Port engineering and operation

Proceedings of the conference on British ports and their

future organized by the Institution of Civil Engineers and
held in Newcastle upon Tyne on 1 3 - 1 5 March 1985

Thomas Telford, London

Conference co-sponsored by the Institution of Civil Engineers, the
British Ports Association, the British Ship Research Association, the
International Cargo Handling Co-ordination Association, the Permanent
International Association of Navigation Congresses and the Royal
Institution of Naval Architects

Organizing Committee: P. K Mcllroy (Chairman), D. J. Allison,

N. Buchanan, R. A. Gibbons, D. Goodrich, P. Lacey, E. Loewy,
E. E. Pollock and J. T. Williams

British Library Cataloguing in Publication data

1. Harbours—Great Britain
I. Institution of Civil Engineers
387.1'0941 HE557.G7

ISBN: 0 7277 0244 0

First published 1985

© Institution of Civil Engineers, 1985, unless otherwise stated.

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publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any other
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London EC1P 1JH.

The Institution of Civil Engineers as a body does not accept responsibility for the
statements made or for the opinions expressed in the following pages.

Published for the Institution of Civil Engineers by Thomas Telford Ltd, P.O. Box 101,
2 6 - 3 4 Old Street, London EC1P 1JH.
CONTENTS

Opening address. J. R. STEELE 1

T R E N D S IN P O R T T R A D E

P a p e r 1. T r e n d s in p o r t trade since 1 9 6 5 . P. OXLEY 9

P a p e r 2. State of the art of bulk terminal technology.

P. S O R O S 21

Discussion on P a p e r s 1 and 2 37

D E V E L O P M E N T IN S H I P D E S I G N
P a p e r 3. T r e n d s in ship types, sizes a n d characteristics and
their influence on ports. I. L B U X T O N 43

P a p e r 4. Optimal ship design and its relationship with port

time, with r e f e r e n c e to liner shipping. S. C. RYDER 59

P a p e r 5. D e v e l o p m e n t s in the a u t o m a t i o n of ship operation

including mooring. E. J. H A R D I N G 69

Discussion on P a p e r s 3 - 5 87

PORT M A N A G E M E N T AND OPERATIONS

P a p e r 6. D e v e l o p m e n t in the p o r t industry as e v i d e n c e d in
the Tyne. E. W. O A K E S 97

P a p e r 7. P o r t m a n a g e m e n t and operations at Felixstowe.

J. H. W. NORTHFIELD 111

Discussion on P a p e r s 6 and 7 123

PORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Paper 8. S o m e design aspects of dredging a n d protection
works for ports. J. N. WOLFE-BARRY 133

P a p e r 9. D i a p h r a g m walling for quays a n d locks.

F. IRWIN-CHILDS 145
P a p e r 10. C o n s t r u c t i o n of the m a r i n e terminal at Aughinish
Island. P. L U N D H U S 157

P a p e r 1 1 . C o n s t r u c t i o n of m a r i n e works in connection with

H u n t e r s t o n o r e terminal jetty. G. C C U M M I N G S 171

P a p e r 12. Installation of Syncrolift e q u i p m e n t in ports.

D. L. P E A R L S O N 177

P a p e r 1 3 . W h a t d o e s the engineer n e e d to k n o w about

ships and ship handling? P. LACEY and I. W. D A N D 191

Discussion on P a p e r s 8 - 1 3 207
Opening address

J. R STEELE, CB, Director General Transport Directorate General

Commission of European Communities

The involvement of the Economic European Community in shipping

policy is quite recent. It was not until the French crews'
decision of the European Court in 1974 that it was clear that
the general Articles of the Treaty of Rome applied to
shipping. The court's judgement coincided with the adoption
of the UNCTAD code on liner conferences and consequently that
was the first shipping question that the Community considered.
After several years of haggling it was agreed that the code
should be ratified subject to an agreed reservation which in
effect meant that critical parts of the code did not apply to
trade between the Community and other developed countries.
Germany and the Netherlands have ratified the code and
thereby brought its tonnage requirements into force. The
other members of the Community are in various stages of
preparing the necessary national legislation for implementing
their adhesion to the code. The UK, Denmark, France and
Belgium are expected to adhere during 1985. The Scandinavian
countries are also planning to join. There are other examples
of the Community's involvement in shipping, such as the
monitoring of Eastern bloc shipping practices in certain
Western trades, involvement in the state control of ports,
ship safety and pollution prevention.
The Commission has thus hitherto acted on a rather piecemeal
basis, without defining fully what it understands by a
Community shipping policy. This has made it possible to
respond flexibly to the needs of member states. However, a
new stage has now been reached and it seems necessary to
reassure all interested parties where the limits of Community
involvement lie. The Commission is therefore working on a
policy paper on maritime transport for discussion in the
Council of Ministers. This is the third and last instalment
of a comprehensive review and partial reorientation of the
overall approach to a common transport policy. The two
previous papers cover land and air transport. The paper was
approved by the old Commission at the end of 1984 and after
review and the incorporation of a few changes has also been
approved by the new Commission.
It is necessary to consider what is happening in the market.
For example, it is claimed that there is a surplus of tonnage
1
Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985
PORT ENGINEERING AND OPERATION

of about 100 million dwt, despite the massive scrapping of

over 50 million dwt since 1979.
In the dry bulk market, although total tonnage carried
remains fairly stable, the tonnage of shipping available
continues to rise. In liner shipping there is increasing
competition from the fleets of trading countries which, in
times of recession, can cause adverse effects for Community
ship-owners. There is an important growth in the influence on
shipping of developing countries and the moves by some of them
to take an increased proportion of the liner markets by
government decree rather than by letting market forces work.
The effects on the fleets of the Community of declining
order-books in shipbuilding and the desperate search for
orders have been as follows. During 1975-83 the Community's
share of world tonnage fell from 29% to 23% in terms of gross
registered tonnes, but the absolute size of the fleet is much
the same. The developing countries have more than doubled
their share of world gross tonnage: from 6% to nearly 14%.
The COMECON and open registry fleets increased their share
slightly but South Korea, Hong Kong, the People's Republic of
China and Taiwan all registered an impressive growth in their
fleets.
This means that the Community's shipping industry has not
been able to maintain its once predominant position; the
growth centres have shifted to the countries of south-east
Asia and other developing countries. This is nothing new, but
the trend has been exacerbated by the prolonged recession in
world trade from which the world is only now slowly
recovering. There is no easy answer to the question of why
this has happened, but it seems that one can identify three
main factors: the recession, a loss of comparative advantage
and the growth of protectionist practices adopted by countries
outside the Community.
The proportion of Community trade (in terms of tonnage)
handled by Community ships remains over 40% and the ship­
owners still make a large profit cross-trading. In fact about
half the earnings of Community ships comes from cross-trading,
although the shares of the various countries vary
considerably. This position has not been maintained without a
price - the usual one is a serious diminution of profits and a
consequential reduction in the financial strength of the
industry and of its ability to beat off the competition that
will certainly not go away. However, it has made it clear
that it is not necessary to abandon the traditional
competitive, commercial orientation of European shipping
policy. It is probable that there will be a continuing
concentration of Community shipping into fewer but larger
groupings and it is important that this should be on a
Community rather than a national basis. Equally, it is clear
that to maintain such a policy, it is necessary to come to
grips with the growing threat to Community interests of
protectionist policies and practices of other countries which
make it difficult or impossible to maintain a commercially

2
 OPENING ADDRESS: STEELE

competitive system. Consequently one of the central themes of

the Commissions paper is to identify such threats and to
formulate proposals to counter them.
There is in most member states of the Community a reluctance
to see the Community (or the Commission) involve itself in
shipping questions and it is not the intention to intervene
for the sake of intervention. However, it seems that there
are areas where things can be done more effectively at the
level of the Community and where the use of the Community can
bring positive benefit to the member states. Thus a co­
ordinated Community counteraction against cargo reservation is
likely to be more effective because of the greater trading
weight of the Community and because only Community action can
ensure that such counter-measures do not merely result in the
diversion of cargo from one Community port to another. The
Commission's paper detailed proposals to this effect.
It is also necessary to ensure equality of treatment of
Community ship-owners by the member states. One cannot expect
the member states to present a common front to the outside
world if -they are constantly looking over their shoulders at
what their neighbour is doing. It seems therefore that as a
consequence of a common front all member states must be
guaranteed the freedom to provide shipping services to, from
and within other member states. This would also be in keeping
with one of the Commission's current priorities, namely the
strengthening and development of the internal market of the
Community.
The organization of the liner conference markets has long
been one of the main points of discussion in the Community and
internationally. The adoption of the EEC regulation on the
ratification of the UN code of conduct for liner conferences
(regulation 954/79), subject to certain reservations designed
to preserve a market-oriented system as between the
industrialized countries and as between liner shipping
companies of the OECD countries, was the first common
initiative of the member states and the Community in this
respect. Its purpose was to make a political gesture towards
the aspirations of the developing countries while maintaining
as far as possible a commercial regime for the rest of the
trade.
Two problems remain to be settled. The developed countries
signed the code on the assumption that the trades would be
open. In many cases this was an important assumption for
their shippers because in their view an open trade is
necessary to prevent a conference abusing its position. This
is certainly the view of the Commission. In the present state
of the market, when in many trades 30-40% of the cargo moves
outside the conference, this might seem a dangerously academic
approach. However, a Community policy has to be flexible
enough to cope with the market as it may be in the future. It
has to allow for the aspirations of the developing countries,
it has to cater for the interests of European shippers,
because in today's highly competitive world the Community's

3
PORT ENGINEERING AND OPERATION

exporters need the most efficient and economical services they

can get, and it has to provide competitive opportunities for
Community ship-owners in cross-trades as well as in Community
trades.
It seems that a trade closed to non-conference competition
fails to meet some of those objectives. But what should be
done if the trade is closed? And how will this affect the
reciprocity of access on which, under the Brussels package,
the relations of the Community, and of those other countries
who have followed the Community, to other OECD countries are
based?
These questions have led to a series of discussions between
countries in the Consultative Shipping Group and the USA. For
some decades there has been a gulf between the USA, the
European maritime countries and Japan on shipping policy. The
quarrelling started in the 1950s, and was given considerable
impetus by the 1961 revisions of the 1916 Shipping Act. A
recent comprehensive review of American shipping policy
coincided with the movement in European shipping policies
resulting from the adoption of the code and from the
application to shipping of the competition articles of the
Treaty of Rome. The simultaneous examination, in a number of
countries, of long-standing policies happens only
infrequently. If a common approach can be established the
benefits will be considerable in terms of policy stability and
in terms of reversing the seemingly inevitable drift towards
protectionism in shipping.
There seems to be a feeling among member states that it is
sensible to differentiate between conferences in open trades
and conferences in closed trades, with a relatively light
regime applied to the former and a stricter one to the latter.
Current debate is tending to centre on the contents of each
regime and what is to trigger the change from one regime to
the other. Related to this is the attitude to outsiders. The
Commission is concerned about the increasing trend to exclude
outside competition from trades in which closed conferences
operate. These cases are most serious where a state at one
end of the trade route precludes non-conference competition.
The proposals in the Commission's paper are designed to deal
with this problem.
The need to prevent a broadly commercial regime from being
undermined by non-commercial practices means that the
application of the competition articles of the treaty to liner
shipping needs to be complemented by a proposal ensuring that
Community liner shipping can compete with third countries'
liner shipping companies on fair and commercial principles.
It is envisaged that the Commission may be empowered to act
against unfair pricing practices where they cause, or threaten
to cause, material injury to liner companies of the Community.
It is not reasonable that the shipping companies of certain
countries should enjoy the commercial benefits of the
Community's open market system while not abiding by the same
rules. In the case of state-owned or state-controlled

4
 OPENING ADDRESS: STEELE

companies the possibilities for manipulation are numerous.

These companies do not automatically behave uncommercially
when competing with European companies, but I believe that
something must be done to ensure that the temptation to do so
does not become irresistible. What is needed is to set up a
machinery that makes it clear that there is a defence in case
unfair pricing practices are used. It should not treat all
such companies as enemies or as inevitably causing problems.
Rather a set of cumulative criteria are needed, designed to
enable the Community to deal with specific cases of unfair
pricing. Only if it is absolutely certain that practices can
be proved unfair and that these practices are actually or
potentially damaging would it be proposed that the Council
should impose countervailing duties on the shipping company
concerned for as long as malpractice continues.
In a sense none of this affects ports. So long as someone's
ships put in to load and unload cargo, ports can be relatively
indifferent to the flag. Ports are more interested in the
development of ship and cargo handling technology and in
macroeconomic forecasts of trade. However, there are certain
areas in relation to ports where there may be a role for the
Community, such as in the area of competition between ports.
This is a difficult area. The difficulty stems from the
differences in the status of ports in the member states -
differences which sometimes stem from centuries of history and
a period before the existence of the states in which they are
situated. It would be impossible to change that state of
affairs. At the same time it is sometimes alleged,
particularly by British ports, that these differences in
status act to the disadvantage of ports in the UK.
The differences in status usually manifest themselves in
allegations of unfair aids. The effect of direct national
port aids on competition between ports was examined in 1980
and most of the working group that looked into it concluded
that national aids did not lead to a significant distortion of
competition. However, the Commission receives conflicting
evidence. It is clear that there are differences of practice
- in particular who pays for such things as lights and
dredging. It is not clear how significant this is especially
as 75% of the costs to a ship-owner of a port call arise from
factors other than the port charges themselves. The
Commission tried to draw up a set of guidelines to cover state
aids to ports but concluded that the differences in status
that exist make it impossible to draft anything that could
cover them all without being so vague as to be meaningless.
The attempt was therefore abandoned; and instead attention
will be concentrated on specific aids directly on the basis of
articles 92 and 93 of the treaty. Information already
gathered is also being updated.
British ports escape at least one problem that affects
Continental ports. There has been a long-standing dispute
between German ports and Dutch/Belgian ports. German ports
allege that the (relatively liberal) regime for international

5
PORT ENGINEERING AND OPERATION

transport gives Dutch/Belgian ports a competitive edge for

getting German traffic; Dutch/Belgian ports allege that the
German rail and road transport rates unduly favour German
ports. No amount of study will reveal the truth as there is
no absolute truth to find. Both parties are right and both
are wrong. The only sure way to avoid distortion is to let
the market operate and so the Commission has proposed that the
surface transport of all goods loaded from or on to ships in
Community ports should not be subject to control of either
price or capacity.
More generally it is proposed to step up co-operation with
the ports concerning the development of common standards for
the exchange of information between ports and the discussion
of Commission proposals. The Commission is prepared to
discuss any matter of concern to ports which might be dealt
with more efficiently at Community level. The programme
concerning ports is very modest and action will not be
proposed for its own sake. The Commision has yet to be
convinced that Community action on ports should go beyond the
measures proposed and that such action would really help the
Community's ports. The aim is to do what it is useful to do.

Discussion
MR J. A. DERRINGTON, Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons Ltd
Does the forthcoming EEC document on shipping policy take
account of the possible entry of Spain and Portugal into the
Community?

MR STEELE
There are no specific references to the enlargement of the
Community. When Spain and Portugal join they will, of course,
be expected to comply with all existing Community shipping
legislation.

MR S. J. ATTEWELL, Arthur Young, Management Consultants

Is there provision within the next EEC document, or elsewhere
within DGVII activities, for financial support for the
development of port facilities in order to improve the
European infrastructure and facilitate transportation to, from
and within the Community?

MR STEELE
The maritime policy document cannot in itself make provision
for financial support. There are regional funds available for
port development in the more depressed areas of the Community
and the European Investment Bank may assist with some port
infrastructure developments. There are limited transport
6
 OPENING ADDRESS: STEELE

infrastructure funds but these have not yet been used for
ports projects.

DR I. W. DAND, NMI Ltd

Could Mr Steele comment on the EEC Cost 301 initiative to
transfer maritime technology within the Community with a view
to improving maritime safety within EEC waters? This will
presumably be relevant to the operation of EEC ports.

MR STEELE
The final report on the Cost 301 project is due in 1986.
I imagine many ports will be interested in the eventual
recommendations.

MR H. L. REVELL, Port of London Authority

At a recent conference organized by the British Maritime League
on 'Does Britain need a merchant shipping industry?' serious
concern was expressed at the decline in the British merchant
fleet and representatives from NATO pointed out that it was
not just a British problem. If further decline takes place in
EEC fleets it will not be possible to meet NATO defence
commitments.
In the work the Commission is doing, are defence and NATO
needs taken into account?

MR STEELE
No, defence and NATO needs are not taken into account. They
are beyond the responsibilities of the Commission. They will
doubtless be taken into account by member states when they
decide their reaction to the proposals of the Commission.

7
PAPER 1
Trends in port trade since 1965

P. OXLEY, BSc, MRTPI, ARICS, Centre for Transport Studies, Cranfield

Institute of Technology

SYNOPSIS
This paper examines the changes which have occurred in the
British ports industry from 1965 on and considers what may
happen in the immediate future. Many of the radical changes in
the industry, in trade patterns, commodities and handling
methods, have probably largely worked through the system. T h e
future is.likely to see continuing change but at a lower rate.
Competition between ports will continue to grow and financial
pressures may lead to diversification of port activities.
INTRODUCTION
1. Viewed simply in terms of total tonnage handled by British
ports the last 20 years shows an increase from around 320
million tonnes to nearly 430 million tonnes per annum, a fairly
modest rate of growth. These overall figures conceal two peaks:
one in the early '70s which was followed by a sharp post oil
crisis drop in trade, and the second reached in 1979 after which
the effects of world economic problems made their presence felt
(see Table 1 ) .
2. The overall figures also conceal major and fundamental
changes in trade patterns, in commodities and in the way in
which the goods are handled. These basic changes have triggered
further alterations, notably to the levels of employment within
the industry and to the regional growth and decline of ports.
FOREIGN TRADE: NON-FUEL COMMODITIES
3. Twenty years ago basic materials comprised almost half the
foreign trade tonnage of British ports, with foodstuffs account­
ing for a further quarter. Over the period to date foodstuffs
have increased modestly in tonnage (by about 13 per cent from
1965 to 1982) and still account for almost a quarter of the
total. Basic materials have fallen both in proportionate and
absolute terms; they now account for just over one-third of
the total tonnage handled and in actual tonnage have fallen by
about 11. per cent from 1965 to 1982. The growth sector has
been that of manufactured goods, which in the peak year of 1979
were almost exactly twice the tonnage of those commodities in
1965. Although it is these commodities which have suffered
Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 9
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

Table 1. Annual tonnages handled by British ports:

selected years 1965-1983 ('000 tonnes)
1965 1970 1973 1975 1979 1983

Foreign T r a f f i c
Non-fuel imports 69573 74341 82215 67906 80196 77565
Non-fuel exports 19994 24861 30021 29393 35579 40615

S u b - t o t a l non-fuel 89566 99202 112236 97299 115775 118180

Fuel imports 83809 121818 137301 107421 76877 44678

Fuel exports 15749 23146 23494 20807 71958 95778

S u b - t o t a l fuel 99558 144964 160795 128228 148836 140456

Total: all foreign 189124 244166 273030 225527 264611 258636

Coastwise T r a f f i c
Non-fuel 12350 12064 14598 12764 14049 13409
Fuel 102113 95944 89118 77608 105698 118205

Total: all coastwise 114464 108008 103716 90372 119747 131615

T o t a l : f o r e i g n & coastwise 303588 352174 376746 315899 384358 390251

1
One-Port T r a f f i c
Non-fuel 7164 9217 14088 23870 25282 26814
Fuel 467 17142 9957

T o t a l : a l l one-port 7164 9217 14088 24338 42423 36771

T o t a l : non-fuel 109080 120483 140922 133934 155106 158403

T o t a l : fuel 201671 240908 249913 206303 271676 268618

Total: all 310752 361391 390834 340237 426782 427021

1
1965, 1970 and 1973 f i g u r e s sea dredged aggregates o n l y , 1975 and on f i g u r e s
include material shipped f o r dumping at sea. In 1965 t h i s was estimated to be
8,460,000 tonnes.
Source: Port Statistics 1980, 1983, DTp and BPA.

most in the recent recession in 1982 figures still show an in­

crease of more than 70 per cent over 1965 and currently they
account for a little over 40 per cent of the total tonnage.
4. Although the total tonnage of foodstuffs has not altered
greatly since the mid-60s the composition of it has. Notably
the bulk commodities (grain and sugar) have fallen; in 1965
they accounted for over half the foreign trade tonnage in
foodstuffs, currently they account for about 30 per cent. T h e
growth commodities have been fruit and vegetables and
beverages.
5. Within the basic commodities group the decline has been in
imports, particularly forest products and textiles. Export of
basic materials have shown quite strong growth: in 1981 the
tonnage handled was two-and-a-half times that of 1965. Ores
and scrap account for a large part of this increase although
all the principal commodities in this group have shown growth.
Whereas in 1965 export basic materials represented about one-

10
 PAPER 1: OXLEY

tenth of total foreign trade basics, they now account for

about (or a little over) a quarter.
6. In manufactured goods both imports and exports have grown,
the former by well over 100 per cent from 1965, the latter at
about half that rate. Virtually all sectors of imported manu­
factures have increase with particularly strong growth in
chemicals, iron and steel, machinery, vehicles and paper.
Export performance has been more patchy with growth again in
the chemicals/fertiliser group and to a lesser extent in mach­
inery, vehicles, wood and paper and cement but with a modest
decline in iron and steel products.
FOREIGN TRADE: FUEL
7. Traffic in fuels has accounted for between 52 and 61 per
cent of total foreign trade tonnages from 1965 on, being fairly
consistently around the 55 to 57 per cent mark in the most
recent years (1979 o n ) . Coal accounts for a relatively modest
part of this rising from five per cent in 1965 to around nine
per cent in 1982. Over most of the period the rise in coal has
been attributable to increasing imports (27,000 tonnes in 1965
peaking at over 7.6 million tonnes in 1980) but exports also
grew quite sharply through the late '70s and early '80s. 1982
and 1983 figures, however, show a decline from the 1981 figure
of almost 11 million tonnes.
8. The principal feature of the petroleum trade has been the
advent of North Sea oil and the consequent switch from imports,
which accounted for almost 90 per cent of the total handled in
1965, to exports which comprised 64 per cent of the 1982 and 69
per cent of the 1983 totals.
COASTWISE TRADE
9. This trade is dominated by fuel traffic which accounts for
around 90 per cent of the total tonnage. Formerly coal repre­
sented a substantial proportion of this (in 1965, 39 per cent)
but this traffic declined sharply until 1974, then maintained a
fairly level tonnage until 1979 when a modest increase started
which appears to be being maintained. In 1982 coal represented
11 per cent of all coastwise traffic tonnages.
10. The trade is dominated by the movement of petroleum, which
currently accounts for some 80 per cent of total t o n n a g e . The
growth in this traffic, due to the increase in crude oil, has
well outweighed the decline in coal. Non-fuel commodities have
remained consistently around 12 million tonnes for most of the
last 20 years but, like foreign trade, the elements within that
figure have changed. Both foodstuffs and manufactured goods
have increased, the former proportionately more than the latter,
although the latter still remain the greater in t o n n a g e .
Trade in basic materials has fallen, particularly in crude
fertiliser and m i n e r a l s .

n
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

11. The changes in tonnage of goods handled by British ports

over the last 20 years have been relatively small in aggregate
t e r m s . The significant changes have occurred in the constit­
uent elements: the types of commodities. These changes have
reflected the alterations in overseas trading patterns and have
reinforced the development of unitised handling techniques.
OVERSEAS TRADING PATTERNS
12. Patterns of trade have changed markedly. In 1965 the
split between near, short and deep sea was respectively 13.5,
30.6 and 55.9 per cent. By the end of the last decade these
figures had become 30.3, 28.4 and 41.3 per cent (1979) and that
move away from the traditional deep sea trade towards,
essentially, trade with our EEC partners has continued since
1
then. Provisional figures for 1 9 8 3 i n fact show near sea
tonnages exceeding those for deep sea and accounting for over
36 per cent of total foreign trade.
13. Some of the development in trade with other EEC countries
is attributable to fuel, with the greater part of that trade
now being in exports from Great Britain, but other commodities
have also increased, particularly manufactured goods. Short
sea trade (Scandinavia, Baltic and Mediterranean) has also
benefitted from increases in oil exports and to a lesser extent
in exports of other commodities. Imports of other commodities,
for example, forest products, have tended to decline and
although total tonnages handled on the short sea trade have
grown since the mid-60s by about 25 per cent as the figures
quoted above show, their share in total foreign trade has dec­
lined slightly.
14. Much of the decline in deep sea trade is attributable to
the reduced need for imported petroleum. Other sectors within
this trade have shown increases, albeit modest, but have been
more than outweighed by the fall in fuel imports.
HANDLING GOODS
15. Perhaps the most dramatic change in the ports industry
over the last two decades has been unitisation of goods (see
Table 2 ) . Moving goods in containers has a fairly long history,
but it was the developments in north America, particularly by
the Sea-Land company which gave the impetus to worldwide con-
tainerisation from the early '60s o n w a r d s . At that time less
than five per cent (by w e i g h t ) of foreign and coastwise non-
fuel traffic was handled in unitised form in British ports.
Currently the percentage unitised is approaching 40 with a
further seven per cent attributable to unitised forest
products.
16. The extent to which unitisation is feasible is largely
determined by the type of commodity and, so far as accompan­
ied ro-ro is concerned, the distance/time involved. Trade
with Europe, particularly near sea, lends itself more to
12
 PAPER 1: OXLEY

unitisation than does deep sea trade and for much of the last
decade the proportion of total near and short sea non-fuel
trade unitised has been two-and-a-half times the level in deep
sea traffic. Undoubtedly though further scope for unitisation
exists in the deep sea trade and, after the distortion to that
trade caused by the dispute at Southampton in 1981, the 1982
and 1983 figures show continued growth.
17. Within the general move towards increased unitisation ro-
ro has grown much more strongly than lo-lo. In 1969 wheeled
units and other unitised traffic on ro-ro services accounted
for 35 per cent of the total unitised cargo (foreign and
c o a s t w i s e ) . By 1980 this had increased fivefold in tonnage and
accounted for about 57 per cent of all unitised cargoes, a
level which has remained roughly the same since then. Lo-lo
tonnages increased by a factor of two over the same period.
Table 2. Foreign and coastwise traffic -
unitisation 1965-1983

Total traffic Total Unitised as

Year excluding fuels unitised per cent of
'000 tonnes '000 tonnes total
1965 101,916 3,536 3.5
1966 97,124 4,611 4.7
1967 100,430 6,123 6.1
1968 105,907 9,032 8.5
1969 107,250 12,944 12.1
1970 111,266 16,880 15.2
1971 109,301 19,307 17.7
1972 113,710 22,460 19.8
1973 126,833 28,456 22.4
1974 123,056 30,640 24.9
1975 110,063 29,082 26.4
1976 121,502 32,669 26.9
1977 121,828 35,502 29.1
1978 125,562 39,299 31.3
1979 129,824 41,778 32.2
1980 116,353 41,748 35.7
1981 120,575 42,988 35.7
1982 122,100 45,354 37.1
1983 131,589 50,939 38.7

Source: NPC Annual Digests and Port Statistics 1980-83.

13
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

SUMMARY OF CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECTS

18. The changes outlined in the preceding paragraphs can be
summarised as:
(a) a modest increase in the total tonnages handled by
British ports;
(b) a major change in trading patterns away from deep sea
and to near sea;
(c) within the oil trade a move away from heavy importation
of fuel to net export;
(d) within the non-fuel trade an increasing proportion being
taken up by manufactured goods;
(e) substantial growth in unitised handling of cargoes.
19. Some of these changes reinforce others: the switch away
from bulk to manufactured goods has lent weight, to the increase
in unitisation; the increase in trade with other EEC countries
has encouraged the use of ro-ro. But the changes also have
second order effects, the most important of which are seen in
employment and regional differences in the fortunes of ports.
20. Both of these second order changes are well known. T h e
number of registered dock workers has fallen from over 50,000
in the mid-60s tobelow 14,000 in 1984. Some other classes of
port employees have also fallen, though not to the same extent,
but there has been an increase in skilled tradesmen reflecting
the move towards the use of increasingly sophisticated and
expensive handling systems.
21. Regional changes are shown for the period 1965 to 1983 in
Table 3. Both the influence of increasing trade on near sea
routes and the development of the North Sea oilfields have
reinforced the growth of east side ports against those in the
west. Within most regions there are individual ports which
have gone against their regional trend (for example, Stranraer
on the east coast of Scotland and Hull in the Yorkshire/
Humberside region) so the figures need to be interpreted with
care.
22. The other point that should be made is that many of the
older estuarial or river ports have seen declining traffic,
due largely to increases in ship sizes and, because of this,
have either run contrary to the trends in other ports in their
region or, where they were very dominant, have depressed the
regional performance. Cases in point are the falls in trade
at London and Medway which have outweighed the strong growth in
the Channel ports and the decline in trade at Bristol which
subsumes substantial growth in some of the smaller ports in
the South West.
23. If the trade in fuel is taken out of the figures the move

14
 PAPER 1: OXLEY

Table 3. Changes in regional tonnages 1965 and 1983:

Foreign and coastwise traffic ('000 tonnes)

Total tonnages %
handled in of GB traffic
Region 1965 1983 1965 1983
South East 110143 82367 36.3 25.9
South West 15310 11295 5.0 3.6
Wales 44031 49464 14.5 15.6
North West 55061 25630 18.1 8.1
Scotland - West 15032 11876 5.0 3.7
Scotland - East 10041 33334 3.3 10.5
North East 29710 43359 9.8 13.6
Yorks./Humber 18367 40220 6.1 12.7
Wash & E. Anglia 5891 20368 1.9 6.4
Total 303586 317913 100.0 100.0

Note: Figures for the Isles (Shetlands, Orkney) excluded.

In 1983, 70,838,000 tonnes (almost entirely oil) were
handled by this area. In 1965 their throughput was negligible.

Table 4. Changes in regional share of non-fuel traffic:

foreign and coastwise

% of GB traffic
Region 1965 1980
South East 25.0 28.8
South West 7.2 8.0
Wales 10.7 6.4
North West 24.4 13.3
Scotland - West 6.8 5.1
Scotland - East 4.4 4.9
North East 9.9 8.8
Yorks./Humber 8.4 12.7
Wash & E. Anglia 3.2 11.4
Orkneys/Shetland - 0.5
Total 100.0 100.0

15
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

of traffic from west to east coast becomes even more apparent

(see Table 4 ) . Thus in non-fuel tonnages the south-east region
has increased its share whereas Wales has lost ground, the con­
verse of the figures shown in Table 3. The differences are due
to the south-east having lost some of its petroleum trade at
London and the Medway, while W a l e s , through Milford Haven and
Anglesey gained substantially from oil traffic.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
24. In the three areas of total non-fuel tonnages handled,
overseas trading patterns and levels of unitisation it seems
most probable that there will be relatively little change bet­
ween now and 1990. Non-fuel tonnages have on average increased
by about 1.6 per cent per annum since the mid-60s and there are
no cogent reasons for assuming any materially different rate on
to 1990. On this basis total non-fuel foreign and coastwise
traffic would be about 145,000 m tonnes in 1990, compared with
131,600 m tonnes in 1983.
2

25. As is suggested in the Forecast of Port Traffic t h e

changes in trading patterns, which have been heavily influenced
by UK membership of the EEC, have probably reached a more
stable level and the present decade will not see anything app­
roaching the scale of change which happened between 1970 and
1980.
26. Unitisation has continued to increase up to 1983 and will
continue to do so though at a lower rate. Scope for further
unitisation is probably greatest on some of the deep sea routes
Within unitised cargoes as a whole the growth of ro-ro has been
very strong and may have been further encouraged by the recent
increase in permissible commercial vehicle w e i g h t s . The growth
in the heavy lorry sector has probably also contributed to the
increase in average weight per unit: in 1970 this was 7.8
tonnes; in 1983 11.3 tonnes. Further increases in average
unit weight can be expected.
27. The original forecasts of North Sea oil predicted that the
late '80s would see a decline in production. More recent finds
together with changes in the fiscal regime now suggest that
production from the North Sea and, possibly, other off-shore
areas will continue well into the next century. Thus the oil
movements which have developed in recent years are likely to
prove more stable and longer term than was originally expected.
28. If the brief outline of the future given above, which is
largely one of relatively low levels of change, is accepted
then the problems which face the British ports industry may
also remain. Perhaps the single largest problem is that of
over capacity and the issue which that raises of whether or not
there should be some degree of national control or policy on
further port developments.

16
 PAPER 1: OXLEY

29. As part of an earlier study an estimate was made of

ports' capacities and levels of utilisation. The base was 1979
(the last date for which national data on ports' facilities was
available) and it showed that about 38 per cent of conventional
berth capacity was used and just over 50 per cent of lo-lo and
ro-ro capacity. There was also ample capacity for handling
grain, bulk solids and bulk liquids. The national figures con­
ceal big variations between regions and ports, thus by region
conventional berth utilisation ranged from below 10 to over 80
per cent, but overall the spare capacity was and remains sub­
stantial .
30. Individual ports are therefore in a difficult position.
1
Modern handling methods require high investments in equipment; *
ship to shore container handling cranes can cost in excess of
£1 million, but such investment has to be considered against
the ability of shipping lines to change their port of call at
very short notice. Expenditure is not limited to equipment.
Quays may need strengthening to carry greater loads and dredg­
ing may be needed to give a greater depth of water at quayside.
The Landguard Container Terminal project at Felixstowe, for
example, involves strengthening 1,000 feet of quay and an
increase in water depth of just over two metres and carries a
cost of £1.3 m.
31. The method increasingly adopted to try and overcome un­
certainties about future use of new facilities is the joint
venture, of which there area number of recent examples, e.g.
the West African Terminal at Tilbury and the Mayflower
Container Terminal at Southampton. While such ventures may
reduce the level of uncertainty and the amount of investment
needed by the port authority the wider problem of excess capa­
city still remains.
32. Although the number of dock workers has fallen substan­
tially there is little doubt that further reductions will be
necessary, certainly to a level of fewer than 10,000 registered
dock w o r k e r s . The scheme ports have argued that the effect of
having to act as employers 'of last resort' has placed them at
a disadvantage vis-a-vis other non-scheme p o r t s . Whether this
is a problem which should be resolved by government inter­
vention is as much a question of political as of financial
issues but the fact remains that many scheme ports are, and are
likely to continue to be, over-manned.
33. Another facet of the change in the ports industry from
labour intensive to capital intensive is the requirement for
additional space. It has been argked that there is a discon­
tinuity between ever l a r g e r ships jon the one hand and the
slowness of the removal of cargo by the (necessarily) smaller
5
inland c a r r i e r s . Thus ports are increasingly acting as t r a n s ­
itional storage depots. If this is a developing trend then it
may be argued that in future the port area will increasingly
17
 TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

contain related functions of warehousing, repackaging and dis­

tribution. Indeed it may be argued that it is sensible for
the port to become directly involved in other related but not
strictly port-type activities. Possibly the interest of
Associated British Ports in Universal Pipe Coaters Ltd (which
produce coatings for off-shore pipelines) may be a pointer to
the future.
34. The growth in size of ships has already been mentioned as
playing a part in the decline of river ports. There is perhaps
scope for argument about future developments. Changes in the
oil trade with perhaps more transport of oil products and less
of crude may mean a switch away from super tankers to vessels
of 45-90,000 dwt. James Sherwood in the 1983 CIT Grout
Memorial Lecture argued that in non-fuel non-bulk trades the
future lay with big ships carrying big boxes (US road haulage
operators now carry 48' x 8' 6" wide containers) operating on
relatively few routes. Others would say that the future lies
with changes in ship design and operation (e.g. slow steaming)
and the use of multi-purpose vessels rather than a simple pur­
suit of the 'big is beautiful' style. Like some of the other
changes, the effects of the increasing size of ships on ports
may have passed its most dramatic phase.
35. The changes in types of commodities, in trade patterns and
in handling methods have served to alter the ports industry in
a major way. The development of better inland road links has
allowed individual ports access to a much wider hinterland than
was possible 20 or 30 years ago. The level of under used cap­
acity and the readiness of shipping lines to switch from one
port to another have all contributed towards an increasing
level of competition between the ports. It may be argued
therefore that with the high investment now needed in a modern
port and the demand for increased public expenditure which may
arise as, for example, in improving road links between the
Haven ports and the Midlands, there should be some degree of
central control to avoid (at least) wasteful duplication of
f a c i l i t i e s . It is axiomatic within the ports industry, however,
that it should remain a commercial, competitive enterprise.
The removal of Section 9 (Harbour Act, 1964) approval suggests
that the government agrees with this view.
36. In this context it is interesting to note that the views
of port operators in the other EEC countries are broadly
6
aligned with their UK c o u n t e r p a r t s . The difference between
British ports and those in mainland Europe is that the latter
believe that they should develop port sites in advance of the
known needs of ship o w n e r s . British ports incline to the view
that they should respond to the development initiatives by
shipowners or industrialists. The latter would no doubt argue
that their view is borne out of operating in a rather harsher
financial climate than most of their European counterparts.

18
 PAPER 1: OXLEY

37. It is suggested by some shippers that most of the through

transport operators costs are run up in the ports and haulage
at either end of the sea journey and that the port handling
system is the key to profitability. This places a premium on
quick turn round and uninterrupted port working and again re­
quires the port to invest in modern handling equipment if it
is to compete effectively.
38. British ports may suffer vis-a-vis many of their European
counterparts in having light dues as a port based charge.
These can be onerous where a large ship is calling to drop off
a small cargo, as may pilotage charges, but it is more
questionable to assert that port charges have been a major
cause in the loss of direct calls in Britain by deep sea
traffic and an increase in transhipment from continental ports.
This may be more due to the latter having a hinterland four or
five times as great as that of British ports. Certainly the
survey of ports and shipping companies referred to above
reached a conclusion, contrary to the view expressed at the
start of the previous paragraph, that the effect of port
charges on ship routeings was only slight.
39. Although port charges may play some part in intra-country
competition between ports, recent evidence suggests that dec­
isions by shipping companies are much more dependent on the
efficiency and reliability of port operation. This comes back
to the need for high investment in improved facilities and the
possibility of wasted resources. The shorter term advantages
of this policy to shippers and end users/consumers of the
goods moved through ports are obvious. The longer term bene­
fits, if such there be, are less clear.
REFERENCES
1. BRITISH PORTS ASSOCIATION, Quarterly Statistical Abstract
of the UK Ports Industry, Jan-Dec 1983. London, 1984.
2. BAXTER EADIE ASSOCIATES, Forecast of Port Traffic,
Economist Intelligence Unit, London.
3. OXLEY, P.R AND T.R.D. HANNAN, The British Ports Industry
1965-1980. Cranfield Institute of Technology and British
Ports Association, 1982.
4. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT/BRITISH PORTS ASSOCIATION, Ports
Statistics, 1983. Capital expenditure by m a j o r British ports
in 1983 amounted to almost £64 m of which new construction and
civil engineering accounted for 69 per cent and equipment 29
per cent.
5. SUYKENS, F., Some observations on productivity in a seaport
Maritime Policy and Management, Volume 10, No. 1, 1983.
6. BIRD, J., Transport decision-makers speak: the Seaport
Development in the European Communities Research Project.
Maritime Policy and Management, Volume 9, No. 1, 1982.

19
PAPER 2
State of the art of bulk terminal technology

P. SOROS, Soros Associates, Consulting Engineers

ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
1. The prices of raw materials and ocean shipping have
been severely depressed for some time. The cost of capital
is at an historic high. Bulk terminals are capital intensive.
Thus, the cost per ton cost of moving raw materials from
land to water, or vice versa, accounts today for a larger
share of the total delivered cost of raw materials than
at any time in the last 30 years. Environmental requirements
further accentuate this trend for increased port charges.
2. There are a variety of approaches to respond to this
problem, regardless of the size of the facility involved.
(1) Economies of scale is one of them. These large
facilities are often the pioneers of technological advances
that eventually find their way into general practice.
3. This paper is a brief overview, from the author's
personal experience, of "state of the art" technology in
today's high capacity bulk terminals.

TRAIN AND TRUCK LOADING AND UNLOADING

Bottom Dump Cars
4. The highest capacity single track installation is
at Conneaut, Ohio. Three coal cars of up to 100 tons are
unloaded simultaneously with 6 shakeouts. (Fig. 1) Design
rate is 3,600 TPH. The building design silhouettes the
top of the cars and the gates against a strip of light.
A single operator, located at a distance so that all 3
cars are in his angle of vision, controls the entire
operation, including the locomotive. This facility has
consistently unloaded over 12 million tons per year,
including thawing in the winter, (2)
5. The highest capacity multiple track operation is at
Narvik, Norway, with an annual capacity of 35 million
tons. (3) Four trains with different grades of iron ore
can be emptied at the same time. (Fig. 2)

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 21

TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

Fig.l
Single operator controls locomotive and 6 shakeouts for
3 car unloading station.

Pig. 2
Four trains with different grades of iron ore can be emptied
at the same time.

22
 PAPER 2: SOROS

Fig. 3
150 second cycle is achieved with 1 switch engine and gravity
yard controlled with automatic retarder.

Fig. 4
Cars are preaccelerated for 6,000 TPH single rotary dumper

23
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

Fig.5
Shallow pit with novel take-away system for 4,400 TPH in
motion unloading.

Fig. 6
Highway loop with 3 lanes over a compartmented slot storage
for multiple grades of coal.

24
 P A P E R 2: S O R O S

Rotary Dumping
6. The common practice is to use an indexer or barney for
cycles of less than 200 seconds. The Cleancoal installation
at Ghent, Kentucky has a 150 second cycle, using only a
switch engine. (4) The empty cars bumped pass through
an automatic retarder for accumulation in a gravity yard
(Fig 3 ) .
7. The highest capacity (6,000 TPH) single rotary dumper,
with a 60 second cycle, is at Conneaut, Ohio. (Fig 4)
This cycle was achieved by preaccelerating the car by
a side arm pusher before impact by the barney. (2)
8. The highest overall capacity rotary dumping, at 16,000
TPH, is at Tubarao, Brazil combining two tandem dumpers
with indexers. (5)

In Motion Dumping
9. The first high capacity installation was a Immingham,
in the United Kingdom. Because of the small length and
capacity of the British wagons, a relatively short pit
with a single feed point at the bottom could be used.
10. Port Kembla in Australia was, for a short time, the
highest capacity installation, at 4,400 TPH. (6) The
pit and take-away system represents a breakthrough in reducing
capital costs. Rather than provide an underground pit
related to the capacity of a trainload, as in other Australian
installations, the installation consists of a shallow 300
ton pit with six 500 to 1,600 TPH variable capacity vibrating
feeders. The rate of the individual feeders is varied
in response to the way the coal falls out of the passing
train, with the combined feed rate limited to 4,400 TPH,
the capacity of the conveyor system. (Fig. 5)
11. The same shallow pit concept is used at the recently
completed Kooragang Coal Terminal, also in Australia.
The unloading rate is 6,600 TPH. (7)
12. The problem of uneven build-up in the pit is dealt
with by a single belt feeder with multiple slots. The
feeder has a 1,000 HP drive and a 3.2 meterwide belt, the
widest in the world so far.

Truck Unloading
13. At Port Kembla several million tons per year of coal
in multiple grades must be received in daylight hours,
for environmental reasons.
14. A three-lane highway loop over a compartmented slot
storage allows trucks to dump directly into three 1,500
ton compartments. (Fig. 6) The compartments are emptied
by 2 rotary plows at the rate of 4,000 TPH.
15. After dumping, the trucks are automatically washed,
to prevent spilling coal dust on municipal roads. (Fig. 7)

25
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

Fig. 7
After dumping trucks are washed automatically, to prevent
spillage on municipal roads.

Fig. 8
Random railroad cars can be loaded with different materials,
with weight tolerance of l/10th of 1% and weight distribution
over the axles within 2/10th of 1%.

26
 PAPER 2: SOROS

Pig. 9
10,000 TPH slave stacking creates third row of piles, saving
additional yard conveyor and stacker.

Fig.10
16,000 TPH slave stacking at Tubarao, Brazil.

27
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

Pig.11
Dual stackers reduce waiting time between trains.

_ ._. . ^aor"* •••^•••••••1

Fig.12
10,000 TPH bucketwheel built to special criteria and for
good maintenance access.

28
 PAPER 2: SOROS

Train Loading
16. The most sophisticated high capacity installation,
accommodating multiple materials and random railroad cars,
is at Conneaut, Ohio ( 2 ) .
17. The installation is capable of unloading coal and
loading several grades of iron ore or limestone into the
same train at the same time. Weights loaded into each
car are kept within a tolerance of l / 1 0 t h of 1% and are
distributed evenly over the axles within 2 / 1 0 t h s of 1%.
(Fig 8)

STOCKPILING AND RECLAIMING

Slave-stacking
18. The first slave-stacking system (a Soros patent) was
used at Conneaut, Ohio with a capacity of 10,000 TPH.
(Fig. 9 ) . The slave-stacker created an additional pile
without the investment in an additonal conveyor travelling
stacker.
19. The highest capacity stacking operation is a Tubarao,
at 16,000 TPH. (9) This installation also incorporates
two 16,000 TPH slave-stackers. (Fig. 10)

Dual Stacking
20. With small trainloads of different grades of material
as in New South Wales in Australia, it may take longer
to reposition the stacker than to unload a train. Thus,
dual stacking at Port Kembla (Fig. 1 1 ) substantially increases
the annual tonnage that can be put through a single railroad
loop.
21. The same system is incorporated at Kooragang Island,
designed for an ultimate annual capacity of 50 million
tons.

Bucketwheel Reclaimers
22. These are the most cost-effective machines for high
capacities, even though they have certain problems;
fluctuation in output, tendency to structural collapse,
main bearing failure and repair. For high annual production,
the standard designs and design codes are less than adequate,
in our view. Thus, we developed special criteria and most
of the highest capacity installations in the last 15 years
were built accordingly. ( 1 0 )
23. The first 10,000 TPH bucketwheels were for iron ore
at Tubarao. The 10,000 TPH machine at Narvik combines
the same principles with an asymmetrical arrangement for
better maintenance access. (Fig. 1 2 ) .
24. Coal reclaimers have the largest volumetric capacity.
For a short time the 6,600 TPH Port Kembla machines were
the largest, now superceded by the 8,000 TPH machines at
Kooragang. (Fig. 1 3 )

29
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE
 PAPER 2: SOROS

Fig.15
Open sea coal pier with 2 continuous unloaders

Fig.16
10,500 TPH travelling loader for coal designed to minimize
the cost of marine construction

31
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

Fig.17
Dual travelling loaders for interruption free loading,
with a single dock conveyor.

Fig.ia
280,000 DWT ore carrier loaded with two 16,000 TPH quadrant
loaders.

32
 PAPER 2: SOROS

Fig.19
250,000 DWT ship loaded with 11,000 TPH linear loader.

Fig.2u
16,000 TPH linear loader berth for 300,000 DWT ships under
construction for annual capacity of 35 million tons.

33
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

SHIP LOADING AND UNLOADING

Ship Unloading
25. The highest capacity installation is at Conneaut,
Ohio where two ships can be unloaded at the same time,
at a combined rate of 20,000 TPH. (Fig. 14) One of these
berths has 5 grab unloaders, with a maintenance building
immediately adjacent.
26. There has been great progress in extending the capacity
of grabs, both in Rotterdam and in Japan and in the
development of continuous unloaders of various types.
The first open sea coal unloading terminal with continuous
unloaders is at Hsin-ta, in Taiwan. (Fig. 1 5 ) .

Shiploading
27. There are few areas in engineering where engineering
know-how has as much impact on capital costs as in the
combination of the mechanical systems of shiploaders and
conveyors with marine piers. ( 1 1 )
28. The largest capacity ( 1 0 , 5 0 0 TPH of coal) travelling
loader is at Kooragang, Australia. (Fig. 1 6 ) The loader
configuration was created to permit a very economic wharf
design for 180,000 DWT ships. The deepwater construction
is limited to a single rail support, with lateral forces
braced back to shore.
29. The dual loaders at Port Kembla are the first capable
of interruption-free loading, with a single dock conveyor
and without a cumbersome reversible trailer. (fig. 1 7 )
30. The largest quadrant loaders are a Tubarao, Brazil.
(Fig. 18) Each of these machines has 16,000 TPH capacity
with the lightest grade ore handled.
31. The largest linear loader (Soros patent) in operation
is at Narvik for iron ore. ( 1 2 ) It has 1 1 , 0 0 0 TPH capacity
and loads ships up to 250,000 DNT. (Fig. 19)
32. Two larger machines are currently under construction.
The Cerrejon project in Colombia has a 10,000 TPH linear
loader for loading 150,000 DWT ships with coal. ( 1 3 )
The Carajas project in Brazil (14) has a 16,000 TPH linear
loader berth for 300,000 DWT ore carriers, (Fig. 2 0 ) , for
an annual capacity of 35 million tons.

REFERENCES

(1) "Reducing Bulk Terminal Costs", Soros, P., International

Bulk Congress, San Francisco, California, 1984

(2) "Conneaut-An Economical Superport", Soros, P., Bulk

Solids Handling, September 1982

(3) "Narvik Expansion Completed", Soros, P., Engineering

& Mining Journal, July 1981

34
 PAPER 2: SOROS

(4) "Cleancoal Terminals - A New Outlet for Eastern Kentucky

Coal", Soros, P., Skillings' Mining Review, July
1977

(5) "World's Largest Ore Port at Tubarao, Brazil", Soros,

P., Koman, B., AIME Fall Meeting, Acapulco, Mexico,
September 1 9 7 4

(6) "Port Kembla - A State of the Art Coal Port", Soros,

P., Bulk Solids Handling, March 1983

(7) "Kooragang Commissioned Under Budget, Ahead of Schedule",

International Bulk Journal, July 1 9 8 4

(8) "How to Build Three Piles in a ' Two-Pile' Yard",

Modern Materials Handling, August 1 9 7 4 .

(9) "The Ports of Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD)",

Batista, F., Leal, A.L.F., Bulk Solids Handling,
June 1 9 8 4

(10) "Large Stackers and Bucketwheel Reclaimers", Soros,

P., Zador, A.T., Cargo Systems, 1 9 8 0

(11) "State of the Art of High Capacity Shiploading Systems",

Soros, P., AIME Fall Meeting, September 1 9 8 2

(12) "The Linear Loader", Soros, P., Skillings' Mining

Review, March 1 9 7 7

(13) "Coal Handling System for the Cerrejon Coal Project",

Croote, R.A., Zambrano, J.A., Bulk Solids Handling,
June 1 9 8 4

(14) "The New Port of the Carajas Project", Batista,

F., Leal, A.L.F., Bulk Solids Handling, June 1 9 8 4

35
Discussion on Papers 1 and 2

MR B. J. OELMAN, Department of Transport

I should like to refer to three topics which have affected the
recent development of ports and will continue to influence
their future prospects

(a) changes in the concentration of port traffic

(b) changes in the direction of port traffic
(c) changes in traffic from west coast to east coast ports.

In 1965 the ten largest ports in Great Britain handled about

75% of all port traffic, but by 1983 this figure had fallen to
about 66% - only five of the top ten ports in 1965 were still
in the top ten in 1983. Fuel traffic, however, became more
concentrated: the ten largest ports handled nearly 90% of
traffic in 1983 compared with less than 80% in 1965. This
change is not surprising because of the opening of the oil
terminals at Sullom Voe and Flotta.
A number of factors have caused the changes in concentration
including

(a) the high capital cost of providing facilities for

handling certain traffic (e.g. lo-lo containers and
imports of bulk traffic), which means that only a
relatively small number of each type of facility can
exist, increasing concentration
(b) the ease with which certain items of equipment which
allow large throughputs of traffic can be installed
(e.g. ro-ro ramps and bulk loading equipment for grain),
decreasing concentration
(c) the desire of cost-conscious shippers to obtain the best
value/lowest charge for the handling of their goods;
often small ports/wharves are more flexible and
competitive
(d) increasing trade with EEC countries, which means that
smaller ships are often used; these can be accommodated
at the numerous small ports/wharves on the east coast
which cannot handle large ocean-going ships; trans­
shipment of goods at continental ports (especially
Antwerp and Rotterdam) has reinforced this trend.

