air Force Space Systems Division 194 199 202 207
U.S. Army 1 187 197 210 212 221
229 235
U.S. Coast Guard 20
U.S. Congress 115 119 160 162 187 203
207 220 233 335 346 348
536
See also U.S. Government
U.S. Eximbank 255
U.S. Government 28 57 194 360 628
See also Advanced
Research Projects Agency; Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency; Department of Defense;
Federal Communications Commission; National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration; National Oceanic
and Atmopheric Administration; U.S. Air Force; U.S.
Army; U.S. Marines; U.S. Navy
U.S. Marines 210
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory 605 621
U.S. Navy 1 17 197

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Index Terms Links

U.S. Satellite Broadcasting (USSB) 347

UFO. See UHF Follow-On
UHF Follow-On (UFO) 203 215 225 233
Ukraine 402
UNAMSAT 366 593 602
Unicom 114
Unisat 442
United Arab Emirates 157 183
United Kingdom 225 442
See also Britain; British Satellite
Broadcasting; England; Great Britain; Skynet
United Nations 101 163 494
United States 3 4 8 9 24 32
37 51 59 81 85 91
96 100 103 107 107 110
112 115 117 119 123 129
146 149 151 153 159 162
164 175 176 178 183 187
191 196 199 225 226 231
232 247 255 261 264 276
284 284 375 385 411 412
449 451 459 463 476 501
503 516 518 535 555 559
566 570 579 582 585 586
588 590 594 595 598 599
604 617 621 628 630 632
United States Satellite Systems 285
University of Applied Sciences 173
University of Arizona 616
University of Bremen 173
University of Hawaii Voyager CubeSat 616
University of Illinois 616
University of Kansas 616
University of New South Wales 620
University of Surrey 164 452 580 595 601 602
617
See also Surrey Satellite Technology; UoSAT
University of Tokyo 608 615

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Index Terms Links

University of Toronto 615 616

University of Wiirzburg 616
UoSAT 164 169 532 581 595 598
599 600 602 603 617 631
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite 39
Uruguay 567 579
USSB. See U.S. Satellite Broadcasting
USSR. See Russia; Soviet Union

Venesat 591
Venezuela 273 591
Vietnam 189 549 555
Vinasat 555
VisionStar 344
VITA. See Volunteers in Technical Assistance
Volna 246
Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA) 164 175 598 617
Voyager CubeSat 616
VUSat (India) 608

Webersat 600
Westar 285 300 307 317 366 494
526
See also Advanced Westar
Western Union 112 309 310
Western Union Space Communications 335 337
Western Union Telegraph Company 284 300 307 309 316 322
West Ford 6 12
West Germany 422 595 598
See also Germany
WGS. See Wideband Gapfiller System
White House Communications Agency 235
Wideband Gapfiller System (WGS) 197 219 228
Wideband InterNetworking Engineering Test and Demonstra-
tion Satellite (WINDS) 32 48
WildBlue 277 342 344 345
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WINDS. See Wideband InterNetworking Engineering Test

and Demonstration Satellite
Worldsat 113 128 306 436
WorldSpace Corporation 360 585
World Trade Organization (WTO) 630
W series 391 402 410 423
WTO. See World Trade Organization

XM Radio 360 363

XTAR, XTAR-Eur, XTAR-LANT 226 449

Yamal 256 259

Yuri 467
See also Broadcasting Satellite, Japan

Zeus Holdings 57
Zhongwei. See ChinaStar
Zhongxing. See Chinasat
Zohreh 556

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 About the Authors
Donald H. Martin, author of the four previous editions of Communication
Satellites, has worked with communication satellites and systems for 38 years at
The Aerospace Corporation. Before his retirement in December 2006, he was a
senior engineering specialist in the Communication Architectures Department,
Communication and Network Architectures Subdivision. Mr. Martin’s primary
fields of work have been requirements definition and communication design for
space systems’ architectures, communications technology developments, and
spectrum management. Other efforts have been in link analyses, applications
of communication satellite systems, bandwidth efficient modulations,
atmospheric propagation, and optical communications. He has also presented
a number of tutorials on these subjects. Mr. Martin’s assiduous chronicling of
the development of communication satellites and systems for more than three
decades has provided the basis for all editions of this book. Mr. Martin received
his B.S. and M.S. degrees in engineering from the University of California at
Los Angeles.

Donald H. Martin

Paul R. Anderson is a senior engineering specialist at The Aerospace Corporation,

working in the Communication Architectures Department, Communication and
Network Architectures Subdivision. His work has encompassed many aspects
of communications satellite system engineering, including telemetry and
command subsystem design and integration, communication subsystem design
and integration, satellite communication link design, spectrum management,
and development of bandwidth efficient modulation techniques. Before joining
Aerospace in 2002, Mr. Anderson had been with Hughes Aircraft Company
since 1973, working on many commercial satellite communication programs,
including the PALAPA satellite system for Indonesia, the LEASAT system for
the U.S. Navy, and the JCSAT system for Japan. During the last 10 years of his
tenure at Hughes, he worked on direct broadcast satellite systems for DIRECTV.
Mr. Anderson received his B.S. degree in electrical engineering from the Illinois
Institute of Technology and his M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the
University of Southern California.

Paul R. Anderson

Lucy Bartamian is a senior member of the xhnical E riff in the Frequency

Management Department, Communications Systems and Information
Engineering Subdivision, at The Aerospace Corporation, where she supports
a satellite communications program office in the corporation’s Chantilly,
Virginia, office. Previously, she worked for three years as a communications
systems engineer on civil and Department of Defense programs at the corporate
headquarters in El Segundo, California. Ms. Bartamian’s primary fields of
work have included radio spectrum interference studies, link analyses, network
management policy, and national spectrum management policy for national
security space programs. She also led an independent research and development
study on emerging spectrum technologies. Before joining Aerospace, she
worked as a policy analyst for a telecommunications consultancy, advising
on regulatory policy matters pertaining to cable TV, broadband, and wireless
telecommunications technology. Ms. Bartamian received a B.A. degree in
communications studies with a focus on media and law from the University of
California, Los Angeles, and an M.A. degree in communications management
policy from the University of Southern California.
Lucy Bartamian

Please address questions regarding Communication Satellites, FifthEdition, via e-mail to [email protected].