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 37

TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

Paper 1 shows that total port traffic has grown only

modestly since 1965 but that the direction has changed
dramatically. Non-fuel imports have increased by only 10% but
during the same period exports have more than doubled.
Britain is no longer predominantly an importer of low-value,
high-volume raw materials and an exporter of high-value, low-
volume manufactured goods. Since 1983 more manufactured goods
have been imported than have been exported, whereas the
exports of raw materials (e.g. cereals and scrap) have
increased enormously.
For example, the change from being a net importer to a net
exporter of unmilled cereals has had a considerable impact on
ports. Imports are now concentrated at London and Liverpool
where expensive specialized storage facilities are available
and large bulk carriers can be handled. Facilities at ports
which used to be major importers (e.g. Bristol and Clyde) are
now either redundant or much under-used. The facility at Hull
has been converted for export use. However, the export of
unmilled cereals does not necessarily require expensive
equipment and the traffic is handled largely at small and
medium-sized ports near the centres of production. The two
largest exporting ports - Southampton and Hull - have
specialized equipment but between them they account for less
than 20% of the traffic.
Deep-sea non-oil trade has remained virtually constant since
the mid 1950s but its share of non-oil foreign trade has
fallen from nearly half to just over one third, whereas trade
with the EEC has increased by nearly 200% and now accounts for
40% of trade. Most EEC trade (except to the Republic of
Ireland) is though ports on the eastern side of Britain,
whereas much deep-sea trade was traditionally through west
coast ports. Thus while the relative fall in deep-sea trade
would reduce the share of trade at west coast ports it would
not account for the fall in traffic. This is partly accounted
for by the trend, resulting from containerization, of shipping
lines to make only one port of call in Britain - in order to
increase productivity of expensive assets - and logically that
port of call will involve as little detour as possible from
the route to continental ports, i.e. the call will be at an
east coast port.
In addition, the changing mix of commodities has worked
against the west coast ports. For example, Liverpool, Bristol
and Clyde have between them handled 40% of deep-sea food
imports since the mid 1950s, but such imports are now only
just over half their 1965 levels.
The trends outlined can be expected to continue, even if at
a reduced rate. Port traffic which needs large capital
investment is likely to become more concentrated and less
capital-intensive traffic will continue to disperse. Changes
in traffic will depend to a large extent on the economic
performance of the country and the policies of the governments
of other EEC countries. It may be that in future it will be

38
 DISCUSSION ON PAPERS 1 AND 2

possible to increase exports of manufactured goods and

increase imports of raw materials.
The financial position of most ports is such that their
return on capital employed would be unacceptable to most
commercial concerns. Ports are not generating sufficient
reserves to replace existing equipment when necessary or build
new facilities to maintain or improve efficiency and enable
them to keep up with the largest cargo handling techniques.
Continental ports are building increased capacity based on
large domestic subsidies; they need to fill their capacity and
will try to do so, in part at least, by attracting trans­
shipment cargoes from Britain. As small British ports take
more and more trade away from established large ports with
extensive facilities which are underused, where will money
come from to continue operations, let alone build new works?
It seems that,, in time, some rationalization will be
inevitable.
There are a few major projects which could revitalize the
ports' industries - even though they may create problems for
others; this shows that money is available for major projects
of the right sort. The proposed development of a deep-sea
container terminal at Falmouth could radically change the
pattern of container trade in north-west Europe. The
extensions at Felixstowe will put further pressure on other
British container ports to improve their efficiency. The
development of Bathside Bay at Harwich could provide
Felixstowe with effective competition. Dover continues its
steady development and Ramsgate has ambition.
A realistic view of the future of British ports seems to
suggest that major opportunities for the civil engineering
industry will be few and that most ports will continue to
manage with what they have and a minimum of new equipment.

MR R. A. GIBBONS, British Ports Association

If ports have been mistaken in the importance placed on price ,
as is suggested in Paper 1, and given the sometimes very
damaging squeeze on profitability that can result from
negotiations, does Mr Oxley believe that ports and terminals
can be provided with advice on price sensitivity in specific
commodity shipments or routeings which would enable them to be
more robust when discussing the price of the use of a port's
services?
The British Ports Association believes that financial aid on
the scale that is believed to be paid to many continental
ports - 50-100% - distorts trade. It is difficult to identify
these sources of income clearly and hence greater openness of
ports' accounts should be sought.

MR H. L. REVELL, Port of London Authority

The switch in trading patterns (Paper 1, paragraph 12) may not
be so pronounced as the figures suggest if the level of trans-

39
T R E N D S IN P O R T T R A D E

shipment is considered. It is not easy to extract the figures

for trans-shipment cargo to give the true picture.
The level of trans-shipment cargoes has grown and continues
to grow. Antwerp seeks to become a major port for UK traffic
and Rotterdam is also seeking UK traffic.
Studies in London have shown that a major reason why large
ships do not call at UK ports is the level of marine or ship
costs. Marine costs in the UK can be four times those in
European ports and for a large container ship can amount to a
difference of £30 000.
The problem is aggravated in that the small trans-shipment
vessel that eventually carries the goods to the UK probably
does not pay light dues because it will already have completed
enough voyages to gain exemption; the master probably has a
pilotage certificate and therefore avoids pilotage charges,
whereas the small vessel will pay minimum conservancy charges.
I would suggest that this creates a downward spiral in that
core marine costs are paid by fewer users, unit costs rise and
UK traffic is further deterred.
British ports are not afraid of market forces but they do
expect everyone to play the game to the same set of rules.

MR J. N. WOLFE-BARRY, Sir William Halcrow & Partners

Could Mr Soros say something about the civil engineering
problems of the rail support systems for the huge machines
described in Paper 2? The total foundation solution will
depend on the site. Does he favour a particular solution for
such matters as the rail to support structure interface? This
has given much trouble in the case of, for example, container
cranes.

MR P. LACEY, Ove Arup and Partners

Could Mr Soros give further information about the down-time,
repairs and maintenance of the monster machines described in
his Paper?

MR E. E. POLLOCK, Associated British Ports

Although it is important, I do not think that the issue of
over-capacity should be over-stressed. There is comparatively
little difficulty as regards old port facilities that have
long since ceased to be used heavily, whether because of
technical obsolescence and/or locational problems. In a
number of instances it has been possible to adapt old port
facilities at relatively low cost to new uses. Where this is
not possible, under-utilized port facilities may still be
retained in use to the national advantage so long as revenues
are at least enough to cover the avoidable costs that would be
saved by closure (the level of such costs may sometimes be
quite low). Where this is not the case, UK port authorities
can simply close down port facilities. Indeed, they may be

40
 DISCUSSION ON PAPERS 1 AND 2

able to obtain substantial sums from the sale of redundant

land areas and so on to other (non-port) uses.
Where it is serious, the excess capacity problem has tended
to arise in relation to relatively recent port developments
that have taken place, e.g. at wrong locations. The important
point is that such developments have often taken place between
the coming into force of the Harbours Act 1964 and the
decision by government to cease implementing its port
investment control provisions in 1984. In other words, mal-
investment took place despite the existence of active national
controls.
That the British ports industry - unlike its Continental
counterparts - was slow in developing new port facilities in
advance of the known nee-ds of shipowners stemmed directly from
the controls on new investment enshrined in the Harbours Act
1964, which required port authorities to satisfy the
government that projected new investments would be viable.
Furthermore, whereas British port investment had to earn a
rate of return on capital, port investment in various
Continental countries was heavily subsidized.

MR OXLEY, Paper 1
On the question of port charges it does appear that British
ports are at a disadvantage when competing with their
Continental rivals. For example, light dues are levied on
ships entering British ports and can be of a sufficient size
to deter a large container ship calling to discharge, say,
200-300 boxes. Other European ports do not have these
charges. It also seems that Continental ports enjoy a greater
level of government subsidization, whether on capital
development or on maintenance of facilities (e.g. dredging)
and so again are seen as competing unfairly with UK ports.
The question of how much subsidy is received has been
considered but has proved very difficult to quantify. What is
needed is transparent accounting by Continental ports so that
an accurate estimate of otherwise hidden subsidies can be
made. However, it has to be recognized that the progress
towards achieving parity in competition between ports in
member countries of the EEC is likely to be slow.
Costs are clearly of importance to the shipper, but other
factors are also of consequence, particularly at the macro
level. The regional changes in British ports arise from a
variety of causes, including shifts in overseas trading
patterns, increases in ship sizes, improved internal road and
rail links and reliability of port operations. Advice to
ports on price sensitivity of particular commodities might
well be helpful, but because of the other factors might not
make a significant difference to the evolving pattern of trade
within the UK, except perhaps at a more micro level; in the
wider context of competition between the UK and other EEC
countries the prime need is for a more equitable cost
structure on which to base port charges.

41
TRENDS IN PORT TRADE

MR SOROS, Paper 2
The large machines described in my Paper are built to designs
that assure less down-time and better maintenance access than
standard machines. On all big projects standby capacity has
been provided to permit scheduled preventive maintenance to be
carried out without interference with operation.
To support these huge machines, an integrated approach is
recommended which combines civil engineering with machine
design. With the exception of Narvik, where there was such a
combination, the cost of foundations with limited settlement
would have been prohibitive. It was more economical to design
the machines to cope with the substantial differential
settlements experienced with ballasted tracks.

42
PAPER 3
Trends in ship types, sizes and characteristics
and their influence on ports

I. L. BUXTON, BSc, PhD, FRINA, University of Newcastle upon Tyne

SYNOPSIS. The paper reviews changes in the world fleet between

1 9 6 9 and 1 9 8 3 , identifying types, numbers, tonnage and value.
Trends in ship size, and the economies of scale are discussed,
related particularly to ship draft. Ship speeds, machinery
types and manoeuvring are briefly surveyed. The interaction
between ships and ports as measured by time in port is dis­
cussed with reference to data which shows that the less effic­
ient ports take four times as long to handle ships as the more
efficient. The proportion of sea time to port time - is an
important factor to the naval architect and marine engineer,
affecting ship type, size, speed and machinery selection.

WORLD FLEET TRENDS

1 . About half the total costs of operating cargo ships are
incurred in port - not just port charges and cargo handling
costs, but including the cost of the ship's time while in port,
such as crew, upkeep, insurance and capital charges. In marine
transport systems, typically two-thirds of the capital invest­
ment is associated with the ships, and one-third the shoreside.
The shipping market is one of the most competitive of all
markets, where the operator is exposed to many risks, technical
and financial, yet rarely achieves the rate of return on his
investment that such risks ought to command. Consequently
ship operators are continually looking to new ship types and
sizes, and improved cargo handling methods and port facilities
to improve efficiency.
2 . How successful this has been in technical terms can be
seen by comparing any port authority's handbook of the 1 9 6 0 s
with one of the 1 9 8 0 s . The character of the changes are well
known to all in both the port and the shipping industries,
but some figures relating to the world fleet of ships in 1 9 6 9
are illuminating. 1 9 6 9 saw the publication of a paper which
reviewed development up to that date for bulk carriers. (Ref.l)
Figure 1 shows a 'family tree' of all self-propelled seagoing
vessels in the world over 1 0 0 tons gross, thus including mili­
tary and other vessels not listed in Lloyds Register. The
percentage figures for numbers, tonnage and replacement cost

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 43

 Figures refer to percentage of
SELF PROPELLED MARINE VEHICLES world fleet over 100 tons gross. O
N u m b e r s / G . R . T . / R e p l a c e m e n t cost
100% = 90 000 ships (60 0 0 0 )
INLAND WATERWAYS SEAGOING
447M G . R . T . ( 2 3 0 M) Z
(GREAT LAKES) 100% 860 x 1 0 pounds 9

H
9
(50 X 1 0 )
I CO

Transport Non-transport X
45/89/37 55/11/63 Not listed in
(55/88/49)
a
(45/12/51) Lloyds Register
m
I
| n
Bulk cargo General cargo Passenger Fishing Military Other
Service craft
15/66/19 26/22/15 4/2/3 25/3/5 14/5/49 marine craft
15/2/5
(1 5/53/23) (38/33/22) (2/2/4) (20/3/5) (8/1/3) (16/7/41) 1/1/3
(1/1/2)
-
r^ 1
Liquid Dry Break bulk Unit load Ferry Cruise Catchers Tug Carrier Offshore
9/38/11 6/28/8 24/17/11 2/5/5 Factory Dredger Destroyer (Self propelled
(11/35/15) (4/1 8/8) (37/32/20) (1/1/2) vessels Icebreaker Escort multi-hull)
Drill ship Submarine Large yacht
Supply vessel Patrol craft
Liquid Oil tanker Bulk Multi deck Cargo liner Container Crane ship Mine craft
gas (crude carrier freighter Reefer Ro-Ro - I
Cable ship Landing craft
Chemicals products) Single deck Heavy lift Car carrier
Combination Survey vessel Support craft
(coaster) ship Barge carrier
carrier (O.B.O.)

Dotted line shows dual purpose capability, full line shows category in statistics. Figures may not add due to rounding.

Fig. 1. World fleet of marine vehicles 1983 (1969)

 PAPER 3: BUXTON

for each class of vessel can be converted into absolute figures

by applying the totals of 90,000 ships of 447 M tons and £860
billion cost in 1983, compared with 60,000 in 1969 (+ 2.9% p.a),
230M ( + 4.9%) and £50 billion ( + 22.5% p.a. - though much of
this is due to inflation, with cost per ton increasing 16.8%).

3. There are many conclusions which can be drawn from a

perusal of the figures, but here is a selection:
(i) the proportion of tonnage devoted to transport vessels
has remained nearly constant at 89%, but the proportions
of number and cost have declined (55 down to 45%, and
49 down to 37% respectively) indicating the economies
of scale that have been achieved.
(ii) the proportion of vessel tonnage in the bulk category
(dry and wet) has increased from 53 to 66%, indicating
the tendency towards bulk transportation of more
materials. Note particularly the increase for dry bulk
ships from 18 to 28% - an absolute increase in tonnage
of three times.
(iii) the increase in average bulk vessel size from about
13,500 GT to 21,800 GT (about 22,000 to 35,000 tonnes
deadweight).
(iv) the proportion of liquid cargo ships has remained fairly
steady, but this overstates the true position, since the
largest fleet (oil tankers) is considerably under­
utilised at present. Owing to lay-ups, slow steaming,
part cargoes and multi-porting, the tanker fleet today
is only carrying about 60% of its potential, owing to
the drop in demand for oil.
(v) steady fall in proportions of break-bulk general cargo
ships (37/32/20 to 24/27/11). Some of their former
cargoes have shifted to bulkers, others to ships like
container ships and RoRos (increase from 1/1/2 to
2/5/5). In tonnage terms, the unit load fleet has grown
ten-fold in fourteen years, and the break-bulk fleet
remained constant. Since the productivity of unit load
ships in tonne-miles per tonne deadweight per annum is
about double that of break-bulk ships, there is not a
direct substitution tonne for tonne. Deep sea unit
load ships are in general about four times as productive
as break bulk vessels, (i.e. one can do the job of four)
but half of that derives from their larger average size.

(vi) despite their high profile to the man in the street,

passenger carrying ships (mostly ferries) only constitute
2 to 4% of the world fleet, however one measures it.
(vii) both fishing craft and service craft have increased in
number and degree of specialisation (total number up
from 17,000 to 3 6 , 0 0 0 ) , but of small average size (620 GT).

45
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

(viii) warships and auxiliaries dominate the value because of

weapons, electronics, high speed and military character­
istics (cost per ton sixteen times that of bulk vessels).
Note however that normal published statistics use differ­
ent tonnages, e.g. tonnes deadweight (or disposable load)
for cargo ships, tonnes displacement for warships (all-
up weight, sometimes less fuel and reserve feed water -
standard displacement). In this analysis, gross tons
(GT) are used throughout, which are a measure of volume
3
calculated at 1 ton = 2.83 m .

(ix) the percentages understate the importance of offshore

craft because (a) supply and research type vessels are
included under service craft and (b) many offshore craft
like jack-ups and barges are not self-propelled.

Specialisation
4. Ever increasing specialisation has been a dominant theme
in shipping for more than a century. In addition to the spec­
ialist craft serving the offshore industry such as pipelayers,
the marine transport business has seen in recent years the
development of livestock carriers, barge/container carriers
and small specialist heavy lift vessels. Such vessels have
tended to be of moderate size, therefore making no great demand
on the 'wet' side of port operations, but requiring more spec­
ialised facilities ashore. As presently fragmented trades grow
to a size where demand justifies tailoring the ships to suit,
so does the demand for specialist ships and shoreside equipment
grow - there are now ships exclusively carrying orange juice.
A corollary is likely to be a more rapid rate of obsolesence,
and shorter lives, reflecting the reduced second-hand attractive­
ness of less versatile ships.

SIZE TRENDS
5. The ten-fold increase in ship size between the 1950s and
1970s caused many to wonder when or if the growth would stop.
As tankers p e a c h e d the half-million tonne mark in the mid 1970s,
both physical constraints and systemic constraints put the
brakes on further developments. The technology could produce
bigger ships - million tonners have been designed - but with
drafts of over 30m, and with diseconomies of scale beginning
to bite (e.g. IMO limitations on tank size) , the gains to be
achieved were less attractive. Systemic constraints include
large parcel sizes which can cause problems in:

- storage and accumulation at each end

- longer loading and discharging time
- terminal and facility development cost
- frequency of ship service
- inventory cost and cash flow
- vulnerability to competition and market fluctuations.
6 . In the oil trade for example, the lesser control that the
oil companies presently have over crude oil supplies means that
large long term regular flows have diminished. Dis-integration
46
 PAPER 3: BUXTON

of the production to marketing process has forced the purchase

of oil in relatively small parcels for distribution to a greater
variety of destinations with more multi-porting. Together with
the discovery of oil nearer consuming areas (North Sea, Mexico),
these factors have favoured the use of smaller rather than
larger tankers, with resulting lay-up and scrapping of many
very large crude carriers. This latter trend has been accentu­
ated by many such vessels being propelled by steam turbines,
with corresponding high fuel consumption; even slow steaming
does not greatly alleviate the problem, owing to increase of
specific fuel consumption at part load, unlike diesels.
7. Oil product carriers have increased in size, with the
building of export refineries in the Middle East, and the need
for balancing trades (to even out local imbalances) in addition
to the traditional role of product distribution. The 100,000
dwt product carrier is now here, though is likely to use many
fewer ports than the still popular ubiquitous 25/40,000 tonner.
MARPOL regulations exert a constraint, since they apply at
different levels for crude and for product carriers (e.g.
20,000 and 30,000 dwt respectively) so that either 'paragraph'
ships are built just below the limit, or ships have to be
significantly larger to compete. This parallels the 1600
gross ton constraint for smaller ships, at which different
manning, communication and safety regulations apply. This
particular 'paragraph' has now become blurred with the change
to the universal system of tonnage measurement and the trans­
itional arrangements. Anomalies such as exemption of certain
tween-deck spaces will disappear and gross tonnage will become
a better measure of ship size. Other regulatory limits may
also change; for example the Dutch limit of 75m length for
such concessions has now changed to 4000 GT.

Economies of Size
8. Economies of scale in ships operate most strongly when
shoreside performance and cargo handling rates are commensurate
with ship size. Figure 2 shows how transport cost rises, and
optimal size falls at low cargo handling rates. A somewhat
similar effect is found with multi-port loading and discharging,
which reduce the ratio of sea time to port time. The figure
also shows how increasingly expensive shore costs (e.g. deep
dredging, large stockpiles etc.) exert a restraining effect
on optimal ship size. Some of such factors are summarised in
the diagrams in Figure 3, showing that there is no single
answer to the problem of optimal ship size.
Draft Limitations
9. Ships are obviously most economical when they are full of
cargo. Shipowners seek to minimise the time ships spend in
ballast, but for ships such as tankers and gas carriers, it is
difficult to reduce this below 50% of their steaming. For
bulk carriers, the proportion is 30 to 50%, the smaller more
flexible ships generally having the lower figures owing to a
47
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

Fig. 2. Dry bulk transport costs

48
 PAPER 3: BUXTON

(Excludes all costs

Ship size dw

SEA COSTS

Cost to ship of
waiting for berth,
tides, weekends etc.

Capital charges
and services

Water depth Ship size dw

(draft and dw)
PORT C O S T S

•C a)
o Q- costs
03
!
O
Cargo handling rate Cargo handling rate:
(ii) tonnes per hour
Total costs = ship sea costs + port +
waiting -I- loading and

Cargo handling rate: Ship size dw

(iii) (iv)
tonnes per hour

Fig. 3. Bulk transport costs

49
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

-|15
Fully
loaded
Number 71
Mean 12-36 m -ho
Std dev. 1-20 m

11 7%

10 11 12 13 14
Draft: m

Fig. 4. Panamax bulker voyages

t30

Number 87 H20
Mean 25181
Std dev. 278 t
Fully J
10
loaded

_L_
1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 Tonnes

Fig. 5 . Coastal tanker cargo payload

25r

2 20h
. _ ^ h i p s restricted to 12-5 m

8 15
Virion
draft

* 10
c
CO

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Deadweight: '000
Fig. 6

50
 PAPER 3: BUXTON

greater ability to obtain backhaul cargoes. General cargo

vessels are rarely totally empty of cargo, but average loads
are typically only 60 to 75% of maximum.
10. Partial loading and corresponding reduced draft (unless
extra water ballast is taken) may be due to several causes:
(a) draft limitation at load port, discharge port or
en route, e.g. canal
(b) lack of cargo capacity to load a full deadweight,
e.g. of high stowage factor cargoes
(c) insufficient cargo available from shipper, or
required by receiver
(d) cargo parcel sizes not matching available hold/
tank capacity
(e) stability or trim limitations
(f) departure before all cargo loaded to maintain
schedule, catch tide etc.
(g) multi-port itinerary.
11. The influence of the above factors is shown in Figure 4
which shows the distribution of loaded drafts on a group of
Panamax bulk carriers. Ships were fully loaded on only 17%
of voyages; average cargo lifted was about 58,500 tonnes
compared with a maximum of about 69,000 tonnes. 10% of voyages
were limited by the Panama Canal; the others were due to other
factors such as (a)-(g). A similar effect is shown in Figure 5
showing the distribution of cargo payload in a coastal tanker
distributing refined products - on average 87% of the maximum.
12. In draft restricted ports, large ships may still be able
to offer some economies, even when part loaded, particularly
when large parcels are required. Figure 6 illustrates the
situation with grain with ships limited to 12.5m draft and
those unrestricted.
Dimensions and Proportions
13. There is no fixed relationship between ship size (e.g.
deadweight or cubic capacity or gross tonnage) and principal
dimensions. Technically, virtually any combination of length,
breadth, draft and hull form is possible, subject to require­
ments of stability, strength, propulsion, and special con­
straints, e.g. Panama Canal breadth. Although proportions
and main dimensions tend to polarise into bands, there is a
considerable dispersion within the fleet at any given time,
and there are long term trends. The latter have gradually
moved in the direction of lower length/breadth and higher
breadth/draft ratios. In general this has meant that for a
given capacity, ships have become somewhat broader and
shallower draft. The depth of the ship (keel to deck, or draft
plus freeboard) has generally got larger in relation to draft.
Although the two are often related via the loadline regulations,
more and more ships have become volume rather than weight
limited i.e. the dimensions are chosen to give the required

51
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

Draft
m ft
20|

60

16
50

14

J 40
121

1 Oi
30

Approx.
20 20 40 60 80 100 G.T.
40 80 120 160 200
Deadweight tonnage: '000
Fig. 7. Bulk carriers

Draft
ft m
90|-
26
80

22
70~

60

50-
14
40

1 0 / / '
30 Approx.
>'// d.w.t.
40 100 200 300 400 500
20
20 40 80 120 160 200 240
Gross tonnage: '000
Fig. 8. Tankers

52
 PAPER 3: BUXTON

capacity, rather than buoyancy. Ships now in this category

include MARPOL tankers, liquefied gas carriers, cargo liner
types including container ships and RoRos, and reefers.
14. Figure 7 shows a graph of draft against deadweight for
bulk carriers, and Figure 8 draft against gross tonnage for
tankers. It can be seen that it is not possible to categorise
all ships by means of a single parameter such as deadweight.
It is thus a surprise when one finds arbitrary limits being
placed on sizes of ships permitted to use certain port
facilities, without reference to the specific characteristics
of each ship. It is not uncommon to find widely differing
requirements between different ports, e.g. a ship in Port A
may be required to manoeuvre at a ballast draft several metres
deeper than Port B, with generally similar weather patterns.
The time and cost of changing ballast, and potentially higher
fuel consumption, rarely fall directly on the body demanding
such requirements.

SPEED TRENDS
15. Ship speed and corresponding fuel consumption are of
vital importance to a ship operator's economics, but hardly
impact on ports. Later, rather than sooner, the 1973 oil
crisis had its inevitable effect on new ship speeds. After a
steady increase in ship speeds up to the early 1970s to 23-27
knots (liner types) and 15-17 knots (bulk types), speeds have
now dropped back by about 10 to 15% to 20-22 knots and 13-15
knots respectively. In the latter speed range, auxiliary sail
propulsion offers fuel savings, so that a small but increasing
number of vessels are likely to have sail assistance - but note
as conventionally propelled ships using advanced rigs to assist
in favourable conditions, rather than as sailing vessels with
auxiliary diesel propulsion.
16. The optimal speeds of existing ships may well be different
to those of new ships, where choice of machinery is still a
variable. Particularly when freight markets are low and fuel
prices high, slow steaming may produce economies, depending
on the ship's fuel consumption/speed characteristics. This
latter is no fixed relationship, but depends on draft, trim,
hull roughness and fouling, weather intensity and direction
and currents. Modern designs, aided by better navigational
aids and weather routing, are able to maintain speeds and
schedules with lesser margins than hitherto. The micro­
computer and improved instrumentation are being used increasingly
for passage management, to improve the technical and economic
efficiency at sea.

Machinery Trends
17. Trends in machinery type are not usually of direct con­
cern to ports unless there are problems with manoeuvring or
bunkering: The diesel engine is the unchallenged prime mover

53
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

for every type of merchant ship apart from a handful of special

situations, e.g. steam turbines in large LNG carriers, where
burning the boil-off in boilers may be more economical than
reliquefaction (depends on relative prices of oil fuel and
LNG, and distance), or coal fired steam turbines in ships on
dedicated routes where coal is very cheap, e.g. Australia.
Although popular for warships, where power availability,
reduced manning and maintenance outweigh fuel cost penalties,
gas turbines are uneconomic for merchant ships and several
existing ships are being re-engined with medium speed diesels.
Similarly with nuclear propulsion: despite 300 or more naval
installations, there are no regularly operating nuclear
propelled merchant ships, unless one counts the Soviet ice­
breakers.

18. The battle between direct drive slow speed diesels and
geared medium speed diesels continues, the latter typically
propelling about 50% of the 1000 or so merchant ships of over
2000 dwt completed each year, but providing about 30% of the
power. Advantages include slightly lower fuel and lubricating
oil consumption, less maintenance and greater reliability - at
least in less skilled hands. Disadvantages include greater
size and weight, higher first cost, and lesser ability to
select optimal propeller r.p.m. More ships are now being
fitted with shaft or gearbox driven generators for the at-sea
auxiliary load, but diesel generators are usually employed in
manoeuvring situations - especially when a bow thruster is
fitted, requiring several hundred kilowatts.
Manoeuvring

19. An increasing number of vessels are fitted with improved

manoeuvring devices. Particularly in smaller vessels, any
prejudice against controllable pitch propellers has largely
disappeared, as the ease of bridge control in frequent port
manoeuvres outweighs additional cost and complication. Bow
thrusters are also widely fitted on vessels making a large
number of port calls each year, saving both time and cost -
although of course harbour tug fleets have diminished. A few
vessels also now have stern thrusters, typically those with
large windage areas such as the bigger RoRos - though siting
is not so easy, as the tunnel must not interfere with the
main shafting and bearings yet not be too near the surface to
encounter loss of thrust and efficiency. As always, twin
(or more) screws are avoided wherever possible, as not only
is first cost increased (typically machinery cost up about
2 0 % ) , but propulsive efficiency usually suffers, unless the
diameters of twin screws are more closely matched to the thrust
requirements than is possible with a single screw, e.g. if
limitation of diameter and increase of r.p.m. reduces effic­
iency compared with twin screw.

54
Table 1. Typical ship voyages and productivities for new ships

Ship Type Sunnier Max. cargo Av. Av. miles Port calls Port days Sea days Total RTPA Ship Productivity
Load Factor
Deadweight payload speed per R.T. per R.T. per R.T. per R.T. days per 350 Tonnes Tonne-milej
X miles loaded
tonnes knots (p.a.) (days/call) (% time) (p.a.) round trip days cargo p.a. p.a./106
% full Overall (per t DW) (per t DW)
Large tanker 260,000 249,000 14 16.000 2 5 48 53 6.60 50 48 1.580.000 12.600
(106.000) (2.5) (9) (317) 96 (6.1) (49,000)
Products carrier 30,000 28,500 15 5,000 3 6 14 20 17.5 50 45 450.000 1,120
(88.000) (2.0) (30) (245) 90 (14.9) (37,000)

LN3 Carrier 40,000 37,000 ^ 19 6,000 2 4 13 17 20.6 50 50 760,000 2,290

80,000m (123,000) (2.0) (24) (268) 100 (19.0) (57,000)

Ore carrier 110,000 106,000 15 10,000 2 8 28 36 9.73 50 50 1.030.000 5,150

(97,000) (4.0) (22) (272) 100 (9.4) (47,000)

Balk carrier 26,000 24,000 14.5 11,000 3 15 32 47 7.45 70 63 225,000 1,240

(82, 000) (5.0) (32) (243) 90 (8.7) (48,000)

Break-bulk cargo 16,000 14,000 14.5 15,000 5 29 43 72 4.86 80 60 82,000 610

(two decks) (73,000) (5.8) (40) (209) 75 (5.1) (38,000)

Fast cargo liner 15,000 11,000 18 18,000 11 44 42 86 4.07 95 71 64,000 570

(73,000) (4.0) (51) (171) 75 (4.3) (38,000)

Large container 36.000 27,000 22 12,000 6 10 23 33 10.6 100 75 430,000 2,530

ship 2300 TEU 11.7t/cont (127,000) (1.7) (30) (244) 75 (11.9) (72.000)
Barge Carrier 35,000 27,000 18 14,000 8 10 33 43 8.14 100 70 308.000 2,150
75 barges (114,000) (1.2) (23) (269) 70 (8.8) (62,000)
Deep sea RoRo 20.000 14,000 20 20,000 12 24 42 66 5.30 100 70 104,000 1,040
(106,000) (2.0) (36) (223) 70 (5.2) (52,000)
RoRo freighter 4,500 3,000 17 800 2 1 2 3 117 100 60 420,000 168
(short sea) 90 40ft trailers (93,000) (0.5) (33) (233) 60 (94) (37,000)
Coaster 3,000 .2,800 12 1.200 2 4 4.2 8.2 42.7 60 54 129,000 77
(single deck) (51.000) (2.0) (49) (179) 90 (43> (26,000)
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

20h All voyages including

OTHER B U L K S One port
multi-port
Load Discharge Load Discharge
16h Number 50 50 55 54
Mean 4-7 5-6 5-1 5-6
Std dev. 3-8 4-7 4-4 4-5
12h
Loading
Discharging

4h

id
All voyages including
One port
12h multi-port
GRAIN
Load Discharge Load Discharge
Number 55 52 65 64
Mean 12-2 12-0 14-7 13-0
Std dev. 5-7 9-2 13-0 11-1
4 r ! ->69 Discharge
- • 1 0 1 Load

12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Days

Fig. 9. Port times for Panamax bulkers

56
 PAPER 3: BUXTON

20. Improved designs of rudder are also increasingly being

fitted on vessels operating in congested water, e.g, those
which can maintain lift at high angles of attack, and thus
provide a greater sideways force. However deep sea ships
generally do not find it necessary to incur these higher first
costs, achieving satisfactory performance with conventional
arrangements of rudder and steering gear.

SHIPS AND PORTS

Port Time and Sea Time
21. Naval architects and marine engineers are interested in
port performance of ships, not only because of the impact of
cargo handling operations on the ship design, but because of
the influence of the ratio sea to port time. Figure 2 showed
how optimal size varies with cargo handling rate, and thus
port time. The ratio of sea to port time also influences
optimal speed, both as designed, and in service. The relative
attractiveness of fuel saving devices or auxiliary generating
machinery or manoeuvring devices is also affected, according
to the number of hours per annum that gains can be made.

22. Like the ship operator, the designer would prefer a ratio
of sea time to port time approaching 100%, or 365 sea days per
year, although this latter would be less popular with the crew.
As Table 1 shows, long term average percentage port time can
lie anywhere between 10 and 50%, but even for one ship type or
one ship itself, individual port times vary markedly according
to local circumstances, thus making the job of tuning the ship
characteristics to the trade more difficult. Figure 9 shows
how port time varied for the same group of eight Panamax built
carriers as in Figure 4. Port time includes all non-steaming
time, and thus not only comprises cargo handling time, but has
to allow for:
waiting for a berth, waiting for tides, manoeuvring
and berthing alongside, waiting to start work, waiting
at end of work, availability of handling equipment,
breakdowns, availability of shore storage facilities,
sampling and testing, meal-breaks, nights, weekends and
holidays not worked, weather delays, shifting berth,
bunkering, minor repairs, tank cleaning, ballasting,
re-stowing cargo, documentation, waiting for tugs,
pilots or officials and of course, strikes.
Few of these are under the control of a single organisation,
but collectively they amount on average to about 60% of port
time for break-bulk general cargo vessels, and about 30% for
the more intensively worked unit load or bulk vessels. A
quick estimate of the immediate cost of such delays can be
derived from the current daily time-charter rate for the ship
type, which can be up to $20,000 per day.

57
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

10

Number 41
Mean 455
Std dev. 255

CD
-Q
E

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Fig. 10. Containers handled per day

23. It is well known that some ports are consistently more

efficient than others, the top decile being typically around
four times faster than the bottom decile. Figure 9 illustrates
the point based on about 120 voyages made by Panamax bulk
carriers. The analysis shows not only that grain takes more
than twice as long to handle as other bulks such as coal, iron
ore, bauxite, but that standard deviations are also higher,
indicating a greater unpredictability.
24. Even when port times are averaged over longer periods,
to eliminate short term problems, no more encouraging picture
emerges. Figure 10 shows data for containers handled per day
from a variety of ports handling deep sea vessels, with the
better typically four times better than the worse.

25. While it is not easy to coordinate all those port

activities which make for efficient service, those that have
done so find that there are benefits, even though they have
to be shared between the port interests, the shipowners and
their customers. Unfortunately this does not always happen
worldwide, as it is often possible to pass the costs on
further down the transport chain, especially where little
competition exists. The papers at this Conference show that
the engineers are fully alive to the problems of improving
port performance and achieving the economies in transportation
that ships can best provide.

REFERENCES
1. SNAITH G.R. and BUXTON I.L. The Development of the Bulk
Carrier. Conference on Tanker and Bulk Carrier Terminals,
Institution of Civil Engineers, November 1969.

58
PAPER 4
Optimal ship design and its relationship with
port time, with reference to liner shipping

S. C. RYDER, BA, Marine Division, Ocean Transport & Trading pic

SYNOPSIS. The paper begins by analysing the characteristics

of the deep-sea liner shipping sector. The changes which
have taken place over the past twenty years are d e s c r i b e d ,
including the advent of containerisation, developments in
ship design and changes in port o p e r a t i o n s . The special
position of UK general cargo ports is outlined. Changing
competitive pressures are described and trends in s h i p
design and liner operations for the future are discussed;
the implications for UK liner port operations a r e t h e n
described.

INTRODUCTION
1 • The relationship between optimal ship design and time
spent in port is determined by the cargoes to be carried and
the cargo handling techniques which are a v a i l a b l e . Each
shipping sector has its own characteristics, which result in
quite different design responses. This paper deals with the
' l i n e r ' s h i p p i n g s e c t o r i . e . the s h i p s w h i c h c a r r y
manufactured goods and other high value produce in world
trade. This area of shipping has seen dramatic changes over
the last fifteen y e a r s , most obviously in the introduction
and development of containerisation.
2 . The aim of this paper is to highlight the factors which
will determine further changes in this shipping sector and
to discuss the likely impact on British ports.
3 . The primary focus will be the 'deep-sea', or long-haul,
liner trades. Although much of this paper may be relevant
to the s h o r t - s e a , or f e r r y , t r a d e s , the l a t t e r a r e
sufficiently distinctive to warrant this narrower focus.

Parallel relationships
4. There are significant parallels between the cargo
owner/shipowner relationship and that between shipowner and
port authority.
5. In assessing the optimum design of ship, the shipowner
m u s t take a c c o u n t of his existing business and likely
developments in the future. Key factors include:
- the overall size of the trade
- the shipowner's market share

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 59

DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

- projections for future trade growth

- changing parcel sizes
- changing cargo mix and value
- the political and legislative framework
- competitive pressures within the industry, both economic
and technical
6. The shipowner must decide how he wishes to serve the
t r a d e : for e x a m p l e , should he aim for a high market share,
enabling him to take advantage of the economies of scale in
s h i p c o n s t r u c t i o n (but with the associated problems of
competition and the need to obtain large cargo v o l u m e s ) , or
1
on the other hand should he aim to secure a market 'niche
by providing a specialised service?
7. Port authorities have to answer many of the s a m e
questions in their decision-making regarding the provision
of port facilities. Should the aim be to provide a high
v o l u m e c o n t a i n e r t e r m i n a l , or a smaller, specialised
service, for example? Clearly, for both the shipowner and
the port authority, such questions are seldom raised in such
a n abstract fashion. In both cases, discussion of future
potential is influenced, if not determined, by historical
developments.
8. One critical similarity between these two elements of
the shipping industry, the shipowner and the port authority,
is that both have to provide services to clients whose time
horizon is shorter than their own. The shipowner has to deal
w i t h the problem of building ships with a life of 15 years
or more, while cargoes can change dramatically in just a few
months; the port authority is investing in facilities some
o f w h i c h m a y h a v e a l i f e of f i f t y y e a r s , w i t h the
possibility that technological developments and changing
cargoes may make the effective life of the ships using these
facilities much shorter in a particular trade.

LINER CHARACTERISTICS
9. A liner service is characterised by:
- advertised sailings between scheduled ports
- regular frequency
- the carriage of a range of cargoes
- the consolidation of cargoes owned by different parties
(the shipowner rarely also being a cargo owner)
- small parcel size compared with ship size
- a published commodity tariff, usually non-discriminatory
between traders
10. 1
The range of liner' cargoes is determined not by
commodity types, but by suitability for carriage in a liner
vessel (taking into account parcel s i z e , c a r g o v a l u e ,
r e q u i r e d t r a n s i t t i m e , and so o n ) . In trades between
industrialised nations, the majority of liner cargoes are
manufactured or semi-manufactured goods.
11. The average size of conventional general cargo ship
increased only slowly after the second world war. Ship size
was restricted because of the high percentage of voyage time

60
 P A P E R 4: R Y D E R

f
s p e n t in p o r t - o f t e n 6 0 % . In the 1 9 6 0 s the labour
intensive working m e t h o d s in p o r t s c o m b i n e d with
accelerating labour costs in the industrialised world to
make cargo-handling the most important element of a liner
operation. Containerisation developed as an answer to this
problem, changing the balance between labour and capital in
port operations.
12. The trades between the industrialised nations were at
f
the forefront of technological changes in the late 1960 s
and 1970*s, due in large part to the increasing labour costs
in ports in these countries.
13. Other problems have been of greater importance in port
operations in developing countries, and this has inevitably
led to some problems as ship designs and cargo-handling
methods have evolved in trades between developed and less-
developed countries. Just as major investment in a large
bulk loading port may be justified while similar investment
in a discharge terminal may not, the relationships between
c a p i t a l , labour, port restrictions and cargo volumes may
justify different levels of investment at the two ends of a
particular liner trade route. Looking to the future, the
high volume trades will continue to provide the greatest
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n , as l a r g e
investment costs can be spread over large volumes of cargo.
14. The economies of scale provided by the investment in
large container ships on trunk routes in the 1960's and
f
1970 s led to changes in the structure of the liner industry
on these routes, with larger organisations, joint fleets and
so on. This was only possible with a high degree of co­
operation between various shipping lines, and in a situation
where a certain level of traffic could be relied upon, due
to the lines' historical presence in these trades.
15. The ability of a small number of lines to 'control' a
trade led to widespread speculation in the early days of
containerisation about the degree of rationalisation which
would take place. Some forecasters projected a future where
a single giant terminal would be constructed at each end of
a trade route, served by a small fleet of huge 'mother'
s h i p s , with distribution being undertaken by small 'feeder'
vessels, (ref 1 ) .
16. Although containerisation has reduced the number of
port calls for the majority of liner services, there has not
been the degree of rationalisation which had been projected
in those early days. A major reason for this has been the
influence of national pride and other political factors: the
r e s u l t has been the development of more than one major
container terminal in each of the coastal nations of Western
Europe. In a similar w a y , port p r i d e and the w i s h to
s u r v i v e has led to the container terminal capacity now
available throughout the UK being significantly greater than
that which would be provided under a completely rationalised
system under a single authority. This is not to argue that
such a rationalisation would necessarily be beneficial to

61
 DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

e i t h e r the economy or the shipowning community; on the

contrary, as I shall argue in more detail at a later stage,
the variety of cargo types and volumes on different trade
routes indicates that a range of terminal sizes and types is
more appropriate.

BRITISH PORTS IN CONTEXT

17. Three factors have combined over the last two decades
t o a l t e r the r o l e of B r i t i s h ports in deep-sea liner
shipping.
18. F i r s t l y , the increasing emphasis on e c o n o m i e s of
scale, brought to fruition by the new cargo handling methods
associated with containerisation, have resulted in combined
UK and Continental services in many high volume trades. A
similar evolution on other deep-sea trades has meant the end
of many separate East Coast UK and West Coast UK services.
19. Secondly, the United Kingdom's entry into the European
E c o n o m i c Community has changed the pattern of our trade
quite dramatically.
20. The third f a c t o r , geographical location, has been
h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e s e two c h a n g e s . The costs of extra
s t e a m i n g , in both time and f u e l , began to o u t w e i g h the
b e n e f i t s of d i r e c t port c a l l s , and those factors were
accentuated by the additional cost in time of using ports
w i t h large tidal r a n g e s . The net effect has been a
concentration of deep-sea shipping services in the south­
e a s t e r n region on the country, with devastating impact on
such t r a d i t i o n a l w e s t c o a s t s h i p p i n g c o m m u n i t i e s as
Merseyside.

THE IMPACT OF CONTAINERISATION

21. Pre-containerisation, ship size was constrained by a
combination of factors, the most important being the high
proportion of each voyage spent loading and discharging
cargo, and the problems of ship stability with large volumes
of breakbulk cargo. It was not uncommon for conventional
general cargo ships to spend up to 2 weeks in key ports, and
u p to 6 0 % of a voyage could be spent on the berth. Ship
size was limited to around 15,000 dwt tons.
2 2 . Containerisation permitted naval architects to take
a d v a n t a g e of very significant economies of size due to the
combination of high cargo handling speeds and improved ship
stability. Of equal importance to the shipper and consignee
of the cargo is the ability to dispatch cargo in a single
unit which can be handled on a variety of transport systems,
resulting in reduced damage and loss.
23. This adaptability of the c o n t a i n e r h a s had m a n y
implications. On the one hand it has encouraged competition
between transport systems, both in the variety of ship types
w h i c h can carry containers, and also between road, rail and
sea transport. On the o t h e r , its widespread u s a g e h a s
itself altered the range of cargoes carried in containers
e.g. in trades which are imbalanced.
62
 PAPER 4: RYDER
1
24 • It must be remembered that a 'liner cargo is simply
one carried by a liner vessel. Prior to the 1960's this may
have included manufactured and semi-manufactured g o o d s ,
o i l s , semi-bulks such as cocoa or copra, and neo-bulks such
as pulp timber, all on the same vessel.
25. Containerisation segregated the liner market on the
high volume trades into box and non-box services. At the
same time high growth rates in some of the smaller bulk
trades drew these commodities out of the liner sector into
small bulk carriers. New trades also developed with
sufficient volumes to warrant the design of specialised
ships. One example of this is the car trade, which began
w i t h c o n v e r t e d b u l k c a r r i e r s , but soon grew enough to
justify the construction of specialised vessels with the
capacity to carry up to 6000 cars. One consequence of this
segmentation of the traditional liner sector was the rapid
decline in demand for conventional tonnage.
26. A key question for the future development of British
general cargo ports must therefore be the degree to which
such specialisation continues.

CHANGING CARGO EXCHANGES AND PARCEL SIZES

27. Port authorities are concerned with the evolutions of
ship designs at three fundamental levels. These are:
- ship size
- parcel size
- ship to shore transfer
28. In the case of bulks, cargoes are homogeneous, and the
'parcel' size, i.e. the cargo associated with an individual
s h i p p e r or c o n s i g n e e , is o f t e n a full ship load. In
contrast g e n e r a l c a r g o p a r c e l s a r e u s u a l l y s m a l l in
comparison with the size of ship.
29. Ship size. The size of ships employed in the liner
trades has not increased as dramatically as in the bulk
sector. This is primarily because of the principle of
consolidating parcels for liner shipping, although it must
be recognised that an additional reason is the 'leakage' of
minor bulk and neo-bulk cargoes out of the liner sector into
small bulk carriers, as well as the development of other
s p e c i a l i s e d vessels described a b o v e . Despite t h i s , the
largest cellular containerships have now reached P a n a m a x
s i z e , w i t h the a b i l i t y to carry over 3000 twenty foot
containers. The ability to introduce m u c h larger liner
v e s s e l s w i l l b e c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of
consolidating sufficient cargo from a continually changing
mix.
30. Increased competition in the liner sector, coupled
with the ever-present threat of a range of protectionist
measures (both outside and within the shipping industry),
makes the development of significantly larger vessels i.e.
larger than Panamax,unlikely this century.
31. Parcel siz^e. There can be no single ideal parcel size
for the multitude of commodities grouped under the heading

63
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

'general cargo'; manufactured goods tend to move in smaller

sizes than non-manufactured, for example, although both may
be liner c a r g o e s . H o w e v e r , in the container trades, the
container has to a large extent removed the question of
individual parcel sizes from the shipowner's concern, having
revolutionised general cargo shipping by standardising the
unit of shipment.
32. Standardisation of cargo will i n c r e a s e , due to the
increasing use of intermodal transport. The size of the
c a r g o u n i t s w i l l t h e r e f o r e be c o n s t r a i n e d m o r e by
considerations of compatibility with a variety of transport
modes than by shipping economies, a view reinforced by the
increasing provision of door-to-door transport. The forty-
foot container is the largest u n i t , in both v o l u m e and
weight, compatible with road, rail and sea transport, and it
is expected to remain the largest unit for the movement of
general cargo.
33. Ship to shore transfer. Although the container is
likely to remain the largest unit moved from shipper to
consignee, there may still be scope for increasing the size
of the unit transferred from ship to shore. Preliminary
steps have already been taken in this direction. Using a
twin-spreader to lift two twenty-foot containers is one
example. Another is the LUF (Lifting Unit F r a m e ) system,
w h i c h can transfer up to four forty-foot containers at a
single lift (in this case, a ro-ro movement).
34. Systems could be designed for transferring larger
u n i t s , such as 25-50 containers 'en b l o c ' , with existing
technology. Such a development would have to go hand-in-
hand with a minimising of port c a l l s , so that the 'drop
size' i.e. the total cargo exchange per port call, would be
sufficient to warrant the investment, keeping in mind that
the benefit of such a large unit would only apply to the
ship to shore transfer.
35. The capital investment required for such an innovation
would limit its application to high volume container routes
i.e. those between industrialised economies. Even on these
routes a more rationalised joint sailing schedule would be
required than at presents e x i s t s . The pressures on these
trades in the 1980's and possibly the 1990's are in quite
the opposite direction, with increasing competition, and the
reducing importance of the C o n f e r e n c e s y s t e m . These
p r e s s u r e s a r e u n l i k e l y to p e r m i t the rationalisation
required before introducing such a new technology.
36. A further important point is that the ship to shore
transfer operation continues to be faster than the means by
which cargo is handled on shore, both into the port area and
from port area to inland destinations (and vice versa).
3 7 . The major developments in the liner trades until the
end of the century are therefore expected not to be in the
technological arena, but rather in intermodalism and ship
economics.

64
 PAPER 4: RYDER

INTERMODALISM
38. The pervasiveness of the container in today's liner
industry is quite remarkable. Despite t h i s , h o w e v e r ,
containerisation has still to achieve its full intermodal
potential.
39. We will see increasing competition between land and
sea transport in the carriage of containers, and this will
develop hand in hand with a greater emphasis on a d o o r - t o -
door transport service.
40. The focus of innovation will therefore move away from
cargo handling towards other potentially inefficient links
in the transport chain. Three key areas within the port's
remit are documentation, customs clearance and the transfer
o f c o n t a i n e r s f r o m t h e p o r t a r e a to t h e i r i n l a n d
destinations.
41. As the world's liner trades continue to grow after the
current recession, pressure for more space in e x i s t i n g
t e r m i n a l a r e a s w i l l b u i l d u p , p a r t i c u l a r l y if the
developments in ship design which are outlined below come to
pass. We may then see a move towards removing the cargo
storage function out of the port area, and a more widespread
use of inland container depots.

SHIP DESIGN RESPONSES

42. T h e i m p a c t of the t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n of
containerisation is by no means over. We have seen dramatic
developments in ship design over the past 15-20 y e a r s , in
ship size, in cargo h a n d l i n g , in cargo access and in fuel
economy, all related to, if not caused by, the introduction
of containers. We have now entered an evolutionary, rather
than revolutionary, stage in the d e v e l o p m e n t of l i n e r
shipping.
43. Shipping enviroment. The legislative and competitive
framework within which liner companies now o p e r a t e h a s
changed significantly, and permanently, from that obtaining
before the introduction of containerisation. Symptomatic of
the change is the enactment of the UNCTAD Code of Conduct
for liner shipping, which reflects the desires of countries
without a maritime tradition to take control of at least
part of their country's seaborne trade. Such aspirations,
coupled with a world wide surplus of shipbuilding capacity,
a n d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , the comparitive ease of entry into
container shipping (the old cargo handling s k i l l s , f o r
e x a m p l e , no longer being as critically important as in the
past) has led to a fiercely competitive enviroment in recent
years, and freight rates which have fallen in real terms.
4 4 . Fuel costs* Reduced time in port enabled the first
generations of containerships to achieve economies of scale,
and these in turn justified higher ship speeds. After the
two sharp increases in the price of o i l , fuel became the
most significant element of voyage costs. Shipowners and
engine manufacturers responded with a range of fuel economy
measures.

65
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

45. T h e i n c r e a s i n g l y competitive enviroment and the

soaring price of fuel have led shipowners to concentrate
their design skills on the m i n i m i s a t i o n of costs. Fuel
economy measures ranging from slow steaming to the r e -
engining of containerships have been undertaken. Fresh
impetus has been given to the search for lower unit costs
t h r o u g h e c o n o m i e s of s c a l e , e n c o u r a g e d by shipyards
desperate for new o r d e r s . Will we therefore see radical
changes in ship design by the end of the century?

Developments for the future

46. Propulsion Recent advances in ship propulsion have
primarily been refinements of existing s y s t e m s , with the
m a i n emphasis being on fuel economy. The most likely next
radical step will be nuclear p r o p u l s i o n , but a g e n e r a l
acceptance of this for cargo ships is unlikely in the next
twenty years.
47. Ship s i z e . A v e r a g e s h i p s i z e w i l l c o n t i n u e to
i n c r e a s e , bounded by the restrictions of the Panama canal.
Larger than P a n a m a x v e s s e l s w i l l n o t be c o m m e r c i a l l y
p r a c t i c a l until a new cycle of rationalisation of shipping
services is underway, even if the problems of ship stability
can be overcome.
48. Trunk routes. On the high volume trades between the
major industrial regions of the world, container penetration
is already high. T h e t r e n d towards Panamax cellular
containerships will continue. At the same t i m e , the very
size of these trades will present opportunities for non-
cellular, hybrid vessels, with a similar philosophy to that
outlined below.
49. Other routes. These 'other' routes present a greater
challenge to t h e s h i p o w n e r w i t h e a c h h a v i n g its O w n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p r o b l e m s . Certain features a r e ,
however, common to many of these r o u t e s : a lower level of
container penetration than the 'trunk' routes, an imbalance
in container movements, and the need to provide a service
for a significant quantity of uncontainerised cargo.
50. Coupling the pressure to cut costs via economies of
size with this mix of cargoes indicates the need for a new
cycle of liner ships, moving away from the specialisation of
the 1960's and 1970's back towards a more flexible vessel.
The design will, of course, vary from route to r o u t e , and
may be lo-lo, ro-ro, or a mixture of the two.
51. T h i s is n o t , of c o u r s e , a radical new departure.
Multi-purpose, container-compatible ship designs have been
developed since containers were first introduced. However,
the prospect for the future is for such vessels to increase
in size. Multiple access to the cargoes will be required to
k e e p port turnaround time at an acceptable level, including
greater use of side ports and other horizontal access.

IMPLICATIONS FOR U.K. PORTS

5 2 . In the high volume container trades, cargo exchanges

66
 PAPER 4: RYDER

will tend to increase, as more ships approach Panamax size.

C a r g o h a n d l i n g t e c h n o l o g y m a y be r e f i n e d , b u t n o t
revolutionised, in order to service these vessels.
53. Pressure on terminal space will increase, which may
lead to faster cargo transit through the port a r e a , and an
expanded role for inland depots.
54. Intermodalism will increase. This will put pressure
on port authorities and terminal operators, in partnership
w i t h the shipping l i n e s , to speed up documentation and
customs clearance in the port area.
55. L a r g e r m u l t i p u r p o s e v e s s e l s a r e l i k e l y to b e
introduced on North-South routes. Multiple cargo access and
more than one method of cargo handling are likely to become
increasingly common. Terminals serving these trades will
therefore need to consider the provision of both handling
and s t o r a g e f o r a v a r i e t y of c a r g o e s , i n a m o r e
sophisticated version of the conventional general cargo
liner operation.. This runs counter to the current tendency
to deal with containerised and non-containerised cargoes at
different terminals.

REFERENCES
1. MCKINSEY AND COMPANY INC. Containerisation: the key to
low-cost transport. A report for the British Transport
Docks Board, 1967.

67
PAPER 5
Developments in the automation of ship
operation including mooring

E. J. HARDING, British Ship Research Association

SYNOPSIS. The paper summarises recent developments in marine

automation with particular reference to the role now being
played by microprocessor technology across a wide range of ship
operations. Reference is made to the impact of this technology
on work roles and operational duties of shipboard staff.
Several national projects aimed at the design of highly
automated ships are highlighted and the proposed manning levels
are discussed. However, despite the considerable impact of
automation technology, the ultimate criteria determining
manning levels will be safety; guidelines for safe manning are
summarised. These indicate that it will be manually-intensive
tasks such as berthing and mooring which will be on the
'critical path* if significant manning reductions are to be
achieved. Recent techniques whereby remote control of mooring
could contribute to reduced manning without reductions in
safety are described. Some implications for future port design
are discussed.

TRENDS IN MARINE AUTOMATION; 1960-1985

General

1. The control of ships, their plant and processes has

progressed steadily since about 1960 when "automation" was
first applied to them.

2. Prior to 1960, apart from a number of self-regulating

systems (e.g. governor control of engine speed, mechanised
lubrication systems, boiler combustion control and control of
steam pressure, e t c . ) , machinery and ship control was largely
manual. About 1960, the first control rooms were fitted in
machinery spaces. This took the duty engineer into an
environment which was less noisy, and of a more moderate
temperature. This required the application of remote control
to the main engines and it was quite quickly followed by
extension of machinery control to the bridge.

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 69

DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

3. Though it was still necessary for the engineer to tour the

machinery space periodically, to check the machinery and record
the values of vital parameters for log records, it was not long
before the dials and recorders of many of the instruments were
brought into the control room to enable more continuous
monitoring to be carried out. It was about this time, in an
attempt to reduce the operational aspects of the duty
engineer's workload still further, that attempts were made to
f
automate the logging function by the introduction of the data
1
logger .

4 . This innovation caused a slight setback in the process,

mainly because of the unreliability of these data loggers and
the abundance of data they were over-enthusiastically designed
to provide. The unreliability was attributed largely to the
fact that equipment designed for land-based use had been
adapted for sea-going purposes without sufficient attention
being given to the conditions under which it had to operate on
board ships.

5. It was quite soon after the setback caused by the

introduction of proprietary data loggers that the term
'unattended machinery space' (UMS) was introduced. This
required that a ship was fitted to such an extent with alarms,
fire detection systems, engine safety systems, plus automatic
starting of standby equipment, to allow it to be operated for
periods with their machinery spaces completely unmanned. From
about 1965, the number of new ships constructed to operate in
this way increased rapidly as the reliability of electronic
equipment improved.

Automation Technology

6. During the 1960's the digital computer began to be used in

the design of ships and interest grew in its application to a
number of operational aspects. A number of isolated
applications occurred towards the end of the decade, for
example, on the Shell tanker 'DOLABELLA' a mini computer was
installed on the bridge for off-line computation and,
parallelling shore-based applications, a Ferranti Argus machine
! f
was fitted in the Q E 2 for administrative purposes (e.g. stock
control, wages, etc.).

7. However, for a variety of reasons the mini-computer did

not find widespread application in the merchant marine
industries. There were a number of reasons for this, including:

70
 PAPER 5: HARDING

• The marine industries had not progressed to a point where

the technology could be readily adopted.

• The early equipment proved unsuitable, in many cases, for

use onboard ship, due mainly to a lack of appreciation of
the marine environment.

• The mini-computer was relatively expensive, compared to

conventional electronic equipment.

• Shipboard personel were not able to repair or maintain the

computer and its peripheral equipment.

• The cost effectiveness of the mini computer was always

marginal and because the merchant marine does not represent
a large market sector, equipment manufacturing companies
were reluctant to invest capital with so uncertain a
return.

f
8. The early 1970 s represented a period of consolidation.
As the reliability of electronic equipment increased ships
began to operate with engine rooms unattended for up to 16 hours
a day. The engineering department become more and more
concerned with maintenance as more and more engine room
operations were automated. A new social phenomena appeared on
board in which the eight till five working day enjoyed by the
engineers began to contrast with the traditional 4 hours on 8
hours off watchkeeping cycle of the deck department. This
period also saw the emergence of GP ratings and a reduction in
the number of catering staff.

9. Automation also began to impact on bridge activities.

Navigational aids such as the Transit satellite position fixing
became widely available and the application of minicomputers to
radar data processing heralded the introduction of today's
collision avoidance radars. During this period the operational
function of the engineering department changed dramatically,
that of the deck department became more complex as the size and
complexity of merchant ships increased.

10. The late 1970's saw the emergence of the MICROPROCESSOR,

or the computer on a chip. This technology resulted from
developments in aerospace, especially the American space
programme. Electronic technology enabled logic devices to be
produced at ever-decreasing cost.

71
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

11. Using modern components, microcomputers can now be

designed to fit onto a single board with a surface area of a few
square inches. An entire microcomputer system can be designed
which occupies less than 1% of the volume of a computer of a
decade ago with a corresponding decrease in cost. The rate of
development shows little sign of slowing. Within the past five
years digital technology has given rise not only to a wide range
of new items of marine equipment but also to the introduction of
digital techniques to functions such as data acquisition and
displays.

• For example there has been a gradual introduction of

microcomputers into a wide range of marine automation
equipment. This is as exemplified by the large number of
proprietary items of equipment such as digital cargo
loading calculators which are currently available.

The following list contains specific examples of marine

applications of microelectronics:

— Co H i s ion avoidance radars

— Integrated navigation systems
— Navigation calculators
— Voyage planning and routeing systems
— Autopilots
— Steering predictors
— Berthing aids
— Mooring and deck equipment
— Anti-stranding equipment
— External communications including satellite
commun i c at ion
— Automatic log-keeping
— Documentation including personnel records
— Stock control
— Cargo port performance
— Cargo planning aids including cargo compatibility
— Cargo loading simulators
— Cargo safety monitoring equipment
— Tank level gauges
— Machinery surveillance and control
— Condition monitoring
— Engine room alarm diagnostics
— Fuel conservancy aids
— Electrical power generation protection equipment
— Fuel analysis and treatment

72
 PAPER 5: HARDING

• Digital techniques have also been applied to data

acquisition. With today's levels of automation,
substantial shipboard wiring is required. If levels of
automation are raised, the number of sensors will increase,
thereby increasing capital and installation costs. The
1980's will undoubtedly see an increase in the use of cable
multiplexing in which a single cable will be used to carry a
large number of signals.

This technique is currently being used in a number of

land-based industries and is being gradually introduced
into ships. Within the year fibre-optic cables will be
introduced; these will be used more extensively especially
in hazardous areas, as the need for internal communication
increases.

• One implication of this technology is that it is now

possible to adopt a 'flexible attitude' to the location of
control rooms and control stations. In the past, the
concept of a single ship control centre was prohibitively
expensive because of the large amount of additional
instrumentation cable. Multiplexing offers a solution to
this problem.

• Perhaps the most striking area of change will lie in the way
information is presented to the mariner.
Microprocessor-based display systems give almost unlimited
flexibility of display format. A single display system
will be used to present a wide range of information, e.g.
schematics, mimics, trends, text, etc. Furthermore, this
will be accomplished in a comparatively small display area
(e.g. a 26" diagonal, C R T ) . Adoption of this type of
display system will change, almost beyond recognition, the
appearance of a machinery, or cargo control console. The
adoption of new display techniques, together with cable
multiplexing, could well radically change the appearance
and size of today's conventional bridge.

12. A review of developments in marine atuomation would be

incomplete, especially within the context of the United
Kingdom, without reference to the attempts now being made by
Racal Decca to develop a range of integrated marine electronic
systems for the 1980's. Early in 1982, Racal Decca in
collaboration with the British Ship Research Association, BP
Shipping and the National Maritime Institute began a
development programme and a series of ship trials aimed at
producing automation systems for a range of marine applications
from standard hardware and software modules.

73
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

13. By the adoption of standard modules, not only can

development costs be reduced but also onboard maintenance and
spares carrying problems can be alleviated. Functionally the
Racal equipment will cover:

• Bridge operations including navigation, voyage planning,

voyage monitoring, collision avoidance and routine log
keeping.

• Engineering operations including machinery surveillance and

control, planned maintenance, condition monitoring and fuel
management.

• Cargo operations including loading calculations and cargo

control and surveillance.

• Administration, including personnel records, accounts and a

range of standard documentation activities.

14. The new equipment will utilise advanced display

technology to the full bringing into reality the concept of the
'electronic bridge*.

15. As these changes take place, it will be necessary to

consider the automation requirements at the initial stages of
ship design, as opposed to current practice in which automation
equipment is rarely considered until after the overall ship
design has been realised. This will no longer be practical as
the equipment and system described above are increasingly used
on board merchant ships. If the full potential of the new
technology is to be realised, ship operators themselves will
need to take a fundemental look at their current operational
procedures. For want of a better term, this is currently being
1
referred to as 'rationalisation .

Ship Rationalisation

16. Although designers of ships for the 1980's will have at

their disposal electronic systems and equipment which would
have been inconceivable ten years ago, it will be necessary to
ask the fundemental question 'is there a different way of
operating modern ships?'. This question will not only apply to
the way in which the ship itself will be operated but also to
the level and nature of shore support. For example, it is
envisaged that in order to realise the full potential of future
automation equipment it will be necessary to implement changes
along the following lines:

74
 PAPER 5: HARDING

The adoption of simpler, more reliable engineering and

cargo systems selected and installed for ease of operation,
maintenance and repair. Typical examples are the adoption
of single phase heating, the use of submerged,
hydraulically-powered cargo pumps in preference to steam
centrifugal cargo pumps, centralised cooling systems and so
on.

The introduction of maintenance strategies in which

electronic equipment will be increasingly used to monitor
the condition of shipboard machinery both as an aid to
planned maintenance and to provide information to
facilitate shore-based maintenance.

The greater use of long-range ship-to-shore

telecommunication systems, including satellite
communication. This will facilitate the maintenance
function and will also afford the opportunity to remove
some of the present day onerous documentation tasks to
shore. Paperwork accounts for a considerable onboard work
load; its reduction must be part of the overall
rationalisation policy. Current computer developments
favour a move in this direction. Developments in
communication will also lead to the need for the radio
officer to maintain a listening watch to be discontinued.

An extension of automation to auxiliaries and to engine

room systems which at the moment are only partly automated.
Typical examples are hydraulic power units and gas inerting
plant. Classification Societies are already preparing
rules covering these items.

An extension of automation of the propulsion unit including

automatic start-up and shut-down. This, together with a
more rigorous approach to machinery surveillance and
control, will enable the machinery space to be operated
unattended under a wider range of operational conditions.

Automation of bunkering, fuel transfer and treatment and

ballast transfer. In all these operations the additional
automation facilities will be designed from the outset in
conjunction with the associated engine room systems. This
will necessitate a departure from the traditional design of
these systems.

75
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

Perhaps the most significant aspect of rationalisation will

occur when manning levels reduce to a point at which the
existing departmental structure is no longer appropriate.
Reference was made earlier in this paper to the social
changes which occurred when the engineering department
could work virtually 'shore-hours' as a result of the
introduction of UMS. Far more significant social changes
will be necessary within the next five years as a direct
result of the impact of new automation technology. Some
possibilities include:

— the replacement of the radio officer by an electronics

officer
— the introduction of dual-certificated watchkeepers
— a re-appraisal of the role of the Master
— the introduction of a new grade of seaman with higher
qualifications than before
— social integration

MANNING REDUCTIONS AND SAFETY

17. In 1974, BSRA carried out a survey of manning levels

across a wide range of merchant ships. This highlighted that
the average manning level across a wide range of ship types was
38. Earlier this year a similar survey indicated that the
average manning level for UK-registered bulk carriers, of
40,000dwt and above, currently stands at 25; a reduction in ten
years of 13. The recent survey also highlights that many UK
shipowners are operating with levels well below this level.

18. In several overseas countries, significant co-ordinated

projects have been carried out to develop the systems and
operational framework for 'Ship's of the Future'. The most
significant of these have been the:

• Japanese Rationalised Ship Project

• The German Ship of the Future Project
• The Norwegian Ship Operation of the Future Project

19. Several of these projects have resulted in significant

manning reductions and practical ship designs are now being
realised. For example, the Japanese Rationalised Ship project
has involved a phased programme of ship trials onboard twenty
ships in which manning levels have been gradually reduced from
24 through to 18 then to 16 and finally in the latest designs to
15. A similar manning level in the range 15-13 is proposed for
two newbuildings recently announced by the German shipowner
Peter Dohle to be constructed at HDW during 1985. Nine orders
for highly automated ships to be manned with complements in the

76
 PAPER 5: HARDING

range 15-12 have recently been announced by Norwegian

shipowners.

20. These recent developments highlight a general trend in

reduced manning now taking place as ship operators worldwide
try to meet competition from developing countries. The
economic pressure for change is strong. Figures recently
published by the General Council of British Shipping indicate
that a bulk carrier, operating under a Far East flag, has
manning costs $1,000 a day less than those for a similar
UK-registered vessel.

21. The position is exacerbated by the fact that many Far

Eastern ship operators are themselves reducing manning levels.
For example, the Taiwanese Evergreen Line has recently taken
delivery of a fleet of large container ships which will be
manned with 17 men.

22. Analysis of the trends in manning levels in recent years

clearly identifies that the ratio of the number of ratings to
the number of. officers has reduced significantly and for many of
the recently announced highly automated ships it is already
less than one to one, as indicated in Table 1 below.

Table 1
l i l
|SHIP TYPE JNO. OF OFFICERS | NO. OF RATINGS RATIO |
i
r
|Conventional
1 11 | 19 1:1.7 |

|35,000dwt
jbulk carrier
|(circa 1985)
1i 1 9 | 9 1:1 |
|Rationalised
|Ship (e.g.
JHakuba Maru,
|Japanese
|Rationalised
|Ship A)
i
r—
|German Ship
1 7 | 6 i 1:0.85 |
|of the
|Future i i i i
i
23. From the above figures it is apparent that a
proportionally smaller number of ratings are available to
assist in manually-intensive activities.

77
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

24. The implications of the trend can be seen in the

guidelines produced by the Department of Transport governing
the granting of 'Safe Manning Certificates' for sea-going
UK-registered ships. These necessitate:

• The capability to maintain a safe bridge watch at sea, which

includes general surveillance of the vessel.

• THE CAPABILITY TO MOOR A VESSEL EFFECTIVELY AND SAFELY.

• The capability to operate and maintain effectively all

watertight closing arrangements including the ability to
mount an effective damage control party.

• The capability to operate and, when practicable, maintain

efficiently, all fire equipment and life saving appliances
provided, including the ability to muster and disembark
passengers and non-essential personnel.

• The capability to manage the safety functions of a vessel at

sea when not underway. (It should be noted here that the
Department/'s responsibility for marine safety extends to
all United Kingdom registered sea-going merchant ships,
whatever their activities, and the Department would
intervene in any case where it had reason to believe that
the operating conditions were unsafe.)

• The capability to maintain a safe engineering watch at sea

and also to maintain general surveillance of spaces
containing main propulsion and auxiliary machinery.

• The capability to operate and maintain in a safe condition

the main propulsion and auxiliary machinery to enable the
ship to overcome the foreseeable perils of the voyage.

• The capability to maintain the safety arrangements and the

cleanliness of machinery spaces to minimise the risk of
fire.

• Provision for medical care on board ship.

• The capability to maintain a safe radio watch in accordance

with 1974 SOLAS & ITU Regulations.

25. From the above guidelines it can be seen that the

capability to moor a vessel effectively and safely lies on the
critical path if significant manning reductions are to be
achieved. Mooring is however a manually-intensive activity and
one which for most ship types constitutes the peak work load.

78
 PAPER 5: HARDING

IMPLICATIONS FOR MOORING

26. In recent years mooring practices have been researched

and reported in considerable detail in the four BSRA reports
referred to in Ref. (1) and more recently, for very large ships,
by the Oil Companies International Marine Forum. These studies
represent the basis behind which current UK mooring design
practice and standards are founded. The OCIMF standards are
preferred for large tonnages in excess of 150,000dwt.

27. It is generally understood that the term to 'moor a

vessel' means to secure the vessel alongside a quay, pier or
wharf, or to secure the vessel to a buoy, using fibre or wire
ropes. (Note: an anchored vessel is usually said to 'lie at
anchor'.) Mooring equipment generally includes:

• bollards or bitts for securing the lines;

• fairleads (usually either a roller or panama type) that
lead the line through or over the vessel's side and prevent
chaffing of the line at this point;
• some form of heaving device, usually a drum end attached to
the windlass, a capstan or wharping winch;
• a method for leading the line from the fairlead to the
heaving device so that it has a good lead normally termed a
'deadman'.

28. Despite the rapid changes in automation technology in

other areas of ship operation which in many cases would mean
that a seafarer of yesterday wouldnot be at home in the engine
room or bridge of a modern ship, he would have little difficulty
in adapting to current mooring practices largely because they
still depend almost entirely upon men handling ropes.

29. Although significant changes in mooring system design

have taken place over recent years, by and large these changes
have been introduced simply to cope with the enormous increase
in ship size which has taken place particularly in the case of
oil tankers and bulk carriers. Changes have also taken place in
the techniques adopted for line handling in the offshore
industry and by the Ministry of Defence. However, these have
not yet been adopted for commercial marine applications.

30. For example, powered winches incorporating drums in

addition to warping ends, and suitable for handling soft
mooring ropes were first introduced to serve very large crude
oil carriers. These arrangements were later adopted using both
soft and wire ropes for smaller tonnage, including relatively
small ships so that they now represent a standard design feature

79
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

f f
for many ship types. During the 1960 s and 1 9 7 0 s , mooring
lines tended to get larger but hit a ceiling in diameter due to
manual handling difficulties (approx. 40mm for wire) so the
number of lines increased. A different emphasis was placed on
the importance of different lines, for example breast lines for
smaller ships in enclosed or sheltered dock were not considered
important and mooring in this situation is not considered
difficult. However, due to increased ship size and draft
restrictions, large tankers, bulkers and the like, often use
fairly exposed berths where ship motion can become a problem.

31. This has assumed greater importance in later years due to

the large mass and hence large amounts of energy that can be
built up at exposed moorings. Self-tensioning winches, using
either fibre or wire lines, are commonly used especially in
large bulk carriers. One proven system is to use
self-tensioning lines backed up by fixed static lines on bitts
1
so that the combination works as an effective 'shock absorber .

32. Large tankers tend not to use tensioning winches in the

tension mode but hold the lines on the brake. Experience has
shown that this reduces the likely load of the vessel ranging up
and down jetty.

33. There are a variety of techniques whereby the mooring

workload could be reduced without necessarily reducing safety.
These would involve changes in present operational practices
and in many cases the development of new types of equipment.
Typical examples include:-

• Bridge control of mooring equipment;

• Line throwers;
• Line feeders;
• Powered rollers and fairleads;
• Radio control;
• Remote control from shore or tugs;
• Shore-based mooring systems;
• Advanced in mooring line construction and technology;
• The use of traction-type winches with remotely loaded
storage drums to handle towing springs.

34. Experience also shows that significant manpower savings

can often be achieved by paying attention to the layout of the
mooring equipment.

80
 PAPER 5: HARDING

Typical examples of recent developments in these fields

Remote Operation of Mooring Winches

NEI Clarke Chapman, a leading designer and manufacturer of

mooring equipment currently offers a complete mooring
system incorporating the latest developments in automatic
and remote control.

The system has two basic elements: the automatic winch or

winch/windlass and the remote control equipment. The
automatic winch is a standard type modified to incorporate
automatic line adjustment and preset tension levels so that
the vessel will remain securely moored despite changes in
tide or movement caused by passing vessels.

With this type of winch/windlass, it is possible to

transfer control from the normal pedestal, positioned
adjacent to the unit to a portable dual or triple control
box mounted on a wander lead and plugged into a convenient
socket. In a typical case of a vessel with a pair of
mooring winches/windlasses forward and a pair of mooring
winches aft, two portable controllers would be used.

Forward, the controller would operate both winch/windlass

units independently from any one of four or six locations.
The locations and their corresponding sockets would be
arranged under the bulwark rail port and starboard.
Control is passed from an individual pedastal by plugging
the portable controller into the appropriate socket. A
similar arrangement provides for operation of the stern
mooring winches, however this unit cannot be used to
operate the forward-mooring equipment.

The portable controller incorporates full manual control of

each winch for rope handling and positioning of the ship and
has a key-operated on/of switch plus an independent
emergency stop button. The controller is connected to the
individual sockets by a cable which can be up to 5m in
length. This arrangement enables the operator to take up
the best viewing position during mooring yet retain full
control of the operation.

In addition to remote control of both fore and aft mooring,

bridge-mounted automatic anchor brake release control may
be provided to operate the winches for both anchors.

81
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

When letting go, for example, the automatic unit monitors

both the length of cable veered and the speed at which it is
running out. Two read out devices are available to the
officer on the bridge and the anchor cables can be
controlled. It is claimed that by using this arrangement,
plus an appropriate layout of the deck machinery, fore and
aft mooring teams of only two men are necessary for
doeking/undoeking.

Radio Control

One disadvantage of the above system lies in the fact that

the winch operator has to be connected to a control socket
by an umbilical cord. A logical extension of this technique
would be the use of radio control thereby giving the
operator complete freedom of movement.

BSRA has recently tested a radio-controlled device

developed for use onboard a pipe-laying barge to remotely
control the angle of the pipe streamer from the control
room. The tests involved evaluating the performance of the
radio link when subjected to interference from a ship
telecommunication equipment. In the trials the equipment
operated reliably in various parts of the trial vessel and
the data transmitted was uncorrupted. Such a device could
be incorporated into future mooring equiment. With large
ships visibility is often a major problem. This would
enable the officer in charge to position himself at a
location which afforded him maximum visibility.

A possible extension to this concept could be that control

under certain circumstances would be carried out from shore
or indeed from tugs. Traditionally the responsibility and
control of mooring operations has been from ship-side,
however in many cases a berthing controller on shore could
be in a better position to assess the position of a ship
relative to the berth and of the rate of approach.

Automatic Rope Paying-Out Equipment

As part of a substantial programme of research and

development into reduced manning, Hitachi Zosen's Hull
Design Department have developed a system for reducing the
number of crew involved in mooring by the use of automatic
rope paying-out equipment. Usually before a ship enters
port, mooring ropes are 'snaked out' or 'coiled' on deck so
that they may be quickly passed to the rope boat or to the
quay. This activity needs several crew and is dirty,
laborious and time-consuming.

82
 PAPER 5: HARDING

Hitachi Zosen's new mooring rope paying-out equipment is

installed at the ship's side. It comprises an electro
hydraulically-driven pressure cylinder operating against a
belt. The equipment can be remotely controlled by one man;
paying out of mooring rope can be controlled from a central
control stand and an automatic lifting device on the upper
pressure roller compensates for the differences in
thickness between the messenger rope and the mooring rope
itself. Using this equipment, the operational procedure
would be:

- Prior to mooring messenger ropes would be tied to the

eye splices of each mooring rope. They would then be
placed between the upper roller and lower belt.

- The mooring rope would be paid out until it hung over

the side of the ship. All mooring ropes would be
prepared in this way before the ship entered the port.

- After handing the messenger ropes to the rope boat or to

the quay, the mooring rope would be automatically drawn
from the winch by the powered roller.

Table 2 shows the comparison between the conventional

method and that using this equipment for 3 ship types. This
indicates that an estimated 4 men can be saved on a large
bulk carrier or tanker and up to 2 men on a container ship.

If an automatic rope handling system is used shoreside then

the manual handling restriction on the size of line no
longer applies, so it would be feasible to increase the size
of line used. If the size of line is increased, then fewer
lines would be required, thus reducing the quantity of deck
machinery required.

Automatic Securing and Releasing Equipment

Hitachi Zosen have also developed automatic securing

equipment for tug lines. This equipment uses a simple
hydraulic arm and associated bollard to facilitate one man
tug line handling. The hydraulic arm is controlled
remotely, thereby facilitating the rapid release of holding
lines. In theory a similar design concept could be applied
to shore-lines which could be controlled either from ship
or from shore.

83
 Table 2

Working Estimated
Type o f Ship Conventional Method New M e t h o d
Place Manpower-
Saving

Bow k~5 Crew 2-3 Crew

D.W. Total Total
130,000T 8-10 h-6
Mid-Part Crew 2-3 Crew h Crew
Bulk Carrier Crew Crew
x 2 Gang x 2 Gang

Stern 5 Crew 2-3 Crew

Bow h-5 Crew 2-3 Crew

D.W. Total Total
170,000T Mid-Part crew 8-10 2-3 Crew h-6 h Crew
Tanker x 2 Ganfe Crew x 2 Gang Crew

Stern U-5 Crew 2-3 Crew

Bow 3-4 Crew 2-3 Crew

Cont a i n p r Total Total
Ship Mid-Part — 6-8 — h-6 2 Crew
Crew Crew
Stern 3-4 Crew 2-3 Crew

* The r o p e p r e p a r a t i o n work f o r t h e m i d - s e c t i o n o f a l a r g e t a n k e r and a l a r g e b u l k

c a r r i e r i s done b y t h e same c r e w a s f o r t h e bow a n d s t e r n . T h e y move t o t h e m i d ­
s e c t i o n a f t e r c o m p l e t i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e bow a n d s t e r n .
 PAPER 5: HARDING

Unconventional Approaches to Mooring

Early in 1984, the Japanese Ministry of Transport announced

a new major initiative in marine automation. This new
project aptly named the 'Intelligent Ship Project' has as
its prime objective the development of the operating
concepts of a fleet of sophisticated merchant ships which
will form the backbone of Japan's future merchant fleet.
The project also includes the infra-structure in which this
fleet will operate.

For example, the vessels will be continually monitored by

means of satellite communication from a shore-based control
centre. This control centre will not only have access to
ship position but also information relating to the
condition of the ship's machinery and maintenance
requirements. From this centre, port reception facilities
will be mobilised. These will include:

- berthing crews to supplement shipboard personnel;

- port helpers who will relieve the 'transit crew' taking

over many of the traditional port functios such as
bunkering, victualling and supervision of the vessels
during cargo handling;

- preparation of the ship for its next passage.

The above features imply that the automated vessels of the

future will be operated in a similar method to today's civil
aircraft and port facilities will have to adapt
accordingly.

All the above mooring techniques are adaptations of the

method in which vessels are secured by ropes or chains.
Within the context of highly-automated ship designs and
with a eye to the future, the question must be raised - will
such types of equipment be appropriate for future
highly-automated ships? For example, an analysis of the
operating patterns of many of the Japanese Rationalised
Ships highlights the fact that they trade on liner routes
and are restricted in the number of ports visited.

They either aim at replacing human muscle by hudraulic

power or at providing for the remote control of
conventional devices. This could be reflected in the
development of special berthing systems which are designed

85
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN
from first principles to be compatible with manning levels
substantially below the current norm. A recent Japanese
article which reviews the technology associated with the
Japanese Intelligent Ship presents unconventional berthing
techniques in which hydraulically operated arms reach out
from shore, guide the ship alongside and hold it in
position.

Obviously this raises questions for the designers of both

, the vessels themselves and of port facilities.

Perhaps it is too futuristic to consider that the

replacement of conventional techniques, whereby ropes and
chains are used to secure vessels may well lead to new
developments in port design, however, would these
developments be more revolutionary than those which took
place during the 1960's as a result of containerisation?
The carriage of goods in customised boxes was an
unconventional futuristic idea which has radically changed
the layout, the design and much of the equipment installed
in today's modern ports. The 1990*s may well see similarly
unconventional techniques being applied to port design as a
result of the inevitable reductions in manning which will
occur due to economic pressures and technical innovation.

REFERENCES

1. Research Investigation for Improvement of Ship Mooring

Methods (4 reports). BSRA Report NS179, 1976, BSRA Report
NS256, 1969, BSRA Report NS304, 1971, BSRA Report NS386,
1973.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to thank the Chairman and Council of The
British Ship Research Association for permission to publish
this paper.

86
Discussion on Papers 3 - 5

MR E. E. POLLOCK, Associated British Ports

Vessel size is not simply a matter of physical cost
relationships, but vitally depends on economic demand and, not
least, on the sufficient potential availability of cargo on a
competitively frequent basis. Increasing vessel size may have
potential cost attractions but this always has to be weighed
against frequency of service/cargo inventory cost benefits -
and the competitive commercial setting.
On the question of ship size, differences between vessel
capacity and loadings may result not only from the storage
characteristics of different cargoes (which necessarily set
different tonnage capacity limits for a given vessel), but
also from physical (draft) constraints at other ports served,
and from commercial factors. Ship costs rise with slow port
cargo working speeds and this factor becomes more and more
important with increasing vessel size.
All this is highly relevant in relation to the economic
analysis of new port facility projects. Assessments of the
size of vessel for which it may be economic to provide
facilities must take into account potential cargo availability
and the need to keep down users' cargo inventories, physical
limitations at other ports served and factors such as cargo
working speed.
With regard to vessel dimensions, the trend is towards
greater beam. This has obvious implications for port
planning, and it may be that port capacity calculations based
simply on vessel deadweight are surprisingly arbitrary.
However , there is a range of variables which can massively
affect port performance. For example, it makes a big
difference whether or not vessels are cellular, vessel size
and the number of boxes worked at a port have an important
influence, and performance can also be much affected by the
type of service - whether total discharge/loading or whether a
way-port call with only discharge/loading of part of the cargo
(perhaps with a need to move containers not for
discharge/loading). All this should not" be understood as an
excuse for slow working, but simply as an illustration of the
need for detailed analysis of the reasons for performance
variations.

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 87

DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

MR P. D. STEBBINGS, Dover Harbour Board

In my experience, all other factors being equal, it takes the
same time to discharge 20 ft and 40 ft boxes and it is only
when boxes are loaded transversely rather than longitudinally
on the vessel that there is a difference.

DR G. WARD, British Ship Research Association

I think that there could well be much to be gained by a
fundamental look at beamy ships with, for example, L/B = 3.
It is not necessarily true that the delivered horsepower for
such wide forms is higher for twin screw ships than for single
screw ships. The resistance reduction can compensate for the
propulsive efficiency reduction. I also feel that current
development will push such designs to the limit of the draught
allowances into ports, especially as the economies of scale
always help such a push. Could the Author of Paper 3 comment
on the possibilities of a fundamental look at such ships? It
could well prove that their economics are not a simple
extrapolation of the figures currently used.

MR D. J. ALLISON, Purfleet Deep Wharf and Storage Co. Ltd

That ports and facilities with comparable technology produce
strikingly uneven results in terms of performance poses the
question, technology apart, of what are the main determinants
of good port performance.
I would suggest that to a great extent these are related to
the human factor. Good performance depends first on positive
leadership by management at all levels; particular
responsibility falls on the shoulders of the chief executives
who set the tone and style of management. There must be
proper motivation of the manual and non-manual work force , and
thorough training of all personnel in their particular tasks.
It seems to me that insufficient attention and study are
given to the effective use of the most valuable resource - the
human one. The full potential of sophisticated technology can
be realized only through the injection of appropriate human
effort.

MR H. L. REVELL, Port of London Authority

Modern container ships with flared bows to keep water off the
deck in heavy weather present problems when they are
manoeuvred along terminals. In recent times three container
cranes have been wrecked by the impact of flared bows.
Can the naval architect do anything to minimize problems at
the interface between the ship and shore installation?

MR E. E. POLLOGK, Associated British Ports

In the past 20 years there have been two different phases in
the deep-sea liner sector: the changes, especially as regards
88
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 3 - 5

the containerization of the major trades between countries

with relatively highly developed economies, from the mid 1960s
to the mid 1970s, and the subsequent developments in secondary
trades less ideally suited for containerization (essentially,
developing country trades).
The slower development of containerization in developing
country trades has essentially resulted from any of a number
of inherent problems: directional imbalances in the
availability of cargoes ideally suited for containerization,
the importance of project cargo, inland infrastructure
problems affecting container movements, government policies
aimed at protecting existing national flag shipping lines and
their vessels, and social conditions, including the
discouraging implications of chronic unemployment or
underemployment.
However, despite all this, containerization (and other forms
of cargo unitization) had to come, even in the trades of
developing countries, because of the pressures of the needs of
developed countries. High stevedoring costs in some developed
countries have been an important stimulus, as have straight
commercial pressures - in some markets, products could only be
sold in containerized form. If a country refused to accept
containerization, it faced the risk of losing export markets,
or at the least of having its goods trans-shipped in foreign
ports.
What has been interesting is the way in which container
shipping operators have overcome these problems. Various
kinds of inherently unlikely cargoes have been containerized
(e.g. sawn timber, malt and bulk ground-nuts) so as to provide
back-loads for otherwise empty containers. Other cargoes
(e.g. cotton exports from certain francophone African ports)
1
have been containerized for ships convenience, e.g. to speed
turnaround. The social issue has been diffused in some
instances by the stuffing and unstuffing of containers in the
developing country ports themselves (and not inland).
Given all this, and the development of other types of
unitization, a number of obvious questions arise, for example
as to the future for break-bulk shipping, even in developing
country trades, and indeed as to the relative future for lift-
on/lift-off containerization and for other forms of unitized
operation. A range of secondary questions also arises, e.g.
as to the future importance on particular routes of geared and
gearless container ships respectively, and as to the need for
ports to provide container gantry cranes. Ship size is of
vital importance for port development decisions, depending
both on the relevant economies of scale in ship size on
1
particular trades, and vitally on shipowners decisions as to
which ports to serve directly and which ports to feeder.
There have so far been two main phases in the concentration
of port calls, with vessels calling at fewer ports, and with
each call serving wider markets. This initial development
encompassed a limited growth of regional trans-shipment; since
then there has been the development of long-distance trans-

89
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

shipment, exemplified by the (overland) growth of land-bridge

operations. The movement of cargo from the Far East to US
east coast ports via the US west coast and thence by trans­
continental railway (or US west coast exports to Europe trans­
continental^ by railway through the east coast ports) has
brought a new dimension to interport competition.
The significance of such developments for the development
requirements of any particular port is obvious and leads to
the question as to whether or not containerization (and other
developments in the deep-sea liner trades) has yet reached its
final form. It is always dangerous to forecast a no-change
situation, and the future of containerization is no exception.
The newest development is the advent of round-the-world
container services based on load-centring principles, with the
selection of a very small number of ports as the focal points
for such services. The vessels used are large or very large
container ships that can only be kept sufficiently fully laden
on the necessary competitive sailing frequencies by drawing on
far greater markets than has hitherto been the practice. Such
feedering even extends to an intercontinental scale, e.g. a
major operator is stated to have been considering feedering
eastern and southern African cargo on to round-the-world
services passing through the Mediterranean and eastwards past
Sri Lanka. Whether or not the load-centring round-the-world
services win their way remains to be seen, but one thing is
sure: that the outcome of the battle will be of crucial
significance to many ports around the world.

MR A. D. M. BELLIS, Associated British Ports

It seems that there is a communication and collaboration gap
between shipbuilders (and shipowners) and port designers,
except perhaps with regard to ferry terminals and large bulk
carrier berths.
At one time ports could be built, sometimes speculatively,
in the knowledge that ship sizes and shapes were not changing
greatly and that the facilities provided would always be
suitable. Some port designers with foresight did make
provision for change and their structures still exist.
Effectively the ports took the lead. However, now the
shipowners and shipbuilders lead the way and there is
frequently too little reference by naval architects to the
port facilities that their vessels will use.
There may be few further changes in ships and cargo units
before the end of the century, but even small changes can be a
big problem to port operators. For example, an increase in
the height of containers can render handling equipment almost
useless and restrict stacking effectiveness. The advent of
containers and their specialist ships may in fact well have
been a huge retrograde step in cargo handling. It seems that
no-one has calculated the cost of containerization with its
immense capital and running costs and compared .it with the
price of adhering to conventional methods. This could now be

90
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 3-5

only an academic exercise.

Among the unconventional methods of mooring, no reference
has been made to the use of large electromagnets set in the
berthing face which could secure a steel ship in position. Is
there any reason to suggest that this would not be effective?

MR R. A. GIBBONS, British Ports Association

With regard to the size of containers, the Future Containers
Working Group, Working Group 4, is to propose to the relevant
ISO Committee in Stockholm that consideration be given to an
increase in container height above 8 ft 6 in bearing in mind
that

(a) there will always be a need for special containers for a

particular traffic
(b) an increase to above 8 ft 6 in in container height
affects the compatability and intermodality of
containers less than any change in width and length.

Suitably equipped ports and terminals (including most major

British ports) can and do handle containers taller than 8 ft
6 in, but they handle them as specials, just as they handle
other non-ISO containers.
This proposal comes as an unhappy compromise from Working
Group 4: many of those who accepted it saw it only as that.
It threatens the whole intermodal basis on which the ISO
maritime freight containers depend for dimensional stability.
The British Ports Association is concerned that once that
intermodal barrier is broken in terms of height, the other
dimensions will also be increased for two powerful reasons

(a) the precedent will have been set - ISO standards will no
longer necessarily mean full intermodality
(b) some important supporters of the fully intermodal ISO
container will be weakened or cut out of the argument.

The cost implications of this for ports and terminals in terms

of equipment and loss of access cannot be forecast accurately.
They could be very high indeed. It has been reported that
'Shipper pressure for 48 ft by 102 in is intense' (ref. 1 ) .
The real danger is that national pressure of that sort will
work its way into international trades where, encouraged by
ISO status for a taller and therefore non-intermodal
container, interested operators would see ISO status for
longer and wider containers too. The British Ports
Association is convinced that the Working Group's
recommendation must be resisted.

MR P. SOROS, Soros Associates, Consulting Engineers

In my view, pier design should accommodate whatever

91
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

technological changes occur on the shipping side, because the

ships represent a far larger value than the pier.
A bulk terminal for 100 000 dwt vessels is currently under
construction at Corpus Christi , Texas. The total cost of the
terminal is $10.4 million. The cost of the pier represents
$1.5 million. This terminal has an annual capacity of 3-4
million tons. Assuming that the value of the average vessel
is $10 million, the value of the ships coming to this $1.5
million pier in one year is of the order of $1 billion.
The extra cost of the pier to accommodate whatever features
make the ships more economical or efficient is insignificant
compared with the value of the benefits to the ships.

COMMANDER N. M. MULES, Poole Harbour Commissioners

Could the Authors say something about the future ships which
will be required to enhance near-sea and short-sea trade,
where the main growth of future trade is expected to be?
I feel that automated mooring facilities could undoubtedly
be of benefit to specialized vessels on specified routes but
the master of such a vessel would have a major problem if he
were diverted to a port which was not equipped to receive his
ship or if he were in difficulty as a result of breakdown or
collision. This lack of flexibility in the use of such ships
would also reduce their effective life and second-hand value.
Thus their cost-effectiveness over a full working life would
be doubtful in relation to the capital operating and
maintenance costs of the on-board and on-shore equipment
required to service them effectively at all their limited
ports of call.

MR J. H. GORDON, James Gordon Associates

Dynamic positioning for berthing is not economically feasible.
Bow thrusters are occasionally used, but dynamic positioning,
which has been used for holding hopper barges alongside a
dredger without being in contact with it, requires much more
complex 360 propulsion equipment and the high investment
involved would not be justified for a facility used only twice
on each voyage.

DR BUXTON, Paper 3
Mr Pollock's contributions amplify many of the remarks made in
my Paper. The traditional break-bulk cargo vessel has evolved
into the multi-purpose container-friendly type capable of
accommodating a wide range of cargoes. I see a continuing, if
modest, demand for such ships able to serve secondary trades
unable to support larger more productive but more expensive
vessels. Such vessels are likely to need their own cargo gear
to cater for those ports either without such gear, or where it
is o-ut of operation. Except in special cases, there is little
value in the larger main line ships carrying their own gear.

92
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 3-5

It reduces cargo capacity, adds to first cost and, as Table 1

of my Paper shows, would be used for relatively few days per
annum.
Round-the-world container ships are no different in design
from ordinary container ships, although stability is more of a
problem, with large ships squeezing through the Panama Canal,
which exerts influence on loading and stowing arrangements
with multi-ports, and the use of more ballast.
It was interesting to hear from Mr Stebbings that handling
times for 20 ft and 40 ft containers are the same. I presume
this refers to boxes on trailers. For lift-on/lift-off
operations there is a slight differential in some ports.
Mr Allison is right to emphasize human factors. I have the
impression that not all ports are aware of how their
performance compares in detail with others, perhaps partly due
to the lack of any comprehensive statistics. In less
competitive environments it is possible to forget that ships
serve trade, and ports serve ships - not the other way round.
Full understanding is a first step to putting things right.
Mr Soros gives some interesting figures which emphasize the
importance of saving ship time. I do not know what distance
trades the bulk terminal quoted will service , but if one
assumes that each ship makes, say, ten voyages a year, the
value of a dedicated fleet of ships serving it may be about
$100 million. There is also the cost of the terminals at the
destination end, the handling equipment, dredging and so on,
but however one does the sums, the value of ship investment is
greater than the shore investment.
Mr Bellis rightly favours more communication between
shipbuilders, shipowners and port designers. Ship designers
do consider the ports the ships will serve, particularly for
ships which call regularly at particular ports and particular
berths. For general trading ships, it is not usually possible
to gear ships to every port likely to be served. One designs
around a number of key ports for the trade which are
anticipated to provide adequate facilities. Other ports
have to take such ships as they find them.
Containerization was a solution to a problem, not a solution
looking for a problem. High labour costs and lengthy port
delays with break-bulk vessels in North American, Australian
and some European ports presented no alternative to
containerization. Productivity multiplied with reduced port
time and cargo handling costs (see Table 1 of my Paper). Crew
costs, fuel consumption and capital cost per unit annual
capacity fell sharply. The costs of alternative systems were
compared carefully. I cannot accept that it was a retrograde
step. There is nothing to stop the multitude of break-bulk
vessels afloat today and underused dock facilities being
operated in competition with container services, so if
containerization is (or was) uneconomic, why are (or were)
conventional services unable to compete?
With regard to container sizes, 8 ft 6 in has been accepted
for several years as the norm by ship designers in assessing

93
DEVELOPMENT IN SHIP DESIGN

stacking heights. A few 9 ft or 9 ft 6 in boxes can be

accommodated if there are some 8 ft ones in the stack below
deck. On deck there is less problem. I have not followed in
detail the debate on container dimensions, but as a naval
architect, I would be reluctant to see any change in the 8 ft
width. Ships' hatches and breadths are designed around this
module.' In particular the common Panama breadth of 106 ft
(ship) lends itself to ten stacks across. Wider boxes would
result in only nine stacks across and a 10% reduction in the
number carried. The suggestion of a container 102 in wide
sounds curious. At 2.59 m, it is wider than most national
highway limits. Is this perhaps an example of insufficiently
considered internationalism?
A similar, although less strong, argument applies to length,
where there are already some 24 ft, 27 ft, 35 ft and 45 ft
containers afloat. Apart from special situations, no operator
wants to lose the flexibility of 2 x 20 = 1 x 40 on deck
stows. Below decks, movable cell guides can accommodate
different sizes, generally at some cost and capacity penalty.
Basically the implications on ships and equipment would be far
more severe and unwelcome for changes in container length and
breadth; by comparison height is much less of a constraint in
cellular container ships.
Mr Revell raises the problem of damage to shore facilities
by ships. Some early designs of container ships did have
excessive flare forward. More recent ships exhibit less
extreme tendencies, but in ship design deck widths forward are
wider than waterline breadths for sea-keeping reasons. There
is no way that some part of a ship cannot overhang a quayside
if the ship is manoeuvred awkwardly. More ships now have bow
thrusters; otherwise more care is needed during manoeuvring,
and proper use must be made of tugs and fendering. The more
vulnerable equipment should be kept back from the quayside, or
nearer the stern where there is less overhang, especially in
windy conditions, than at the bow.
Electromagnetic moorings could be considered, but lack of
flexibility in coping with different ships, especially those
with little parallel middle body without elaborate extension
features, would be a problem, as would general inflexibility
and ability to cater for surging forces if relying largely on
friction. Tailor-made systems could be designed for specific
ships trading regularly to specific berths if time could be
saved consistently, but one would still need conventional
systems for operating elsewhere and so it would be a question
of whether the additional costs could justify themselves. As
regards dynamic positioning, given the relative cheapness of
conventional systems, dynamic mooring methods would cost
substantial amounts in fuel if they were required for any
length of time.
Dr Ward urges a closer look at low length/breadth ratio
forms. Where there are severe (and continuing) draft
restraints, a case can be made for much shorter, wider,
shallower ships. However, there are cost penalties: twin

94
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 3 - 5

screw propulsion is likely to be required. Even if delivered

horsepower requirements are not thereby increased, machinery
installation costs will rise. Trading flexibility (e.g.
ability to transit Panama) is likely to be reduced. Problems
of speed loss in heavy weather, especially in the ballast
condition, transverse strength and trim and heel are likely to
be more severe than for ships of conventional proportions.
Altogether I regard very low L/B designs as for special
situations rather than as a main line of naval architectural
development.

MR RYDER, Paper 4
Shipping in general has seen a sustained trend of increasing
specialization since the Second World War. In liner shipping,
the advent of containerization transformed shipping in the
high volume trades between the developed economies, and
virtually eliminated the need for traditional tweendeck
tonnage. Specialized ships went hand in hand with economies
of size.
In trades involving less developed countries, a multitude of
factors (primarily cargo mix and trade imbalances) has
hindered similar developments. The optimal ship design which
meets the need of such a trade cannot be the same as that for
the high volume, highly containerized industrial trades.
In parallel, the most important influences on port turnround
time also vary markedly from trade to trade, as well as from
port to port. The scope for feedering an inland distribution
may be limited on both the physical and the political levels.
In the high volume container trades, there is currently
further concentration of port calls, including load centres
for services round the world. The global feedering concept
referred to by Mr Pollock is an extreme development of this
idea, which has to overcome serious problems, both operational
and political, if it is to be successful. Crucially, the
1
cargo mix for many less developed countries trades is not
compatible with the fully cellular philosophy involved in such
services.
A quite different approach to using economies of scale in
1
less developed countries trade is to design much larger
multi-purpose vessels, which can carry containers, project
cargo and breakbulk, with multiple access to ensure that
turnround time is kept to acceptable levels. In these trades,
therefore, the tendency is for economies of size to be
achieved through multi-purpose vessels, rather than the
specialized approach of the high volume container trades.

REFERENCE
1. Hodd M. US inter-modal revolution or confusion? Cargo
Syst. Int., 1985, Mar., 22.

95
PAPER 6
Development in the port industry as
evidenced in the Tyne

E. W. OAKES, FCIT, A I C S , M I M H , F I n s t S M M , Port of Tyne

Authority

SYNOPSIS. C o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y and employment i n t h e P o r t o f

Tyne from e a r l y b e g i n n i n g s . Growth o f c o m m e r c i a l
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n the port community. Development o f the
S h i p p i n g I n d u s t r y and o v e r v i e w o f t h e m a j o r c h a n g e s i n t h e
l a s t 20 y e a r s .

1. Without t r a n s p o r t an I n d u s t r i a l S o c i e t y cannot
survive. I s l a n d c o m m u n i t i e s a r e u n a b l e t o s u p p o r t modern
economies, or large populations without e f f i c i e n t p o r t s .
Z. F r o m t h e e a r l i e s t t i m e s man h a s known t h e v a l u e o f
water t r a n s p o r t . T h e b u i l d e r s o f S t o n e h e n g e moved s t o n e
b l o c k s by w a t e r f r o m S o u t h W a l e s t o S a l i s b u r y P l a i n .
5. I t has been convenient to c o n s i d e r the Shipping
I n d u s t r y u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g s o f l i n e r s , t r a m p s , c o a s t a l and
major bulks. Liners are advertised services carrying
v i r t u a l l y e v e r y type o f commodity on a r e g u l a r s c h e d u l e , run
by o r g a n i s a t i o n s , w i t h n e t w o r k s o f a g e n c i e s o f f e r i n g
s o p h i s t i c a t e d s e r v i c e s to commerce. Tramps o p e r a t e on a
s u p p l y a n d demand b a s i s , e a c h v o y a g e w h e t h e r c o a s t a l , s h o r t
s e a o r d e e p s e a , may b e a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y c h a r g e d a t w h a t
the market w i l l bear. The m a j o r b u l k s o f h y d r o c a r b o n s , o r e s
a n d c o a l , may b e c o n s i d e r e d i n d i v i d u a l l y a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e a
s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f the tramp m a r k e t .
4. Many L i n e r t r a d e s r e q u i r e d s p e c i a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d a
c o m m e r c i a l community i n t h e p o r t s i n a d d i t i o n t o s h e l t e r e d
b e r t h s , e x t e n s i v e w a r e h o u s e s and good l o c a l t r a n s p o r t
c o n n e c t i o n s ( e . g . t o b a c c o , t e a and m e a t ) . Liner ports
became c o n g e s t e d c o l o u r f u l p l a c e s , w h i l s t tramp p o r t s
d e v e l o p e d hand i n hand w i t h i n d u s t r y .
b. S i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s and e a r l y
1 ^ 7 0 ' s a f f e c t e d t h e r o l e s and b u s i n e s s o f most B r i t i s h
ports. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o n t a i n e r s made many
conventional l i n e r berths superfluous; the decrease in trade
w i t h t h e Commonwealth and t h e a d v e n t o f l a r g e c o n t a i n e r
v e s s e l s s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d London, L i v e r p o o l , Glasgow and
B r i s t o l . B r i t a i n ' s e n t r y i n t o t h e EEC t u r n e d trading
a t t e n t i o n t o E u r o p e v i a t h e E a s t and S o u t h C o a s t s .

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 97

PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

6. Economies of scale caused British deep sea liner

services to operate with Europe wide consortia employing
very large vessels. The schedules allowed only one UK port
which had to be close to the continental Hamburg Antwerp
range. The old dock systems in the established ports were
rendered obsolete and major sections of their trade removed
by Freightliner, and road, to the new operations at
Felixstowe, Southampton and Tilbury.
7. These were fundamental changes for established
ports. Full containerisation did not occur overnight and
the major deep sea liner ports had to continue catering for
conventional services which were on the decline, whilst
investing in new equipment to work containers; many being
unable to accept that their traditional trades had
evaporated. The conventional services required considerable
warehouse space immediately alongside the vessel, a very
large workforce and many berths for slow working
'tweendeckers. Container vessels in the main liner trades
soon reached 50,000 GRT, with port times measured in hours
not weeks and no requirements for manual labour or warehouse
space on the berth. These ships need acres and acres of
load bearing concrete, access at all states of the tide and
sophisticated port equipment. At the inception of the Dock
Labour Scheme in 1947 almost 80,000 men were registered in
Great Britain, 1,500 in the Tyne. In October 1964 the
figures were 12,000 and 1 5 9 respectively.
8. Containers put a new emphasis on door to door
transportation. Transhipment became desirable rather than
abhorrent. But container vessels, unlike the handsome cargo
liners they replaced were selective of cargoes.
Containerships can only accept, in the generality,
containerisable cargo, cargo which not only fits into
container spaces but can afford to pay container handling
costs. The 'ongoing' requirements of non-containerisable
cargoes brought forward new specialised vessels of many
types which in turn often required special port facilities.
Some ports have been more fortunate than others in making
the transition.
9. Whilst the major ports grappled with containers, the
Roll-on/Roll-off ship gained in popularity, particularly in
short sea European trades. Here again the old berths were at
best of little use, and at worst a positive hindrance.
Again, some of the established ports had the problem of
changing from conventional operations to the high speed
turnround of the trailer carriers.
10. Ports such as Ramsgate, Ipswich and Felixstowe
expanded in places which had seen little development in
decades.
11. Both deep sea and short sea trades have therefore
undergone dramatic change in a very short space of time.
These changes fostered new types of ship and changes in
trading patterns. Timber, once imported in small lots,
often in loose planks or logs now moves in special ships,
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 PAPER 6: OAKES

packed in flush ended bundles and traded in large tonnages

per delivery. Ports have had to provide space and equipment
to suit.
12. The dirty British Coaster with salt caked smoke stack
has become a sophisticated trailer ferry, carrying loaded
vehicles which operate across Europe as we cross Tyne
Bridges - the water is incidental.
13. The short sea trades have developed feeder services
to the main line container vessels, generating new types of
vessel; mini container ships and coasters with rectangular
holds and minimal air draft, work into canals, rivers and
major ports with equal facility, carrying containers,
chipboard, packaged timber and bulk cargoes. They achieve
rapid turnround times with minimal labour.
Ro-Ro ferries have developed new trading patterns with
European countries and by their example fostered massive
deep sea Ro-ko vessels. Other specialised vessels are motor
car carriers, parcel tankers and submersible ultra large
load carriers.

14. The first reference to the Tyne appears in Bede's

Ecclesiastical History.
lb. There was a trading settlement in the area of
Newcastle in pre Roman times. The Emperor Hadrian
established the bridge town of Pons AElii here in the second
century A.D. Trade and export of all types of agricultural
produce, wood and wool took place on a regular basis; much
of the export being by sea to similarly placed garrisons as
far afield as the Thames and South Coast.
16. By 1205 Newcastle ranked lbth in tax payments on
merchants' goods and 12th in population. The major trades
were wool, wood and agricultural products. Coal was first
noted in 1239 although the Romans had been well aware of the
presence and properties of coal, salt, iron and lead. Salt
was an important export by 1280. In London North Eastern
coal was known as 'Sea Coal' and by 1492 the trade was well
established, the Newcastle Trinity House being founded some
20 years ahead of London.
n e
17. T y Coal was used in construction work at Windsor
Castle in 1367 and from 1421 to 1631 was never free of
government impost or levy. Further duties on sea coals were
levied in London to defray the expenses of rebuilding the
City and churches after the great fire of 1666. Even after
1680 a levy was maintained on all coals arriving within
twenty miles of the capital.
18. By 1600 there were 400 ships carrying 190,000 tons of
coal annually in the coastal trade and by mid century
traffic had almost doubled to 346,000 tons. In 1710 .the
tonnage was 475,000 and in 1776 660,000 tons. The growth
was remorseless, reaching a peak of 7.3M tons in 1950.
(Total trade, coastal and export, peaked at 21.8M tons in
1923).

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1 9 . T h e c a r r i a g e o f c o a l f r o m t h e T y n e t o t h e T h a m e s was
a s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e r i v e r t h e n a s i t i s now. The North
E a s t e r n c o a l m i n e s were t h e o n l y o n e s i n B r i t a i n t o be
a d j a c e n t t o w a t e r n a v i g a b l e by s e a g o i n g v e s s e l s . T h i s one
f a c t e x p l a i n s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e Tyne and Wear t o London
from t h e t i m e o f K i n g J o h n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a n a l s and
the b i r t h o f railways. L o n d o n n e e d e d c o a l f o r h e a t i n g and
i n d u s t r y and t h e m o r e L o n d o n e x p a n d e d , t h e g r e a t e r was i t s
demand f o r c o a l .
2 0 . Coal and t h e r i v e r t h e r e f o r e became t h e p a r e n t s o f a
t r a d i n g community i n N e w c a s t l e . The c o a l t r a d e expanded t o
o t h e r a r e a s and t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f commerce s o o n became
established. As t h i s community grew s o d i d i t s a p p e t i t e for
a d d i t i o n a l a c t i v i t y and f o r t h o s e g o o d s and s e r v i c e s e n j o y e d
by t r a d i n g p a r t n e r s e l s e w h e r e . (Appendix l )
2 1 . N e w c a s t l e h a d b e c o m e a c e n t r e o f some i m p o r t a n c e by
t h e 1 4 t h C e n t u r y and t h r o u g h i t s p o r t e s t a b l i s h e d
S c a n d i n a v i a n , N o r t h E u r o p e a n and C o n t i n e n t a l t r a d i n g links
in addition to extensive c o a s t a l trading. Without the port
t h e C i t y would n o t h a v e r e c e i v e d i t s C h a r t e r o r t h e R o y a l
L i c e n c e s w h i c h commanded a l l w o o l s g r o w n i n t h e surrounding
c o u n t i e s t o be s h i p p e d t h r o u g h N e w c a s t l e . The t r a d i n g
c a p a c i t y o f t h e t o w n w o u l d h a v e b e e n l i m i t e d t o i t s own
environs. C o a l , wood, t i m b e r , w o o l , i r o n , g l a s s , l e a d ,
p o t t e r y , a n i m a l s , l e a t h e r and s o a p were a l l c o m m o d i t i e s
w h i c h d e p e n d e d upon t h e p o r t , p o o r a s i t was b e f o r e 1 8 5 0 .
Even s o t r a d e g r a d u a l l y p r o s p e r e d , N e w c a s t l e and t h e N o r t h
E a s t were a b l e t o p l a y i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n t h e f o s t e r i n g ,
n u r t u r i n g and m a t u r i n g o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n . By
1 7 8 0 , t h e C i t y was a m a j o r g e n e r a t o r o f e c o n o m i c power, its
i n d u s t r y e n c o u r a g i n g m i n i n g , c i v i l and c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r s t o
e x p e r i m e n t and i m p r o v e .
2 2 . The I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n e x t e n d e d , e x p a n d e d and
d r a m a t i c a l l y improved man's c a p a c i t y to c i v i l i s e . By 1 8 9 0
u r b a n man w a s a c o n s u m e r o f e n e r g y o n a s c a l e i m p o s s i b l e t o
i m a g i n e i n 1 8 5 0 , by 1 9 5 0 c o m p a r i s o n w i t h a c e n t u r y a g o was
m e a n i n g l e s s a n d b y 1 9 8 5 many c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h 1 9 5 0 a r e
irrelevant. The p a c e o f c o m m e r c i a l change i s not slowing
down a n d t h i s p o r t c o m m u n i t y i s w e l l a w a r e o f t h e c h a l l e n g e
o f change which w i l l a l w a y s be w i t h u s .
23. P r e s s u r e f r o m c o a l t r a d e r s , s h i p b u i l d e r s a n d
c o m m o d i t y d e a l e r s c a u s e d t h e s e t t i n g up o f a ' B a n k ' i n
1755. T h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n c o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e c l a i m e d t o be
the second o l d e s t o f the country banks. I t p r o s p e r e d and so
d i d t h o s e w h i c h c o p i e d , s o g r e a t was t h e e x p a n s i o n i n t r a d e
a n d demand f o r f i n a n c i a l s e r v i c e s . Stockbroking a c t i v i t y
f o l l o w e d and became s p e c i a l i s e d , p a r t i c u a r l y a f t e r t h e
f o r m a t i o n o f Merchanting Houses which e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t a c t s
and a g e n c i e s i n t h e t r a d i n g c e n t r e s o f t h e w o r l d .
More s o p h i s t i c a t e d company s t r u c t u r e s grew from i n d u s t r i a l
expansion which r e q u i r e d i n c r e a s e d i n v e s t m e n t . Between 1790
and 1 8 3 0 t h i s g r o w t h became e v i d e n t i n t h e N o r t h E a s t and
s i g n i f i c a n t i n N e w c a s t l e by 1 8 1 5 .

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24. In 1841 there were nine stockbrokers, yet in 1845

twenty stockbrokers formed a Stock Exchange. The commercial
skills and breadth of involvement which the necessity of
such an exchange indicates would not be found in large
market towns in the country and it is clear that whilst
'outside influence' was present, the majority of the acumen,
skill and knowledge came from those involved in commerce in
the ports of Newcastle and Shields. In the period 1840-1860
the consolidation and maturing of the local economy was
largely controlled by local merchant interests with some
help from the Bank of England during two banking crises.
This maturing trading was based upon mechanical power, at
sea and on land. Transport and financial stability are two
essentials for trade and in an island situation, the
interface between land and sea transport is either an
inhibitor or a catalyst. This interface is the port, and
the Port of Tyne can be shown to have been an impressive
catalyst from 1850 onward.
25. From the 12th Century, the responsibility for the
conservancy of the river was vested in the Corporation of
Newcastle. It would appear that this Body's actions in the
years 1750 - 1850 did little harm to the river but no
worthwhile improvements were recorded in navigational
matters. In short the port was not fit for 19th Century
traffic and an interaction of economic, social, and
political pressures caused the placing before Parliament of
the Act which would establish in 1650 the Tyne Improvement
Commission and remove responsibility for conservation from
the City of Newcastle. The 'harbour' was dangerous of entry
and exit, inconveniently shallow within and without many
navigational points in its favour. In the first half of the
19th Century the City took over £1M in dues from shipping
and spent perhaps one third in largely ineffective measures
to improve the harbour.
26. With hindsight it is surprising that the Tyne
community waited so long before doing something about its
port. Sunderland, only 8 miles away, had proved 100 years
earlier that systematic improvement of harbour facilities
reaped rapid dividends and particularly so in the early days
of the Industrial Revolution. Improvement work at
Sunderland started with the appointment of the Wear
Commissioners in 1717 and by 1617 the Port ranked as one of
the major ports of the British Isles. 7,000 vessels used
the port, 1M tons of coal were exported. Piers protecting
the harbour entrance were completed by 1842.
27. The Tyne Improvement Commissioners comprised nominees
from the principal towns on Tyneside, and interests involved
in commerce and shipping. The Commission became one of the
first Trust Ports in the United Kingdom, pre-dating the
Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, 1657, and Port of London,
1909. The Port of Tyne Authority was set up in 1966 as the
successor of the, Tyne Improvement Commission along the lines
of the Rochdale Report of 1962.

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2 b . I n 1 8 5 0 t h e maximum d e p t h o f w a t e r o v e r t h e b a r w a s
20 f t . T h e e n t r a n c e w a s d i f f i c u l t , a n d i f t h e w i n d was i n
t h e E a s t o r t h e r e w a s a n y g r o u n d s w e l l , t h e d r a u g h t was
considerably reduced. Inside the Shields harbour lay
e x t e n s i v e s h o a l s and t h e t o r t u o u s c h a n n e l t o t h e N e w c a s t l e
Quays o f t e n had l e s s t h a n t h r e e f e e t o f w a t e r i n i t . The
C o m m i s s i o n e r s f a c e d t a s k s o f r e m o v i n g o v e r 50M t o n s o f s p o i l
from t h e r i v e r b e d ; p r o v i d i n g d e e p , s t r a i g h t e r , c h a n n e l s ,
i m p r o v i n g r i v e r b a n k s and f l o w o f s t r e a m , b e t t e r d o c k and
w h a r f f a c i l i t i e s , and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e x c e p t i o n a l
breakwaters to render the r i v e r entrance as safe as possible
i n the worst weather c o n d i t i o n s .
2 9 . B u t t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s did- n o t r e s t t h e r e . The o l d
stone bridge over the r i v e r at Newcastle i n h i b i t e d r i v e r
t r a f f i c a n d t i d a l f l o w , a n d w a s r e p l a c e d by t h e S w i n g B r i d g e
i n 1 8 7 6 . The u p p e r r e a c h e s o f t h e r i v e r were dredged t o 1 7
f t a t l o w w a t e r s p r i n g s a n d many s t a i t h e s a n d w h a r v e s w e r e
built. The famous s h i p b u i l d i n g y a r d o f A r m s t r o n g s a t
E l s w i c k was a b o v e t h e b r i d g e s a s were t h e D u n s t o n S t a i t h e s
w h i c h e x p o r t e d m i l l i o n s o f t o n s o f c o a l b e t w e e n 1 8 9 3 and
their closure in 1980. (Appendix I I ) .
3 0 . By t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e 2 0 t h C e n t u r y t h e
Commissioners could look back over a period o f e x c e p t i o n a l
c o m m e r c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t on t h e b a n k s o f t h e T y n e .
3 1 . I t i s now o f v a l u e t o c o n s i d e r t h e f a t e o r f o r t u n e of
a number o f i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e s o f t r a d e on t h e N o r t h E a s t
Coast.

3 2 . Alnmouth was a m a j o r s h i p b u i l d i n g a r e a , and e x p o r t e r

o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , s t o n e and l i m e . The v i l l a g e t o d a y
a t t e s t s t o t h e a f f l u e n c e o f i t s t r a d i n g w h i c h came t o a n
a b r u p t end when a g r e a t s t o r m c h a n g e d t h e r i v e r e n t r a n c e and
r e n d e r e d i t u n u s a b l e by c r a f t o f c o m m e r c i a l s i z e .
33. S e a t o n S l u i c e b u i l t a m a j o r h a r b o u r e n t r a n c e i n 1 7 5 0
by b l a s t i n g a c u t t h r o u g h c l i f f s o v e r 6 0 f t h i g h . But ships
o u t g r e w i t a n d t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e p o r t g r a d u a l l y waned
e v e n though i t had s u b s t a n t i a l ' i n house t r a d e s ' o f c o a l ,
g l a s s and l i m e .
3 4 . S e a h a m was w i t h o u t a h a r b o u r u n t i l 1 8 3 1 when L o r d
L o n d o n d e r r y s p o r t was o p e n e d and c o n n e c t e d t o h i s Penshaw
mines. The v i l l a g e s o o n p r o s p e r e d and t o o k b u s i n e s s from
Sunderland.
3 5 . S u n d e r l a n d b e n e f i t t e d from i t s e a r l y improvement
a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o and was t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t shipbuilding
c e n t r e i n t h e c o u n t r y i n 1 8 3 0 when i t n e a r l y e q u a l l e d i n
numbers and t o n n a g e a l l t h e o t h e r p o r t s put t o g e t h e r
(according to Lloyd ' s R e g i s t e r ) . I t ' s e m i n e n c e was o n l y
d e n t e d by t h e T y n e a f t e r t h e T y n e I m p r o v e m e n t C o m m i s s i o n e r s
had i m p r o v e d t h e a c c e s s t o , and w a t e r i n , t h e S h i e l d s
H a r b o u r , and T y n e s i d e y a r d s had shown g r e a t e r i n i t i a t i v e i n
d e s i g n and e x p e r i m e n t w i t h i r o n and s t e a m .

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3b. h a r t l e p o o l was a q u i e t p l a c e i n 1 8 3 0 . In 1832 the

h a r t l e p o o l D o c k a n d R a i l w a y Company o b t a i n e d p o w e r s t o b u i l d
a r a i l w a y from t h e h a r b o u r t o t h e n e a r b y c o a l m i n e s , ana t o
improve t h e h a r b o u r . By 1 8 4 1 , a f t e r h a r b o u r d e v e l o p m e n t ,
t h e l i n e c a r r i e d more c o a l t h a n any o t h e r i n E n g l a n d . The
p o p u l a t i o n o f h a r t l e p o o l r o s e from 1 3 3 0 i n 1 8 3 1 t o 525b i n
1841.
37. Middlesbrough boasted 25 i n h a b i t a n t s i n 1 8 0 1 , 150 i n
1 8 3 1 , b u t t h e new d o c k b u i l t by t h e S t o c k t o n & D a r l i n g t o n
Railway to r e p l a c e S t o c k t o n ' s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a i t h e s took
the population to 5,4b3 i n 1 8 4 1 .
3 8 . I n o t h e r a r e a s t h e s t o r y was t h e s a m e . The
I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n r e q u i r e d modern p o r t f a c i l i t i e s .
Those p o r t s which s a t i s f i e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f commerce
prospered, as did t h e i r h i n t e r l a n d communities. Those which
f a i l e d t o p r o v i d e an e f f i c i e n t i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n l a n d and
s e a , however p r o s p e r o u s t h e y had b e e n b e f o r e 1 8 3 0 , f a i l e d .
I have used p o p u l a t i o n a s an i n d i c a t o r o f c o m m e r c i a l
activity. This i s viable i n the simple area economies o f
the f i r s t 75 y e a r s o f the 1 9 t h Century but g r a d u a l l y l o s e s
c r e d i b i l i t y up t o t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r .
W h i l s t t h e T y n e ' s m a j o r a c t i v i t y i n t o n n a g e t e r m s was t h e
e x p o r t o f ' c o a l a n d c o k e , many o t h e r v a l u a b l e c o m m o d i t i e s
were t r a d e d . P r i o r t o 1 8 5 3 v e s s e l s c o u l d w a i t weeks t o s a i l
from t h e T y n e . Before 1850 vessels of 2,000 tons net
r e g i s t e r c o u l d n o t e n t e r o r l e a v e t h e Tyne i n a f u l l y laden
c o n d i t i o n , y e t 1 8 7 2 t h e T y n e was s e c o n d i n t h e c u s t o m s l i s t s
o f v e s s e l s , and o f t o n n a g e o f v e s s e l s c l e a r e d . Liverpool
b e i n g f i r s t i n t o n n a g e and London f i r s t i n v e s s e l numbers.
Appendix IV r e c o r d s t h e g r o w t h and d e c l i n e o f c o a l e x p o r t s ,
( c o a l g a v e way t o o i l a s a s o u r c e o f p o w e r a n d m i n e s w o r k e d
out J .

39. The Tyne Improvement C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' jurisdiction

e x t e n d e d u p s t r e a m t o t h e l i m i t o f t i d a l f l o w a n d a s we h a v e
s e e n they s e t about the t a s k o f making t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e
river navigable to sea going t r a f f i c . The m a j o r t r a d e s
o t h e r t h a n c o a l and t i m b e r c e n t r e d upon t h e quays below t h e
bridges c l o s e to the commercial c e n t r e o f Newcastle. Coal
w a s e x p o r t e d f r o m s t a i t h s a t many s i t e s i n t h e r i v e r , with
m a j o r c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g works a t D u n s t o n and downstream a t
N o r t h u m b e r l a n d D o c k , W h i t e h i l l P o i n t , A l b e r t Edward Dock and
Tyne D o c k . The A u t h o r i t y o p e r a t e s a s t a i t h a t J a r r o w and
t h e N a t i o n a l Coal Board one a t B a r t o n , n e a r e r t h e s e a .
T h e s e a r e now t h e o n l y s t a i t h s o n t h e r i v e r s t i l l w o r k i n g i n
the old manner. A new s t a i t h w i l l b e c o m m i s s i o n e d i n 1 9 8 5 ,
r a i l fed l i k e i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s but a b l e , u n l i k e any b e f o r e
i t , t o s t o c k p i l e v a r i o u s g r a d e s o f c o a l and d e l i v e r t o a
vessel a 'mixture to o r d e r ' . T h i s m a j o r e n g i n e e r i n g work
i n c l u d e s r a i l d e l i v e r y , s t a c k i n g and r e c l a i m i n g e q u i p m e n t ,
w e i g h e r s , s a m p l e r s a n d a s h i p l o a d e r m o u n t e d u p o n a new b e r t h
c a p a b l e o f l o a d i n g a new c l a s s o f 2 1 , 0 0 0 DWT c o l l i e r s .

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4 0 . L a r g e r v e s s e l s up t o 3 5 , 0 0 0 t o n s c a n b e a c c o m m o d a t e d
a n d i f a d d i t i o n a l d r e d g i n g i s u n d e r t a k e n v e s s e l s o f up t o
50,000 tons.
4 1 . Tynesiders a s s o c i a t e d themselves with t h e i r port. It
was p e r h a p s t h e m o s t v i s i b l e i n B r i t a i n and t h e y mourn t h e
d e m i s e o f t h e u p s t r e a m w h a r v e s and q u a y s . The c h a n g e s i n
t r a d e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o r e n d e r e d t h e N e w c a s t l e Quays
o b s o l e t e by t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 ' s , t h e i r t r a d e h a v i n g moved
d o w n r i v e r , o r f o r s a k i n g t h e s e a , i n l a n d by r o a d o r r a i l .
T h e o l d t r a n s i t s h e d s a r e s t i l l t h e r e , t u r n e d t o new u s e s by
a c t i v e e n t r e p r e n e u r s and t h e b e r t h s p r o v i d e a s a f e haven f o r
v e s s e l s a w a i t i n g r e p a i r o r employment.
4 2 . T h e new t r a d e s r e q u i r e d o p e n s p a c e a n d w i d e q u a y
aprons, f a c i l i t i e s obviously impossible to provide i n the
confines of the c i t y . T h e move d o w n s t r e a m w a s n e c e s s a r y i f
t h e p o r t w a s t o s u r v i v e a n d many w i l l s a y t h a t i t c a m e t o o
late. H o w e v e r , t h e move i t s e l f was g r a d u a l and o r d e r l y and
completed i n a most e c o n o m i c a l manner.
4 3 . The m i n e s n o r t h o f t h e R i v e r became worked out i n t h e
1 9 6 0 ' s a n d t h e N o r t h B a n k C o a l S t a i t h s c l o s e d down.
Northumberland Dock, b u i l t i n a b i g h t o f the r i v e r i n 1857
was f i l l e d i n and t h e l a n d g a i n e d t u r n e d o v e r t o o i l company
activities. Redundant c o a l s t a i t h s i t e s were r e d e v e l o p e d
f o r s e a dredged a g g r e g a t e s o r a s R o - R o b e r t h s f o r t h e new
p a s s e n g e r f e r r y s e r v i c e s . The o l d r a i l p a s s e n g e r f a c i l i t i e s
s a d l y g a v e way t o t h e a e r o p l a n e a n d c a r d r i v i n g h o l i d a y
maker. The e x t e n s i v e r a i l m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d s behind t h e
s t a i t h s provided land the port needed f o r development.
On t h e S o u t h S i d e o f t h e r i v e r a t T y n e D o c k , a c q u i r e d f r o m
t h e LNER i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e o l d s t a i t h s a n d r a i l n e t w o r k s h a v e
b e e n r e m o v e d a n d t h e l a n d made a v a i l a b l e f o r new
activities. Modern c a r g o working f a c i l i t i e s , hard s t a n d i n g
and open s t o r a g e a r e a s h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d . The d e e p w a t e r
R i v e r s i d e Q u a y , c o n v e r t e d f r o m t h e i m p o r t o f i r o n o r e i s now
a f l e x i b l e berth capable o f handling large general cargo
c a r r i e r s , deep s e a timber c a r g o e s , l i n e r s e r v i c e s , l a r g e
q u a r t e r - r a m p Ro-Ro v e s s e l s and b u l k g r a i n l o a d e r s . Some 1 5 0
a c r e s o f J a r r o w S l a k e h a v e b e e n r e c l a i m e d by l a n d f i l l t o
p r o v i d e b a c k - u p s p a c e f o r new b e r t h s . T h e new c o a l s t a i t h
w i t h a r a t e d c a p a c i t y o f 4M t o n n e s p e r y e a r i s i n l i n e w i t h
R i v e r s i d e quay and i s l i n k e d t o s t o c k p i l e s on t h e r e c l a i m e d
land o f the S l a k e .
4 4 . The e a r l y 1 9 7 0 * s saw t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e s h a r p
r e d u c t i o n i n manpower, t h e growth o f t h e road v e h i c l e
t r a f f i c , t h e d e m i s e o f s h o r t j o u r n e y r a i l movement and t h e
c h a n g e i n c o m p a r a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e many p o r t s o f t h e
British Isles. T h i s l a t t e r c h a n g e i s s t i l l g o i n g on, w i t h
t h e o b v i o u s r i s e o f S o u t h and L a s t c o a s t p o r t s a t t h e
e x p e n s e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l W e s t c o a s t p o r t s . Who w o u l d h a v e
t h o u g h t i n I 9 6 0 t h a t i n 1 9 8 2 I p s w i c h c o u l d c l a i m t o be t h e
6 t h l a r g e s t c o n t a i n e r p o r t i n B r i t a i n , o r t h a t D o v e r and
F e l i x s t o w e would be t h e most i m p o r t a n t l i n e r p o r t s ? Dover
h a s grown on c r o s s c h a n n e l Ro-Ro f e r r y t r a f f i c , F e l i x s t o w e

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on d e e p s e a s e r v i c e s , b o t h o f f e r i n g f l e x i b l e w o r k i n g to
provide the customer with the c o s t e f f e c t i v e s e r v i c e he
requires.

45. F l e x i b i l i t y in old ports i s d i f f i c u l t to achieve

b e c a u s e o f t h e i r d e s i g n and l o c a t i o n . Old p r a c t i c e s d i e
h a r d , a n d human b e i n g s a r e , e n m a s s e , i m m o b i l e . The Tyne
p o r t s o f N e w c a s t l e , N o r t h S h i e l d s and S o u t h S h i e l d s h a v e
been a b l e t o a c h i e v e a r e m a r k a b l e f l e x i b i l i t y through h a v i n g
a s u p p o r t i v e community and t h e s p a c e i n w h i c h t o expand and
d e v e l o p new a c t i v i t i e s a n d s e r v i c e s .
4 b . Changes i n t h e r i v e r a c t i v i t y and d e v e l o p m e n t s i n
d r e d g i n g r e n d e r e d many o f t h e A u t h o r i t y ' s r i v e r c r a f t
obsolete. The y a r d a t w h i c h t h e s e c r a f t w e r e m a i n t a i n e d ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h a p a r c e l o f l a n d r e t r i e v e d from t i m b e r
s t o r a g e , was l e a s e d t o a f i r m b u i l d i n g o f f s h o r e m o d u l e s .
T h i s f a c i l i t y o f f e r s e m p l o y m e n t , u s e s l o c a l s k i l l s and i s
dependent upon t h e r i v e r . O t h e r s h i p y a r d s became a c t i v e i n
t h i s f i e l d and a s u p p o r t i n g i n d u s t r y , w o r k i n g w i t h t h e
l a t e s t t e c h n o l o g y , a n d e n g a g e d i n r e s e a r c h , h a s g r o w n up i n
the true Tyneside t r a d i t i o n .
4 7 . T h e new g r a i n p l a n t , e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e p o r t a t T y n e
Dock w i t h l o c a l f a r m e r s and a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l g r a i n t r a d e r i s
a n e x a m p l e o f t h e p o r t p l a y i n g a p a r t i n g e n e r a t i n g new
t r a f f i c and t h e r e f o r e t r a d i n g o p p o r t u n i t y , f o r t h e community
i t serves.
4b. T i m b e r h a s l o n g b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t i m p o r t , t h e m i n e s
o n c e b e i n g a m a j o r c u s t o m e r . The t i m b e r and f o r e s t p r o d u c t s
trades in t h i s country continue to change. The p o r t h a s a
unique working r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h l o c a l s h i p p i n g a g e n t s and
h a u l i e r s a n d a t r i a n g u l a r m a r k e t i n g a p p r o a c h h a s won new
t r a f f i c s t o t h e r i v e r , based upon f i r s t c l a s s s e r v i c e t a i l o r
made t o t h e c u s t o m e r ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s , e x t e n d i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f t h e Tyne i n t h e f o r e s t p r o d u c t t r a d e s a s f a r s o u t h a s
Cambridge and w e s t t o N o r t h W a l e s .
49. M o t o r v e h i c l e s a r e a n o t h e r new t r a f f i c w h i c h h a s b e e n
a t t r a c t e d to the area with the help o f the port. The N i s s a n
Development r e s u l t e d from i m p r e s s i v e teamwork, o r c h e s t r a t e d
by l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t b o d i e s , w i t h p a r t s p l a y e d by a l l
a u t h o r i t i e s and o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a . The p o r t s o f
T y n e a n d S u n d e r l a n d , b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e R i v e r s i d e Quay a t
Tyne Dock and t h e road h a u l i e r s i n t h e p o r t , were i m p o r t a n t
factors in Nissan's decision.
50. The c a r i m p o r t / e x p o r t f a c i l i t y a t A l b e r t Edward Dock
s u f f e r e d a s e t b a c k l a s t y e a r when i t s t e n a n t c u s t o m e r was
o b l i g e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e upon a West C o a s t p o r t . The e f f e c t
t h i s had upon t h e c a r t r a n s p o r t i n d u s t r y w i t h i n t h e U . K .
d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s i t e and i t i s hoped t h a t
a l t e r n a t i v e r e g u l a r b u s i n e s s w i l l s o o n be a t t r a c t e d .
E u r o p e , A m e r i c a and J a p a n have s e e n t h e growth o f p o r t b a s e d
industrial areas. We h a v e s e e n how t h e e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t o f
t h e Tyne was a f o r e r u n n e r o f s u c h communal a c t i v i t y - b u t
t h e growth o f i n l a n d i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s i n B r i t a i n , b a s e d upon

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c a n a l and r a i l t r a n s p o r t , d i l u t e d t h e e f f o r t which c o u l d
h a v e b e e n c e n t r e d u p o n s e l e c t e d p o r t s a n d now e n c o u r a g e s
competition.
51. I n E u r o p e many i n d u s t r i a l c e n t r e s g r e w u p o n p o r t s ,
b o t h c o a s t a l and i n l a n d , and i n E n g l a n d i n s e l e c t e d s i t e s
t h e r e i s a f u t u r e f o r p o r t and a i r p o r t r e l a t e d industrial
areas. Free p o r t s a r e not a red h e r r i n g i n t h i s regard, but
t h e y a r e n o t t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d may n e v e r
b e c o m e s o w h i l s t many a d v a n t a g e s o f a f r e e p o r t c a n b e
o b t a i n e d by a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h h . M . C u s t o m s a t a l m o s t a n y s i t e
in the B r i t i s h I s l e s . A free port i s hardly relevant within
E.E.C. trades, thus accounting f o r t h e i r l o c a t i o n s at
Southampton, C a r d i f f and L i v e r p o o l .
52. T h e a b i l i t y t o c h a n g e h a s c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h e T y n e f r o m
the e a r l i e s t t i m e s . Now t h e p o r t i s w o r k i n g t o g e n e r a t e
jobs i n the offshore o i l industry. Land a t t h e A l b e r t
Edward Dock i s on o f f e r t o , o r a l r e a d y u s e d b y , o i l s u p p o r t
c o m p a n i e s , r i g b u i l d e r s and p i p e l i n e c o n s t r u c t o r s . The
l a t e s t t e c h n o l o g y i s i n u s e and t h e e n g i n e e r i n g c a p a b i l i t y
o f t h e a r e a i s t a p p e d t o i n v e n t , m a i n t a i n , c o n s t r u c t and
load out the p a r a p h e r n a l i a o f the 3rd g e n e r a t i o n o f f s h o r e
energy f i e l d .
5 3 . The b e r t h s i n t h e r i v e r have watched s u p e r t a n k e r s ,
p a s s e n g e r l i n e r s , w a r s h i p s , c a r g o v e s s e l s and c o a s t e r s s l i p
i n t o the s e a . The s h i p b u i l d e r s c o n t i n u e t o p l y t h e i r t r a d e ,
b u t f r e q u e n t l y d i s p l a y many l e g g e d m o n s t e r s a s e v i d e n c e o f
t h e i r work. T h e c o l l i e r s h a v e c h a n g e d i n s i z e . T h e new
berth can handle c o a l a t 1,800 tonnes per hour a g a i n s t the
o l d s t a i t h ' s maximum o f 5 0 0 t o n s p e r c h u t e . The c o a s t e r s o f
y e s t e r y e a r now a r r i v e i n b o x f o r m , t h e p a r a g r a p h v e s s e l s o f
t h e E u r o p e a n t r a d e , a b l e t o a s c e n d t h e c a n a l s and showing
c l e a r signs o f t h e i r parenthood are regular v i s i t o r s ,
unlovely but e f f i c i e n t s h i p s . The c a r g o s h e d s o f o l d i n t h e
City bustled continuously with people a l i v e to the l i g h t ,
c o l o u r , s m e l l s and s o u n d s a r o u n d them, w h i l s t t h e modern
sheds v i b r a t e i n b u r s t s o f a c t i v i t y to the f r e n e t i c working
o f d i e s e l f o r k l i f t t r u c k s and heavy l o r r i e s . They a r e busy
o n l y i n t e r m i t t e n t l y b e c a u s e modern c a r g o h a n d l i n g has
shredded cargo working t i m e s .
5 4 . The T y n e , i n 1 9 8 3 , l a y 1 1 t h i n t o t a l t r a d e t o n n e s
h a n d l e d , and 22nd i n c o n t a i n e r t o n n a g e s worked.
5 5 . The f u t u r e f o r T y n e s i d e l i e s i n some o f t h e o l d and
some o f t h e new. The A l b e r t Edward Dock w i l l h a n d l e
o f f s h o r e o i l c r a f t a d m i r a b l y ; t h e new g r a i n f a c i l i t y e m p l o y s
p a r t o f an old i r o n o r e c r a n e f o r i t s e x p o r t c h u t e ; the old
c o a l a r e a s o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d Dock h a n d l e h y d r o c a r b o n s and
c h e m i c a l s , s t a i t h e s have been c o n v e r t e d to the import o f s e a
dredged a g g r e g a t e s .
5 6 . The d u t y o f t h e p o r t i s c l e a r , t o c o n t i n u e t o f o s t e r
new b u s i n e s s b y e m p l o y i n g i t s r e s o u r c e s t o a t t r a c t a n d
e f f i c i e n t l y s e r v e m a r i t i m e e n d e a v o u r , t o be t h e i n t e r f a c e
b e t w e e n s e a and l a n d , p h y s i c a l l y , c o m m e r c i a l l y and a b o v e a l l
c ons t rue t i ve l y .

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5 7 . The l e g a c y o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s i n t h e form o f
b r e a k w a t e r s , c h a n n e l and p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , b u i l t by
e n g i n e e r s o f v i s i o n f o r a community w i t h i n i t i a t i v e , purpose
and e n e r g y , w i l l be w e l l u s e d .
APPENDIX I
T i m b e r - Wood - R o m a n / S a x o n t o p r e s e n t
2 5 0 0 Oak t r e e s s u p p l i e d t o t h e R o y a l Y a r d a t D e p t f o r d f o r
building the Sovereign o f the Seas in 1637.
S h i p b u i l d i n g and S h i p r e p a i r i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y peripheral
industries -
Roman t o p r e s e n t
T h e r e was m a j o r g r o w t h a f t e r 1 7 5 0 , a n d a s u r g e a f t e r 1 8 5 2
when t h e f i r s t i r o n s c r e w s t e a m c o l l i e r w a s b u i l t t o b e a t
the Midland R a i l w a y s c o a l t o London.
L e a d a n d S i l v e r - Roman - M i d d l e A g e s t o 1 9 0 0
The m i n e s i n t h e h i g h v a l l e y s e x p o r t e d t h e i r o r e by
p a c k - h o r s e and were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t u s e r s o f t h e t r a d i n g
communities o f Newcastle or Sunderland. The a b r u p t d e m i s e
o f t h e l e a d m i n i n g / c r o f t i n g way o f l i f e i n E n g l a n d w a s
c a u s e d by c h e a p i m p o r t s . In 1877 English lead sold for
£ 2 1 . 4 9 p e r t o n ; 1 8 8 5 £ 1 2 . 2 5 , a n d i n 1 8 9 0 much l e s s t h a n
£12.00 per ton. The r e s u r g e n c e i n t h e f i r s t w o r l d war was
f o r r e a s o n s o f s u p p l y f o r t h e war e f f o r t and was o b v i o u s l y
not sustained a f t e r 1 9 1 8 .
S i l v e r i n W e s t N o r t h u m b e r l a n d w a s won a t a r a t e o f a b o u t
2 0 , 0 0 0 o z s i n 1 8 0 0 and p e a k e d a t a b o v e 5 0 , 0 0 0 o z s p e r y e a r
alter 1850.
Wool - Roman S a x o n E a r l y E n g l i s h
E x p o r t e d t o H o l l a n d and I t a l y . S h a r p l y d e c l i n e d i n 1 4 5 0 ' s .
h i d e s - Roman S a x o n Norman
Spasmodic export a f t e r 1 6 0 0 with growth o f l o c a l c h e m i c a l
industry.
S a l t Roman 1 2 0 0 - 1 8 0 9
Wood b u r n t t o b o i l o f f s e a w a t e r .
S a l t - 1 6 5 0 Onward
Coal used t o b o i l o f f s e a w a t e r .
Coal - 1239 to p r e s e n t
C a n a l and r a i l c o m p e t i t i o n a f f e c t e d t h e c o a s t a l t r a d e s i n
t h a t t h e y a b s o r b e d s o m e o f t h e e x p a n s i o n i n demand f o r c o a l .
I r o n - Roman t o p r e s e n t
By 1 7 5 3 i r o n w h e e l s w e r e f i t t e d t o t h e C h a l d r o n s c a r r y i n g
c o a l from m i n e s t o S t a i t h e s . I r o n f a c i n g s t o t h e wooden
r a i l s soon followed. The r a i l w a y was i n e v i t a b l e !
Glass Saxon-Industrial Revolution
I n 1 8 4 5 S o u t h S h i e l d s was t h e l a r g e s t g l a s s manufacturing
centre in England. 1 8 5 1 - much o f t h e g l a s s f o r C r y s t a l
P a l a c e s e n t f r o m T y n e s i d e by s e a . F l i n t blown g l a s s
manufacturers s u f f e r e d under a r i g i d c l o s e d shop i n 1 8 6 0 .
In a time o f changing technology t h i s i n f l e x i b i l i t y
p r e v e n t e d a d o p t i o n o f t h e p r e s s p r o c e s s and t h e t r a d e d i e d
w i t h i n t w e n t y y e a r s , k i l l e d by c h e a p i m p o r t s I In 1900 only
o n e s p e c i a l i s t w o r k s * w a s i n e x i s t e n c e , t h o u g h S w a n s made
electric light bulbs.

107
 PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

Pottery - 1600 - 1900

( F o r e x p o r t ) a i d e d by l o c a l c l a y s a n d s p e c i a l c l a y s b r o u g h t
t o t h e Tyne a s b a l l a s t i n r e t u r n i n g c o l l i e r s . In 1850 the
b i g g e s t p o t t e r y w o r k s i n E n g l a n d w a s o n T y n e s i d e y e t by 1 9 0 0
t h e t r a d e w a s d e a d - I m p o r t s move t h r o u g h p o r t s a s w e l l a s
exportsi
Soap & Chemicals - 1750 - p r e s e n t
T y n e s i d e i s t h e home o f F a i r y S o a p .
Alkali - 1796 - 1900
T h e u s e o f l o c a l c o a l , a n d b r i n e pumped f r o m m i n e w o r k i n g s ,
c o u p l e d w i t h l o c a l i n n o v a t i v e c h e m i s t s and an e x p o r t t r a d i n g
community l e d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a m a j o r c h e m i c a l
i n d u s t r y , l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t t r a n s f e r r e d much o f t h e a c t i o n
t o T e e s s i d e b u t i n 1 8 5 0 t h e T y n e p r o d u c e d 5 0 % o f UK n e e d s ,
and e x p o r t e d f a r and n e a r .
Railways - 1600 to present
As t h e r i v e r b a n k m i n e s w o r k e d o u t , a n d o t h e r m i n e s j o i n e d i n
t h e s e a c o a l t r a d e s , l o c a l waggon-ways were c o n s t r u c t e d ,
e v e n t u a l l y g i v i n g r i s e t o r a i l w a y s which were l o c a l l y
d e s i g n e d and b u i l t . Railway equipment i s s t i l l an important
export o f the Tyne.
Marine, Chemical, E l e c t r i c a l , M i l i t a r y , Railway, C i v i l
Engineering - 1850 to present
T h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n d r e w much o f i t s t a l e n t a n d e n e r g y
i n e n g i n e e r i n g from T y n e s i d e . The p o r t e n a b l e d t h e produce
o f l o c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n d u s t r i e s t o t r a v e l out to o t h e r
industrialising countries.
Chemical Manufacturing 1850 - 1890
The L e b l a n c A l k a l i p r o c e s s g a v e r i s e t o a d i v e r s e c h e m i c a l
industry. With t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e more e f f i c i e n t s o l w a y
p r o c e s s t h e a l k a l i t r a d e moved t o t h e T e e s , a n d c h e m i c a l
manufacturing declined. The m a j o r i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n was
exported. I n 1 8 5 2 T y n e s i d e ' s q u o t a f o r s o d a p r o d u c t i o n was
a l m o s t 4 5 , 0 0 0 t o n s o u t o f a UK t o t a l o f 6 1 , 0 0 0 t o n s .
F o u n d r i e s - 1 8 5 0 Onward
A n c h o r s and c h a i n s f o r l a r g e r v e s s e l s m a n u f a c t u r e d on
Tyneside.
H y d r a u l i c M a c h i n e r y - 1 8 5 0 Onward
V a r i o u s l o c a l e n g i n e e r s p r o d u c e d e q u i p m e n t t o t h e i r own
designs, particularly Armstrong's.
Paper - 1820 - 1920
Import o f E s p a r t o g r a s s from S p a i n from 1 8 7 0 t o o k l o c a l
manufacturers into the big league. However, low c o s t
i m p o r t s and c h a n g e s i n t e c h n o l o g y c a u s e d t h e d e m i s e o f p a p e r
manufacture. P a p e r and p u l p a r e s t i l l m a j o r i m p o r t s i n t h e
Tyne.
Fishing - 1850 to present
I m p r o v e m e n t s i n S h i e l d s H a r b o u r i n 1 8 5 0 onward b o o s t e d l o c a l
sales. 1 8 6 0 Woodger o f N e w c a s t l e ' i n v e n t e d ' K i p p e r s . 1877,
f i r s t steam t r a w l e r s (converted t u g s ) . 1 9 0 9 , 76 steam

108
 PAPER 6: OAKES

t r a w l e r s b a s e d a t N o r t h S h i e l d s ( l o c a l s h i p b u i l d i n g and
equipment supply,). 1910, 20,000 tons of herring landed.
2 , 6 0 0 p e r m a n e n t j o b s and 6 , 0 0 0 c a s u a l l a b o u r e r s i n f i s h i n g
industry.
E l e c t r i c Light - 1880
Swans a t G a t e s h e a d - s e a t r a n s p o r t i d e a l f o r t h e d e l i c a t e
equipment.
S t e e l Shipbuilding - 1884 Oil Tankers - 1886
I n a two s t a g e d e v e l o p m e n t t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e m o d e r n t a n k e r
was b o r n and b r o u g h t t o m a t u r i t y on T y n e s i d e . First vessel
was GLUKAUF a n d p r i o r t o WWI v i r t u a l l y a l l B r i t i s h T a n k e r s
( a n d many o t h e r s ) w e r e b u i l t o n T y n e s i d e .
Turbines - 1894
C l a r k e Chapman a n d P a r s o n s .
E l e c t r i c a l Power G e n e r a t i o n - 1 9 3 3 t o p r e s e n t
I n v e s t m e n t and e x p a n s i o n n o t d i r e c t l y p o r t r e l a t e d b u t a l l
UEGB h e a v y c o m p o n e n t s move by s e a w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e - many
o f them t h r o u g h t h e Tyne w h e r e t h e y a r e b u i l t and
refurbished.
Trading E s t a t e - 1936
Team V a l l e y E s t a t e f o u n d e d t o t r y t o a l l e v i a t e e f f e c t s o f
d e c l i n e i n employment i n c o a l , s h i p b u i l d i n g , s t e e l c h e m i c a l s
industries etc.
England's f i r s t such v e n t u r e . (not d i r e c t l y port related)
Atomic Power G e n e r a t i o n - 1 9 3 5
L o c a l companies merge t o form Atomic Power C o n s t r u c t i o n
Company. (not port r e l a t e d ) .
APPENDIX I I
The work o f t h e Tyne I m p r o v e m e n t C o m m i s s i o n and P o r t o f T y n e
A u t h o r i t y may b e s u m m a r i s e d a s f o l l o w s : -
1853 C o n s t r u c t i o n o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d Dock - C o a l
Export
1856 Work c o m m e n c e d o n e n t r a n c e p i e r s
1859 Inauguration of river navigation
i m p r o v e m e n t s e a t o Wylam - ( 1 9 miles)
by 1 8 7 3 R i v e r b a r d e p t h improved from 6 f t t o 20 f t
a t LWS
N a r r o w s a t Low L i g h t w i d e n e d f r o m 4 0 0 f t t o
640 f t
S h i e l d s harbour c l e a r e d o f s h o a l s t o 30 f t
a t LWS
Channel t o N e w c a s t l e deepened from a b o u t 3
f t t o 2 0 f t a t LWS a n d s t r a i g h t e n e d
A b o v e N e w c a s t l e - t w o m i l e s a t 1 7 f t LWS t o
B l a y d o n 1 2 f t LWS
A new c u t t h r o u g h L e m i n g t o n p o i n t 4 0 0 ' w i d e
R i v e r widening a t B l a y d o n from 1 5 0 f t t o
400 f t
by 1 8 7 6 O l d b r i d g e r e p l a c e d by t h e S w i n g B r i d g e
s t i l l i n use today
Removal o f B i l l P o i n t ( 7 2 f t above h i g h
water mark)
Deepening o f Northumberland Dock

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PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

IbbA A l b e r t E d w a r d L o c k opened
lbb7 F i s h Quay opened
lb93 LNER L)unston S t a i t h e s opened
lb97 North Pier severely damaged after a
prolonged gale
1909 R e c o n s t r u c t i o n of N o r t h P i e r completed
1922 O i l W h a r f at J a r r o w S l a k e opened for traffic
1928 R i v e r s i d e Quay at A l b e r t E d w a r d D o c k opened
for traffic
1932 The H o w d o n S t a i t h o p e n e d , 195b Jarrow
S t a i t h opened
1937 T y n e D o c k t a k e n o v e r by TIC from LNER
193b N o s 2 7 / 2 b berths opened at N e w c a s t l e Quay
1941 N o r t h W e s t Quay, T y n e D o c k opened
1942 R i v e r s i d e Quay - S u t h e r l a n d Quay at Tyne
Dock completed
1950 C e n t e n a r y of the T y n e I m p r o v e m e n t C o m m i s s i o n
1953 I r o n Ore Quay opened at R i v e r s i d e Tyne D o c k
1954 'A' S t a i t h at W h i t e h i l l Point c o m m i s s i o n e d
1955 T a n k e r C l e a n i n g B e r t h commenced o p e r a t i o n
1963 N o s 2 9 / 3 0 B e r t h s added to N e w c a s t l e Quay
1966 Car F e r r y Terminal (Ro-Ro No 3 ) opened at
Whitehill Point
1967 h e a v y Load R o - R o b e r t h commenced operating
in Albert Edward Dock

2 b T H JUNE 1 9 6 b
P O R T OF T Y N E A U T H O R I T Y C O N S T I T U T E D

1972 H o w d o n R e p a i r Yard leased to P r e s s

P r o d u c t i o n S y s t e m s f o r Rig M o d u l e
construction
1972 J a r r o w S l a k e r e c l a m a t i o n commenced
1974 I r o n Ore Quay r e - d e v e l o p e d as a m u t l i
purpose berth
1975 T i l c o n ' s H o w d o n S t a i t h c o n v e r t e d to import
sea dredged a g g r e g a t e s
1975 V e l v a L i q u i d s T e r m i n a l opened in the
reclaimed Northumberland Dock
1978 No 4 R o - R o opened at W h i t e h i l l Point
19b4 C o n v e r s i o n of S u t h e r l a n d Quay into
R i v e r s i d e Quay E x t e n s i o n
19b4 O p e n i n g of the G r a i n S t o r a g e and Export
F a c i l i t y at T y n e D o c k
19b5 C o m m i s s i o n i n g of the new Coal H a n d l i n g
F a c i l i t y at J a r r o w S l a k e

110
PAPER 7
Port management and operations at Felixstowe

J. H. W. NORTHFIELD, BScEng, F I C E , F I M H , Felixstowe Port

Consultancy Services Ltd

SYNOPSIS. The paper describes the development of the Port of

Felixstowe from the receipt of Royal Assent to the 1875 Act
of Parliament which led to the formation of the Felixstowe
Railway & Pier Company, to its position today as one of the
principal ports in the United Kingdom. The relationship
between the activities in the port and the hinterland are
discussed briefly to show how Felixstowe is a gateway and not
a hinterland port. Although other factors have contributed
to its success, management and labour relations have played
the most significant part in the development of the port, and
the paper describes how these, coupled with marketing, have
enabled it to reach the position in international trade that
it holds today.

HISTORICAL
1. The Port of Felixstowe, or to be more precise, the
Felixstowe Dock and Railway Company, is over 100 years old,
being incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1875, but the
major development of the port has taken place in the last 20
years. The company was incorporated under the Railways Acts
with Powers to build a railway between the village of
Westerfield, where it connected with the Great Eastern Railway,
and Felixstowe, and to construct docks at Felixstowe.
2. The original dock was one of many round the coast of the
United Kingdom which were constructed as the railway systems
reached the coast, thus providing much improved access to
inland markets. The original concept was that of an enclosed
dock system "to rival the then Port of London" and the enclosed
docks were to be constructed on Landguard marshes, an area
which is covered now by tank farms, warehouses and container
parks and other ancillary services.
3. One wonders what would have been the fate of the port had
this system, which would have been rendered obsolete by
subsequent developments in shipping, been constructed. In
fact the only part of the pipedream that was built was the
entrance basin, which has subsequently been developed to form
what is known as the Dock Basin, and this is shown on Fig. 1.
A. The railway between Westerfield and Ipswich was sold to
the Great Eastern Railway within a few years but to this day

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 111
PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

the company remains a Statutory Public Company and has to seek

Powers from Parliament before undertaking major developments
or to extend its borrowing limits.
5. Colonel Tomline, the local landowner who constructed the
f
railway and the original dock, died in the early 1900 s and
the development of the enclosed dock system was abandoned.
Even at that stage in its history, the port could claim to be
in the forefront of development in that the Royal Navy
constructed a tank farm to store fuel oil for warships as it
converted from coal firing to oil burning. Two local
industries built facilities at the port within the first few
years primarily to satisfy local demand, one being a flour
mill and the other a maltings to supply the local breweries.
6. During the Great War the port installations were
requisitioned by the Royal Navy as a destroyer and boom defence
base and to service and provision the famous Harwich "H" Force.
During the period between the two World Wars, trade fluctuated
and no further expansion took place. Again in 1939 the port
was taken over, this time by both the Royal Navy and the Royal
Air Force, the Royal Navy using it as a base for their Light
Coastal Forces MTB Flotilla and Boom Defence Unit, and the
Royal Air Force as a base for their Air Sea Rescue launches.
7. At the end of the Second World War the installations and
buildings were in poor condition and extensive repairs were
needed to reinstate the entrance and jetties. Since no
dredging was carried out after the war, siltation of the
basin occurred so that by 1950 the depth of water in the
entrance was no more than 12 ft. at low water.
8. In the immediate post war period the dock facility
continued to be used for the importation of wheat for the flour
mill, and coal and other materials for local industries, but in
a very limited way. At this time the total number of employees
in 1955 was a mere 25.
f
9. In the early 5 0 s H. Gordon Parker, Chairman of Favour
Parker of Stoke Ferry, a firm engaged in the animal feedstuffs
and malting barley market, was dissatisfied with the problems
associated with shipping his products through ports, decided it
would be better if he owned a port. Consequently he purchased
the equity of the Felixstowe Dock and Railway Company from the
Prettyman family and then proceeded to develop the facilities
at Felixstowe to serve his own needs.
10. He soon realised that his own cargoes were insufficient
to make the project viable and other traffic was attracted to
the port, thus beginning the development which has gone on
almost continuously to the present. For the first 10 years or
so facilities were developed to,handle general cargo, malting
barley, and other food grains, but from the beginning the
accent was on unitisation and rebates were given to
organisations shipping their goods on pallets. A tank farm
to allow the importation and storage of industrial chemicals
and petroleum products was provided, and the revenue from
this source used to finance further development.
11. In 1958 the company purchased from the Ministry of Defence
112
 PAPER 7: NORTHFIELD

the 50 ton hammerhead crane, which had been used to lift

flying boats and A.S.R. launches into and out of the water,
and this provided the opportunity for Fisher Line to introduce
a daily heavy lift service between the United Kingdom and the
continent.
12. The first major specialist facility to be provided was a
Tee-head jetty, approximately 1000 ft. long, to enable Phillips
Petroleum to import liquid gas from the United States. This
jetty was designed to take refrigerated gas carriers of some
25,000 d.w.t. to allow discharge of liquid Propane, at minus
50°C, into a 50,000 water ton refrigerated gas tank constructed
by Phillips Petroleum on land leased from the company. In 1963
this was the largest such tank in Europe.
13. The next major development, in 1965, was the construction
of an exclusive user roll-on roll-off terminal for the Atlantic
Steam Navigation Company, a company that had pioneered the
roll-on roll-off concept immediately after the war by using
ex-service landing craft on services between the United Kingdom
and Ireland and the United Kingdom and the Continent.
14. Containers had been shipped through Felixstowe since the
early 60*s and in 1966 the Board of Directors took the very
bold decision to provide a purpose built container handling
facility to service the new cellular container ships which
were being built as the containerisation concept gained
momentum and in July, 1967, the first cellular deep sea
container ship was worked at Felixstowe on the partially
completed facility. In 1968 the second roll-on roll-off
facility was commissioned, thus enabling the port to handle
international deep sea container and ro-ro traffic. The
tonnage handled in 1968 was some 1,500,000 tons, and this
included a throughput of some 40,000 containers.
15. By the early 1970's traffic had increased to the point
where the existing facilities were no longer able to cope and
between 1972 and 1974 two more deep sea roll-on roll-off berths
and a general cargo quay were constructed, during which 50
acres of foreshore were reclaimed.
16. In 1976 the battle for the acquisition of the company took
place between the then British Transport Docks Board and
European Ferries Limited. The Bill required by B.T.D.B. to
enable them to purchase the company was defeated and ownership
passed to European Ferries, thus keeping the port in the
private sector, and providing the backing to allow further
expansion to be undertaken.
17. Again, by 1978 tonnage handled had reached saturation
point, the throughput of containers alone being nearly 200,000
per annum, and additional facilities were needed to satisfy
1
customers requirements. A further 1400 ft. of quay was
constructed, including another 50 acres of reclamation, as
well as a second rail container terminal and. all the other
associated facilities required to handle containers. Within
this development an exclusive user terminal was provided for
O.O.C.L., one of the C.Y. Tung group of companies operating
services all over the world.

113
 PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

Fig. 1. Port of Felixstowe: development of the dock estate

1965 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85

Fig. 2. Port of Felixstowe: Ro-Ro cargo - tonnes

114
 PAPER 7: NORTHFIELD

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

1965 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 7 7 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85

Fig. 3. Port of Felixstowe: containers handled through the port

1965 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 7 7 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85

Fig. 4. Port of Felixstowe: general cargo - tonnes

115
Fig. 5. Port of Felixstowe
 PAPER 7: NORTHFIELD

18. Up to this time passenger services were confined to those

provided by the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company Limited on
their ferry services, but in 1974 European Ferries and Tor
Line built passenger terminals. In 1984 some 635,000
passengers passed through Felixstowe.
19. By 1984 traffic on offer was such that further development
was viable and currently a deep water extension of some 1800
ft., equipped with four container cranes, rubber tyred park
gantry cranes, warehouses, and other equipment is being
provided north of the Walton Terminal and which will enable
the port to handle some 700,000 containers. This facility
will be provided with the most modern data processing and
control systems, as well as the latest container handling
equipment and systems.
20. During these periods of development, all the ancillary
services needed to enable the port to handle the increasing
volume of cargo, such as the provision of two rail container
terminals, associated warehousing, equipment servicing
facilities and all the other activities necessary for the
efficient working of the port have been provided to complement
the shipping and stevedoring activities.
21. In parallel with the operational, engineering and other
activities the port has introduced advanced computerised
business systems to enable the various activities to be
controlled, monitored and costed efficiently.
22. From a workforce of 25 men in 1955, the company now
employs nearly 1600 people, and in 1984 handled some 9 million
tonnes of cargo.
23. The various stages of development are shown on Fig. 1 and
it can be seen how the port has developed around the basin of
1886.
24. Roll-on roll-off tonnage is shown on Fig. 2 and the peak
f
period during the middle 7 0 s , when the Middle East
construction boom was at its height, is clearly shown.
25. The annual throughput of containers is shown on Fig. 3.
Converted to T.E.U. the 1983 total of 460,000 containers
represents approximately 700,000 T.E.U.
26. Because the port has concentrated on the development of
its services to handle unitised cargo, the same growth has
not occurred in general cargo passing through the port. The
annual tonnages of commodities classed as general cargo are
shown on Fig. 4.

27. Figure 5 shows the port as it exists today.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
1. The development of the port over the last 20 years has
seen it change from one catering for the short sea trade to
Scandinavia and the near continent to one that now plays, a very
significant part in UK and international maritime trading.
2. International shipping is undergoing yet further changes
with the introduction of the round-the-world services in which
'ships will call at a minimum number of ports, on their voyage
round the world, and from which cargo will be transhipped and
117
 PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

carried to its ultimate destination by a fleet of smaller

vessels. With the completion of the works currently being
carried out at Felixstowe and with the deepening of the
approach channel into Harwich Harbour, the Port of Felixstowe
will be able to accept most dry cargo vessels afloat today
and, because of its location on the east coast, is well
situated as the UK port of call for services into north east
Europe.

MANAGEMENT
1. A large measure of the success of the Port of Felixstowe
can be attributed to the way in which the port has been and is
being managed. To some extent this has been helped by the fact
that the port has maintained its expansion during a period when
many other ports have declined, but man management has played
a leading role in the affairs of the company,
2. It would be unrealistic to suggest that no differences of
opinion exist between management and labour but it is accepted
that when such differences do arise, work continues while
negotiations or discussions are in progress. From the time
the company ownership changed in the 50* s it has practised an
"open door" style of management, and whilst many may criticise
this as time wasting, and claim that it leads to the erosion of
authority of some sections of management, it has enabled good
communication to be maintained between all sections of the
workforce.
3. Perhaps the most favourable factor providing the stability
which Felixstowe has for so long enjoyed is that the workforce
is represented by a single Union, the Dock & Waterways Branch
1
of the Transport and General Workers Union. Salaried
employees are represented by the affiliated Union, the
Association of Clerical, Technical and Supervisory Staff and
maintenance engineering staff by the appropriate tradesmen
section of the Transport and General Workers' Union. The Shop
Stewards Committee comprises 13 representatives, led by a
Union Convenor who is released from his work duties and thus
is able to concentrate on union and labour matters.
4. Because the company negotiates with one union only, no
complications arise owing to representation by rival unions,
as occurs in some other ports.
5. Another favourable factor is that all employees engaged
in ship working, stevedoring, warehousing, maintenance
engineering and undertaking ancillary services are employed by
the Felixstowe Dock & Railway Company. In addition, warehouse
operatives required in the warehouses outside the port
boundaries are employed by the company and hired to the various
organisations on a long term contractual basis.
6. Labour relations have been favoured also by the period in
which expansion has taken place in that none of the workforce
f
was employed in the industry during the 3 0 s , when industrial
relations in the port industry were very poor. When the
National Dock Labour Board scheme was introduced in 1947, the
Felixstowe Dock & Railway Company was not affected since the
118
 PAPER 7: NORTHFIELD

number of persons employed was less than that specified by

the Act. Subsequently, on two occasions, attempts have been
made to have the port included within the Scheme but each time
the workforce has rejected it.
7. As' the port has expanded, most of the employees have been
recruited locally and only senior management and those
specialist skills not available locally are recruited outside
the area. Most of the appointments which have arisen over the
years have been filled by internal promotion and many senior
managers of today were first employed on the shop floor.
8. A more recent incentive, for both management and the
workforce, has been the introduction of an annual bonus
payment which is related to the profitability of the company.
9. The company operates an apprenticeship scheme to train
tradesmen in some maintenance engineering skills, as well as
providing training for operatives, supervisory staff and
management.
10. Finally, one significant factor, and one which the company
believes to be important, is that the whole of the workforce
works within the port area and thus the "ivory tower syndrome",
where management and operatives do not work in close proximity
to each other, does not exist. Head office is not a remote
establishment divorced from day-to-day affairs, but is involved
very much with the problems which arise from time to time
during the working day.
11. By today's standards the number of employees is still
small in relation to the tonnage of cargo handled, and
particularly so since most of this is dry cargo and only a
small tonnage of bulk liquids pass over the port's quays. In
1984 the port handled some 9 million tonnes of cargo with an
establishment of about 1,500 people, including 150 men on
contract hire to those warehouses outside the port limits.

RELATION TO REGIONAL ECONOMY

1. Frequently the question is asked as to why the Port of
Felixstowe has been so successful during the last twenty years
whilst others have declined, and there are a number of reasons
for this.
2. Management, marketing, a willing labour force, good
conditions of employment, and a congenial area have all played
their part.
3. Whilst Felixstowe may be held up as an example, it must
not be forgotten that many other ports on the south and east
coasts have expanded also during this period. One reason is
that the centre of gravity of the UK economy has moved steadily
to the south east and even if no other factors had intervened,
ports on the west coast would have declined to a greater or
lesser extent naturally. The fact that labour relations in
many of these ports have been very poor has accelerated
their decline and the east and south coast ports have
benefited.
4. British membership of the European Economic Community has
increased trading considerably between the continent and the

119
PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

United Kingdom, and once again it is natural for this cargo to

flow through east coast ports. The short sea roll-on roll-off
services have made these routes very attractive, and Felixstowe
has provided the service required.
5. The oil crisis in the 70*s, which greatly increased ship
operating costs, forced owners to consider these more closely
than previously, and the cost incurred in making a diversion
into west coast ports was considerably more than landing goods
at east and south coast ports and then moving them to their
destination by road or rail. The improvement in the national
motorway network and the introduction of rail freightliner
services has improved communications between the south east
and the rest of the country, thus increasing the desirability
of using ports located on or near shipping lanes to the
Continent.
6. However, it must be made clear that Felixstowe is not a
hinterland port in that it caters for traffic generated or
moving into areas immediately adjacent to the port. It is, in
fact, a gateway port in that cargo passing through Felixstowe
originates from, or is transported to, most parts of the
British Isles. Goods landed at Felixstowe on a ro-ro service
can be in Birmingham within six hours.

CONCLUSIONS
1. So, it may be asked, why has Felixstowe grown to become
one of the principal ports of this country from a near derelict
basin of 30 years ago? Relative to other ports the workforce
is happy, earnings are high and the environment and
surroundings in which the families live are very congenial.
For instance, a very high proportion own or are purchasing
their own houses.
2. Marketing of services has played a very large part in this
success story, and representatives travel all over the world to
keep customers informed and to negotiate new and existing
contracts•
3. The introduction of the latest technology in cargo
handling has been accepted readily by employees and the port
can claim to be as well equipped as any in the country.
4. It has been said that the port has been in the "right
place at the right time". That the changes which have taken
place in European trading patterns and relations between
countries have been advantageous to Felixstowe and other east
coast ports cannot be denied, but it is only by dedication and
enthusiasm on the part of all employees that Felixstowe has
achieved the success envied by many today. However, as more
and more international traffic has been attracted to
Felixstowe, this natural advantage has diminished to some
extent•
5. In operating in the private sector the Directors have to
convince the Market and shareholders that development is viable
in order to attract finance, and to do so the company must
show a consistent record of profitability.

120
 PAPER 7: NORTHFIELD

6. And so, once again, the existing facilities are handling

more cargo than they were designed for and currently the
development of another container terminal is in progress, to
be completed in mid-1986. When this is complete, the port
will have expanded to the limit of the Powers granted by
Parliament in the Felixstowe Act, 1979. The Board of
Directors can foresee potential growth over the next 20
years and with this in view, a Bill to extend the limits
of the port to enable a further 3,280ft of quay to be
provided, is currently before Parliament.
7. What the future holds for the Port of Felixstowe can
never be certain but management is confident that it has a
future, and in seeking further Powers from Parliament, is
paving the way for development and expansion to take the port
into the twenty-first century.

121
Discussion on Papers 6 and 7

MR P. OXLEY, Cranfield Institute of Technology

It is said that whereas ports in continental Europe invest in
major new developments in advance of needs, British ports
usually wait until the demand for new facilities has emerged.
Could Mr Northfield describe the criteria on which Felixstowe
bases its decisions to provide new facilities and how the
investment capital for them is raised?

MR A. H. C. STIRLING, Posford, Pavry & Partners

In order to berth the next generation of container vessels
which were deeper and longer , the management at Felixstowe
undertook major deepening work. The work had to be done in a
very short period and it was essential to keep the port
operation going at the same time. In November 1982 my firm
was instructed to start design; the deepened berth was
available on 17 July 1983.
The first project was to deepen the berth at the Dooley
terminal (which was built in 1973-74) from -10.25 m to -12 m
for a length of 195 m; the cost was £1.1 million.
The existing berth design (Fig. 1) was sheet piles tied back
to an anchor wall. The tie bars were at a low level but at
0.8 m centres and irregular in their location. A rear crane
rail had an inverted tee foundation but was not supported on
piles. Generally the ground conditions were poor, with weak
and medium sands and gravels overlying weathered chalk.
Alternative designs for the deepening were considered and a
relieving slab solution was determined because it was
operationally acceptable and simple in concept (Fig. 2 ) . It
consisted of

(a) relieving slab about 5 m below the quay level just above
the ties, supported on H piles founded in the chalk
(b) a mass concrete support beneath the rear crane rail of jet
grout construction which was taken below the relieving
slab
(c) excavation, piling and slab construction carried out over
20 m lengths to minimize disturbance to port operations.

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 123
 PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

Berthing line

v - 1-62 m MLWS

Anchor w a l l '

King piles—
- S h e e t pile wall
Larssen no. 6

^7 - 1 1 - 8 9 m
/ > W 5
Existing d r e d g e level |

2_
-20-73 m

Fig. 1. Dooley terminal before de epening

Berthing I ne 1 + 4-27 m

I.——*
OD Relieving s l a b
S7 - 1-62 m MLWS

1
— J e t grouted underpinning

- 1 0 0 mm thick polystyrene

^7 ~ 1 3 - 6 2 m I — H piles, 3 0 m long
P r o p o s e d d r e d g e level
C Z D 6 mm thick S l i p c o a t to piles
over t h e s e lengths

_2
-20-73 m

Fig. 2. Dooley terminal after deepening

124
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 6 A N D 7

4-27 m
Berthing l i n e -
"Z5~

V
v
OP
- 1 6 8 m MLWS

Anchor wall-

King p i l e -
- S h e e t pile wall
Larssen no. 6

Existing d r e d g e level - 1 1 - 8 8 m

19-2 m

Fig. 3 . Landguard terminal before deepening

4-27 m
V
Berthing line—

OP
v - 1-68 m MLWS

Anchor wall-

- S h e e t pile wall
King p i l e -
Larssen no. 6

Exist i n g d r e d g e level - 1 1 - 8 8 m \

Proposed d r e d g e level - 1 3 - 9 2 m
//XW//CSX/AM
- 19-2 m

Toe wall 1-067 m dia..

tubular piles at -22^5 m
1-422 m ctrs

Fig. 4. Landguard terminal after deepening

125
PORT MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONS

P r o p o s e d d r e d g e d level - 1 3 - 9 2 m

M a x i m u m d e s i g n d r e d g e level - 1 6 - 3 2 m

Fig. 5. Trinity development

The Contractor had to permit the quay cranes to be moved

over the working area to suit the port's operating
requirements.
A second deepening of 2.15 m to -11.9 m for a 340 m length
was carried out at the Landguard terminal. It cost £1.35
million.
The original design of the berth was similar to the Dooley
quay but had upper and lower tie bars (Fig. 3 ) . Fortunately
the ground conditions at the toe were better.
Again alternative designs were considered and a toe propping
scheme was adopted. Tubular 1,07 m dia. piles were driven
virtually continuously along the toe as shown in Fig. 4, with
concrete infill between the tubular piles and the original
sheet piles to form the prop and prevent the main wall from
moving foward during the dredging operation.
The construction was simpler than at Dooley. It involved
airlifting the accumulated silt and debris against the berth,
driving the piles, placing the concrete infill and dredging.
Again port operations were maintained throughout the work.
Figure 5 shows the design for the Trinity development at
Felixstowe, with a dredged depth of -14.5 m and an overall
height of 20.6 m.
I believe that the deepening of berths like those at
Felixstowe is a viable way forward for British ports.

MR J. KERR, Forth Ports Authority

Whereas both Felixstowe and the Tyne have open or river
berths, parts of the Forth have been developed as impounded
dock systems. New lock gates have been provided in all the

126
 DISCUSSION ON P A P F R S 6 AND 7

Pig. 6. Leith entrance lock

Fig. 7. Hound Point terminal

127
PORT M A N A C K M H N T A N D OPERATIONS

Fig. 8. Braefoot marine terminal

Forth docks; entrance locks at Leith (1969, Fig. 6) and

Grangemouth (1974) are capable of handling vessels of up to
32 000 dwt on the tide.
The attention of the Forth Ports Authority is continually
being drawn to the potential of the Forth Estuary, where
depths of 30 m are available, with 20 ra at the Forth bridges,
to within 5 km of Grangemouth. Oil tankers of 300 000 dwt can
be handled at Hound Point terminal (Fig. 7 ) , which was
constructed in 1976 for British Petroleum for the export of
large quantities of crude oil from the Forties field.
The Braefoot Bay marine complex (Fig. 8) on the north shore
of the estuary was opened in 1984 for the export of liquefied
gases from the Shell/Esso petrochemical plant at Mossmorran.

MR R. A. GIBBONS, British Ports Association

Could Mr Oakes comment on the developing situation in the
short-sea trades?
Could Mr Northfield describe Felixstowe's free-ranging
rubber-tyred gantries, with particular reference to loads on
the paved surface? Why were they chosen and what were their
disadvantages especially with regard to cost , safety and speed
of operation?

DR I. W. DAND, NMI Ltd

If the Felixstowe deep-water development which is at present
the subject of a parliamentary bill should come to fruition
and be completed, will that be the end of deep-water berth
development at Felixstowe?

128
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 6 A N D 7

MR P. S. LUCAS, Mersey Docks and Harbour Co.

I have the strong impression that capital investment in the
port industry has declined significantly since the mid 1970s.
Investment on infrastructure, including repairs and renewals,
has also declined disproportionately with the need to purchase
increasingly expensive cargo-handling plant.
Many UK ports are being forced to adapt their existing
facilities to new uses rather than building new. This may
seem admirable in the short term, but it is unlikely to make
provision for the future adequate. In this context the scale
of continuing investment elsewhere in Europe is of
considerable concern.

MR OAKES, Paper 6
The future of British ports lies entangled in a web of
political, economic and financial threads.
Ports are the interface between land and sea routes. They
operate in a harsh commercial environment.
When land transport is difficult, expensive or unreliable
and water transport is feasible then land transport will be
kept to a minimum. This has been the case for millenia but
now in certain UK/Continent trades a reversal has been caused
by fast, efficient, flexible and unbelievably cheap land
transport.
An example of the balance between politics, economics and
finance may be seen in a forest product traffic from eastern
Europe to the North East of England. The market price of the
manufactured article in the UK is under constant downward
pressure. The producer's government decided to sell at an
attractive price in order to earn foreign exchange. The trade
moved by sea from the Baltic to the North East ports for some
years until the late 1970s, when sudden rises in freight
rates, exchange rate instability, devaluations and high
interest rates affected price stability. Land transport
became more attractive on flexibility, speed and overall cost
grounds.
In 1985 the traffic moves by road and short sea ferry
service from the Baltic via the Low Countries to northern
England. Why?

(a) The trade was based on stable sea transport rates and
plentiful shipping opportunity. Freight rates became
unstable due to surcharges, and services became
unreliable in depressed trading conditions.
(b) Currencies were allowed to float against each other.
Sudden and wild variations in exchange rates are now a
trading risk.
(c) Short sea, particularly cross-Channel, services between
the UK and continental Europe developed comprehensive
schedules and became fiercely competitive.
(d) UK interest rates, and inflation/freeze policies of
governments seriously affected manufacturing industries.

129
PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

(e) Road haulage became more attractive than sea for the
trading partners in this venture because by maintaining
the point of sale at customers' premises both parties
benefit from 2 x 20 t trailer loads per day over the
previous system of shipping by sea 1000 t every 28 days
(which involves 5000 t in the transport/storage system
at any one time), because the costs of borrowing money,
hedging against the risk of exchange loss, maintaining
storage premises, insurance and so on have risen to such
a proportion of the delivered to customers works price
of the product that the trade could not support the sea
freight option. Economies of scale in this instance are
clearly negated by the financial costs and risks.

While the foregoing scenario exists the ferry services will

be busy wherever they serve the shortest sea passage. South
and east coast ferry ports will therefore see steady growth,
even though on a straight ton mile comparison most traffics
will find a vessel which offers cheaper haulage than road or
rail.
The deep sea liner trades have the same forces acting on
them although land transport is not often an alternative.
With a declining*UK trade on many routes and smaller UK
freight earning per vessel, Continental ports are more
attractive to the shipowner than those of the UK.
Consequently the UK trades now find little choice of shipping
opportunity from British ports to worldwide destinations
compared with the major Continental ports such as Rotterdam,
Antwerp and Hamburg. This situation will continue,
increasingly so as fewer British-owned vessels ply the UK
trade routes.
1
British ports must adapt their liner trades facilities to
reflect these trends of small vessels, fast turn-round, rapid
customs and other clearance and high utilization factors of
road, rail and sea vehicles. However, UK ports could handle
much more UK traffic and even Continental traffic if the
subsidy advantages enjoyed on the Continent were either
withdrawn in Europe or equalled in the UK.
The one bright spot may lie in the bulk trades. If the UK
economy lifts itself from stagnation, the consumption of
timber, steel, fuels, chemicals and so on will rise,
concentrating on those ports which offer a tailor-made service
at the right price and an efficient inland haul in the UK.
Modification and redesign will be a running activity in
large established ports, while small harbours and river
wharves on the east coast will attract paragraph coasters from
the centre of Europe to the centre of England, in a way
running counter to the growing road haulage traffics, but
surviving because they have developed trades (in more
elastically priced products) which are large enough to develop
meaningful economies of scale even in these financially
unnerving times.

130
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 6 A N D 7

MR NORTHFIELD, Paper 7
Mr Oxley makes the point that ports in continental Europe
appear to invest in major new developments in advance of
needs, and this indeed appears to be true. I believe that,
because in most cases the basic infrastructure is funded by
government or other national agencies, the financial
implications are not a critical factor in the decision.
Felixstowe, however, operates in the private sector, and
therefore has to satisfy a board of directors and shareholders
that projects are based on firm financial criteria. It is not
possible to spend large sums of money unless there is every
indication that the venture will be viable. Decisions to
expand are based on the results of continuous market surveys
carried out by the sales and marketing department and on
demands which can be established or required by shipping lines
using the port. Obviously there must be a speculative element
in any venture, but at Felixstowe the basis of a financial
return must be evident.
When necessary the capital to finance projects is raised in
the traditional money markets, hopefully at the most
favourable rates.
Mr Stirling's contribution seems to emphasize the fact that
new works, or alterations to existing works, are undertaken to
meet a demand which can be foreseen or established.
Alterations to the quay structure to allow an increase in the
depth of water alongside two of the major berths at Felixstowe
were undertaken because of the introduction of deeper draft
vessels by shipping lines already using the port. I would
stress that the work has to be undertaken so as to cause the
minimum inconvenience to shipping and terminal operations.
The new Trinity development currently being constructed has
been designed for ships of even greater draft.
Mr Gibbons referred to the use of rubber-tyred gantry cranes
at Felixstowe. Those purchased so far are standard four-
wheeled machines. The container parks in which they operate
have been provided with reinforced concrete runway beams which
are capable of carrying the high wheel loadings generated by
these machines. However, to reduce individual wheel loads,
the new Trinity terminal will be equipped initially with 16
wheel rubber-tyred gantries.
The surface of the container park has been designed to allow
these machines to be used without the provision of runway
beams. It consists of 100 mm thick concrete blocks on 25 mm
of sand on 400 mm of 5% or so mixed in situ lean-mix concrete.
This construction will enable container blocks to be moved to
suit the introduction of other stacking systems, such as wide-
span rail-mounted gantry cranes, without undue interference
with the park operations or making expensive civil engineering
work redundant.
Felixstowe chose rubber-tyred gantry machines for a number
of reasons. Their introduction has enabled the capacity of
the container parks to be increased by 50% over that which was
possible when straddle carriers were used. The operation is

131
PORT M A N A G E M E N T A N D OPERATIONS

safer and the down-time experienced with rubber-tyred gantries

is much less than that experienced with straddle carriers.
Dr Dand mentioned the future of development at Felixstowe
when those works for which the port is seeking parliamentary
powers in the parliamentary session have been constructed. As
long as the River Orwell is used extensively for commercial
shipping, it is unlikely that the port could extend further in
this direction. The narrowing regime would not be a suitable
place in which to attempt to manoeuvre large container-type
ships.
Over the past 25 years capital investment at Felixstowe has
been against the general trend in the UK port industry, and
for the reasons set out in my Paper. I think that the boom
period of the 1960s and 1970s is unlikely to be repeated, and
that everywhere capital investment in the future will be more
modest. The more stringent financial constraints will mean
that the use of existing infrastructures, altered to cater for
new demands, will have to be considered more seriously than
perhaps has been the case in the past.
National prestige plays a large part in the decision-making
process in many countries, and it does appear unfair that
British ports are not able to compete on the same basis as
their Continental competitors.

132
PAPER 8
Some design aspects of dredging and
protection works for ports

J. N. WOLFE-BARRY, M A ( C a n t a b ) , MICE, Sir William Halcrow

& Partners

SYNOPSIS. An o v e r v i e w o f t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n d e s ­
i g n i n g d r e d g i n g and p o r t p r o t e c t i o n works i s g i v e n . Some o f
the methods a v a i l a b l e f o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e problems t o be s o l v e d
a r e d i s c u s s e d and t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h
pointed out. Case h i s t o r i e s are d e s c r i b e d as examples. The
r o l e o f the designer in e s t a b l i s h i n g the economic v i a b i l i t y o f
a p r o j e c t i s d e s c r i b e d and t h e n e e d t o a l l o w f o r m a i n t e n a n c e i n
p l a n n i n g , f i n a n c i n g and d e s i g n i n g p o r t w o r k s i s i n d i c a t e d .

INTRODUCTION
1. I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e a r e two r e a s o n s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
c a p i t a l port works. I t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o b u i l d a c o m p l e t e l y
new p o r t t o r e p l a c e o u t m o d e d a n d i n s u f f i c i e n t f a c i l i t i e s o r t o
m e e t a n e n t i r e l y new n e e d , o r i m p r o v e m e n t s may b e r e q u i r e d t o
an e x i s t i n g p o r t t o a l l o w f o r l a r g e r o r d i f f e r e n t v e s s e l s o r t o
provide b e t t e r s h e l t e r .

2. I n b o t h c a s e s , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t d r e d g i n g and p r o t e c t i o n
works t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x t e n t w i l l be n e e d e d . This paper
considers some o f t h e s p e c i a l d e s i g n f e a t u r e s o f s u c h " s e a w a r d "
works w h i l e t h e companion p a p e r c o n s i d e r s t h e q u a y s and o t h e r
f a c i l i t i e s which c o n s t i t u t e t h e "shoreward" components o f the
complete port.

3. I n common w i t h a n y o t h e r t y p e o f c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t , the
j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r d r e d g i n g o r p r o t e c t i o n w o r k s m u s t h a v e an
economic b a s e . The s c a l e o f t h e f a c i l i t i e s t o be adopted must
be matched t o " t h e p e r c e i v e d b e n e f i t s , m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s b e i n g
taken i n t o account as well as c a p i t a l ones. The p l a n n i n g p r o ­
c e s s a i m s t o f i n d t h e optimum b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l i s e d
demands o f t h e f u t u r e u s e r s and t h e a n x i e t y o f t h e p r o v i d e r s o f
t h e f a c i l i t i e s t o m i n i m i s e c o s t s and c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e s and t o
maximise r e t u r n s . The e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n e r p l a y s a c r u c i a l p a r t
i n t h i s s t a g e o f t h e p r o j e c t d e v e l o p m e n t by a c c u r a t e l y i d e n t ­
i f y i n g t h e c o s t s a n d p o i n t s a t w h i c h t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s may
escalate. M a i n t e n a n c e o f a d r e d g e d c h a n n e l may i n c r e a s e r a p i d l y
with depth f o r i n s t a n c e or the p r e s e n c e o f hard m a t e r i a l a t
a certain level may i m p o s e a s e v e r e capital cost penalty in
going deeper.

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 133
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

4. S o c i o l o g i c a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s must be
t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t a s w e l l a s s t r i c t l y f i n a n c i a l and o p e r a t ­
ional matters. The s u c c e s s f u l p r o j e c t i s t h e one i n which t h e
t o t a l b e n e f i t s , however they a r e determined, exceed or a t l e a s t
are not l e s s than, the t o t a l o f a l l c o s t s seen in both the short
and t h e l o n g t e r m .

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

5. The e s s e n t i a l information for t h e d e s i g n o f any d r e d g i n g
or p r o t e c t i o n works is a reasonably a c c u r a t e and c o m p l e t e know­
ledge o f the marine e n v i r o n m e n t and o f ground c o n d i t i o n s .

6. T h e UK i s v e r y much b e t t e r s e r v e d f o r w i n d a n d w a v e d a t a
t h a n many o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . The e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t ­
a t i o n o f North Sea O i l in p a r t i c u l a r has g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d
a v a i l a b l e k n o w l e d g e o f wave c o n d i t i o n s o f f t h e e a s t c o a s t o f
Britain. In a d d i t i o n , d a t a c o l l e c t i o n programmes have t a k e n
p l a c e i n t h e W e s t e r n A p p r o a c h e s a n d on t h e s o u t h c o a s t a s p a r t
o f g e n e r a l r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s , f o r wave e n e r g y s t u d i e s f o r e x a m p l e
as well as for s p e c i f i c maritime p r o j e c t s . The d a t a a v a i l a b l e
f r o m t h e s e p r o j e c t r e l a t e d s o u r c e s i s s u p p l e m e n t e d by t h e many
s h i p o b s e r v a t i o n s and w e a t h e r r e c o r d s c o l l e c t e d by t h e M e t e o r ­
o l o g i c a l O f f i c e and o t h e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s .

7. F o r a n y p r o j e c t l o c a t i o n i n t h e UK t h e r e f o r e i t is gener­
a l l y p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e deep w a t e r wave
spectrum with reasonable confidence. Much m o r e d i f f i c u l t how­
e v e r , i s t o e s t i m a t e t h e l o c a l wave c l i m a t e i f d i r e c t measure­
ments a r e not a v a i l a b l e .

8. The t o o l s h e r e a r e r e f r a c t i o n , s h o a l i n g and d i f f r a c t i o n
a n a l y s e s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e s e a bed e f f e c t s a s t h e waves approach
the shore. C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s now a l l o w f o r w a r d a n d b a c k t r a c k ­
i n g r e f r a c t i o n a n d s h o a l i n g s t u d i e s i n much m o r e d e t a i l t h a n was
p o s s i b l e a few y e a r s a g o . However s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e a n a l y s i s
though, i t i s always a t the mercy o f the a c c u r a c y o f the input
d a t a o f o f f s h o r e wave s p e c t r u m and w a t e r d e p t h s . I n some c a s e s
t h e b a t h y m e t r y may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y w i t h s e a s o n o r i n a l o n g e r
term c y c l e . The r e s u l t o f a h y d r o g r a p h i c s u r v e y c a r r i e d out i n
t h e summer may g i v e q u i t e f a l s e r e s u l t s f o r a w i n t e r w a v e c l i m a t e
for example.

9. S i m i l a r l y , c h a r t d e t a i l s may b e s e r i o u s l y o u t o f d a t e .
In any c a s e i t can n e v e r be p o s s i b l e t o a n a l y s e t h e i n f i n i t e
v a r i a t i o n s o f t i d e , wind and wave c o m b i n a t i o n s t h a t can o c c u r
in nature. F r e a k c o n d i t i o n s can i n v a l i d a t e t h e most c a r e f u l
p r e d i c t i o n s , a s f o r i n s t a n c e was t h e c a s e a t C h e s i l B e a c h i n
F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 9 , when l o n g p e r i o d w a v e s o r i g i n a t i n g d e e p i n t h e
A t l a n t i c were f o c u s s e d onto a s h o r t s t r e t c h o f c o a s t l i n e , o v e r ­
w h e l m i n g t h e d e f e n c e s w i t h o u t w a r n i n g on a c a l m m o r n i n g w i t h a
s l i g h t e a s t e r l y wind, ( r e f . 1 ) . With h i n d s i g h t , i t proved p o s s ­
i b l e t o deduce t h e c a u s e , b u t no o r d i n a r y s t u d y o r a n a l y s i s
would have p r e d i c t e d t h e o n s l a u g h t o f t h a t m o r n i n g .

1 0 . However c a r e f u l an a n a l y t i c a l s t u d y i s d o n e o f t h e wave
c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e i s t h e r e f o r e no s u b s t i t u t e for d i r e c t measure-

134
 PAPER 8: WOLFE-BARRY

m e n t s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s on s i t e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s seldom
time, in the development o f a p r o j e c t , to o b t a i n s t a t i s t i c a l l y
significant data. Any s i n g l e s e a s o n o r y e a r may b e a n o m a l o u s ;
to survive s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , observations should continue
o v e r many y e a r s - e v e n d e c a d e s .

1 1 . Even l i m i t e d d a t a a r e however b e t t e r t h a n n o n e , and o b s e r ­

v a t i o n s f o r q u i t e s h o r t p e r i o d s can s e r v e to check t h e r e s u l t s
o f computer s t u d i e s t o g i v e t h e d e s i g n e r more c o n f i d e n c e i n h i s
assumptions. With t h e example o f C h e s i l Beach i n mind, t h e
d e s i g n e r must always be aware o f t h e f i n i t e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e
design c o n d i t i o n s w i l l be exceeded w i t h i n t h e l i f e o f t h e works.

1 2 . A l s o n e c e s s a r y , and o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e c a s e
o f dredging works o r n a v i g a t i o n s t u d i e s , i s a d e t a i l e d knowledge
of the current regime at the s i t e . A r o u n d t h e UK t i d a l currents
n o r m a l l y p r e d o m i n a t e , b e i n g v e r y s t r o n g i n many l o c a t i o n s . Local
e f f e c t s may b e i n d u c e d b y c h a n g e s i n t h e w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a n d
t h e s e may s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r t h e t i d a l r e g i m e .

13. M a t h e m a t i c a l o r p h y s i c a l m o d e l l i n g can be used t o i n v e s t ­

igate tidal currents. The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f wind and wave e f f e c t s
however g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e m o d e l s and h e n c e
their cost, while reducing t h e i r r e l i a b i l i t y . Current observ­
a t i o n s and l o c a l ^ k n o w l e d g e a v a i l a b l e from p i l o t s , f i s h e r m e n and
yachtsmen a r e t h e r e f o r e a n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f any s t u d y o f t h e
current regime.

DESIGN PARAMETERS
14. In p l a n n i n g any d a t a c o l l e c t i o n programme, i t i s i m p o r t a n t
t o be c l e a r from t h e o u t s e t what d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s a r e r e q u i r e d .
For p r o t e c t i o n works such as b r e a k w a t e r s t h e d e s i g n e r i s c h i e f l y
i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e x t r e m e s o f wave a c t i o n l i k e l y t o a t t a c k t h e
structure. T h e a n a l y s i s w i l l t e n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on f i n d i n g
t h e maximum a n d s i g n i f i c a n t w a v e h e i g h t s l i k e l y i n t h e m o s t
severe probable storm. Whatever r e t u r n p e r i o d i s assumed t h e r e
i s a l w a y s a f i n i t e r i s k o f wave h e i g h t s b e i n g e x c e e d e d . A risk
a n a l y s i s i s t h e r e f o r e required comparing the c o s t o f designing
the s t r u c t u r e f o r l a r g e r waves a g a i n s t t h e economic o r s e c u r i t y
c o n s e q u e n c e s i n t h e e v e n t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e b e i n g damaged o r
overwhelmed. For a harbour b r e a k w a t e r , a r e t u r n p e r i o d o f 50
o r 1 0 0 y e a r s may b e a p p r o p r i a t e . I f the structure protects the
w a t e r i n t a k e o f a n u c l e a r power s t a t i o n h o w e v e r , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o f f a i l u r e might be very s e v e r e . In t h i s c a s e , a s t a t i s t i c a l
r e t u r n p e r i o d o f a m i l l i o n y e a r s c o u l d w e l l be c o n s i d e r e d n e c ­
essary .

1 5 . I n many c a s e s , t h e w a v e a t t a c k on a s t r u c t u r e i s d e p t h
limited. T h e d e s i g n w a v e may t h e n h a v e a r e t u r n p e r i o d o f
o n l y a few y e a r s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember however, that
s t o r m s u r g e may s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e w a t e r d e p t h a n d
h e n c e t h e p o s s i b l e wave h e i g h t a t t h e s t r u c t u r e .

16. In planning the l a y o u t o f breakwaters or the dredging o f

an e n t r a n c e c h a n n e l , l i t t o r a l t r a n s p o r t may b e a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r .
In t h i s c a s e t h e e n t i r e wave s p e c t r u m i s i m p o r t a n t i n t e r m s o f

135
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

b o t h h e i g h t and d i r e c t i o n . For r e l a t i v e l y simple problems i t

may b e r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t a s t a n d a r d m a t h e m a t i c a l w a v e
s p e c t r u m may a p p l y , s u c h a s t h e JONSWAP d i s t r i b u t i o n . Where
t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f e r r o r would be s e r i o u s however, l e a d i n g t o
heavy maintenance dredging or s e v e r e c o a s t e r o s i o n f o r i n s t a n c e ,
wave and c u r r e n t r e c o r d s a r e e s s e n t i a l t o e s t a b l i s h l o c a l c o n ­
ditions .

17. In e i t h e r c a s e , a n a l y s i s o f the l i t t o r a l p r o c e s s i t s e l f
w i l l h a v e t o be done by m o d e l l i n g . T h i s may b e w i t h a p h y s i c a l
moving bed m o d e l , b u t t h e r a n g e o f p o w e r f u l computer programs
now a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s w o r k m a k e a m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l a n a t t r a c ­
tive alternative.

18. D i s p o s a l o f dredged s p o i l i s o f t e n a major problem in

itself. O f f s h o r e d u m p i n g may b e t h e o n l y e c o n o m i c s o l u t i o n .
To m i n i m i s e t h e c o s t , t h e d u m p i n g a r e a m u s t b e a s c l o s e t o
the dredged a r e a as p o s s i b l e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y
t o b e c e r t a i n t h a t l i t t o r a l p r o c e s s e s w i l l n o t move t h e s p o i l
s h o r e w a r d s t o r e f i l l t h e e x c a v a t i o n , o r t o harm t h e c o a s t a l e n ­
vironment elsewhere, or a t l e a s t that the e f f e c t s are predicted
and e v a l u a t e d .

19. A c a s e h i s t o r y follows which i l l u s t r a t e s the types o f

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y and the importance o f the r e s u l t s in
p l a n n i n g a new h a r b o u r . The p o r t i n q u e s t i o n i s Mina J e b e l A l i
i n t h e U n i t e d Arab E m i r a t e s . Although t h i s i s in the Arabian
G u l f , t h e methods used in the p l a n n i n g would be e q u a l l y a p p l i c ­
a b l e t o any p o r t anywhere i n the world.

MINA J E B E L A L I
2 0 . The e n t r a n c e c h a n n e l t o Mina J e b e l A l i i n t h e A r a b i a n G u l f
i s 2 0 km l o n g . D u r i n g t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a g e s o f t h e
h a r b o u r , e x t e n s i v e s t u d i e s w e r e made i n t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e
c h a n n e l , i n v o l v i n g s i t e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , m a t h e m a t i c a l and p h y s ­
i c a l model s t u d i e s and a s e s s m e n t s o f s h i p b e h a v i o u r . The e f f e c t s
o f l i m i t a t i o n o f c h a n n e l w i d t h a n d d e p t h s on s h i p n a v i g a t i o n
w e r e s t u d i e d , t h e e c o n o m i c s o f a c c e p t i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s on s h i p
o p e r a t i o n s t o a v o i d a d d i t i o n a l d r e d g i n g c o s t s a s s e s s e d , and an
optimum c h a n n e l c r o s s - s e c t i o n d e t e r m i n e d .

2 1 . T h e d e s i g n e d c h a n n e l h a s a b o t t o m w i d t h o f 235m a n d i s
d r e d g e d t o a d e p t h o f 16 m e t r e s b e l o w mean l o w w a t e r i n s a n d ,
s a n d s t o n e and l i m e s t o n e . The t o t a l dredged q u a n t i t y i n t h e
a p p r o a c h c h a n n e l was a b o u t 2 0 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s .

2 2 . A p h y s i c a l h y d r a u l i c m o d e l w a s made o f t h e i n s h o r e e n d o f
t h e dredged a p p r o a c h c h a n n e l and o f t h e h a r b o u r e n t r a n c e t o
s t u d y t h e e f f e c t o f t h e c h a n n e l on w a v e b e h a v i o u r a t t h e e n t r a n c e
and t o o p t i m i s e t h e l a y o u t o f t h e b r e a k w a t e r s . Because o f the
r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w n a t u r a l water d e p t h n e a r t h e h a r b o u r a n d t h e
g r e a t l e n g t h o f t h e a p p r o a c h , t h e c h a n n e l and i n c i d e n t waves
were modelled m a t h e m a t i c a l l y in a l a r g e computer program. The
o u t p u t from t h i s p r o g r a m g a v e wave e f f e c t s a t v a r i o u s p l a c e s i n
the channel and, a t the i n n e r end, provided input data f o r o p e r ­
a t i n g the physical model.

136
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PAPER 8: WOLFE-BARRY

jri I I \
J Lj 7 ]
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f WM S

Fig. 1.
7
M i n a J e b e l Ali p h y s i c a l m o d e l testing, showing wave
r e f l e c t i o n s o f f the e n t r a n c e c h a n n e l .
Photo: Hydraulics Research Ltd.

23. 'Design w a v e s ' o f 1-year and 10-year r e t u r n p e r i o d s w e r e

selected to i n v e s t i g a t e w a v e c o n d i t i o n s likely to a r i s e i n s i d e
the h a r b o u r , and to a s s e s s the e f f e c t s on ship o p e r a t i o n . Res­
ults o b t a i n e d from both p h y s i c a l and c o m p u t e r m o d e l s showed
c o n s i d e r a b l e w a v e energy (varying w i t h w a v e period and d i r e c t ­
i o n ) to be r e f l e c t e d by the s i d e s o f the c h a n n e l , t h u s g i v i n g
f a v o u r a b l e n a v i g a t i o n conditions, a s s h o w n in F i g . 1. A detail­
ed a s s e s s m e n t w a s m a d e of the p o s s i b l e u s e o f d r e d g e d m a t e r i a l ,
dumped a l o n g s i d e the c h a n n e l , to i m p r o v e still f u r t h e r w a v e
c o n d i t i o n s in the c h a n n e l and the e n t r a n c e (ref. 2) but, in
the e v e n t , t h e s e m e a s u r e s could not be e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d .

24. U s i n g the w a v e , c u r r e n t , and s u r v e y data o b t a i n e d from

the s i t e , a l a r g e c o m p u t e r m o d e l w a s m a d e o f the c o a s t a l s e d i ­
ment movements. A f t e r c a l i b r a t i o n a g a i n s t field r e a d i n g s , it
w a s used to p r e d i c t the effect o f the port c o n s t r u c t i o n on about
30 km o f a d j a c e n t c o a s t l i n e .

2 5 . C o n c u r r e n t w i t h the h y d r a u l i c and e n g i n e e r i n g i n v e s t i g ­
a t i o n s , a s t u d y o f the n a v i g a b i l i t y o f p a r t i c u l a r s h i p s t y p i c a l
o f t h o s e w h i c h w i l l u s e the port w a s c a r r i e d o u t . T h i s study
e s t a b l i s h e d the m i n i m u m c h a n n e l d i m e n s i o n s n e e d e d u n d e r v a r i o u s
o p e r a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s , and p e r m i t t e d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m ­
ation o f e c o n o m i c c h a n n e l d i m e n s i o n s to be c o n f i r m e d , s u b j e c t
only to a final r e v i e w o f the p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t s o f u n d e r w a t e r
banks o f the c h a n n e l .

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PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

2 6 . Underwater s i d e s l o p e s were in compact m a t e r i a l and, f o r

d r e d g i n g e c o n o m y , w e r e p r e f e r a b l y made q u i t e s t e e p , a b o u t 1 i n
2. T h e b a n k h e i g h t v a r i e s f r o m z e r o t o a b o u t 10 m e t r e s a t t h e
h a r b o u r e n t r a n c e where t h e n a t u r a l bed d e p t h i s 6 m e t r e s . Bank
s u c t i o n e f f e c t s a n d how t h e s e m i g h t a f f e c t t h e c o u r s e o f t h e
v e s s e l s w e r e s t u d i e d and i t was c o n f i r m e d t h a t , w i t h i n n o r m a l
o p e r a t i n g c o n s t r a i n t s , any bank e f f e c t s would be t o l e r a b l e .

PROTECTION WORKS
27. Some h a r b o u r s a r e , o r c a n b e , s o f a v o u r a b l y s i t u a t e d that
no a r t i f i c i a l p r o t e c t i o n w o r k s a r e r e q u i r e d . In other cases
h o w e v e r , some form o f b r e a k w a t e r i s n e c e s s a r y e i t h e r t o i m p r o v e
t h e e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l s h e l t e r , o r t o c r e a t e an a r t i f i c i a l a r e a o f
s h e l t e r e d water where none e x i s t e d b e f o r e .

2 8 . I n p l a n n i n g t h e l a y o u t and d e c i d i n g t h e t y p e o f b r e a k w a t e r s ,
two main c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h a v e t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t : -
the purpose f o r which they a r e i n t e n d e d ; and
t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e a d j a c e n t c o a s t a n d i n
the harbour entrance i t s e l f .

2 9 . The e c o n o m i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a b r e a k w a t e r , o r a b r e a k ­
w a t e r e x t e n s i o n , d e r i v e s b a s i c a l l y from t h e i n c r e a s e d u t i l i s a t i o n
of the harbour i t p r o t e c t s . Often the harbour i s simply not
v i a b l e w i t h o u t p r o t e c t i o n but i n o t h e r c a s e s improved p r o t e c t i o n
w i l l c r e a t e b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n s allowing longer hours o f a c c e s s
and c a r g o h a n d l i n g o r l e s s r i s k o f damage t o s h i p p i n g . The e c o ­
n o m i c b e n e f i t s a r i s i n g c a n b e a s s e s s e d and e v a l u a t e d a g a i n s t t h e
c a p i t a l and m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s proposed.

3 0 . M o d e l l i n g i s r e q u i r e d t o a s s e s s t h e wave a c t i v i t y i n t h e
h a r b o u r a r e a a t t h e b e r t h s o r a t o t h e r k e y p o i n t s w i t h and w i t h ­
o u t t h e new b r e a k w a t e r . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e models used have been
p h y s i c a l f i x e d bed m o d e l s b u i l t i n wave b a s i n s and t e s t e d f o r a
r a n g e o f i n c i d e n t wave d i r e c t i o n s and h e i g h t s . R e c e n t l y though,
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o model wave a c t i v i t y i n
a h a r b o u r a n d t h e s e p r o v i d e a f l e x i b l e a n d r e l a t i v e l y c h e a p way
of studying a l t e r n a t i v e designs.

3 1 . A new b r e a k w a t e r w i l l h a v e a s e r i o u s i m p a c t on t h e n e a r -
shore regime. U n w a n t e d e r o s i o n o r a c c r e t i o n may o c c u r on l o c a l
b e a c h e s o r h e a v y s i l t a t i o n o f t h e h a r b o u r e n t r a n c e o r b a s i n may
be c a u s e d . T h e s e a s p e c t s must b e i n v e s t i g a t e d u s i n g t h e same
techniques as d e s c r i b e d above f o r dredging works. When d r e d g ­
i n g and p r o t e c t i o n works a r e t o be combined, c l e a r l y t h e e f f e c t
o f o n e upon t h e o t h e r must b e c a r e f u l l y s t u d i e d . The r e f l e c t i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e may h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t on
t h e r e g i m e b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e - t h e h a r b o u r . T h i s may b e a
d e c i d i n g f a c t o r i n c h o o s i n g the most a p p r o p r i a t e type o f c o n ­
struction .

BREAKWATERS
3 2 . During the l a s t twenty years or so various draft designs
have been prepared f o r f l o a t i n g b r e a k w a t e r s o f one s o r t or
a n o t h e r and i n some c a s e s p r o t o t y p e s o r l a r g e s c a l e m o d e l s h a v e

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been produced and t e s t e d . The traditional breakwater struct­

u r e h o w e v e r is fixed on the sea bed and is b u i l t to a h e i g h t
to avoid o v e r t o p p i n g except u n d e r very e x t r e m e c o n d i t i o n s . It
is with the design of these s t r u c t u r e s that this p a p e r is c o n ­
cerned .

33. M o d e r n a r t i f i c i a l breakwaters fall into t h r e e m a i n class­

ifications : -
- caisson b r e a k w a t e r s ;
- rubble mounds; and
- c o m p o s i t e b r e a k w a t e r s , w i t h a v e r t i c a l w a l l on top o f a
rubble mound foundation.

34. C a i s s o n b r e a k w a t e r s h a v e to be d e s i g n e d to w i t h s t a n d v e r y
large h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e s caused by w a v e s s t r i k i n g the v e r t i c a l
or n e a r v e r t i c a l w a l l o f t e n o v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h . In
a d d i t i o n , the c l a p o t i s e f f e c t p r o d u c e s v e r y h i g h p r e s s u r e s at
the base o f the c a i s s o n so that e x t e n s i v e s c o u r p r o t e c t i o n is
needed. T h e s e p r o b l e m s h a v e caused a n u m b e r o f s p e c t a c u l a r
f a i l u r e s in r e c e n t y e a r s , n o t a b l y at P a l e r m o and G e n o a in I t a l y .

35. U n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s h o w e v e r , c o n s t r u c t i o n a d v a n t ­
ages m a y o u t w e i g h the i n h e r e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s o f the d e s i g n . A
n o t a b l e recent B r i t i s h e x a m p l e is B r i g h t o n M a r i n a b r e a k w a t e r ,
(refs. 3 and 4 ) . T h e r e the bed c o n d i t i o n s w e r e f a v o u r a b l e and
the c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d e m p l o y e d a l l o w e d the w o r k i n g end of the
b r e a k w a t e r to be a d v a n c e d and m a d e s e c u r e in o n l y a few d a y s .
D e c i s i o n s to p r o c e e d w i t h a n e w c y c l e could be m a d e in the l i g h t
o f up to date w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t s g r e a t l y r e d u c i n g the r i s k o f
storm d a m a g e w h i l e a l l o w i n g r e a s o n a b l e p r o g r e s s to be m a i n t a i n e d
throughout the w i n t e r m o n t h s . D e s p i t e t h i s , it is d o u b t f u l
w h e t h e r the d e s i g n w o u l d h a v e been e c o n o m i c a l if the h e a v y p l a n t
and e q u i p m e n t r e q u i r e d had not a l r e a d y been a v a i l a b l e from a n o ­
ther b r e a k w a t e r in D e n m a r k .

36. For these r e a s o n s m a n y r e c e n t a r t i f i c i a l b r e a k w a t e r s h a v e

been r u b b l e m o u n d s . Good e x a m p l e s in UK h a v e been the b r e a k ­
w a t e r s at Port T a l b o t (refs. 5 and 6) and m o r e r e c e n t l y , the
e x t e n s i o n o f the b r e a k w a t e r at D o u g l a s , I s l e o f M a n , (Fig. 2 ) .
M a n y o t h e r l a r g e r u b b l e m o u n d b r e a k w a t e r s h a v e been b u i l t in
the last twenty y e a r s to B r i t i s h d e s i g n s in o t h e r p a r t s o f the
world, n o t a b l y in the M i d d l e E a s t .

3 7 . The b r e a k w a t e r s at P e t e r h e a d , (ref. 7) a r e an i n t e r e s t i n g
19th c e n t u r y e x a m p l e o f a c o m p o s i t e b r e a k w a t e r . It is n o t e ­
w o r t h y that the o r i g i n a l d e s i g n c o n c e p t w a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y u n ­
changed t h r o u g h o u t the 70 y e a r s c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e . Problems
w e r e e n c o u n t e r e d e a r l y on w i t h s c o u r at the b a s e o f the w a l l on
the r u b b l e m o u n d and d a m a g e to the w a l l d u e to w a t e r p r e s s u r e
on the v e r t i c a l f a c e . T h e s e w e r e o v e r c o m e by i m p r o v e m e n t o f the
scour apron and by i n t r o d u c i n g k e y s in the b l o c k w o r k w a l l s .

38. T h e o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e o f the w o r k s , to c r e a t e a h a r b o u r o f
r e f u g e , l a r g e l y d i s a p p e a r e d w i t h the a d v e n t o f s t e a m . The pro­
ject w o u l d h a v e been a b a n d o n e d l o n g b e f o r e c o m p l e t i o n it it had
not been for the e m p l o y m e n t it g a v e to the c o n v i c t s in the l o c a l

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prison. The p r o m o t e r s and d e s i g n e r s can h a r d l y h a v e f o r e s e e n

that full e c o n o m i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n w o u l d f i n a l l y come from N o r t h
Sea oil and the d e v e l o p m e n t of P e t e r h e a d as a m a j o r s u p p l y b a s e .

AO. One can s p e c u l a t e on the d e s i g n that w o u l d be a d o p t e d

today. Modern modelling techniques would undoubtedly have
helped in s e t t l i n g the a r g u m e n t s on the l a y o u t of the b r e a k ­
waters .

ARMOURED R U B B L E S L O P E S
4 1 . A key factor in any r u b b l e m o u n d b r e a k w a t e r or a r m o u r e d
slope is the a r m o u r i t s e l f . T r a d i t i o n a l l y this w a s rock q u a r r i e d
in large s i z e s . T h e s i z e r e q u i r e d and the o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s in
the design of the s l o p e w e r e d e t e r m i n e d e m p i r i c a l l y . Many
formulae for design w e r e e v o l v e d , from that o f I r i b a r r e n in
1 9 3 3 to that o f H u d s o n , w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y f a v o u r e d t o d a y .

4 2 . As b r e a k w a t e r s b e c a m e b i g g e r and w a t e r d e p t h s and t h e r e ­
fore w a v e s i n c r e a s e d , n a t u r a l a r m o u r rock o f s u f f i c i e n t s i z e
was often not a v a i l a b l e at r e a s o n a b l e c o s t . Artificial armour
blocks w e r e required and o v e r the y e a r s a w i d e v a r i e t y o f s h a p e s
and types h a v e been d e v e l o p e d . T h e v a r i o u s d e s i g n s fall into
two main c a t e g o r i e s - those that rely only on t h e i r m a s s and
shape for their s t a b i l i t y and t h o s e that i n t e r l o c k w i t h each
o t h e r to d e v e l o p the s t a b i l i t y o f the s l o p e as a w h o l e . In
either c a s e , p l a c i n g m a y be random, or m a y h a v e to be on a p r e ­
determined p a t t e r n , d e p e n d i n g on block t y p e .

4 3 . The block s h a p e s w e r e d e s i g n e d to m a x i m i s e s t a b i l i t y and

also to p r o v i d e a l a r g e v o i d s ratio in the a r m o u r l a y e r t h e r e b y
r e d u c i n g the total v o l u m e o f c o n c r e t e r e q u i r e d . H u d s o n ' s f o r m u l a
was n o r m a l l y u s e d , the d i f f e r e n t b l o c k c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e i n g
r e p r e s e n t e d by a l t e r i n g the v a l u e o f K<j, the s t a b i l i t y c o e f f i c ­
ient .

4 4 . The first b l o c k s , such a s the t e t r a p o d , relied m a i n l y

on their s h a p e and m a s s . A l t h o u g h s o m e doubt e x i s t e d as to the
validity of H u d s o n ' s f o r m u l a for such b l o c k s the v a l u e s o f
assumed w e r e r e l a t i v e l y m o d e s t and the a p p r o a c h w o r k e d r e a s o n a b l y
w e l l in p r a c t i c e .

4 5 . W i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e r l o c k i n g b l o c k s such as the

d o l o s , the s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h o f the b l o c k b e c a m e o f g r e a t e r
importance. T h e b l o c k s w e r e s u b j e c t e d to c o n s i d e r a b l e b e n d i n g
and torsion forces even if t h e r e w a s no m o v e m e n t or r o c k i n g d u e
to w a v e a c t i o n . L a b o r a t o r y tests s u g g e s t e d that very h i g h v a l u e s
of Kd could be a d o p t e d and a l s o that, w i t h i n l i m i t s , the s t e e p e r
the b r e a k w a t e r s l o p e the b e t t e r the a r m o u r l a y e r h u n g t o g e t h e r
as a s i n g l e m a s s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y h o w e v e r , the i n t e g r i t y o f the
w h o l e d e p e n d e d on each of its c o m p o n e n t s . T h e f a i l u r e or l o s s
of a single unit could r a p i d l y lead to p r o g r e s s i v e f a i l u r e and
complete c o l l a p s e .

4 6 . A number of failures of larger breakwaters has now made

e n g i n e e r s m o r e a w a r e o f the r i s k s o f e x t r a p o l a t i n g r e s u l t s
o b t a i n e d on m e d i u m sized b r e a k w a t e r s in d e p t h l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s

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PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

to b r e a k w a t e r s s t a n d i n g in deep w a t e r exposed to the full

s t r e n g t h o f l o n g period o c e a n w a v e s , (refs 8 and 9 ) . The
v i r t u e s o f s o m e of the o l d e r d e s i g n s a r e m o r e a p p r e c i a t e d and
a t t e n t i o n h a s a l s o turned to r e g u l a r shaped b l o c k s , such as
the cob, w h i c h can be b u i l t up into a s i n g l e h o m o g e n e o u s layer,
b r i c k w a l l f a s h i o n , (refs. 10 and 1 1 ) .

47.. It should be m e n t i o n e d h o w e v e r that m a n y e x c e l l e n t b r e a k ­

w a t e r s exist u s i n g the d o l o s a s t h e i r p r i m a r y a r m o u r u n i t . A
good e x a m p l e is at K o e b e r g in S o u t h A f r i c a w h e r e d o l o s a r m o u r e d
b r e a k w a t e r s e n c l o s e the w a t e r i n t a k e basin for a n u c l e a r p o w e r
station. A l t h o u g h w a v e h e i g h t s a r e d e p t h l i m i t e d , the b r e a k ­
w a t e r s a r e exposed to the c o n s t a n t s w e l l s o f the S o u t h A t l a n t i c .
In p r e p a r i n g the d e s i g n , a m u c h l o w e r v a l u e o f for the dolos
w a s a d o p t e d than w a s n o r m a l p r a c t i c e at the t i m e , to e n s u r e no
m o v e m e n t , not just no d a m a g e . T h e b r e a k w a t e r s h a v e been s u c c e s s ­
fully built and a r e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f u l f i l l i n g their p u r p o s e .

M O D E L T E S T I N G OF B R E A K W A T E R S
4 8 . D e s p i t e the c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h that has been carried
out in r e c e n t y e a r s on b r e a k w a t e r d e s i g n , the theory and formulae
used r e m a i n e m p i r i c a l . E a c h case is u n i q u e and it would be rash
to embark on c o n s t r u c t i o n of any m a j o r b r e a k w a t e r w i t h o u t the
s u p p o r t of a full r a n g e of m o d e l t e s t s .

4 9 . F l u m e tests a l l o w the e x p o s u r e o f the b r e a k w a t e r section to

the m o s t s e v e r e w a v e c l i m a t e it is likely to e n c o u n t e r . It is
i m p o r t a n t h o w e v e r to be a w a r e o f the l i m i t a t i o n s of flume testing.
W h a t e v e r w a v e c l i m a t e is u s e d , it is u n i d i r e c t i o n a l and u s u a l l y
n o r m a l to the b r e a k w a t e r a x i s . S c a l i n g e f f e c t s are present and
t h e s e can be s i g n i f i c a n t .

5 0 . O f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e m a y be the r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h of
the m o d e l and p r o t o t y p e a r m o u r u n i t s . T h e model u n i t s n o r m a l l y
u s e d w i l l s u r v i v e m o v e m e n t s or i m p a c t s that w o u l d destroy the
prototypes. S o m e a t t e m p t s h a v e been m a d e to u s e f r a n g i b l e
m o d e l s but t h e s e n o r m a l l y h a v e to a s s u m e only a s i n g l e m o d e of
fracture. It is i m p o s s i b l e to r e p r o d u c e e x a c t l y the c h a r a c t e r ­
i s t i c s o f the b r e a k w a t e r c o r e and s e c o n d a r y a r m o u r l a y e r s , so
that w a v e r e f l e c t i o n s m a y be d i f f e r e n t from those in the p r o t o ­
type.

5 1 . In a d d i t i o n to flume t e s t i n g of the b r e a k w a t e r s e c t i o n , it
is n o w common p r a c t i c e to m o d e l the e n t i r e b r e a k w a t e r , or at least
a s i g n i f i c a n t l e n g t h , in a w a v e b a s i n . Often these tests are
c o m b i n e d w i t h p h y s i c a l m o d e l l i n g of the w a v e a c t i v i t y in the p r o ­
tected area o f the h a r b o u r . Such a model breakwater allows:-
testing under oblique wave attack;
- i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the e f f e c t s o f c h a n g e s in d i r e c t i o n of the
breakwater itself; and
- study o f the s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s of the r o u n d h e a d .
S p a c e r e s t r i c t i o n s u s u a l l y i m p o s e a s m a l l e r s c a l e for w a v e basin
t e s t s than can be used in a f l u m e . S c a l e e f f e c t s a r e t h e r e f o r e
m o r e i m p o r t a n t , o f f s e t t i n g s o m e o f the a d v a n t a g e gained by test­
ing in this w a y .

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5 2 . Model t e s t i n g i s e s s e n t i a l t o g i v e q u a l i t a t i v e i n f o r m ­
a t i o n on t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n . Care
should be t a k e n however, b e f o r e i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s t o o
l i t e r a l l y in q u a n t i t a t i v e terms.

BREAKWATER MAINTENANCE
5 3 . Any c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g s t r u c t u r e n e e d s m a i n t e n a n c e a n d
b r e a k w a t e r s a r e no e x c e p t i o n . However w e l l b u i l t , some s e t t l e ­
m e n t a n d m o v e m e n t o f a r u b b l e mound b r e a k w a t e r h a s t o b e e x p e c t e d .
A r m o u r u n i t s may b e d i s p l a c e d o r b r o k e n a n d i f t h e p r o c e s s i s
a l l o w e d t o c o n t i n u e u n c h e c k e d t h e s t r u c t u r e a s a w h o l e may d e t e r ­
i o r a t e t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e i t c a n no l o n g e r p r o v i d e t h e p r o t e c t i o n
i t was d e s i g n e d t o g i v e .

5 2 . E q u a l l y , c a i s s o n b r e a k w a t e r s may s u f f e r f r o m a t t a c k t o t h e
c o n c r e t e , penetration o f j o i n t s or undermining o f the foundat­
ions. Any o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s c o u l d d e v e l o p t o t h e p o i n t that
major r e p a i r o r even r e b u i l d i n g i s n e c e s s a r y .

5 5 . P o r t s must budget f o r r e g u l a r i n s p e c t i o n s and m a i n t e n a n c e

o f t h e i r b r e a k w a t e r s , and m a n a g e r s must i n s i s t t h a t t h e b u d g e t
is used. E q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , d e s i g n e r s m u s t c o n s i d e r how m a i n ­
t e n a n c e i s to be c a r r i e d o u t . On a r u b b l e mound i t may b e n e c ­
e s s a r y t o r e p l a c e o r move h e a v y a r m o u r u n i t s . I f a floating
c r a n e i s not a v a i l a b l e , o r c a n n o t approach t h e armour s l o p e f o r
s a f e t y o r o t h e r r e a s o n s , i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y to p r o v i d e a c c e s s
a l o n g t h e b r e a k w a t e r c r e s t f o r a l a r g e enough l a n d based c r a n e
t o do t h e w o r k .

CONCLUSIONS

5 6 . I n a s i n g l e p a p e r , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o do m o r e t h a n g i v e
a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w o f a s u b j e c t s o v a s t and t o h i g h l i g h t one o r
two k e y f a c e t s . S u c h an o v e r v i e w i s n o n e t h e l e s s o f v a l u e i f i t
s e r v e s t o remind us o f t h e c o n t i n u i n g need f o r e n g i n e e r i n g j u d g e ­
ment t o i n t e r p r e t and u s e t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t ­
i c a t e d and p o w e r f u l t o o l s a t o u r d i s p o s a l . Some d o u b t w i l l a l w a y s
r e m a i n h o w e v e r c a r e f u l a n a n a l y s i s i s made o f t h e s e a s t a t e o r
t h e i n t e g r i t y o f an armour l a y e r . No d e s i g n c a n b e p e r f e c t a n d
o n e c a l l i n g f o r u n r e a s o n a b l e s t a n d a r d s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n may w e l l
c o s t more, o r be more p r o n e t o f a i l u r e , t h a n a l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d
approach allowing p r a c t i c a l t o l e r a n c e s .

57. A f u l l understanding o f the natural conditions i s e s s e n t i a l

t o any m a r i t i m e work. Too o f t e n t h e t i m e and money a l l o w e d f o r
d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s i n t h e p r o j e c t programme i s w h o l l y
i n a d e q u a t e . T h i s may b e s o e v e n when a p r o j e c t h a s b e e n i n t h e
planning stage for several years before the engineer i s c a l l e d
in to prepare the design. I n many c a s e s d a t a c o l l e c t i o n h a s t o
c o n t i n u e i n t o t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a g e s . The ' e n g i n e e r
t h e n h a s t o h o p e t h a t t h e new i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l n o t c a u s e h i m t o
c h a n g e t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s on w h i c h h e h a s b a s e d h i s d e s i g n .
I f C l i e n t s (and t h e i r M i n i s t e r s ) c o u l d be p e r s u a d e d t o a p p r o v e a
s m a l l " a d v a n c e b u d g e t " f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , s a y two t o t h r e e
y e a r s b e f o r e p r o j e c t commitment, enormous i m p r o v e m e n t s and
reduced c a p i t a l c o s t s would f o l l o w .
143
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN
5 8 . A p a r t from t h e a l l i m p o r t a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f n a v i g a t i o n ,
t h e p r i n c i p a l m a t t e r to be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e design o f e n t r a n c e
c h a n n e l s a n d t h e d r e d g i n g w o r k s i s t h e i r l i k e l y a f f e c t on t h e
e x i s t i n g regime. I n c l u d e d i n t h i s must be t h e d i s p o s a l o f
spoil. M a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s h a v e now l a r g e l y s u p p l a n t e d physic­
a l models f o r the s t u d i e s required.

5 9 . B r e a k w a t e r d e s i g n r e m a i n s e m p i r i c a l and s h o u l d a l w a y s be
c h e c k e d by m o d e l l i n g . Some a r m o u r u n i t s a r e more l i a b l e t o b r e a k ­
a g e t h a n o t h e r s and t h i s r i s k i n c r e a s e s w i t h s i z e . T h i s may b e
the key f a c t o r in the s e l e c t i o n o f the b e s t u n i t f o r a p a r t i c ­
u l a r c a s e , and i n s e t t i n g t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a o f wave h e i g h t t o
cause rocking for i n s t a n c e .

6 0 . M a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s a r e now a v a i l a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e w a v e
penetration into a harbour basin. They can be used i n p l a n n i n g
t h e l a y o u t o f a new b r e a k w a t e r a n d i n j u s t i f y i n g i t s c o s t .

6 1 . F i n a l l y , t h e need t o m a i n t a i n t h e works c a n n o t be o v e r
emphasised. C u m u l a t i v e n e g l e c t f o r a number o f y e a r s can r e d u c e
a s t r u c t u r e t o t h e p o i n t t h a t i t can no l o n g e r r e s i s t t h e d e s i g n
conditions. P o r t s must p l a n and b u d g e t f o r m a i n t a i n i n g their
b r e a k w a t e r s and t h i s must b e a l l o w e d f o r i n t h e d e s i g n .

REFERENCES
1. DRAPER, L . a n d BOWNASS, L t . C d r . T . M . , R N R e t d . Wave d e v a s t a t ­
i o n b e h i n d C h e s i l B e a c h . W e a t h e r , 1 9 8 3 , 38 N o . 1 1 , November, 3 4 6 - 3 5 2
2. HYDRAULICS RESEARCH S T A T I O N , M i n a J e b e l A l i , D u b a i , studies
f o r a new port. Report No. EX 9 7 4 , J u l y 1 9 7 9 .
3. T E R R E T T , F . L . , GANLY, P . a n d S T U B B S , S . B . , H a r b o u r w o r k s a t
Brighton Marina: i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and d e s i g n . Proceedings o f the
I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , P a r t 1, 1 9 7 9 , 6 6 , M a y , 1 9 1 - 2 0 8 .
4. LLEWELLYN, T . J . a n d MURRAY, W . T . , H a r b o u r w o r k s a t B r i g h t o n
Marina: construction. Proceedings o f the I n s t i t u t i o n of Civil
E n g i n e e r s , P a r t 1, 1 9 7 9 , 6 6 , May, 2 0 9 - 2 2 6 .
5. McGAREY, D . G . a n d FRAENKEL, P . M . , P o r t T a l b o t H a r b o u r : plan­
n i n g and d e s i g n . P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s ,
P a r t 1, 1 9 7 0 , 4 5 , A p r i l , 561-592.
6. RIDGEWAY, R . J . , K I E R , M. , H I L L , L . P . a n d LOW, D . W . , P o r t
Talbot Harbour: construction. Proceedings o f the I n s t i t u t i o n
o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , P a r t 1, 1 9 7 0 , 4 5 , A p r i l , 593-626.
7. BUCHAN, A . R . , P e t e r h e a d , S c o t l a n d ' s 1 0 0 y e a r h a r b o u r o f
refuge. Proceedings o f the I n s t i t u t i o n o f Civil Engineers, Part
1, 1 9 8 4 , 7 6 , A u g u s t , 681-696.
8. ZWAMBORN, J . A . , A n a l y s i s o f C a u s e s o f Damage t o S i n e s B r e a k ­
water. P r o c e e d i n g s o f C o a s t a l S t r u c t u r e s 7 9 , ASCE, A l e x a n d r i a ,
V i r g i n i a , March 1979, V o l . I , 422-441.
9. METTAM, J . D . a n d B E R R Y , J . G . , F a c t o r s o f s a f e t y f o r t h e d e s ­
ign o f breakwaters. Proceedings o f 18th I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference
on C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g , A S C E , C a p e T o w n , N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 2 , V o l . I l l ,
2097-2106.
1 0 . P R I C E , W . A . , S t a t i c s t a b i l i t y o f r u b b l e mound b r e a k w a t e r s .
Dock and H a r b o u r A u t h o r i t y , 1 9 7 9 , 6 0 , No. 7 0 2 , May, 2 - 7 .
1 1 . VASCO COSTA, F . , T h e l a r g e d i s p e r s i o n i n b e h a v i o u r o f roulti-
l e g g e d armour b l o c k s . Dock and Harbour A u t h o r i t y , 1 9 8 4 , 6 5 ,
No. 7 6 1 , May, 1 - 5 .

144
PAPER 9
Diaphragm walling for quays and locks

F. IRWIN-CHILD S, FICE, Rendel Palmer & Tritton

SYNOPSIS. Among the overall considerations which are likely

to affect development of port facilities in the future is
probably that of maximising on the advantages of tidal
fluctuations, which implies continuing concern with locks and
impounded basins. There may also well be a call for deeper in­
shore berths as opposed to long off-shore trestles. The paper
instances some examples of unconventional structures of this
type and shows how in-situ construction can lead to enhanced
levels of soil/structure contact intensity from which may
arise greater economy and structural stability.

INTRODUCTION
1. In 1969 the National Ports Council published its
"Research Project on Port Structures" which it had
commissioned to answer the allegation that the design of
harbour works in Britain had fallen behind that of Europe and
other parts of the world. The general conclusion was that
there was some substance in this opinion, that there was room
for more economical design and that the principal reason for
such shortcoming probably lay with inadequacy of the necessary
site investigations.
2. Since that time there have been a number of projects in
which advances have been made which are based on a deeper
appreciation of the extent and nature of contact between soil
and structure to achieve both increased stability and economy
of cost. Three such examples are given in this paper. These
-
include two impounded harbour basins, the biggest lock in the
country, all costing considerably less than the best examples
of the N.P.C. review, and a heavy duty ore terminal deep enough
to enable large carriers to berth inshore instead of at the
extremity of a long trestle into deep water.
3. Forecasts. Whatever may be the specific requirements
for maritime structures in the future it seems probably that
the following prognostications will be relevant for a
considerable time to come:-

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 145
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

that inshore accommodation at tidal berths for bulk

carriers will increasingly be preferred where efficient
maintenance of approach channels renders this feasible
That container traffic will persist because of its
convenience and wide-spread acceptability
that full advantage will continue to be taken of tidal
fluctuations, which will involve the use of locks and
impounded basins with the operational emphasis on their
watertightness.
that stability, safety in construction and economy in
capital cost and maintenance will remain primary
considerations for new construction, in which case renewed
emphasis should be devoted to the study of the
soil/structure interface.
4 . Type of Structure. The construction techniques adopted
for the majority of maritime structures involve the driving or
sinking of pre-formed elements either in the form of steel or
concrete piles or pre-cast monoliths. Of necessity this
installation process destroys the contact between soil and
structure and although some inter-relationship will eventually
be established its extent is often uncertain in respect of
both degree and time. The system does not aim to exploit this
aspect to maximum advantage.
5. In-situ piles have an advantage over precast piles in
this respect, but in both cases the support they provide is
uni-directional-with vertical piles needing the addition of
rakers to resist horizontal forces.
6. Resistance to overturning of monoliths for quay walls
or lock walls is usually by them acting as gravity structures.
Structurally they are satisfactory provided there is a firm
stratum for bearing at the appropriate level and soft enough
ground above it to enable the units to be sunk uniformly and
accurately. If this is not the case the problems can be
considerable. Also the arrangement of cells needed for the
balanced sinking operation includes elements which are
redundant in the final stage and consequently unnecessarily
costly.
7. Probably the most common type of solid quay is still
formed of sheet piling, tied back at one or more levels to
ground anchors set sufficiently far back to afford the
requisite resistance. Again the suitability of the
construction depends on the ground conditions-with soil at the
face which can be reasonably penetrated yet affording adequate
passive resistance as is also required for the anchorage at
the rear. The presence of ground anchors can however be an
embarrassment if it is later required to build a shed behind
the wall-especially on piles.
8. The projects outlined hereafter include some structural
forms which it would be quite impracticable to install as
precast elements.

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9. Diaphragm Walling As is probably well known, the
principle of diaphragm walling (or "slurry trench" walling as
it is called in America) consists of digging trenches from the
surface and holding them open by a suspension of thixotropic
mud. The slurry is then displaced by concrete which is fed
into the trench from bottom to top so leaving a concrete panel
embedded in the ground. The guide trenches need to be set a
metre or so above the level of the ground water in order to
maintain a head on the slurry and for quay walls and locks the
working platform is generally level. For such applications
this is no disadvantage because shuttering can often be saved
by casting the deck slab on the ground. Although a high slump
in the concrete mix is called for the ultimate cube strength
when matured can be surprisingly high, probably because of the
conditions under which it has been cured. A further useful
attribute of the system is that by the use of grabs and chisels
layers of stone and cobbles can be penetrated which would not
yield to driven piling. Some codes of practice still continue
to carry a warning that the bond strength of steel reinforce­
ments in structural diaphragm wall construction can be
seriously affected by a coating of slurry remaining on the
bars after the rising concrete has enveloped them. From time
to time a number of investigations have been undertaken to
attempt to quantify this effect but in the works cited in this
paper there has been no evidence of this condition. The
evidence is that the concrete tends to scour the steel as it
rises and in sample sections taken from these works the
reinforcement has been shown to be embedded as firmly as if no
slurry had been used.
10. In most structural applications commonly made to date
this method is used merely to provide plane walls, in which
case they also will need to be tied back by anchors in the same
way as sheet piling. However, it is a basic requirement of the
system that the concreting should be carried out in one opera­
tion from bottom to top, which means that the pressure between
the wet concrete and the ground increases with depth. As a
result the resistance of a panel to rotation through the
ground in the direction of its major axis is very considerable
and use can be made of this property in the construction of
units which require no ties and are self-stable, with the soil
reaction actually contributing to stability rather than the
reverse.
11. It is then possible to adopt the concept of 3-
dimensional behaviour for the implanted structure, including
the reaction of the ground as well as the wall, instead of 2
dimensions as assumed for most conventional designs.
12. The following are some examples of major maritime works
which have been built, to demonstrate how the application of
these principles can be used to advantage.

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13. Royal Seaforth Dock, Liverpool.

Quay wall. The "wine-glass" was the name given to the
unusual form adopted for the 3km of quay wall to enclose the
70-acre (28ha) impounded basin at Royal Seaforth Dock at
Liverpool which was built on the sloping foreshore at the
mouth of the River Mersey (see Fig.l). The lower portion
consists of a series of arches, each with a fin panel at the
rear, surmounted by a deck cast on the ground. This deck acts
as a shallow relieving platform which, with its surcharge,
provides a valuable restoring moment. The rear fin is gripped
by the ground like a disc brake to resist overturning and from
there forward the shape of the arch is devised to encourage
increasing horizontal arching in the ground. There are
therefore three effects contributing to the wall stability -
the anchoring restraint of the rear panel, the reduction in
horizontal ground pressure due to arching and the restoring
moment from loading on the deck. It is a very heavy duty
structure and is required to support "the heaviest machinery
loads which can be exported from Britain".
14. In the majority of harbour basin developments of this
nature considerable quantities of filling are required for
raising stacking and storage areas behind the berths, and it
would be valuable if this could be provided from excavation
within the basin. If the material is granular - sand or gravel
- it is still generally suitable for filling if it is dug by
dredging in the wet, but if it should be silt or clay - as it
was at Seaforth - it could well be so macerated, saturated and
ruined by the dredging process as to need to be discarded and
replaced. The prospect of the possibility of dry excavation
at Seaforth imposed the further requirements on the wall that
it should be watertight and able to with stand the increased
overturning moment. ^Fig.2 shows the excavated basin from
which some 5 million m was dug by scrapers, compacted behind
the quays to depths of over 10 metres and even consolidated and
paved to unusually flat gradients for container stacking with­
out any delay for settlement.
15. The other reason for requiring the walls to be water­
tight is that seepage losses have to be made up by pumping. It
was estimated that the leakage loss from the old adjacent
harbour was as much as 40% of the water pumped in by their
impounding installations. In contrast the new dock stood for
nearly 2 years without a sign of leakage, so that a further
saving could be made by reducing the new pumping station to
half of its originally-intended size.
16. It would probably appear that this wall design is
elaborate and would therefore be costly. It is however very
economical and functional and the arches have no redundant
elements and could not have been sunk from the surface as pre­
formed units. In fact the unit cost was one third less than

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the allowance in the estimate and furthermore the total cost

of the 3km of wall was even less than the saving arising from
using the filling from the excavation. It was therefore
worthwhile to run sand embankments down the foreshore through
which to sink the wall panels. The structure was thus
completed from the surface before excavation of the basin,
which largely also accounts for its enviable safety record
during construction.
The basin was extensive enough for small wind waves to
develop at an angle to the quays and a further advantage of the
wall arches was that they were able to exert a damping effect
to assist vessels at berth at the quays.

Fig 1 Perspective sketch of quay wall at Seaforth

Fig 2 Seaforth /O-acre basin at commencement of

flooding.

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17. Royal Portbury Dock, Bristol

Quay wall. Because of a particularly severe financial
stringency imposed on this development the allocation for quay
wall construction (and for the lock) was little more than half
of the average current price for such work and in consequence
the design had to be of the utmost simplicity. The form of a
false quay with shallow sheeting at the rear was adopted which
as mentioned earlier - would have required vertical and
raking piles for stability on conventional practice. Instead
two panels of diaphragm walling set at right angles to the face
were used and the property which was already established for
them to resist rotation through the ground enabled them to
combine these functions and withstand overturning forces while
at the same time providing vertical support for the deck.
18. The site is at the confluence of two rivers, the Severn
and the Avon, and consisted of flat "saltings" which were
flooded at high tide. Here is was possible to arrange a simple
and repetitive construction process which cheapened the
operation significantly. A shallow embankment was first built
along the lines of the quays using near-surface material dug
from the centre of the future basin. Through this bank the
sheet piling was driven to cut off the pervious upper stratum
around the basin. Diaphragm panels were then sunk in pairs at
bay intervals, followed up by the laying of the flat-slab
concrete deck on the ground.
19. With the deck providing the top support to the sheet
piling, the walls were complete and watertight and the basin
excavation could then be brought up to them and the slope
trimmed around the legs, (see Fig.3).

Fig 3 Portbury quay wall viewed from dry-dug basin.

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20. Here again because the walls were watertight the

excavation could be executed by scraper and all re-used
(gravel and marl), some to form a working platform for the lock
and the rest to raise the level of 200 ha. of surrounding
ground for development of the Port. This dry excavation also
imposed an overload test on the walls since no pressure relief
was applied behind them.
21. Although not quite as heavy a quay as at Seaforth the
Portbury quays still carry cranes for containers and general
cargo, and yet the comparable cost was just half of the
Seaforth structures.

23. Redcar Steel Works

Iron ore terminal. In order to obtain low freight rates
for imported bulk materials such as iron ore, a steel works
needs berth accommodation which can match that of the largest
vessels available to the exporter. Often this implies the con­
struction of a trestle out to deep water, sometimes kilometres
in length, fitted with conveyors and hoppers and a berthing
head, generally piled and sturdy enough to carry the heavy
cranes over deep water. Such a type of installation is
expensive both to build and to operate.
24. The alternative would be to dredge a channel to bring
the bulk-carrier to an inshore berth - provided the channel
could be readily maintained - but this does impose the
additional problem that the quay must be deep enough to
accommodate the channel and the pocket for flotation of the
vessel at low tide.
25. One fairly conventional type of structure which relies
on attributes of the soil which are rarely otherwise
considered, employs cells of tension steel sheet-piling.
Filled with granular material they are of two forms - circular
(which is the more common) and "diaphragm" (which has parallel
walls and convex ends). The latter type is more suitable for
wider structures but, unlike the circular cells, each of which
is self-stable, "diaphragm" cells need end abutments and
sequential filling to avoid a domino-type failure. Both types
suffer from the further limitation that because the piling has
to act in horizontal tension it is straight-webbed (or flat)
and thus has such a low section-modulus that it cannot be
rolled or handled in lengths greater than about 20 metres.
Also although the cells provide a considerable degree of
inertial stability they are not of themselves capable of sus­
taining high intensities of vertical loading.

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26. At Redcar there was evidence that an approach channel

to the shore could be maintained but the depth required for the
berth from cope level to a good foundation was some 45 metres -
which meant that steel sheet-piled cells could not be used.
The scheme conceived was then to copy the steel shape in
diaphragm concrete, inverting the front arch to put it into
compression and devising a steel joint to connect the panels -
which were so deep it had to be made in two lengths. See Fig.4
for the concept.
27. A sand-bank working platform was hydraulically placed
in the River Tees backing onto the steelworks site and through
it the cell walls were sunk to a marl foundation. Capping
beams were then cast over the walls in the form of a massive
continuous Vierendeel girder laid on its side which carries
the crane rails and integrates the range of cells, thereby
introducing a 3-dimensional concept. The heavy crane loads
are carried by the cell walls, continuous along the face, and
in consequence the intensity is negligible at foundation
level. See Fig 5 for the pattern of cell excavation.
28. Redcar can take vessels of 150,000 dwt. and is designed
to be deepened for 200,000 dwt. It is believed to be the
deepest solid berth in the world but its cost was less than
half that of a comparable trestle.
29. Royal Portbury Lock, Bristol To cope with access from
the River Severn, where the tide range is one of the highest in
the world, the Portbury lock, which is 366m long, 42.7m wide
and 20m deep, is the largest in Britain.
30. At one time locks were generally designed with massive
gravity retaining walls to resist external pressure, strutted
apart by thick floors which were also devised to resist
uplift. The walls housed longitudinal culverts for filling
and emptying the lock by orifices provided at close spacing
along their whole length in order to minimise disturbing
effects on the vessels being raised or lowered. More recently
there has been a move with some of the world's largest locks to
use a standard type of concrete cantilever section for the
walls whereby stability is achieved by earth loading on the
heel. In both cases the structures are designed to be built in
the dry and the measures required to achieve this facility are
often extensive and costly, sometimes requiring a water cut­
off around the whole site.
31. In the case of the Portbury lock, the stringent
financial constraint on the project meant that a way had to be
found to avoiding such extraneous costs and this was achieved
essentially by making the structural walls serve as their own
cofferdam.
32. The cut-away sketch (Fig.6) shows the form of the wall
panels which were sunk through an embankment built of marl
from the basin excavations and tipped out into the river.

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Fig 4 Perspective sketch of Redcar Ore Berth.

Fig 5 Aerial view of diaphragm wall cells under construction

(Redcar).

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PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

33. The box structures, which are shown at intervals along

the walls are formed of Tee-sections back to back and their
transverse elements and the internal "silo effect" on the con­
tained materials render them self-stable. The plain Tee-
sections between them however are not adequate without a top
restraint and this is then provided by the deck slab, cast 6n
the ground and acting as a horizontal beam to transfer the
reaction to the boxes, so reintroducing the three dimensional
effect
34. In a few sections where the foundation stratum was
questionable vertical anchors were introduced in the rear
walls but for most of the length adequate restraint was
provided by penetration below the floor of a very small order.
No strutting action is required from the floor which, as will
be apparent, is too thin to serve as anything other than a
scour protection.
35. Excavation of the lock basin in the dry without any
relief of the ground water pressure behind the walls - as is
also the case with the harbour basin - imposes a full scale
test loading on the walls which is greater than will ever be
attained in subsequent use.
36. The quantity of concrete in the shell of the structure
per unit' length amounted to only about one third of its
equivalent for contemporary locks of similar size and the cost
per unit volume of the lock itself was from one half to two
thirds of their best costs.
37. Side Pond. One further feature which is worthy of
mention, although it is unconnected with diaphragm construc­
tion, is the side pond which can be seen on Fig. 7 at the
junction of the Avon with the Severn. By building a curved
shallow embankment to the outer end of the lock a quadrant-
shaped enclosure extending along the length of the upstream
lock wall could be formed.
38. Normal practice for the impounding of locks in the
vicinity is with a pumphouse set out into the river and
problems arise because of heavy burdens of silt stirred up by
the fast currents, long delivery conduits and high head lifts,
which are considerable except at high tide. There seemed to be
scope here for using the exceptional properties of the tides
to minimise these problems.
39. Automatic flood gates are installed beyond the outer
lock gates which allow the pond to fill at every high tide from
the upper water levels-which carry less than the average silt
suspension. This silt tends to settle out leaving relatively
clean water at a perched level in the pond when the tide
recedes. For the first phase of filling the lock, water can
flow from the pond by gravity through sluices provided in the
lock wall: in the second phase, once the levels have
equalised, the remaining filling is done from the dock
culverts with the side sluices closed. The inner gates can

154
 PAPER 9: IRWIN-CHILDS

Fig 7 Aerial view of Portbury Dock with lock and pond being
formed in background.

155
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

then be opened and the ship moves from the dock into the lock
and the gates are closed behind it. The lock level is then
higher than the pond so that, in order to lower it, the first
step can be to re-open the side sluices and allow some of the
(cleaner) water to return to the pond instead of wasting it all
to the river when the outer gates are opened for the vessel to
depart.
40. The lock i^s equipped with four pumps each having a
capacity of 3.25m /sec. with a lifting head of 5.5 metres -
which would of course be quite inadequate if they were
required to cover the great tidal range, as is necessary for
the other harbours on the river. At Portbury however the pond
extends as far as the inner gates which is where the pumphouse
is located so that the duty on the pumps is very light not only
because the head differential is very small but also because
the distance merely to cross the wall could scarcely be less.

41. CONCLUSION. Civil engineering is one of the most

conservative of professions - probably because in many fields
failures could be calamitous. In consequence proposals for
innovation are often regarded with scepticism until they have
been well and truly proved, which is sometimes difficult
especially when the proof demanded includes durability and
longevity. Scale models do not always carry conviction,
principally just because of suspicion of the scale effect, and
the main hope of carrying conviction generally lies with
testing to full scale. Stability tests were applied to all the
projects referenced in this paper, either before or during
construction in the form of push-over trials, which confirmed
that the stability factors actually achieved were at least as
great and in some cases far greater than assessed in the design
and that they supported the theoretical assumptions.

References

1. AGAR and IRWIN-CHILDS. Royal Seaforth Dock.

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
Paper 7600.
2. IRWIN-CHILDS et Al. Redcar Ore Terminal
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
Paper 7800.
3. IRWIN-CHILDS, et Al. Royal Portbury Dock.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
Paper 8081
4. IRWIN-CHILDS. PIANC Congress, Leningrad, 1977.
Uses of Diaphragm Walling.
5. IRWIN-CHILDS. "Ports 77" Congress, Long Beach, 1977.
Application of diaphragm walling to Port Structures.

156
PAPER 10
Construction of the marine terminal at
Aughinish Island

P. LUNDHUS, MSc, Christian! & Nielsen Ltd

SYNOPSIS. Aughinish Marine Terminal forms part of the

Aughinish Alumina Project situated on the southern shore of
the River Shannon estuary on the west coast of Ireland. The
project completed during 1983 was the largest single
investment in Ireland ever. Due to its scale the
construction works presented both technical and contractual
difficulties which will be described and evaluated as being
typical in principle for the industry as seen from the
contractors point of view. Parallels will be drawn to other
foreign projects and the relations of owner/consultant
engineer/contractor.

Fig. 1. Marine Terminal, Aughinish Island

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 157
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

1. Background In 1979 the Aughinish Alumina project

was commenced on the southern shore of the River Shannon.
The construction of the project was managed by Alumina
Contractors Ltd., on behalf of the owner Aughinish Alumina
Ltd. The purpose of the plant is to extract alumina
(aluminium oxide) from bauxite (aluminium ore) and its
capacity of 800,000 tons per annum nade it the largest
single private investment in the history of the Republic of
Ireland.
2. As a consequence of the large nature of the project
a number of sizeable contracts were let and were being
executed at the same time. The marine terminal was one of
those (fig. 1 ) .

3. Layout. The marine

terminal is L-shaped and
consists of an approach arm
approximately 860 m long
70 0 0 0 D W T incorporating a roadway and
supports for
conveyor bridges and pipelines, and a jetty
head which provides two deep water berths for

t 70,000 DWT and 30,000 DWT vessels. There is a

single mooring dolphin with access walkway at
the east end of the jetty head for manoeuvring
ships onto the inner berthing face (fig. 2 ) .
4. The estuary is three miles wide with a
tidal range of approximately 6 metres causing
currents of 4 knots, and there is little
protection from the westerly winds blowing
directly off the Atlantic.
5. Soil conditions. The ground investigation
of the marine terminal site showed generally
limestone and indicated the possibility of
sink holes. In the case of the jetty head in
particular where overburden was generally
expected to be limited to less than some two
or three metres, the presence of a sink hole
under the jetty determined the design and
where the construction works would commence.
The approach arm was not expected to show any
clear sinkholes but the overburden was
expected to vary from nil to 20 metres.

Fig. 2. Layout

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 PAPER 10: LUNDHUS

DESIGN CONCEPT

Fig. 3. Jetty Head details, Strongpoint

6. Jetty Head. The jetty head is 285 metres long and

varies in width from 51.5 to 31 metres. It is designed to
carry two bauxite unloaders of 1100 tonne each, one alumina
loader weighing 400 t and the conveyors feeding them. It
comprises a reinforced concrete deck cast in place on
precast concrete soffit slabs. The latter were bedded on
precast concrete beams spanning between 2 metre diameter
tubular steel piles x 16 mm driven vertically in average
water depth of 20 metres. A total of 276 such piles were
driven in 57 lines of four, five or seven piles at 5 metre
centres longitudinally. 92 Frodingham 8 box piles raking 1
in 3 in three groups form strong points in the centre and at
each end of the jetty head. The minimum driving resistance
required was 6000 kN for the 2 metre piles and 3750 kN for
the Frodingham 8 box piles (fig. 3 ) .
7. The majority of jetty head piles were to be driven
through relatively shallow overburden. Where this exceeded
3.5 metres, piles were to be driven to the specified
resistance to found on rock; where overburden depth was less
than 3.5 metres, however, piles had to be socketed into the
rock to a depth of up to 1.5 metres and driven to the
specified resistance. All piles were then to have a 2 metre
bottom plug of concrete. In the sinkhole area it was
intended for piles which could be driven to -32 m O.D.
without bearing on rock to install 3 Nos. 20 m long H-piles
from the bottom of the main pile to increase the friction
capacity to the 6000 kN required. The connection was again
by means of a toe plug of concrete.

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PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

8. Approach Arm

Fig. 4. Approach Arm Structure under

construction

The approach arm consists of 70 Nos. Frodingham 8 piled

bents in 23 modules each comprising two 2-pile bents and one
4-pile bent @ 12 metre centres. In the 2-pile bent, piles
were to be driven at a rake of 1:8 transversely and
connected by the installation of a precast concrete pile
cap. The superstructure consists of two precast concrete
longitudinal beams, spanning between pile caps which carry
the precast concrete roadway slabs. The 4-pile bent
consists of 2 pairs of piles raking at 1(3 (one pair
longitudinally and one pair transversely) with pile caps
installed at a lower level to accommodate a precast concrete
crossbeam; in addition to carrying the roadway as in the
2-pile bents, the crossbeam supports the conveyor bridges
and pilelines (fig. 4 ) .
9. Where overburden depth exceeded 3.5 metres, the
Frodingham 8 box piles were to be driven open ended to bear
on rock; where the overburden is less than 3.5 metres piles
were required to be socketed 1.5 metres into rock. In all
cases the minimum driving resistance for the piles were 4000
kN. In both cases the pile was to be then cleaned out by
airlift and tremie concrete placed throughout the full
length.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS
10. Sequence. Programme requirements were such that
work on the jetty head proceeded concurrently with work on
the approach arm, with the result that the jetty head
developed into an island site served by marine craft
directly from a temporary loading out facility on shore.
The approach arm was constructed by the cantilever principle
working out from the shore and this was later supplemented
by floating pile driving equipment working ahead.

160
 PAPER 10: LUNDHUS

11. Jetty Head.

Fig. 5. Construction sequence,

with cross-travellers
seen to the left.

On the jetty head, the first stage construction, namely pile

driving and bracing was carried out by 'Ramlift VI' equipped
with a Hera 8800 diesel hammer installed in a specially
designed cage easily removed from the leader. This was a
feature permitting the hammer to be utilised for re-driving
or as a suspended unit at a reach of 13.6 metres from the
barge, or to be readily set aside during heavy lifting
operations. Due to the large pile diameter and the severe
current as well as wave action combined with the relatively
shallow or as it happened nil penetration, it was imperative
to brace the piles until they were connected into the
completed deck structure. The braced structure was
thoroughly investigated in all possible load combinations.
The steel bracing frames incorporating turnbuckles and
pilecollars and having pinned connections to adjoining
frames, were fixed at a level 1.8 m above O.D. Stability of
the whole system was achieved in the initial stages by the
fixity of the first 12 Nos. deeper driven piles in the
sinkhole area where piling commenced.
12. The second stage construction used a 150 tonne
crawler crane mounted on a cross-travel framework 26 metres
long aligned transversely on the jetty head and supported
for longitudinal travel on three rows of slide beams bearing
on the driven piles (fig. 5 ) .
13. Three cross travel units were in use. One unit,
'A' moved westwards from the sinkhole area covering about
one third of the length of the jetty and carrying out all
operations except in-situ deck construction; the other two
units, 'B' and ' C , moved eastwards to cover the remaining
two thirds of the length of the jetty and had various duties
which included in the case of 'B', completion of operations
in the sinkhole area.
14. From the cross travel units the toes of piles were
cleaned out by a modified Wirth B5A reverse circulation
drill rig with 1800 mm diameter rock roller bit which

161
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

drilled ahead to facilitate re-driving into rock; three

metre deep cores to establish the quality of the rock were
recovered by a Craelius D750 core drill; the piles were
re-driven into the 'socket' using a Hera 5700 diesel hammer
in a crane handled driving cage; tremie concrete toe plugs
and in-situ top plugs were placed to completed piles;
precast concrete beams were placed between piles, and the
joints concreted; bracing frames which were of hollow box
section designed with slight positive buoyancy were removed,
and precast concrete soffit units were placed between beams.
15. The third stage construction of the in-situ
concrete deck was carried out independently using a
Manitowoc 4100 working from the deck and concrete supplied
from the shore base in skips transported over the water.
16. Approach Arm.

Fig. 6. Cantitravel

On the approach arm the prime working unit was the

'Cantitravel' which is a 38 m long platform supported on
completed work and from which pile guides and a working
platform cantilever forward for operations on the next pile;
bent support for the piles was provided by four pairs of
rollers mounted on braced frames bolted down to the last
four capped bents, and in the case of 2-pile bents
additional support was provided by a temporary vertical box
pile with a 'rock' point. A motorised portal frame carrying
a 150 tonne crane travelled on rails for the full length of
the Cantitravel, ensuring crane coverage for both forward
and follow-up operations, the latter being the placing of
roadway beams and slabs, and the extraction of the temporary
piles (fig. 6 ) .
17. This method of construction was chosen for the
following basic reasons:
a) Shallow river bed levels in-shore, coupled with a tidal
range of up to 6 metres, made the use of floating pile
driving equipment impractical. Furthermore, whilst the

162
 PAPER 10: LUNDHUS

majority of the piles raked transversely, every third bent

incorporated piles raking in the longitudinal direction.
b) In areas of limited overburden depth, the stability of
piles after driving by floating plant might be in question,
and this could necessitate a considerable amount of
temporary bracing.
c) In the event of piles requiring to be socketed into
rock, substantial temporary works would be required to
accommodate heavy drilling equipment working at a rake of up
to 1:3.
d) Some of the precast concrete elements in the approach
arm structure weighed up to 35 tonnes, and required to be
placed with precision. This would be beyond the capacity of
the average construction or piling barge which would
otherwise have been sufficient.
1
The 'Cantitravel incorporates features enabling it to
overcome all the problems listed above. The unit travels
basically on the permanent work and is therefore on a stable
base well above water level at all stages of the tide and
weather. Pile gates, cantilevered forward, can be set to
drive piles at any rake in any direction. Piles in shallow
overburden can be held in the gates while drilling
operations are performed from a stable platform, and would
not be released until such time as they had been driven into
the socket to achieve stability.
18. Where socketting was required the driving was
carried out in the first instance by a 6 tonne BSP air
driven single acting hammer to avoid distortion of the toe.
A Wirth B5 drill was then used to form a 580 mm dia. socket
prior to re-driving of the pile with the Hera 5000. In both
cases the pile was then cleaned out by airlift and tremie
concrete was placed throughout the full length. Pile caps
and cross beams where applicable were installed. The
precision capability of cranage (in this case an American
Hoist 9299 crane of 150 tonne maximum load capacity) made
light work of the heaviest precast concrete units.
19. The mooring dolphin. Situated some 50 metres east
of the jetty head and joined to it by a single span walkway
structure of latticed design, is a three-tier concrete
structure shaped like a bobbin supported by 24 Nos. 743 mm
diameter tubular steel raking piles. It is located in an
area which, on the basis of a single borehole investigation
at the centre, was assumed to be a sink hole, but there was
always a possibility that the toes of the raking piles might
reach rock before adequate penetration was achieved, with
the result that the installation of tension anchors might be
necessary. In the event, all piles were driven to the
required minimum penetration and set, and drilling
operations were not required.
20. A bracing framework was clamped to all piles in
order to mobilise stability from the pile configuration,
with the facility for releasing individual piles where

163
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

re-driving was required. With some piles founded at levels

of up to 55 metres below datum, in-situ extensions were
necessary and re-driving was carried out using a Hera 5000
operating in a suspended cage.
21. The lowest tier of the dolphin consisted of a
ten-sided block of reinforced concrete 2 metres deep and 16
metres across flats, with a soffit level at mid tide. This
was constructed by precasting the outside face of the unit
and incorporating in it a steel framework which would serve
for both lifting purposes and for bearing on the piles to
support the unit when installed in-situ. Wall thickness was
limited to ensure that the composite unit weighed no more
1
than 100 tonnes - the maximum capacity of Ramlift VI' and
the matched on-shore capacity of the two 50 tonne gantry
cranes acting in tandem.
22. The second tier of the Dolphin consisted basically
of a 6 metre diameter central core, the outer wall of which
was also precast. The uppermost tier was a cast-in-situ
slab 18 metres diameter on plan and approximately one metre
thick supported at the outer edges by precast units forming
part of the fender design and by reinforced concrete
columns.
23. The walkway was fabricated off site and delivered
in two sections for welding on site. Welding was carried
out on the completed deck of the jetty head and the whole
unit weighing 40 tonnes was lifted into place by 'Ramlift
1
VI .
24. Dredging. Areas to be dredged included the seaward
face of the jetty head to a level of -17.3 m O.D. the
landward face and turning area to -15.2 m O.D.
25. Dredging was carried out in three stages namely:
Stage 1: The removal of soft material overlying rock.
Stage 2: The fragmentation of the rock by drilling and
blasting and
Stage 3: The removal of blasted rock.
26. Stage 1 was carried out by grab using a 150 tonne
crawler crane with a 22 metre boom and 2 cubic metre grab,
mounted on a pontoon.
27. Stage 2 required the blasting of rock to a depth
varying from zero to 2 metres over an area of 30,000 square
metres for subsequent removal by grab. Drilling was carried
out using 4 Nos. rotary percussion drills mounted on a barge
with fixed conductor tubes reinforced to stabilise the drill
casings in the heavy current. A drilling pattern of 2m x 2m
was used with 70 mm diameter charge holes, the hole depth
varying with the thickness. Blasting was by Frangex No.l
explosive with Cordtex electrically detonated.
28. Stage 3, the removal of fragmented rock, was
carried out by a spud leg pontoon dredger on which was
mounted on a Liebherr 991 backacter fitted with a 1.8 cubic
metre rock bucket and capable of digging to a depth of 19
metres.

164
 PAPER 10: LUNDHUS

29. On-Shore support work yards. The on-shore support

comprised four main work areas:
1. the pile fabrication and welding yard
2. the precast concrete yard.
3. the loading out facility and
4. the service area, notably plant yard and stores
(fig. 7 ) .

Fig. 7. Support yard and temporary harbour

30. The first three areas were located between the

tracks of two 50 tonne capacity Carruthers Monobox
self-contained travelling gantry cranes spanning 30 metres
with a cantilever of 10 metres on each side beyond the
tracks. The length of travel extended 550 metres from the
pile fabrication and welding yard at the west end of the
site, through the centrally located precast concrete yard,
to the marine loading out facility, a U-shaped dock
comprising two groups of two cells each 20 metres in
diameter, of straight web piles at the east end.
31. Butt welding of pile sections and prefabricated toe
units was carried out manually using low hydrogen electrodes
and in the case of the 2 metre diameter piles, roller sets
were used to rotate the piles during welding operations.
32. The precast concrete yard was extensive owing to
the very large number of units to be cast (of the order of
2,500) and was served by a 130 tonne metre tower crane and
two mobile cranes in addition to the gantries.
33. There were a total of 42 soffits from which some
260 different types of unit were to be manufactured. The
weight of the heavier units ranged from 20 to 35 tonnes and
the fender units weighed approximately 48 tonnes each. The
cutting, bending and fabrication of reinforcement cages was
carried out mainly under cover and the cages were/pre-
assembled.

165
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

34. A special precast unit consisted of the bottom part

of the dolphin soffit and sides previously described
weighing one 100 tonnes.
35. Ready-mixed concrete was supplied in truck mixers
from a central batching plant.

MODIFICATIONS INTRODUCED DURING CONSTRUCTION

36. During construction a number of technical
difficulties were encountered and overcome.
37. Jetty head. It was earlier explained that a
sink-hole area in the jetty head area was utilised at the
planning stage to initially establish a stable platform due
to the expected deep penetration of the piles for two cross
travel units starting from the approximate centre of the
jetty head and working eastwards and westwards respectively.

Fig. 8. Early stage of jetty head with 3 Nos.

cross travellers erected.

38. The fact that a number of 2 metre diameter piles

achieved set at various levels without reaching the expected
penetration, however, gave the Employer cause to order
investigation into the quality of the foundation material by
core recovery from the centre of each driven pile. Casing
tube with cutting shoes, assisted at times by rock roller
bits, had to be used to penetrate overburden material
containing shattered rock and boulders, and coring continued
to depths of up to 10 metres below pile toe to establish a
founding level below which 3 metres of sound rock existed.
An 1800 mm diameter socket was then formed to the required
level by the Wirth reverse circulation drilling equipment, a
plug of tremie concrete was placed and the pile driven to
rock before the concrete had set in order to ensure a sound
fixture. In eleven cases, coring investigation resulted in
the H-pile group solution, described previously, to be
adopted with success.

166
 PAPER 10: LUNDHUS

39. The delay caused by these operations and

investigations together with a shift in the location of the
sink hole away from the mid-point of the jetty head,
resulted in the introduction of a third cross-travel unit in
order to regain time (fig. 8) . Two units shared the
superstructure operations working eastward and the third,
later assisted by a Manitowoc 4100 installed on the finished
deck, proceeded westward under pressure to meet the key
roll-on date for the massive bauxite unloader structure
40. On completion of the west end, the third
cross-travel unit was taken down and re-erected at the east
end of the jetty head to construct the third strongpoint.
41. In the eastern strongpoint, which was located in an
area where rock blasting had taken place as part of the
dredging operation, difficulties were encountered during the
socketing operation (involving the drilling of a 580 mm
diameter hole by a Wirth B5 drill) . Bearing in mind the
precautions taken during the initial drive, it was
considered to be possible that piles were founding on
boulders or fragmented rock interspersed with soft material
as the drill bits were tending to be forced off line and the
airlift was choking. Any attempt to advance the pile to
bedrock could in itself have caused distortion. This
problem was overcome by casting a 3 metre long plug of
concrete at the toe of Frodingham 8 piles before
installation, serving the dual purpose of displacing
boulders of rock in the course of hard driving, and
protecting the wall of the pile from distortion. The time
taken to drill through the plug was minimal.
42. Approach Arm. Changes in respect of design and
construction methods also occurred for the Approach Arm.
43. The initial soil investigations indicated that
overburden depth was such that socketing of piles into rock
would be required in a very limited number of cases, and the
planning took this into account. As the work progressed,
however, it was decided that the quality- of overburden was
inadequate so that a substantial increase in the number of
piles to be socketed would be necessary. Furthermore,
anchored piles were introduced at every third pile bent,
further increasing the amount of drilling and socketing
required. Whilst the Canti-traveller had the capability of
performing the additional work, its rate of forward progress
would be significantly reduced.
44. This fact, coupled with the desirability of giving
the mechanical services contractor road access to the jetty
head as early as possible, required alternative methods of
executing the approach arm construction ahead of the
Cantitraveller to reduce its overall work-load.
45. A sink hole covering part of the length of the
approach arm permitted the use of additional floating
equipment for driving piles through deeper overburden to
found on rock without the necessity of socketing. Placing

167
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

of the precast concrete pile caps was within the capacity of

an Andes C41B crane mounted on a uniflote pontoon.

Fig. 9. Oslo points

46. In areas where overburden was of insufficient

depth, a proposal from the contractor was adopted to achieve
penetration into rock by incorporating specially designed
'Oslo' points at the pile toes. This proposal avoided the
need for socketing and increased the amount of work which
could be carried out by the floating pile driving equipment
(fig. 9 ) .
47. The problem of constructing anchored piles by
floating equipment had to be solved in order to press home
the advantages gained by introducing this additional plant.
The method adopted was to drive piles to set with the 'Oslo'
point and to replace the drilled anchors by tremie concrete
weight collars designed to provide the equivalent resistance
to uplift. A 2 metre diameter sleeve seven metres long,
split and bolted longitudinally and having a centering
device, was therefore fitted over the Frodingham 8 pile and
lowered to the river bed to act as a former and the annulus
was concreted by tremie.

CONCLUSIONS TO BE DRAWN
48. Preamble. Having described in the foregoing the
initial design and the modifications to the planned methods
due to unforeseen circumstances arising during the
execution, it would perhaps be appropriate to add a few
remarks in respect of the relationship between the owner,
the designer and the contractor as seen from the
contractor's point of view. This point of view will
inevitably reflect time and money.
49. It is emphasised that the following remarks where a
degree of criticism is implied are made simply because they
can be regarded as being typical for this type of contract
and the references to the Aughinish project in this case are
solely by way of what may be considered as typical examples
for the industry.

168
 PAPER 10: LUNDHUS

50. Time and cost implications. Examining the jetty

head structure, the supporting medium of 2 metre diameter
steel piles were chosen because of the possibility of
sinkholes in the limestone including a known sinkhole at
approximately the centre. With hindsight it is not at all
certain that the same structure would be chosen knowing that
the expected sinkhole was considerably smaller than expected
and the overburden to bedrock was small or non-existent.
Driving and drilling sockets for 2 metre diameter piles are
expensive operations and direct foundation would in
hindsight certainly have been feasible and much less costly.
As it happened a considerable increase in drilling of piles
was required with much more time and plant involved.
51. Similarly, where sufficient overburden was expected
over the bedrock along the Approach Arm, events showed that
the overburden was not of sufficient quality and drilled
anchors were required to a much larger extent than
anticipated. Further a sinkhole was discovered
necessitating extension of piles. As for the jetty head,
additional time and plant was required causing the total
costs to increase substantially.
52. Similar occurrences. This sort of thing is not a
unique experience. A jetty project in Thailand was designed
on the basis of a level of bedrock obtained from seismic
surveys. The initial piling operations showed that the
"bedrock" was easy to penetrate and consequently the
structural design had to be revised and the pile lengths
increased to beyond the capability of the plant. Similarly,
a harbour project in Malaysia was revised during the
negotiation period by raising the founding level of the
first half of the quay wall, consisting of caissons, in
order to achieve a cheaper solution. The resulting founding
level proved not to be of adequate quality and a substantial
amount of unsuitable material had to be replaced.
53. Such stories are commonplace and stem from
insufficient soil investigations. It is understandable that
owners find it difficult to have to pay for soil
investigations, the benefits of which are not quantifiable.
However, such 'unforeseen' occurrences have two significant
consequences attached to them. Firstly, the
owners/engineers are seldom prepared to deal with such
occurrences and if they are, certainly not fast enough. The
problems are seldom of a technical nature, more often than
not financial. The facts are however, that a design is
based on certain soil conditions and the contractors'
planning, plant, equipment and methods are clearly based on
such design, and any substantial deviations from such
planning can usually only be accommodated at great cost in
time and/or money. It is therefore strongly suggested to
owners not to undervalue such basic investigations.
Adequate soil investigations are the soundest foundation
possible for all subsequent decisions. However, if

169
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

unforseen problems occur despite the precautions taken, then

advantage should be taken of the contractor's knowledge in
seeking the fastest possible solution, which in the end
usually proves the cheapest. As the contractor normally is
funding the changes during a negotiating period, he is
painfully aware, more so than the owner, of the financial
implications of time.
Secondly, during such financial negotiations the temperature
of the relationships normally drops noticeably. The
contractor feels the economic pressure from lack of income
and the owner may have the feeling he is about to be
skinned. At the risk of being labelled an obvious
statement, it is a fact that contractors engaged in these
sizes of projects are genuinely interested in delivering a
reasonable job to the owner's satisfaction, but also expect
to be paid fairly and rapidly. Cooperation is in this
respect of great benefit to both parties.

THE FUTURE
54. The trend for such large projects shows they have
to be completed faster than previously as well as being more
competitive. One can therefore foresee that future projects
will require more turnkey solutions where the consultant
engineer/designer defines the owners needs clearly, but
where the contractor submits a technical solution unique to
his experience and equipment. Such approach often reduces
both time and costs while leaving the responsibilities where
they belong. It has the added advantage of the project
being executed as a team effort rather than resembling the
usual battle between the participants in the project.
55. The british designers and contractors have among
them a wealth of experience to offer worldwide. They are
also doing so, but surprisingly still in their separate
ways. While it is not desirable to change the british sense
of independence, it could perhaps be correct to believe that
the marine construction industry in Britain had a future in
being able to design, build and operate ports worldwide,
tailored to the owner's specific needs. If the parties
would join forces, the product of such a process would be
better than anybody elses.

References:

Owner: Aughinish Alumina Ltd

Designer: Rendel, Palmer & Tritton, London

Contractor: Christiani & Nielsen Ltd in joint venture

with Collen Bros. Dublin.

170
PAPER 11
Construction of marine works in connection
with Hunterston ore terminal jetty

G. C. CUMMINGS, Tarmac Construction Ltd

The Hunterston Ore Terminal Jetty is a part of the Hunterston

Stockyard and Ore Terminal Project constructed for the British
Steel Corporation near Fairlie on the Ayrshire coast. The
jetty was commissioned by the Clyde Port Authority, the
statutory authority responsible for such developments. The
jetty was designed by Messrs Rendel, Palmer & Tritton and was
constructed by the joint venture of Nuttall/H.B.M./Tarmac.
2. The jetty consists of an approach-way approximately 422
m long and a jetty 443 m long by 34 m wide . A mooring dolphin
is sited at the north end of the jetty head which gives an
overall length of jetty head and mooring dolphin of 515 m.
The approach-way is connected to the shore by a causeway
(Fig.l).
3. The jetty head, of both precast and in situ concrete
construction, incorporates the operating deck and traversing
rails for the ore-handling equipment. It was designed to be
supported on 56 bents, each of four 1270 mm dia. tubular steel
piles. Strong points of the same size raking piles are
located at each end and in the centre of the head. There are
290 tubular vertical piles in the jetty head and 65 rakers,
and 30 tubular piles in the approach-way, all 1.27 m in
diameter, and 75 Frodingham no. 8 piles in the approach-way.
4. The jetty was designed to accommodate the largest ore-
carrying vessels of up to 350 000 t deadweight , with a draught
of up to 30 m.
5. The offloading of the oil carriers is effected by grabs,
operated by two Clark Chapman grab unloaders each with a 3000
t/h capacity, with 28 m grab clearance to deck level (Fig. 2 ) .
Each grab weighs 25.3 t empty and has a capacity of 37.7 t of
ore , thus giving a total weight laden of 63 t per grab. The
material is handled away from the discharging equipment by
conveyors capable of handling 6000 t/h.
6. The stockyard has a capacity of 1.7 million tonnes of
ore and 0.25 million tonnes of coal. The stacker reclaimer
has a stacking rate of 6000 t/h and a reclaiming rate of 4000
t/h. The outloader on the jetty head has a capacity of
loading out up to 4000 t/h.
7. The contract was let on a variable fee, cost
reimbursable basis, the employer being financed by the British

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 171
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

Fig. 1 . The causeway connecting the terminal jetty to the

ma i nland

Fig. 2. Two grab unloaders positioned on the terminal jetty

172
 PAPER 11: CUMMINGS

Steel Corporation. A l l p l a n t , goods and m a t e r i a l s purchased

by t h e c o n t r a c t o r f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e c o n t r a c t b e c a m e t h e
property of the B r i t i s h S t e e l Corporation. The c o n t r a c t
provided f o r the C o r p o r a t i o n ' s i n t e r e s t s and involvement in
the d i s p o s a l of t h e s e i t e m s . The c o n t r a c t r e q u i r e d the
c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e j e t t y head d e c k i n 109 weeks and t h e whole
works i n 117 w e e k s .
8. In a d d i t i o n to the p i l i n g a l r e a d y mentioned, 2 2 ^ 0 m o f
p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e u n i t s i n t h e a p p r o a c h - w a y and 7 6 0 0 m o f
precast concrete u n i t s i n the j e t t y head were r e q u i r e d ; a
t o t a l o f 8 2 5 m gf i n s i t u c o n c r e t e was u s e d i n t h e approach-
way a n d 18 0 0 0 m o f c o n c r e t e w a s r e q u i r e d i n t h e j e t t y h e a d .
The m a j o r i t e m s o f p l a n t r e q u i r e d a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 1.

Table 1. Major plant

PILE YARD - PRECAST YARD

3 portal cranes (span 3 0 m, lifting capacity 45 t)
1 tower crane
1 batching plant (PB25 series 2)
3 crawler cranes

LOADING AREA
2 p o r t a l c r a n e s ( s p a n 3 0 m, l i f t i n g c a p a c i t y 45 t)
1 b a t c h i n g p l a n t ( B e n f o r d PB40 Pan M a s t e r )

GENERAL TRANSPORT
2 pile carriers (lifting capacity 25 t)
1 transport bogie
1 m o b i l e c r a n e 18 t

PILING/OFFSHORE
2 j a c k - u p b a r g e s each equipped with a Manitowoc crane (lifting
capacity 250 t )
1 m o b i l e c r a n e 18 t
2 d r i l l s ( C a l w e l d PTR 5 0 )
D i e s e l hammers and a n c i l l a r y equipment
D 4 6 , D 5 5 , D60 d i e s e l
2 floating cranes
1 pile pontoon
1 pontoon for p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e units
2 s e l f - p r o p e l l e d working pontoons
4 t u g s ( 7 4 0 H P - 2 4 0 HP)

SUPERSTRUCTURE
2 p o r t a l c r a n e s ( s p a n 9 . 5 m, l i f t i n g c a p a c i t y 1 2 . 5 t)
1 p o r t a l c r a n e ( s p a n 2 5 m, l i f t i n g c a p a c i t y 6 0 t )
1 mobile crane 45 t
1 crawler crane
2 c o n c r e t e pumps
5 Truc-cretes

173
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCES AND METHOD

9. The construction sequences were based on working out
from the shore using the constructed sections of the jetty for
access and transport, and driving the Appleby Frodingham jetty
approach piles with a floating piling rig while the tubular
piles were driven from the jack-up platforms.

PILING
10. The piles used in the approach-way were driven to a set
by means of a floating pile rig (Menck MR60) and the tubular
piles were driven by a jack-up barge.
11. The piles of the jetty head, which are tubular piles,
are founded on rock, due to the heavy loadings in this
particular part of the jetty. In order to found the piles on
rock the pile has to pass through an average of 35 m of water,
15 m of sand and 25 m of boulder clay. It was not possible to
drive down to the rock, and a method of drilling inside and
ahead of the piles and then redriving the piles was used to
achieve this objective. For the lifting, driving and drilling
of these piles jack-up barges equipped with hammers, drills
etc. were used.
12. Two specially designed pile carriers which straddle the
piles were used to carry the 85 m length of pile which had
been fabricated in the pile yard to the loading area where the
piles were loaded on to the pile pontoon. The carriers were
also used to transport the heavy longitudinal precast units.
13. To obtain adequate resistance to settlement, the jetty
head piles had to penetrate to the underlying rock through
fluvial boulder clay, in some cases up to 40 m deep beneath an
overburden of relatively loose sand.
14. Installation was carried out from the self-elevating
platforms by heavy diesel pile hammers alternating with
reverse circulation drills. PT50 Calweld drills were used
with 1.17 m dia. roller cutter bits incorporating reverse
circulation and air lifting. With this equipment boulders of
less than 200 mm size can be handled. Although a slow
drilling speed of about 200 mm/h and excessive wear on the
bits was experienced in places, no better alternative could be
found.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE TO THE APPROACH-WAY

15. When the piles were driven the precast crossheads were
placed by a floating crane. The longitudinal precast units -
i.e. roadway, beams, walkways - were placed by two portal
cranes travelling on temporary rail beams on top of the
crossheads. The finishing of the deck with in situ concrete
was carried out by the same portal cranes. All transportation
(with the exception of the crossheads themselves) was over the
already constructed parts of the approach-way.

JETTY HEAD CONSTRUCTION

16. After the driving and drilling of the piles, the
precast concrete units were placed on top of the piles and

174
PAPER 11: CUMMINGS

CO

to

175
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

filled with in situ concrete. The longitudinal units were

then placed and the joints filled with concrete. These
activities were carried out by means of a jack-up barge and
floating crane.
17. Further activities on the jetty head were executed
independently of floating plant. For the additional
activities, such as placing the precast concrete units, in
situ concrete of the wall and decks, a portal crane, a crawler
crane and mobile crane were used on top of the already
constructed parts of the jetty head (see Fig. 3 ) .

ON-SHORE ACTIVITIES
18. These were laid out between 1 km long portal crane
track with a 30 m span, along which three cranes had full
travel. At one end the pile fabrication yard was situated
where the required pile lengths were welded up on four pile
beds using standard 25 m lengths which were stored nearby.
19. The remaining area was used for casting the various
precast units, for storage of the units and for loading the
transporters to carry the precast units to the loading area.

TEMPORARY LOADING AREA

20. This was for loading and unloading of the piles and
precast beams and precast concrete units etc. It was
necessary to create a temporary loading area and jetty. About
80 000 m of sand was dredged and reclaimed between stone
bunds, and a jetty of approximately 75 ra in length based on
piles of 30 m was -constructed.
21. Two portal cranes were used on this jetty for loading
and unloading. The batching plant was also sited on this
temporary loading area and produced the in situ concrete used
in the approach-way and the jetty head.

176
PAPER 12
Installation of Syncrolift equipment in ports

D. L. PEARLSON, BSc, Pearlson Engineering Co., Inc.

SYNOPSIS. This paper presents a summary of various

Syncrolift systems which have been installed in ports
throughout the world. The paper discusses Syncrolift's
origins, operations, influences on port planning and future
directions.

INTRODUCTION
1. The original and most widely known application of the
Syncrolift system is the vertical shiplift. Invented in the
f
early 1950 s, Syncrolift was an idea whose time had come.
The worldwide shipbuilding industry was emerging from the
post-war doldrums and much attention was being focused on a
total re-examination and rationalization of the processes
and facilities for ship construction and repair. Among
other things, the traditional concept of providing a costly,
dedicated drydock or launchway which was occupied for a long
duration by a single ship-in-works was being challenged.
The costs associated with material handling and inefficient
access to traditional building berths were recognized and
were being addressed. Indeed, the spotlight was turned on
virtually every element of the industry and many innovations
resulted. Among these changes were the now-familiar
concepts of automated shotblast and painting of steel
plates, numerically controlled plate cutting machines,
highly specialized panel production lines and many material
handling improvements.

2. The Syncrolift fit the objectives of this renaissance

to perfection. It provided a means for quickly and easily
handling ships between the water and the shipyard and, with
its associated transfer system, moving them to spacious,
well equipped and level on-shore berths where material flow
and access could be optimized. The amount of expense and
waterfront required by the shipyard was drastically reduced.
The shipyard could "fan out" inland rather than being spread
along a great expanse of waterfront as was usual with
traditional layouts. More important was the fact that a
single drydock could now serve an almost unlimited number of
on-shore berths and still remain open and available for

Port engineering and operation. Thomas- Telford Ltd, London, 1985 177
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

emergency repairs, thus creating a highly profitable asset

to the shipyard, and a highly desirable feature for the
port. An additional benefit is the greatly reduced cost per
berth which contributes significantly to the profitability
of Syncrolift shipyards.

WHAT IS A SYNCROLIFT?
3. A Syncrolift is an elevator type of drydock. To
retrieve a ship, a wheeled docking cradle is rolled onto the
Syncrolift platform, which is suspended from a series of
electro-mechanical wire rope hoists spaced along both sides.
The Syncrolift hoists are usually mounted on pile supported
foundations slightly above the level of the adjacent
shipyard. The Syncrolift platform, with the docking cradle
on it, is then lowered into the water. When the platform
reaches the required depth, the ship to be drydocked is
moved into position above the docking cradle and held in
place with mooring lines attached to the Syncrolift piers.
The hoists act in a smooth, continuous and synchronized
manner to raise the platform vertically, lifting the ship to
an elevation which matches the adjacent land. In most cases
the ship is now transferred from the Syncrolift and moved to
an on-shore berth. When transfer is not required, the ship
can be docked directly on the keel and bilge blocks attached
to the Syncrolift platform. The size, quantity and spacing
of the hoists along the Syncrolift platform determine the
lifting capacity.

PLATFORM IN LOWERED
CONDITION
Fig. 1 . This schematic cross section of a shiplift shows
the relationship of the winches, the winch supports, the
platform and the ship in a ready-to-dock attitude*
178
 PAPER 12: PEARLSON

SYNCROLIFT HOIST

Pig. 2. This isometric shows the components of the

Syncrolift. The hoist is mounted on a fixed foundation.
The platform is suspended from a multipart wire rope system
which is reeved around sheaves mounted on the platform beam
as well as on the hoist foundation. A full description of
operation is provided in the text.

179
 PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

4. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate the basic design features of

the Syncrolift system. Fig. 2 shows a typical hoist and its
connection to the platform. A single layer of wire rope is
reeved on the grooved drum. The wire rope passes from the
hoist drum to the platform sheaves and back to sheaves
mounted on the hoist. The number of line parts vary but the
wire rope always dead ends at a load cell affixed to the
hoist base. This feature permits continuous monitoring of
line load which is displayed at the control console and
accurately indicates the load on the platform. The drum is
driven through a gearbox by an A.C. synchronous induction
motor. The Syncrolift motor runs only at a fixed speed
which is a function of the frequency of the input power,
thus a number of hoists using the same power source will
behave as if they are mechanically coupled together.

5. Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram depicting a cross

section through a typical installation and shows clearly the
relationship between the hoists, the civil works, the
platform and the ship. A unique characteristic of the
Syncrolift shiplift is that the platform is articulated and
not a rigid structure as it may appear to be. Longitudinal
structural members are alternately "pinned" to the main
transverse beams. This feature assures that each hoist will
lift only its share of the load.

6. Most Syncrolift shiplifts are equipped with rails on

the platform which facilitate easy transfer of drydocked
ships to on-shore berths. In addition, most installations
also feature a two-level transfer system with the side
transfer carriages operating in a recessed pit. This
arrangement permits unrestricted access between any berth
and the shiplift. These features are illustrated in Figs.
3, 4 and 5 which show several typical installations.

7. If sufficient land area is not available for a

"classic" two-level transfer system, then a single-level
arrangement could be considered. Various degrees of
complexity and sophistication can be incorporated into a
single-level transfer system, depending on the requirements
and budget of the shipyard. Figs. 6 and 7 illustrate
single-level Syncrolift transfer systems.

THE SYNCROLIFT SHIPYARD

8. At this writing over 160 Syncrolift systems have been
installed in 58 countries. The shiplifts range in size from
very small installations which service yachts and fishing
vessels to lifts with the capacity to drydock ocean going

180
 PAPER 12: PEARLSON

vessels of 48,000 DWT capacity. One of the world's largest

Syncrolifts is currently under construction at Vlckers
Shipbuilding and Engineering Limited in Barrow-in-Furness.
The Vickers Syncrolift will incorporate a lifting platform
161.8m x 21.7m and have a maximum lifting capacity of 24,000
metric tons (see Fig. 7 ) . This installation is part of the
Submarine Facilities Project which includes the world's
largest single-level transfer system. Groups of
self-powered transfer cars will be used to position
individual hull sections during assembly as well as move the
completed vessel from the construction hall to the
Syncrolift platform. Even larger Syncrolifts have been
proposed with a capacity to drydock vessels of up to 90,000
deadweight ton capacity. Although the size of the lift is
frequently expressed in terms of length, width and total
lifting capacity, it may be quickly seen that the real
limitations are imposed by lifting capacity per unit of
length since this criterion dictates the size and spacing of
the hoists and the required capacity of the supporting civil
works.

Fig. 3 . The Syncrolift equipped Astilleros Canarios is

located in the Canary Islands. The arrangement of the lift
with the side transfer area and the seven on-shore berths is
a "classic" example of the compactness possible in a
shipyard layout.
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

Fig.4. Todd Pacific Shipyards Syncrolift Installation in

San Pedro, California, is presently the world's largest
shiplift. The photo above shows the USS ELLIOTT, a
"Spruance" Class Destroyer being lifted. (Photo courtesy of
Todd Pacific Shipyards.)

Fig. 5. This installation in Dubai illustrates the

potential of an on-shore transfer system. In this shipyard
forty (40) work berths are all serviced by a single
Syncrolift shiplift,

182
 PAPER 12: PEARLSON

Fig. 6. This Syncrolift installation in Timsah, Egypt, is

an example of single-level, direct side transfer from the
shiplift platfora.

9. In traditional shipyards the work berths were enclosed

by a crane structure (in the case of launchway construction)
or sidewalls (in the case of graving docks or floating
drydocks). Ships were frequently docked with declivity and
access was limited by the cramped quarters. Little space
was available for the staging of material and equipment
coming to or from the ship. Support facilities such as
utility leads and material handling equipment had to be
cleared away for launching and drydocklng activities so as
not to interfere or be submerged. The new concept of
performing the work away from the drydock eliminated those
problems and permitted the independent design and
optimization of the on-shore berth for the first time. The
examples presented In Figs. 3, 4 and 5 show clearly the
effect and advantage of this feature and Its impact on
shipyard layout planning.

10. The Syncrolift system also presents several features

unique to its design which are worthy of notation. One such
feature is its expandability. It is common practice to
accommodate future growth in the Initial design. A longer,
wider or higher capacity per unit length system may be
envisioned for the future but cannot be justified in the
present. If this Is the case, future expandability can

183
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

easily be planned for. The ultimate width and draft must be

provided in the initial installation since these parameters
would be impractical to modify. Length and even capacity
per unit of length can be modified in the future. As a
practical matter, it is best to provide for this later
growth in the initial civil works to avoid future disruption
and remobilization costs. That is, the foundations for
future hoists are usually constructed in the first phase.

11. Another feature of special interest is the platform

load indicators on the control console. Since the platform
is articulated, this readout is, in effect, a scale which
presents a direct indication of the weight profile of the
ship being drydocked.

12. Maintenance of the Syncrolift is simple and requires

no specialized technicians. The mechanical components and
wire rope assemblies require regular lubrication. With
proper care and testing, the wire ropes can be expected to
give ten years of service. The structural steel members
must, of course, have their surface coatings maintained.
The hoists are usually mounted at a height sufficient to
permit lifting the entire platform clear of high water for
inspection and maintenance. This sometimes requires that
they be mounted on pedestals above the supporting piers.
Water depth must also be maintained. Although the platform
beams will move a certain amount of silt aside as a result
of normal operations, periodic maintenance dredging will
probably be required. This is typically accomplished by the
use of a clamshell dredge working through removed sections
of the platform deck or from the side of the Syncrolift if
an open pier structure is used.

INFLUENCE ON PORT PLANNING

13. A shipyard built around a Syncrolift system has a
considerably different appearance than what might be thought
of as a traditional shipyard layout. Figs. 3, 4 and 5 show
how the full depth of a site can be effectively utilized,
rather than the shipyard tying up large expanses of
waterfront. This results in a much more compact and
economic layout.

14. Astilleros Canarios (Fig. 3 ) , located in the Canary

Islands, represents what may be regarded as one of several
"classic" Syncrolift shipyards. The Syncrolift platform,
the side transfer yard and the length of the on-shore berth
define the length of the principal work area. The general
rule that the length of the work area equals three times the
length of the platform is evident from this layout. The
width of the work area is a multiple of the number of
on-shore berths and their widths. A total of seven berths
are provided with this layout plus the Syncrfolift platform

184
Fig. 7. This installation is presently under construction at Barrow-in-Furness for Vickers Shipbuilding
and Engineering Limited. It will have a maximum lifting capacity of 24,000 tons and will be the largest
Syncrolift shiplift yet built. It is designed for both end and side transfer from the platform with the
hoists recessed below the surface of the concrete deck.
 PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

itself which can be considered a short-term repair berth.

Wet berthing pier space is provided along the side of the
on-shore work area. Support shops can be seen located
conveniently to the on-shore berths.

15. The Todd Pacific Shipyards (Los Angeles Division)

installation in San Pedro, California, is shown in Fig. 4.
Note that this layout follows the same "classic" pattern
described above. The property along one side of the
platform has yet to be filled and bulkheaded. When it is
complete Todd will have five on-shore berths.

16. Another common arrangement of a Syncrolift shipyard is

shown in Fig. 5. In this configuration at the Dubai Ship
Docking Yard, two finger piers project outward from the
shore and flank the platform. The side transfer area is set
somewhat back from the waterfront with a large number of
onshore berths arranged along either side* J/? this
shipyard there are forty berths.

17. There is no limit to possible Syncrolift shipyard

arrangements. Most variations are the result of some
special condition such as site restrictions, product
diversity, future growth considerations, unusually expensive
local construction costs, etc.

OTHER USES OF SYNCROLIFT EQUIPMENT IN PORTS

18. As mentioned previously, Syncrolift systems are also
used in other applications in ports. In the application
shown in Fig. 8, two Syncrolift hoists have been used to
support the seaward end of a ferry ramp. This arrangement
is typical of several such installations. The low profile
of the Syncrolift equipment is especially attractive and
minimizes the visual impact of the facility on the
environment.

CIVIL ENGINEERING ASPECTS

19. The Syncrolift caisson lift shown in Fig. 9 is yet
another application of the system. Here the Syncrolift is
used as a launcher for large concrete caissons. The
required capacity per unit length of platform is usually
much greater with caisson lifts than for shiplifts. Once
the need for the caisson lift is complete, the machinery and
parts of the platform can be rearranged to provide a
conventional shiplift. Since the photograph in Fig. 5 was
taken, a second shiplift has been installed from a
reconstructed Syncrolift caisson lift. The transfer yards
were then interconnected, providing more than forty-five
on-shore repair berths.

186
 PAPER 12: PEARLSON

Fig. 8 . In this installation two Syncrolift hoists are

positioned to provide vertical adjustment for the seaward
end of a ferry ramp.

The installation shown in Fig. 9 is located in Kashiwazakl,

Japan and has a design load capacity of 115 tons per meter
of platform length. The same client has a second even
higher capacity lift with a design capacity of 2 0 0 tons per
meter of platform length.

2 0 . Support foundations for the Syncrolift hoists and

transfer system rails are usually designed and furnished by
local firms. Standard marine piling Is the simplest and
most frequently used type of construction. Piles of treated
timber, prestressed concrete, structural shapes, pipe and
sheet have all been used. The most economical arrangement,
Illustrated in Fig. 9, is to construct the Syncrolift far
enough from the shore to use the stable slope of the bottom
to provide adequate depth of water. The shiplift is
connected to the land by a pile supported trestle structure.
The hoist piers are usually made wide enough to also
function as wet berths. If, due to site restrictions, it Is
not possible to build finger piers, the Syncrolift can be
located In a slip cut into the shipyard. In this
arrangement the back of the hoists are supported on the
sheet pile bulkhead with the front of the hoists on piles.
The piers supporting the Syncrolift at Vickers
(Barrow-in-Furness) are supported on diaphragm walls and
large diameter piles sunk through temporary sand fill into
the underlying glacial till and marl.

187
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

Fig. 9. This installation is used for the fabrication and

launching of concrete caissons used in port construction.
Note the very close spacing of winches required to achieve
the high capacity per unit of length needed for caisson
handling. These installations are often reconfigured at a
later date and used as shiplifts in the same ports they were
used to construct.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS
21. In most cases the Syncrolift shiplift is an integral
element of a complete shipyard and is used to launch and
retrieve ships so their work force can perform repairs,
conversions or new construction in a more efficient and cost
effective manner. Recently, however, a new development of
particular interest to port planners has evolved in which a
Syncrolift, with an extensive transfer system, has been
built by a local authority to operate as a public access
facility. This provides a facility for operators to have
their vessels hauled and then perform their own repairs.
While the concept of a public use facility is not new, it
was never practical until the Syncrolift's speed of
operation and its ease of transfer. As many as a dozen
boats per day can be docked or launched at a Syncrolift
facility. Another public access facility has recently been
commissioned in Seward, Alaska. It will become the core
installation around which a full industrial port is expected
to develop. Many of the crabbing and fishing vessels from
that area will be able to avoid the two thousand mile round
trip to Seattle or Vancouver.

188
 PAPER 12: PEARLSON

22. In the material handling area we have constructed a

barge loading facility using three Syncrolifts working
together to move palletized paper products from a mill in
Camas, Washington, U.S.A. to the Columbia River where the
water level fluctuates 18-20 feet during a typical year.

23. Among other future applications which we have

investigated and found feasible is the use of Syncrolift as
the heart of a facility to construct and launch
prefabricated tunnel sections of up to 30,000 tons. Such a
facility is presently under consideration for the Severn
Barrage project which also includes two Syncrolifts on
either side of the barrage in place of a lock system.
Further, we expect to see Syncrolift systems used in port
cargo handling applications, both on-board ship and on
shore, and in providing vertical adjustment and support to
RO/RO ramps.

CONCLUSION
24. The Syncrolift system incorporates a proven design and
proven, reliable components. In the thirty years since its
development, it has revolutionized the way shipyards are
planned.

189
PAPER 13
What does the engineer need to know about
ships and ship handling?

P. LACEY, F I C E , Ove Arup and Partners, and I. W. DAND,

BSc, PhD, M R I N A , NMI Ltd

SYNOPSIS. The paper seeks to indicate to the Maritime Civil

Engineer those points he should bear in mind when designing
ports and waterways to accommodate sea-going ships. Indica­
tions are given as to where answers to his questions may be
found and it is shown that techniques are now available which
enable ship-handling (and ship handlers) to be incorporated
into the design process at an early stage. The paper
concludes on a cautionary note by listing some things the
engineer should not forget if he is to achieve a successful
design.

INTRODUCTION
1. This paper attempts to set out briefly what the engineer
needs to know about ships and ship handling when designing
maritime civil engineering works.
2". The subjects covered in the text are common ones which
face an engineer especially when he is asked to design a
maritime structure for a greenfield site. Design problems
are somewhat easier to solve when extending existing port
facilities as in this case the engineer usually has a wealth
of past experience from the port operators records to assist
him in making decisions affecting his design.
3. The subjects are only briefly described to focus discus­
sion as they are covered in some depth in articles, textbooks
and reports, a few of which are given under references.
4. In a paper at a recent discussion meeting, (ref. 1 )
Captain Rhodes, a practising ship handler, indicated the
areas where he believed the civil engineer could lessen risk
while navigating in ports or harbours by providing

a) Adequate water depth

b) Adequate space for manoeuvring, stopping, swinging
and berthing
c) Protection from cross winds and cross currents
d) Adequate tendering at berths
e) Properly spaced mooring and securing points
f) Freedom from obstructions on berths and quaysides
g) Shadow-free lighting and no confusing or unnecessary
lights

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 191
 PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

h) Smoke-free zones
i) Conspicuous and sharply defined features for Radar
Echo
j) Electronic Surveillence and position fixing systems
k) Radio Telephone Communication Network
1) Reliable and readily available ancilliary services,
tugs, boatmen etc.

5. This is a formidable list covering a vast amount of work

for the engineer. The last four items are usually decided and
defined by the Port Authority or following consultation with
port users and operators and although important are not
necessarily part of the engineers brief.
6. In the paper we consider some of these topics briefly,
raise some questions and, wj^ere possible, indicate some
answers.
7. Entrance Channels The engineer needs to plan the
salient depths and dimensions for the entrance channel
necessary to cater for the forecast sizes of vessel using the
facility. This covers channel alignment so suit the direction
and velocity 6 f both currents and prevailing winds. It covers
the physical restraints of the site which might govern the
channel alignment and whether special navigation aids are
necessary to aid and control the ships passage. He needs to
know what the channel depth should be, to cater for ships at
varying speeds, and how different weather conditions affect
the channel depth and width chosen.
8. The ship operator needs to be sure that his own partic­
ular requirements have been met so that an acceptable level
of navigational safety can be attained* He will expect the
channel width, depth and alignment to have been chosen with
due regard to the following hydrodynamic phenomena

- loss of manoeuvrability in shallow water (Fig. 1 )

- bank suction (Fig. 2)
- squat (Fig. 3)
- interaction between ships
- increased resistance (and hence loss of speed) in
shallow water

9. Much work has been done on these topics world-wide and

tools are now available to aid the engineer. These range from
preliminary design methods (ref. 2, 3 and 4 for example) to
use of modern ship simulator facilities (ref. 5 and 6 for
example). Both methods complement each other with the first
an essential preliminary to the second.
1 0 . Real time simulation in a full-bridge simulator is the
nearest the engineer is able to come to using a proposed
channel without actually passing along the real channel in a
real ship. Using a computer to control the visual scene in a
manner which accurately represents the behaviour of a ship, it
is possible for engineers, mariners, harbour masters and ship
operators to participate in a multi-disciplinary approach to

192
 PAPER 13: LACEY A N D D A N D

d e s i g n i n a way t h a t p r o v i d e s a p o w e r f u l p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
capability. Modern s h i p s i m u l a t i o n s t a k e a l l t h e a b o v e
hydrodynamic e f f e c t s i n t o a c c o u n t and c a n p r o v i d e comprehen­
s i v e i n f o r m a t i o n on s h i p and p i l o t p e r f o r m a n c e , a s w e l l a s
i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t on s h i p t r a c k
and t h e e f f e c t o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s and l a y o u t o f n a v i g a t i o n a i d .

2Km

SHALLOW DEPTH

Fig. 1. Effect of water d e g t h on t u r n i n g c i r c l e o f a l a r g e

tanker. Rudder 35 p o r t ; approach speed 7 k n o t s .

1 1 . But t h e r e i s one problem t o b e overcome i n such s t u d i e s

and t h i s r e l a t e s t o t h e v e x e d q u e s t i o n o f what one means b y
'adequate n a v i g a t i o n a l s a f e t y ' in such o p e r a t i o n s . This can
have a c r u c i a l b e a r i n g on t h e f i n a l c h a n n e l d i m e n s i o n s (and
h e n c e c o s t ) b u t i n many c a s e s d e f i e s r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n (ref.
7). T h i s means t h a t b e f o r e any s t u d y c a n b e c o m p l e t e d t h e
e n g i n e e r and h i s c l i e n t s m u s t r e s o l v e t h i s q u e s t i o n and d e c i d e

193
 TRIM - /MIDSHIPS UNDERWAY AT REST
BANK
- P O T E N T I A L T R A C K OF SHIP IF o
NO CONTROL A P P L I E D H

£
3 YAW MOMENT DUE TO BANK
MEAN BODILY
SINKAGE -
z
z
z
PRESSURE CUSHION. i o
PUSHES BOW AWAY N^l >
z
o
SWAY FORCE DUE TO B L A N K a
m
( D I R E C T I O N DEPENDS ON SHIP S P E E D ) en
FLOW VELOCITY UNDER SHIP INCREASED O
RESULTING LOWERED P R E S S U R E 'SUCKS SHIP DOWN' Z
IUDOCR A N C L E N E E D E D TO
COUNTER BANK EFFECTS
TOWARD FRQUDE DEPTH NUMBER
BANK
FRQUDE DEPTH NUMBER

INCREASING DISTANCE OFF

I (SHIP S P E E D ) *
FROUQE DEPTH NUMBER

FRQUDE DEPTH NUMBER TRIM

YAW MOMENT
2
(SHIP SPEED)

^CREASING
DISTANCE OFF
V A R I A T I O N OF S I N K A G E AND TRIM WITH S P E E D
VARIATION OF SWAY FORCE fr YAW M O M E N T
COEFFICIENTS WITH S P E E D
Fig. 2. Bank effects Fig, Squat
 PAPER 13: LACEY A N D D A N D

in what way they can judge when adequate levels of safety have
b e e n achieved. This is by no means a trivial problem, but
some in-roads are being made (ref. 8 ) .
12. Turning and Handling Ships Inside a Harbour or Near
a Structure. The engineer needs to know if the ships forecast
to use his structure or port require assistance to manoeuvre
when inside the port or near the berthing structure.
1 3 . Recent records show the old basic concept of providing a
turning circle of twice the ship length is not necessarily
true (Ref. 5 ) and greater thought must be given to large
vessels leaving or coming alongside berths in varying wind
conditions if manoeuvring space is limited.
1 4 . The chance of the ship not behaving exactly according to
plan must b e considered and allowed for. Will there be a
sufficient number of tugs of sufficient power to keep tight
control? Should the engineer over-design to cater for mishaps
and if so b y what degree?
1 5 . Once again ship manoeuvring simulation can aid the
engineer. Turning a ship takes time due to the hydrodynamic
forces and moments acting on its hull and its own mass and
inertia together with any 'virtual mass' effects. Time may
b e of the essence in situations where the tidal time window
may b e limited and, the shorter the time available for turning,
the greater the total bollard pull required and, therefore,
the greater the tug requirement. Turning a ship can readily
be simulated and estimates of tug forces required to swing
the ship in a given time can be made. Estimates may also be
made for the tug- force required for breasting a ship against
a current and/or wind and the pull required simply to overcome
the inertia of a ship to start it moving. Finally, recent
work allows estimates to be made of the effects on tug bollard
pull of the tug propeller wash impinging on the ship; often
this can reduce the effective bollard pull dramatically (ref.
9) .
1 6 . it should be noted that all of the above effects change
with any reduction in water depth and underkeel clearance.
17. Ship Loading on the Structure. The engineer wants
to know what type and magnitude of loading he must design his
structure for (ref. 1 0 ) . He knows what loads to expect from
ship velocity while berthing but he must also cater for
different angles of approach and what is the result if the
ship comes in faster than expected. The fenders he designs
to keep ship and structure apart must be suitable for all
ship sizes and shapes forecast but must not be totally
destroyed if a larger ship comes alongside.
1 8 . He also wants to know about the ballast and trim condi­
tion of the vessel, tug types and deployment, tide and current
conditions, day or night approaches, wind and weather condi­
tions and the likelihood of human error.
1 9 . This last item may turn out to be the crux of the matter
and the very fact that it is unknown and little researched
leads to fendering of increased size, durability and energy
absorption.

195
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

2 0 . He must also consider if the berth orientation changes

loading characteristics and ship berthing or unberthing
procedures, in order to design practical layouts which ship
users would be pleased to use.
2 1 . Part 8 of BS 6 3 4 9 (Ref. 1 1 ) give guidance on tendering
and Tables 1 and 2 from the code are given as Appendix A of
this paper to show typical categories. However, it would b e
of great value if ship operators, ship owners and port
engineers would comment on the contents.
2 2 . Feedback, in general, on designed facilities is difficult
to come by and a conscious effort must be made on the part of
the engineer to obtain as much of this as possible. Some of
the oil companies are proceeding with data collection on
berthing velocities etc. but as yet this has not become
generally available.
2 3 . The engineer would like to know to what degree the ship
operators view the berthing arrangements and would they like
to influence or change them?
24. Cargo Handling Requirements. This subject is large
enough and devious enough to warrant a substantial amount of
the engineer's time spent on finding out what is the cargo
character and transport mode now and in the future.
2 5 . He must find out if the ships intending to use the
facility need special equipment and also if his choice of
fender has resulted in ship-to-berth distance making loading
difficult. The cargo and how it is loaded shapes the facility
and of course the ship interface with the berth.
2 6 . Commodities range from general break-bulk, palletised,
containerised, and Ro-Ro cargoes, large and small unit
materials and pure bulk materials. All ship/quay equipment
have different dimensional envelopes and loadings and must b e
catered for at the design stage and for the expected life of
the facility.
2 7 . The engineer must also be sure that the facility he has
designed is suitable to work ships in reasonable weather
conditions.
2 8 . Recourse to physical model testing informs the engineer
of probable motions at the berth and can of course help him
in problems related to breakwater design and berth orien­
tation.
2 9 . Where does the engineer go to find what type of ship
changes can be foreseen and what is the equipment needed to
handle them? Should the industry be publishing a state of the
art document and is the 'industry' the port industry or is it
that of the ship owners?
30. Moorings. This subject has been touched on in para­
graphs 1 7 to 2 3 . The designed moorincrs and their layout need
careful consideration as for most facilities (and especially
those of the isolated berth type) they have to cater for a
wide range of tidal levels, ship, size and ship shape (refs.
4 and 1 2 ) .
3 1 . Traditionally moorings have been provided at bow, stern,
spring and breasting positions and appear to still be required

196
 PAPER 13: LACEY A N D D A N D

and provided at most berths. However, it would be useful if

ship operators could put together a guideline document for
use by design engineers. Has the advance in man-made fibres
changed mooring requirements apart from allowing for the extra
movement?
32. Effect of Ship Motions on Dredged Depth and Width.
The relationship between ship behaviour and channel width,
depth and alignment has been mentioned in section 1. However
the discussion given there relates entirely to ship behaviour
in calm water. This is of course appropriate for a suitably
sheltered channel, but the engineer may well wish to know
about the motions induced on a ship by wave action in the
more exposed outer reaches of some channels and waterways.
33. Unfortunately little systematic work on the motions of
ships with low underkeel clearances has been done in the past,
although recently some notable full-scale measurements have
been made (references 13 and 14 for example).
34. Pitch, heave and roll can make significant demands on
channel depth requirements and, as wave fronts can align
themselves to move along the channel, pitching and heaving
may well be the dominant motions. Of these, pitching motion,
especially for long ships, can cause the engineer the most
trouble as quite modest pitch angles can give rise to signi­
ficant reductions in underkeel clearance at bow or stern.
35. Channel width requirements due to wave action on ship
behaviour should also be considered. Waves at an oblique
angle to bow or stern can cause both a bodily drift as well
as affecting the yaw motion thereby causing the helmsman
problems in maintaining a given track.
36. With the advent of larger ships moving into comparatively
more exposed shallow waterways there is a need for further
work on the motions of ships while underway in such conditions.
Some of this work is in hand but until it is completed, the
engineer must make do with the limited and rather ad hoc
data presently to hand.
37. Aids to Navigation and Their Disposition. The
behaviour of a ship in a port approach depends crucially on
the aids to navigation at its disposal. The engineer needs
to know what aids are likely to be available on the ship (as
well as what should be available) in addition to the aids he
may have to consider in the waterway itself. Indeed he may
also need to consider the interdependence between shipboard
aids and those external to the ship such as buoys, beacons,
racons etc. As an example a fully trained bridge party with
a reliable radar could, in principle, using known radar
techniques, guide a ship up a comparatively narrow channel by
means of radar with only a few radar-conspicuous beacons
located at key positions. Clearly such a situation is an
idealised one and it would be unwise to design an entrance
channel on the assumption that every ship using it will be
similarly equipped with navigation aids and trained crew.
38. Disposition of buoys to mark an approach channel is of
some importance and the engineer should pay particular

197
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

attention to this with the advice of a practising mariner.

1 1 1
The IALA 'A or B systems are in general use and their
recommendations should be adhered to. Once again the simu­
lator can be used to investigate the relationship between the
disposition, lighting and visibility of buoys. It is partic­
ularly suited to this type of work as it is a simple matter
to change the position and/or light characteristics of
navigation marks.
39. For narrow, shallow channels the engineer should consider
the merits of leading lights, (their size, disposition and
cost) spar buoys or piled beacons for accurate position-
keeping or the cheaper cha-in-moored sea-buoys (for which due
allowance should be made for their 'swinging circle'). All
such considerations should be made in consultation with the
mariners who are to use the waterway and, where appropriate,
the harbour master who is to oversee its operation and
maintenance.
40. As an example of the effect of navigation aid disposition
on ship behaviour a plot from a simulator exercise is shown in
Figure 4 from reference 7. It shows clearly that elimination
of a gated pair of buoys at the apex of a bend causes the ship
handler to make two comparatively sharp turns separated by a
short straight rather than a more gradual change of course
with the apex gate present.
41. Finally, the engineer may need to determine whether the
expected traffic level in the proposed waterway is suffici­
ently high to warrant additional aids to navigation or
surveillance. These may consist of extensions to existing
systems or the design and implementation of new rader/radio-
based systems. The Decca or Loran-C position-fixing systems
are well-known and available in congested waters in many
parts of the world and the engineer should ensure that, where
necessary suitable associated communications between ship and
shore are available. If traffic is sufficiently dense, some
sort of traffic separation scheme may need to be considered
to avoid any possible reduction in navigational safety. In
some cases Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) systems may be approp­
riate in which a large measure of traffic control comes from
shore-based surveillence centres which may offer advice (or
in some cases directions) to ships within their jurisdiction.
Reference 15 gives a comprehensive coverage of VTS topics,
many of which emphasise the important point that shore-based
systems do not remove from the ship's master the ultimate
authority for the safety of his ship.
42. The Shipowner's and Shiphandlers Influence on Design.
The engineer should appreciate that the ship owner, (in the
form of the shipowner's naval architect) can have a profound
influence in waterway design. But that influence is generally
of an indirect nature resulting from ship design decisions
taken with due consideration of all aspects of the ship's
operation of which passage along the engineer's waterway
forms only a small part. This is not to say that it is not
an important part however and there is a growing realisation

198
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

among naval architects that shallow and confined water behav­

iour are important aspects of ship performance and that they
should be considered in design.
43. Recent considerations by the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) have related to 'designing in' certain
requirements for manoeuvrability in regard to sea-going ships
but these have recognised the problems involved. Manoeuvra­
bility is both difficult to define and to guarantee at the
design stage. While much work on this topic has been done,
much remains to be done and the ability to design ab initio a
given manoeuvrability into a ship still eludes the designer.
Therefore he must rely on the experience of past ships and
must also respond to the market forces which dictate his
design. In some cases good manoeuvrability and market forces
conflict and the compromise ultimately reached by the designer
may frustrate the ship handler when attempting to handle such
a ship in confined waters. As an example, low-mass/high-
volume cargoes lead to ships with high sides and low draught.
This results in handling problems in a wind which will in
turn lead to such features needing to be considered by the
engineer in his waterway design, with consequent effects on
waterway width and alignment.
44. The ship-handler will also have certain requirements for
consideration in the design of a waterway. He will wish it
to be as wide and deep as possible with the minimum number of
curves, cross-currents and cross-winds. Clearly his require­
ments may be in direct conflict with those of economics and
so a compromise must be sought.
45. Indeed the idea of compromise is central to much that
the engineer must do. He is faced with sometimes conflicting
requirements from several disciplines and must attempt to
satisfy all these disciplines with an acceptable compromise.
One way of doing this in the realm of ship handling is, as
has been mentioned, by the use of a simulator to act as a
common ground upon which a multi-disciplinary team can perform.
A way in which this may be achieved is shown in Figure 5
which, it must be emphasised, relates entirely to ship behav­
iour aspects and as such forms only part of the entire design
scheme.
46. What the Engineer must not do. Having considered
what the engineer should bear in mind when designing a port
or waterway to accept ships it is perhaps not without interest
to consider those things which he should not forget. Clearly
any such list of 'don'ts' may be incomplete and unforseen
situations will always arise, but the following points should,
it is hoped, allow the engineer to proceed with the approp­
riate amount of caution. Therefore he should not
- forget to take a broad view of waterway design. Many
parties, some with conflicting requirements, have an inter­
est in the design of waterways to accept ships and the
engineer has the unenviable job of balancing their require­
ments. As an example, he should ensure that a channel
alignment which is good from a self-scouring point of view

200
 HUMAN INTERACTION, (CONSULTANT) MARINER, C I V I L E N G I N E E R , CONSULTANT INPUT

CONSULTANT INPUT

FAST TIME REAL TIME

WIDTH, DEPTH WIDTH, WIDTH,
SIMULATION SIMULATION
ALIGNMENT DEPTH DEPTH
STUDY STUDY
ALIGNMENT ALIGNMENT .
SHIP SIZE? (BANK EFFECTS, (WITH A COLLEGE
ETC.) OF

PRELIMINARY NAUTICAL STUDIES)

DESIGN FINAL

CHANNEL STUDY WATERWAY

DIMENSIONS PHYSICAL DESIGN

& ALIGNMENT? Optional MODEL WIDTH, DEPTH, ALIGNMENT

STUDY INTERACTION

(CONTRACTED

TIME)

\
MARINER, CIVIL ENGINEER,
CONSULTANT INPUT

Fig. 5. Waterway design

PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

does not have cross-currents which are likely to cause hand­

ling problems to ships using that channel.
- lose sight of the fact that channel length and speed of
transit are crucial factors when tidal time windows are
considered. A reduction in channel depth will alter a given
ship's manoeuvrability (generally making it more 'sluggish')
and reduce its speed for a given engine power setting.
- assume that the ships can be manoeuvred under their own
power with the ease of other vehicles. Ship handling is a
skill which has many elements of an 'art' about it; ships
cannot and will not behave easily in any situation the
engineer may care to give them, and their particular
behavioural requirements should be considered in waterway
design.
- assume he will obtain easy or quantitative answers to some
of his problems relating to ship handling. Many aspects of
ship handling and manoeuvrability are subjective and as such
defy precise numerical definition. The engineer may well
therefore find himself searching for some vaguely-defined
1
concept such as 'adequate levels of navigational safety
without ever having a precise definition of what this means.
- forget that a multi-disciplinary study involving ship hand­
ling takes time. All too often engineers, operators and
mariners get together too late in the design process when
crucial decisions which may affect waterway or harbour
design have already been made. If such decisions are to be
made to satisfy all concerned, then all interested parties
should be involved as early in the study as possible. The
engineer may find the role of diplomat added to his many
other duties.
- forget that even with the best-designed port and approach
channel, things can still go wrong under operational condi­
tions. He must therefore have suitable contingency plans
ready in the event of some casualty within the port or
waterway, so that other ships can still enter and leave in
safety.
- ignore trends in ship design. Although in an era of depres­
sed ship building and operating, the engineer should never­
theless be aware of new developments which may need consid­
eration in future port and waterway designs. Among these
may be numbered the energy-efficient bulk-carriers now being
built and operated (ref. 1 6 ) , the trend in some trades tow­
ard very low manning levels on ships (which will have impli­
cations on the ultimate off-loading of such ships when in
port), and the increased demand for sophisticated aids to
navigation both ship- and shore-based.

REFERENCES
1. DR I W DAND, DR E C BOWERS, CAPTAIN C A RHODES. 'Informal
Discussion'. Institution of Civil Engineers. October 1983.
2. DAND, I W. 'An Approach to the Design of Navigation
Channels' NMI Report R104, May 1981.

202
 PAPER 13: LACEY A N D D A N D

3. H AGERSCHON, H LUNGREN, T SORENSEN, T ERNST, JENS

KIRKEGARD, L R SCHMIDT, WEE KENG CHI. 'Planning and Design of
Ports and Marine Terminals', 1 9 8 3 .
4. International Commission for the Reception of Large Ships
PIANC Report, 1 9 8 0 .
5. M S CHISLETT, A MATTSSON & A VETTLEVILLE. 'Simulation
Study for Port of Malmo'. Dock and Harbour Authority. London
October 1 9 8 0 .
6. PUGLISI, J J, D'AMICO, A & VAN HOORDE, G: 'The Use of
Simulation at CAORF in Determining Criteria for Increased
Throughput of Ship Traffic in the Panama Canal'. MARSIM ' 8 4 ,
Third International Conference on Marine Simulation, Rotterdam,
June 1 9 8 4 .
7. DAND, I W. 'Optimising Ship Operations in Open and
Confined Waters Using Manoeuvring Simulation Models' West
European Conference on Marine Technology, WEMT ' 8 4 , Paris,
July 1 9 8 4 .
8. SCHRYVER, J C. 'A Generalised Definitive Manoeuvres
Approach to Piloted Controllability , MARSIM ' 8 4 , Rotterdam,
1

June 1 9 8 4 .
9. DAND, I W. 'Tug Wash Effects in Confined Waters' Seventh
International Tug Convention, London, 1 9 8 2 , Thomas Reed
Publications Ltd.
1 0 . DENT, G E. 'Berthing Structures for Large Oil Tankers'.
The Structural Engineer Vol. 4 2 . No. 2 . Feb. 1 9 6 4 .
1 1 . Draft Code of Practice for Maritime Structures BS 6 3 4 9 -
Parts 1 , 2 and 8 . 1 9 8 4 .
1 2 . Guide Lines and Recommendations for the Safe Mooring of
Large Ships at Piers and Sea Islands. OCIMF 1 9 7 8 .
1 3 . ZWAMBORN, J A & VAN WYK, A C: 'Monitoring of Ship Motions
in the Richards Bay Harbour Entrance Channel' 25th PIANC,
Edinburgh 1981, Section II, volume 1 , p . 1 2 7 - 1 4 1 .
1 4 . WANG, SHEN. 'Full Scale Measurements and Statistical
Analyses of Ship Motions in a Navigation Channel' Marine
Technology, vol. 1 7 , no. 4 , Oct. 1 9 8 0 , p.351-370.
1 5 . Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Vessel
Traffic Services, Marseilles, April 1 9 8 4 , Service des Phares
et Balises et de la Navigation.
1 6 . 'Hoei Maru'. A Fuel-Saving VLBC from Kawasaki with MAN
Propulsion' The Motor Ship, July 1 9 8 3 , p . 2 7 - 3 1 .

Additional References
CAPTAIN A F DICKSON. 'What the Engineer should know about
Ship Handling Problems'. Institution of Civil Engineers
Meeting Jan. 1 9 7 2 .
POTTER J H & CAPTAIN W H R LAWRENCE. 'Ship Behaviour in
Confined Waters'. Informal Discussion. Institution of Civil
Engineers. November 1 9 7 5 .
PER BRUUN. Port Engineering. 2 n d Edition.

203
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

APPENDIX A

TABLE 1. TYPICAL CATEGORIES OF BERTH LOCATION

Features to be taken into account in

Type
the design of the tendering system

A. Impounded basins - approximately constant water level

usually sheltered from high winds
limited fetch for local wave generation
negligible current
range of ship sizes limited by lock-
dimerrsions
usually standard type cargoes related to
berth equipment

B. Tidal basins greater range of water levels

limited wave exposure
limited current

C. Estuarial berths - maximum tidal range and currents

- greater wave exposure than B
- often appropriated berths with single
class/type vessels

D. Coastal berths - full exposure - wind, wave, current

- usually specialized trades: bulk, coal,
ore, oil
- single type vessels and handling
equipment

The above types of berth location cover the various

situations which may occur, and the list of features to be
taken into account in the design of the tendering system
covers aspects which the designer should consider. In partic­
ular the range of water level will require a tendering system
which is suitable for all possible water levels which may
occur, and with large variations this becomes particularly
important. Winds and currents will also vary depending on
the berth location. Finally with specialized trades, such as
bulk coal, ore, oil and petrochemical products, particular
requirements are necessary, and the tendering system should
be designed accordingly for particular vessel sizes and
characteristics.

SOURCE. DRAFT BS 6349. Code of Practice for Maritime

Structures. 1984.

204
 PAPER 13: LACEY A N D D A N D

TABLE 2. VESSEL CATEGORIES

Type Features to be considered in fender

design

1. Train and vehicle quick turn round

ferries end berthing
high docking velocities
intensive use of berth
2. Ro/Ro vessels loading ramps, slewed or end loading
(vessel owned or shore based) end
berthing
3. LNG/LPG carriers shallow draught even at full load
low berthing pressures on hull
single type vessels using dedicated
berth
need to avoid fire hazards from
sparking or friction
5. Container ships flared clipper bows with liability
to strike shore-side installations
6. Bulk carriers need to be close to berth to minimize
shiploader outreach
possible need to be warped along
berth for shiploader to change holds
large change in draught between empty
and fully laden conditions
7. Passenger liners little change of draught between
empty and fully laden condition
8. Tankers need to be close to berth to reduce
loading arm length
•large change in draught between empty
diid full laden conditions
need to avoid fire hazard from spark­
ing or friction
9. Miscellaneous tugs need very substantial tendering for
supply boats, heavy use
barges, lighters timber tendering usually provided
and fishing boats
10. Yachts need for soft tendering which is
sometimes provided by the yachts
themselves
TYPES 1,2,3,5,6
7 and 8 possibly fitted with bulbous bows
TYPES 1 and 9
possibly fitted with belting

SOURCE. DRAFT BS 6349. Code of Practice for Maritime

Structures. 1984.

205
Discussion on Papers 8-13

MR WOLFE-BARRY, Paper 8
Although deep-water waves are reasonably well documented
around the British Isles, there is rarely direct information
available for a particular near-shore location or time to
collect statistically meaningful data. Valuable data could
often be obtained if clients were to initiate site
investigations as soon as a project is identified, rather than
waiting perhaps several years until the designer is appointed,
but this is seldom done. It is therefore usually necessary,
within the time span of the design stage, to use refraction
and other techniques to transfer the deep-water wave spectrum
to the near-shore site.
Figure 1 shows a typical forward-tracking ray diagram. It
gives qualitative information of wave concentrations and
shadows for a particular deep-water wave direction and
frequency. The technique breaks down when the bathmetry is
irregular, as in Fig. 2 , which is meaningless. It is
therefore normal practice to use backtracking techniques (Fig.
3) whereby wave rays are traced backwards from the point under
study into deep water. The denser concentrations of the rays
in the fan indicate the deep-water wave directions that are of
particular importance.
At Mina Jebel Ali (Fig. 1 in my Paper) the wave reflections
led to significantly improved wave conditions in the channel
and the harbour itself. Fig. 4 shows three forward-tracking
diagrams prepared for another harbour on the same coast, also
to be served by a long entrance channel through relatively
shallow water. In the cases shown in Figs 4(a) and 4(c) the
harbour has good wave protection because, respectively, of the
breakwater layout and wave reflections from the entrance
channel. However, in the case shown in Fig. 4(b) the wave
reflections are focused into the harbour entrance itself.
Figure 5 shows different random wave patterns available for
use in models. Unidirectional seas, random in frequency only,
can be used in flumes, wave basins with a single paddle and in
forward-tracking studies. Seas with random frequency and
direction, narrow or broad banded, can be used in backtracking
studies. Fig. 6 shows the results of using different sea

Port engineering and operation. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1985 207
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

Fig. 3

forms; the use of unidirectional seas can cause significant

errors.
Although the science of refraction studies has advanced
enormously the engineer must still use his judgement to assess
the validity of results and to allow for the cases he has not
been able to investigate.
Figures 7 and 8 show the major modes of failure associated
with rubble mound breakwaters. Foundation failures can be
guarded against only by a full knowledge of the ground
conditions obtained from extensive site investigations.
A particular point of weakness in any breakwater is the
junction between two types of construction. Thus the rigid
impermeable caisson standing on the relatively flexible
permeable foundation inevitably leads to the problem of scour
at the toe of the caisson wall.

MR LACEY, Paper 13
Figure 9 indicates the design parameters to be established
when designing ports or jetties. The main input stems from
ship type and the berthing and unberthing cycle. Ship
handling is also important with respect to navigational
channel design or changes thereto. These facts as well as
ships, when manoeuvring by structures, are fundamental to the
design process.
209
210
DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

Peak wave period: s

Fig. 6

1. Loss or damage to armour units 5. Toe erosion

2. Movement of armour layer 6. Foundation failure
3. Cap movement 7. Loss of core material
4. Overtopping causing lee scour

Fig. 7. Rubble mound breakwater: important failure modes

—©

© j© \ ^

1. Sliding 4. Toe scour

2. Excess bearing pressure 5. Mound failure
3. Overturning 6. Foundation failure

Fig. 8 . Vertical-walled breakwater: important failure modes

212
 Vessel occupancy

Ship type Ship h andling Berthing or

Moc ring Cargo h andling Safety
unberthing

Shape Own power With tug Tugs Lines Rates Hazardous area
Cargo facilities Instrumentation Winches Pumping Bonding
Manifolds Form of berth Hooks Gear Pollution
Winches Fenders Capstans Ballast/Loaded Access
Lines Handling Handling Weather Fire/Damage
Ballast/Loaded Control
Turning
Control
Type
conditions control in
n
Anchors Propulsion
Bollard pull
i
in
c
n
O
Horsepower z
o
z
Fig. 9. Design parameters >

S3
in
Table 1

UK World

Ship type Number of Total gross Number of Total gross

ships tonnage: ships tonnage:
million million

Passenger and ferries 151 0.6 3771 10.2

Container ships 56 1.5 718 12.9
General cargo 660 2.1 22627 81.7
Bulk carriers 138 3.7 4529 93.3
Crude and product tankers 378 10.4 7149 167.1
0B0 22 1.85 418 26.0
Liquefied gas carriers 43 1.15 722 8.8
Chemical tankers 45 0.2 774 3.0
Fishing 443 0.12 21947 13.0
Supply ships and tenders 221 0.3 1687 1.3
Tugs 316 0.1 6939 2.1
Research ships 29 0.03 596 0.7
Dredgers 146 0.2 721 1.4
Icebreakers -
Others -
178 0.2
94
2459
0.4
2.8

Total 2826 22.5 75151 424.7

 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

With regard to ship to berth cost ratio, if I had an

expensive ship I would certainly want to know what it berthed
alongside and that it would not suffer damage.
Table 1 (ref. 1) shows the diversity of ship types both in
the UK and the world. They all have different characteristics
from which a design vessel, usually the largest vessel of the
major commodity user, has to be identified for use in the
design process. The important thoughts to my mind are
defining acceptable or adequate levels of navigational safety
and the fact that engineers, operators and mariners usually
get together too late in the design process.
It would appear that ship behaviour is largely a matter of
ship design, and then channel configuration, added to which a
large premium must be attached to the skill and experience of
the man in charge of the ship.
Are engineers getting the right information on ships and
ship handling, and if not who has it? Should the testing and
research establishments be the source of this material? Are
ship operations changing enough to merit different design
standards? What are naval architects doing to simplify
operations? Do port operators require different structures
from those traditionally used?
Do ship operators think engineers collaborate enough with or
without simulators? Do they even care what engineers think?
Does the port industry use a document such as the maritime
structures code (ref. 2 ) , and if not why not? It is
disappointing that the port industry and ship handlers have
not yet responded to this code, offering advice from their
experience.
f
Captain Rhodes (ref. 3) has said, from whatever point of
view it is unlikely that there will ever be the ideal port
1
where everyone's aims are m e t . This is especially true when
considering that all ports are different. I would like to
augment that quote by adding 'and perfect ship handling will
1
be elusive .
1
In 1972 Captain Dickson (ref. 4 ) said, In my opinion the
most sensible solutions to engineering problems relating to
port, canal and channel development have followed consultation
in depth between design engineers on the one hand and the
1
nautical experts of the users on the o t h e r .

DR E. C. BOWERS, Hydraulics Research Ltd

Computer programs to model wave activity in harbours (Paper 8,
paragraph 30) have been researched at Hydraulics Research and
a suite of programs for various aspects is available to the
design engineer. Results from these models have been compared
with results from random or irregular wave physical models.
The complexity of the behaviour in harbour response is
apparent and it is not claimed that mathematical models are
the complete answer. In many situations an undisturbed random
or irregular wave physical model is still needed to provide
detailed design Information. Mathematical and physical models

215
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

complement one another. The mathematical model makes it

possible to take an early and relatively inexpensive look at
possible designs and, in particular, to make meaningful
comparisons between different layouts. The physical model can
then be used to look at detailed design in the best layouts.
The mathematical model can sometimes then be run in parallel
with the physical model to compress the time-scale of model
testing without adding to the overall cost of the study.
Flume tests are carried out at different scales to detect
such points as scaling effects in reflection coefficients of
wave-absorbing harbour boundaries (Paper 8, paragraph 5 0 ) .
For example, flume tests of armour stability are often carried
out at scales of 1:30 to 1:40 whereas wave disturbance tests
are normally at a scale of about 1:100. For typical absorbing
boundaries (e.g. armoured slopes) there are rarely any
significant differences. It may well be that provided the
flow over the armour layer is fully turbulent then the main
features of reflection are well represented even at scales of
1:100. This is not to discount the important effect of scale
on stability of the armour layer where it is thought to be
necessary to have turbulent flow in at least the first
underlayer. To investigate flows within the core of
breakwaters it may well prove necessary to use mathematical
models as scaling effects will be present until one reaches
the full scale.

MR P. F. B. TATHAM, Livesey Henderson, Consulting Engineers

In paragraph 10 of Paper 9 it is stated that diaphragm walling
was used previously 'merely to provide plane walls ... tied
1
back by anchors . I suggest that the anchored plane wall may
still be the most economical solution for walls of moderate
height on appropriate sites.
My firm is responsible for the design of a building dock for
60 000 dwt ships at Visakhapatnam in India and a quay at the
same site, both of which are now under construction. The dock
has a depth of 11.25 m and the walls have 45 anchors at 4 m
below the top of the wall. At certain parts of the dock where
such anchors would conflict with other structures, T-panels
and a relieving slab are used instead of the anchors. The
cost of the T-panel wall solution is greater than the anchored
wall. The same applies to the quay, which has a height from
the dredged level of 14 m. The site does have the advantage
of rock mostly at a convenient level both for the anchors and
supporting the toe of the wall.

MR J. D. METTAM, Bertlin and Partners

In Paper 8 reference is made to the serious number of
breakwater failures and to the dependence on hydraulic model
investigations for the design of breakwaters. I believe that
there is a relationship between these two points: that the
failures are at least in part a consequence of philosophical
216
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

weakness in the use of hydraulic models.

What normally happens is that the hydraulics laboratory
makes as accurate a scale model as is possible of what the
engineer intends to build and tests it under specified waves
to determine whether or not it will fail. If the prototype is
built to the same design and subjected to the same conditions
then it must be expected to fail. The factor of safety is
1.0, and if anything is wrong in the construction or the
design assumptions there is no margin.
Obviously the prototype structure must be different from the
model or exposure of the structure to the conditions used in
the model tests must be avoided. There is no agreed procedure
for dealing with this problem. This is in marked contrast to
the codes of practice and standards which govern the design
and stipulate factors of safety for virtually all other
structures. Some suggestions for remedying this have been
given by Mettam and Berry (ref. 5 ) .
A method recommended for early adoption is to model all
critical parts of a breakwater which is to be tested in a wave
flume at reduced specific gravity. The ratio of prototype
specific gravity (submerged) to model specific gravity would
be equal to the factor of safety required for the design.
Figure 10 shows a vertical face breakwater under wave
action. The disturbing force F depends on the wave height and
the shape of the structure. The stabilizing force is the
weight (largely submerged) of the breakwater wall. The
factors of safety for failure against sliding and overturning
are respectively jUW/F or jjM(CT - 1)/F and Wy/Fx or
V(c~ - l)y/Fx. Changing the specific gravity a produces the
same difference in the factor of safety in the prototype
compared with the model.
Other ways of introducing a factor of safety are

(a) by increasing the wave height used in the test compared

217
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

^Original
dock wall

Reclaimed
area
/New quays
' (diaphragm wall)

Ship lift'

Piled quay^
Devonshire
Dock
Scale of metres
0 100 200

Fig. 11

+ 4-5 m + 8-5 m

-33-0 m
Keuper marl

Fig. 12

218
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

with the design wave; this is not possible in cases where

the design wave is depth limited, but when it is possible
it involves distorting the geometry and it provides
differing factors of safety for sliding and overturning

(b) by increasing the width of the prototype structure

compared with that shown to fail in the model; this also
provides differing factors of safety for sliding and
overturning.

The method of adopting a reduced model specific gravity

appears superior.
This method can also be applied to concrete cappings and
armour units for rubble mound structures, and any elements
whose stability depends directly (or indirectly through
interlocking) on gravity.
In all engineering design calculations factors of safety
must be inserted either by using permissible working stresses
which are less than ultimate stresses or by including one or
more partial factors of safety in a limit state calculation.
Because of limitations in knowledge about wave action on
breakwaters a mathematical calculation cannot be used and it
has been necessary to rely on hydraulic models. Although this
is the best that can be done at present, it would be better if
a factor of safety were introduced into this design method
consciously and deliberately. The best way to do this would
appear to be to use reduced specific gravities for gravity
breakwaters and armour units in hydraulic model flume tests.

MR J. C. H. FINLINSON, R. T. James and Partners

Paper 12 refers to a shiplift at present under construction
for Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering at Barrow-in-Furness.
The lift forms part of a new facility for building submarines
at that port. One side of the lift will be suspended from a
diaphragm wall quay and is of interest in relation to Paper 9.
In order to create space for the new facility one end of
Devonshire Dock - part of the Barrow Dock system - has been
filled with sand pumped ashore from Roosecote Sands on the
east side of Walney Channel. Using the sand fill as a working
surface, diaphragm wall quays have been built across the dock
to retain the fill permanently. The shiplift is suspended
between one of the diaphragm wall quays and a parallel open-
piled quay built at the same time (Figs 11 and 1 2 ) . The front
face of the diaphragm wall quay retains the fill and comprises
T-section units which span vertically and are held at their
tops by a thick reinforced concrete slab which acts as a
horizontal beam to transfer the load to cross-walls of
straight panel construction.
In addition to retaining the sand fill the quay has to carry
large vertical loads. Vessels can be moved on and off the
lift either longitudinally, as they would be coming from the
construction hall, or they can be moved sideways and parked on

219
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

the quay. The quay is designed so that one vessel may use the
lift while another is on the quay in the parked position. The
diaphragm wall construction is well suited to carrying such
large vertical loads. A typical vessel might weigh 15 000
tons .
The original ground beneath the quays is generally glacial
till overlying keuper marl. The till is very variable - there
are layers of sand and gravel as well as stiff clay with
boulders, but much of the till is dense gravel with cobbles,
sometimes in tightly packed beds, and in places boulders are
abundant. Initially rope-operated grabs were used for
diaphragm wall excavation with rope-suspended hydraulically-
closing grabs.
The reclaimed area covers about 15 acres, about 6 acres of
which will be occupied by a large construction hall where
final assembly of submarines will take place. Completed
vessels will be transferred to the shiplift for launching.
The sand filling has been vibro-compacted so that building
loads and, more important, loads due to vessels being built
and moved about can be carried without piles.
Although excavation for the diaphragm walling was slower in
compacted sand than in loose sand, there was very little
overbreak in the compacted sand even when the T-units were
being excavated, whereas collapse of the re-entrant angles
might have occurred if the sand had been loose. It also
proved possible to excavate two straight panels 10 m long in
each cross-wall in place of four panels 5 m long as was
originally intended.

DR J. KNAPTON, Nigel Nixon & Partners

In recent years the most important change in capital spending
in ports has been effected by the need for less quay space and
more paving. Furthermore, paving now has to support much
heavier loads than was previously the case. Typically,
today's handling equipment applies axle loads of 4-10 times
the statutory maximum highway loads. The provision and
maintenance of paving, and its associated drainage, have
become the pre-eminent concerns of many port engineers. I
believe that the major changes that are taking place in
British ports are in this area. Pavement technology is
changing very fast. There is now a whole range of synthetic
reinforcement and drainage materials available. New surfacing
materials are making it possible to provide largely
maintenance-free paving.
In the British Ports Association's design manual for port
pavements (ref. 6) guidance is given on strengthening for
failing pavements. This seems to me to be a vital aspect of
port development.

MR J. H. GORDON, James Gordon Associates

Dredging often represents a large part of the cost of port
220
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

works and therefore the estimation and control of its cost is

of paramount importance.
In the case of a quay wall the site investigation is carried
out to ensure that the material has adequate load bearing
capacity, with a factor of safety, to carry the structure.
In the case of dredging all the material in question is
passed through a dredging process, the unit cost of which is
directly related to the characteristics of the material. No
such concept as a factor of safety is involved; the site
investigation may be likened to the sampling carried out by a
process engineer of the material to be processed by his plant.
A different approach is needed and the engineer should
satisfy himself that every type of material that will occur
has been sampled, tested and quantified. If, for instance,
10% of the material unexpectedly takes ten times as long to
dredge as the investigations indicate, the cost of dredging is
nearly doubled and any savings made from the use of a
sophisticated structural design may be lost.
The initial approach should be a geological survey of the
area to identify types of material that may be found. This
may be followed by a geophysical seismic investigation and
then boreholes with standard penetration tests and adequate
sampling. In soft materials vibrocores and probes may be
useful. Testing should include particle size analysis, angles
of internal friction and cohesive strengths and the abrasive
characteristics of granular materials. For rock,
Protodyakonov or point load tests should be taken. If the
first investigation shows anomalies, a second should be made.

MR P. LACEY, Ove Arup and Partners

In paragraph 14 of Paper 8 Mr Wolfe-Barry mentions a return
period of a million years. Has he in fact used this sort of
period, and were special materials specified?

MR G. B. M. OLIVER, NMI Ltd

Predictions of offshore wave climate are available from NMI
Ltd. They are based on visual observations from ships at sea
but are subjected to a computerized filtering process which
identifies and removes rogue data. Comparisons of the
resulting data with instrumental readings in areas where such
readings are available show remarkably good correlation. It
is not unreasonable to infer that the predictions are equally
reliable for sea areas where no instrumental data are
available.
Predictions can be made for almost any sea area in the
world. In the 12 months or so since this NMIMET service has
been introduced, data have been supplied to consulting
engineers, oil companies and others in respect of a large
number of sites spread across the world. The required data
can normally be produced within four days of the receipt of
requests.
221
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

DR T. L. SHAW, Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons Ltd

It could be inferred from Fig. 6 that wave forces imposed by
regular waves are substantially greater than those from
irregular waves, i.e. that physical model tests done in
regular waves would overestimate the design requirement.
Mr Mettam seeks a means of adding a factor of safety into
model test work to avoid the risk that results are translated
without allowance for safety into the design stage. It could
be inferred that testing in regular waves would do what Mr
Mettam is seeking, but I feel that in some situations Fig. 6
could seriously mislead the designer regarding the relative
significance of regular and short-crested seas as far as the
design of some aspects of marine works is concerned. Testing
in regular waves could therefore be a real danger to designers
rather than an answer to their requirements.

MR G. S. CRAWLEY, John Howard and Co. pic

Mr Wolfe-Barry states that very high values of the stability
coefficient for interlocking blocks such as dolos can be
predicted from laboratory tests. Unfortunately there have
been a number of breakwater failures associated with damage to
primary armour units. In paragraph 47 he suggests that an
adequate factor of safety can be achieved by taking a very
much lower value for K^. How much reduction was adopted for
the breakwater at Koeberg?
In the general case of interlocking block primary armour
would he recommend a similar reduction factor over the full
range of block sizes?

MR I. N. MIRCHANDANI, PRC Engineering UK Ltd

It is apparent that many of the constructional problems
encountered in the construction of the marine terminal at
Aughinish Island were related to the ground conditions and
piling, as is so often the case with marine works. Could Mr
Lundhus provide more soils information (e.g. typical borehole
logs and tests results) to supplement the details given in
paragraph 5 of Paper 10?
The large diameter piles were to be drilled and socketed
into the rock. On another project in southern Ireland with
ground conditions which appear similar to those at Aughinish,
it was found that open-ended tubular steel piles with
strengthened high yield steel toes could be driven 2 m and
more into the rock. In this instance a Wirth B5 rig, which
had been mobilized for the odd pile which refused at shallow
depth, was never used. I feel that the Oslo points adopted at
Aughinish may have been a mixed blessing: they would help to
shatter the rock but would also cause the pile to act as a
displacement pile, thus hindering penetration.
If Mr Lundhus had the same borehole information as the
designers (without the benefit of hindsight) would he have

222
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

chosen a design using driven piles?

Could he also give details of the construction costs for the
jetty?

MR J. R. SWEETAPPLE, Rendel Palmer & Tritton

At the Aughinish marine terminal bauxite is imported in 70 000
dwt vessels to total ^600 000 t per year, through a grab-type
unloader using a 15 m grab (19 t payload) rated at 1350 t/h,
giving a through ship capacity of 800 t/h. The cream digging
rate is 1670 t/h. The associated conveyor system is also
rated at 1670 t/h and is designed such than when the second
ship unloader is installed the capacity could be doubled to
3340 t/h with the annual throughput rising to 3200 000 t.
Alumina is exported at a rate of 800 000 t/a, through an
aerated conveyor shiploader rated at a maximum of 1800 t/h.
All plant is designed to meet stringent anti-pollution
conditions for both dust and noise. Special hinged dust
covers were designed for the conveyors. These operate in
conjunction with the unloader and loader through a system of
rollers on the dust covers and cams on the flaps. The design
has proved to be very successful.
Oil unloading arms on the rear berth for up to 30 000 dwt
vessels are rated at 1100 t/h for an annual throughput of
216 000 t. Caustic soda unloading equipment for ships up to
15 000 dwt on the rear berth is rated at 500 t/h for an annual
throughput of 60 000 t.
Rendel Palmer & Tritton provided consultancy services for
the civil, mechanical and electrical work from inception
through to commissioning.
Paper 10 does not contain all the pertinent facts; incorrect
conclusions have been drawn suggesting that inadequate ground
exploration resulted in an incorrect choice of foundation
design and that this might have been avoided had a turnkey
approach been adopted.
In fact, geophysical surveys and 40 marine borings were
carried out at the site and gave a reasonable indication of
the ground conditions. No further preconstruction ground
exploration was justified because it was apparent, due to the
presence of sink-holes and cavities in the limestone bedrock,
that further investigation at individual heavily loaded
foundations would have to be carried out as the work
proceeded. Clark et al. (ref. 7) have concluded: 'The
procedure adopted for this site has clearly shown the
effectiveness of a stage by stage process of investigation in
relation to foundation assessment. It would not have been
possible in terms of cost effectiveness to have obtained all
the necessary data by carrying out initial site investigations
and it is doubtful whether all the features located during
construction would have been found.'
The possibility of differential settlements had to be
minimized in the jetty head because this had to accommodate
two rail-mounted bauxite unloaders each weighing some 1100 t
223
PORT PLANNING A N D DESIGN

and an alumina loader weighing about 400 t, together with the

associated conveyors and their supporting structures. Main
support columns 2 m in diameter were chosen because the
greater number would be end-bearing on rock, not far below bed
level, and those which had to be driven into the debris-filled
sink-holes could easily be cleared out and H piles driven in
them to deeper penetration to mobilize adequate frictional
resistance. When interpreting the survey evidence for the
major sink-hole located under the jetty head and shown on the
contract drawings, it transpired that the consulting engineer
had - understandably - erred on the large side.
The specification provided for boreholes at jetty head pile
foundations on rock to determine whether or not any cavities
existed below. If cavities were found, the piles had to be
cored and driven a further 1.5 m; if more cavities were
located by drilling below that level then pressure grouting
was to be carried out. In the event no pressure grouting was
necessary.
Exploratory drilling exceeded the amount in the schedule of
quantities but it did not delay other operations as it was
carried out while piles were awaiting coring by the 1800 mm
dia. drill. Work on jetty head piling followed closely the
sequences that could have been forecast at the time of tender.
In view of the difficulties which might be encountered and
the high estimated cost of founding the jetty head columns in
the river bed, an alternative spread foundation solution was
studied. This entailed the precasting of reinforced concrete
buoyant rafts on shore, floating them out to the site and
sinking them on a prepared bed of crushed rock, which was
later to be pressure grouted. The rafts were to be provided
with sockets to receive the 2 m dia. columns which were to be
concreted into the raft foundation under water. Preliminary
estimates indicated that there might not be a great deal of
difference in cost between the piled and raft proposals and,
in order to give full scope to the expertise of the firms
invited to tender, it was decided to design both schemes fully
and to invite alternative tenders.
The problems which could arise from exposed site conditions
and the nature of the foundations were fully appreciated and
accordingly, before tenders were invited, the type of contract
was changed from measured work to cost-reimbursable.
It was considered that Messrs Christiani & Nielsen's tender
for the piled jetty head scheme offered the best solution and
was backed up by extensive experience in the type of project
to be undertaken. Furthermore, the piled scheme was
considered to be a less hazardous form of construction than
the raft jetty head scheme in view of the exposure of the site
to winds, waves and river currents. It was therefore decided
by Alumina Contractors Ltd to negotiate a contract with
Christiani & Nielsen on the basis of their tender for the
piled scheme.
At the contract negotiations the tenderer was given full
opportunity to air his views and to raise any matter which he

224
 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

considered should be provided for in the contract. Alumina

Contractors made it abundantly clear that in their choice of a
cost-reimbursable form of contract, and by finally negotiating
the contract with the firm they considered had the best
understanding of the problems involved and the best plant and
expertise for achieving the work satisfactorily and on time,
they would get the best possible job and the contractor would
be assured of a fair reward for his work.
The jetty is designed and sited to permit extension to form
a T-head.

MR W. R. MILLER, Edmund Nuttall Ltd

The final cost of the Hunterston ore terminal jetty proved to
be about £31 million and the works were substantially
completed in 30 months. The high risk element in this exposed
marine project produced unacceptably high prices the first
time the job went out to tender, so the Clyde Port Authority
invited contractors to re-tender on a variable fee, cost-
reimbursement basis. The joint venture received a bonus in
addition to the fixed fee as the Contract was deemed to be
completed on time, below the target cost. This type of
contract allowed full liasion between the Engineer and the
Contractor to the advantage of the Employer.
At the time of tender, the joint venture partners formed the
opinion, based on driveability calculations, that it would not
be possible to drive the 1270 mm dia., 16 mm thick tubular
piles more than about 20 m through boulder clay with a Delmag
D55 pile hammer. In view of this it was decided to use
reverse circulation drilling rigs and to operate from jack-up
platforms.
In order to complete the works within the Contract period
two jack-up platforms equipped with Manitowoc 4100 Ringer
cranes were needed. One rig - the IB901 - was hired from
Interbeton, and after a hazardous tow across the South
Atlantic from Aruba, arrived at Hunterston three months after
the starting date of the Contract. A twin rig with minor
modifications was ordered from IHC in Holland and was
delivered eight months after the starting date.
Approximately £7 million of plant was ordered and delivered
during the first eight months of the Contract period. The
principal drilling equipment comprised two Calweld PT50
drills, with 1100 mm dia. roller cutting bits, incorporating
reverse circulation and air-lifting.
Deep water coupled with variable soil conditions made piling
particularly difficult. Problems encountered included
striking large boulders, dealing with accumulations of small
boulders which revolved with the bit, and drilling through
unstable sand lenses which led to the collapse of the drilled
hole below the pile.
One example of the liaison between the consulting engineer
and the Contractor followed from the Contractor's proposal to
eliminate drilling 3 m deep sockets into the rock, by stopping

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drilling 3 m above the rock and carrying out a final drive to

the rock. The rock surface was well defined from a
geophysical survey carried out during the Contract period.
The consultant agreed after test piles proved successful for
800 t in compression and tensile loads of 320 t were sustained
for 24 h. The modified specification called for the piles to
be stopped 6 m above the rock, driven a minimum distance of
3 m to a final set of 300 blows per 25 cm with a Delmag D60
pile hammer.

MR D. SOMMERVILLE, Clyde Port Authority

Despite the competence and experience of UK contractors and
consultants to cope successfully with contracts like the
Hunterston ore terminal jetty there were times when the Clyde
Port Authority had doubts.
The main difficulties were caused by the unanticipated
subsoil conditions which affected the piling progress.
Despite extensive site investigations - not in the final jetty
location - difficulties were experienced in particular in
drilling through lenses of small boulders in the boulder clay.
The Contractor's explanation that the problem could be
compared to 'stirring a bucketful of golf balls' did little to
offset the concern over the lack of progress on that part of
the contract.
Nuttalls' initial joint venture tender was non-admissible in
terms of the tender enquiry, but such were the apparent
economies and control offered by the target cost form of
contract proposed that selective re-tenders were invited on
this basis and the Nuttall/H. B. M./Tarmac joint venture was
successful.
This form of contract passed the risk element to the Client
- hence the Client's concern as he funded the work in total,
including every experiment and contingency necessary to
overcome the problems encountered. Nevertheless it is to the
credit of the joint venture and the consultants that all the
difficulties encountered were overcome and the marine works
were completed successfully.

MR H. L. REVELL, Port of London Authority

In Paper 12 it is stated that capacity is determined by
lifting capacity per unit of length. For a Syncrolift of up
to 90 000 dwt capacity, how is this related to the beam of a
ship?
There must be limited requirements worldwide for the
multiple operations facility offered by Syncrolifts. In view
of the transfer systems and heavier ships, what are the wheel
loads? Are special foundations necessary to support the rail
lines?
In view of the success of the Syncrolift system in handling
large vessels, what is the future for graving docks?

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 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

MR W. R COX, NEI Cranes Ltd

Does the design of the Syncrolift allow for the structural,
mechanical or electrical failure of any component?

MR A. D. M. BELLIS, Asociated British Ports

In view of the facts that ship sizes have increased at least
tenfold in the past 20 years and that the diameter of tubular
steel piles has increased from 0.5 m to over over 2 m in a
similar period, from a design or pile driving aspect is there
a limit envisaged to the size of hollow steel piles?

MR P. D. STEBBINGS, Dover Harbour Board

Paragraph 46 of Paper 13 gives the clear warning that the
Engineer is on his own, no matter whom he may consult. Every
ship that has savaged the cranes at Felixstowe has had a pilot
on board and I have never yet met a sea-going master that
agreed with his marine superintendent. I have usually
deliberately fraternized with the masters of vessels using
existing facilities to gain the view of the mariners.
The main message when it comes to ship-handling and
designing port infrastructure is that one must expect the
unexpected.
In my office is a photograph taken after an incident which
occurred at the height of one summer season. The incident was
hardly referred to at the time. This is surprising because
the photograph shows a French ferry demolished right back to
the bridge, having been in collision with another French ferry
off Calais in the early hours of the morning. Visibility at
the time was 12 miles. The caption to the photograph reads
'Don't forget to design for impact'. Although one is told
that modern vessels have bow thrusts and so berthing will not
be the problem it used to be, doubtless when designing the
next installation one will be told that X or Y will be using
these vessels, but the first vessel in will be a Third World
or even a Greek flag. One will be told that vessels will be
using tugs, but in practice they will not because of the cost
to the shipping company.
After new transverse fenders were installed at Dover at the
western arm ro/ro berth the first ship in was the Cambridge -
a train ferry vessel from Harwich making its first visit to
Dover.
The ro-ro ferries which have cascaded from the Baltic to
other routes, having assisted the development of traffic to
the point where larger ships have been needed, have increased
their capacity by the addition of sponsons. This is not a
problem for the usual ro-ro port but at Dover the ramp to the
ship is provided from a shore bridge and thus the nesting
dolphins are set for a specific beam of vessel. To
accommodate these expanded vessels it has been necessary to
modify two older berths in order to standardize on the larger
beam of 2 3 m. This has been accomplished at not too great a

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cost - in both cases at about £0.5 million - but the next step
is a beam of 26 m.
Much is made in the technical press of such life-extension
to older vessels but usually the handling characteristics of
the vessels were about right in the first instance. It may be
cheaper to modify existing vessels than to design new ones,
but modified vessels are usually much more difficult to
handle.

MR F. IRWIN-CHILDS, Rendel Palmer & Tritton

If it is possible for a lateral thruster impinging on a bank
to cause suction of a vessel towards the bank, could it also
be possible with a vertical face wall?

MR R. A. GIBBONS, British Ports Association

I was Haven Master at the Port of Bristol when the Royal
Portbury Dock was being built. That dock was designed to
accept ships very much bigger than any that had been accepted
previously. The manoeuvring necessary to make a safe approach
was clearly going to demand entirely new techniques. At that
time simulators were not available and so the Hydraulics
Research Station were asked to prepare a navigational model
with radio-controlled models of ships of the maximum size that
the dock could take. By and large the result has been
successful, although it was necessary to take account of what
was practicable in terms of manoeuvring tugs, and there was a
mismatch of speed with thrust (and thus manoeuvrability) at
all except slow speeds because of the difference between
laminar and turbulent flow characteristics in the necessary
small ship model (6 ft long).
The model was satisfactory in that one was able to obtain a
bird's eye view of manoeuvres in order to perfect them, but
unsatisfactory in the sense that that was an unreal
perspective from which to simulate the control of a ship.
However, simulators as at present developed provide only a
view ahead and perhaps 30°-40° on either side of straight
ahead. That is not satisfactory for berthing situations, and
might have been unsatisfactory in the latter stages of the
Royal Portbury Dock manoeuvre. In that manoeuvre the aim was
to approach on the flood tide , swing the ship to stem the
tide, and move towards the dock approach at an angle with the
axis of the main channel which broadened as the ship
progressed into sheltered water. The manoeuvre had to be
comple*ted by the vessel coming to a stop, being squared off
and immediately outside the lock entrance a few feet off the
single lead-in jetty but preferably without touching it.
Would Dr Dand agree that the simulator is not particularly
useful in the berthing situation? Would he comment on its use
for squaring up to a typical lock entrance, without landing
heavily alongside a lead-in jetty?

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 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

MR J. N. WOLFE-BARRY, Sir William Halcrow & Partners

The fact that modern energy-efficient very large bulk carriers
are very difficult to handle at slow speeds presumably has an
influence on the need to redesign any approach channel they
may use. This may be acceptable in an isolated case but , if
it were to become the standard, many ports around the world
would have to undertake expensive dredging projects to improve
their approaches, paying the penalty for the benefit of
increased economy accruing to the ship operator. Is this
likely to be the case, or has the limit of development in this
direction been reached?

CAPTAIN N. B. SMITH, Marine Department, Hong Kong

There is indeed a need for co-operation and the exchange of
ideas between civil engineers, designers, port and development
simulators and mariners or port users.
Under certain weather conditions the entrances to some ports
around the world are far from ideal, necessitating special
manoeuvring and ship-handling on entrance and departure.
Liaison with the parties concerned on the positioning of
breakwaters'and approach channels should mimimize this. In
addition, masters have to handle vessels under adverse
conditions, such as fog which cannot be duplicated 100% on a
simulator.

MR K. RUSSELL, Associated British Ports

An experience at Lowestoft may illustrate how easy it can be
to bequeath a problem to future generations through lack of
foresight.
In 1970 the designers of the double leaf bascule bridge over
the harbour entrance at Lowestoft failed to foresee the
development which has produced vessels with flying bridges.
The vessels being offered to Lowestoft at present often have
bridges which are not wider than the beam of the vessel but
are set so near to the bow that a plumb-line dropped from the
wing of the ship's bridge would enter the water. The bascule
bridge is slightly skew to the channel and opens to only 80 .
One corner of each leaf is only just behind the cope line of
the channel.
The pilots at Lowestoft were very quick to spot the danger
of contact between vessel and bridge if a vessel were ever to
slew in the channel, especially as the height above water of
the vessel bridge often coincides exactly with the tips of the
road bridge.
A solution to the problem can only involve fendering,
modifications to the bridge or some means of ensuring that
vessels do not slew.

MR J. NEGUS, Costain-Blankevoort (UK) Dredging Co. Ltd

With regard to the desirability of co-operation between
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consulting engineers , naval architects and mariners, I would

recommend that dredging contractors should be included in some
of the early discussions. Because of their need to be
competitive, dredging contractors have a good eye for seeing
potential savings in, for example, economy of routes,
stability of slopes in certain materials and the consequence
of weather on certain engineering proposals.
Many existing ports and rivers were originated because
access channels at that time were adequate for the type of
shipping using the port. The rivers probably took the easiest
route to the sea through the easiest soil stratum. With the
development of bigger and deeper ships not all these channels
are now the most suitable for those ports.
Dredging equipment has moved so far ahead that realigning a
channel in the most exposed locations and at considerable
water depth is no longer a great problem. My company was
given the task of dredging a 20 km channel in exposed
conditions at Mina Jebel Ali. There was sufficient time on
this project to design and build the first walking cutter
section dredger. This vessel had spud legs, and was standing
on the bottom during operation and loading sea-going barges
alongside. These vessels were not moored to the dredger; they
were located and stayed in position by a dynamic positioning
system. This made it possible for work to continue in up to
6 m of swell.
When preparing a tender a contractor has three elements to
price: his mobilization of equipment and costs to start up the
work, the work content and demobilization on completion.
There is no percentage or logic to the proportion of these
three elements. Once a client has decided to carry out a
project it must be wise to seek to carry out all dredging
works that can possibly be foreseen while the dredging
contractor is on site. Since the work content of the tender
varies with the volume to be dredged, a lot more work can
often be undertaken for a little more money.
Recently an East Coast water authority had a beach
nourishment work carried out where the volume of work was cut
to fit a budget. The original tender was for 150 000 m but
the work was reduced to about 30 000 m . This saved
practically nothing because most of the cost was in the first
and last elements.
Co-operation would also save time and money if the
information supplied by the client/consulting engineer were
complete. Frequently a bill item reads 'Dredge in any
material x m '. Most contractors then assume that the
material is all rock and price accordingly. Likewise, a bill
item may state 'Contractor to state, where he will obtain sand
for reclamation'. The client should obtain all licences and
permission, so that he can make a direct comparison between
contractors. Dumping licences are becoming increasingly
difficult to obtain. For projects in the planning stage every
effort should be made to obtain dumping licences in advance of
the award.

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If dredging contractors are involved at an early stage they

can advise what information they need to give the most
accurate pricing. This will then leave less room for claims.
They can advise on stability of slopes and indicate what
weather risks can be accepted. These details will make a
tighter contract, and because of tighter pricing through
better information savings might bring about an increase in
the amount of work available.

MR M. J. H. TRAGETT, Falmouth Container Terminal Ltd

I would take issue with the view that the UK is an area in
which there is an overcapacity of facility, and therefore that
it is not worthy of further port development. What is needed
is a total reappraisal of the facilities and some wholesale
modernization, or else all the business will go to the rapidly
expanding Continental ports.
History is an exciting subject but there seems to be a need
for more forward thinking in the competitive world of today.

MR WOLFE-BARRY, Paper 8
I agree with Dr Bowers that mathematical and physical models
are best used to complement each other. The dual approach can
often reveal phenomena that would be overlooked or discounted
in a single study.
My company has a suite of modelling programs comparable with
that developed by Hydraulics Research which is used in
precisely the way Dr Bowers describes - to plan layouts
quickly and compare the effect of changes. We also use
mathematical models to study siltation problems, often in
conjunction with physical models, which provide information on
complex flow patterns, for instance.
The introduction of a factor of safety into physical
hydraulic models as suggested by Mr Mettam is a sensible
safeguard. Reducing the specific gravity of certain key
components seems to be a valid way of achieving this without
altering the relative geometry of the model. Care is still
needed in interpreting the results and, in particular, in
identifying the behaviour in the model which equated to
failure in the prototype.
A significant advance is being made in modelling the
strength of armour units to simulate breakage without
movement. Research is also being undertaken into the stress
levels in individual units.
Mr Gordon gives a good description of the information needed
to plan a dredging project with confidence. There may still
be difficulty in interpreting the results and relating them to
eventual dredger output. It is never possible to be
absolutely sure that all the potential trouble spots have been
identified.
Prediction of likely siltation rates, and hence future
maintenance dredging costs, is also an important part of any

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dredging design. Mathematical modelling is often necessary to

provide this information.
The return period queried by Mr Lacey is a measure of the
probability of a certain event being exceeded. In the
particular case referred_go the million year return period, or
annual probability of 10 , was required by the client for the
estimation of maximum water levels and the risk of flooding of
key parts of the installation. The values used in the design
were derived by normal statistical methods. Whether they have
any real meaning in practical terms must, however, be
doubtful.
The suggestion made by Dr Shaw is not valid. Fig. 6 is only
intended to show that considerable errors can be introduced by
using unidirectional waves. In this particular case the
perceived wave height was greatly increased. In other
circumstances the opposite might be the case. There is no
intention to suggest absolute values applicable to all
situations.
In answer to Mr Crawley, the value of used at Koeberg was
8. At that time values of well above 2 0 were being proposed
for dolos.
Each case must be examined on its merits, taking account of
the type and size of the unit - the smaller, the greater the
relative strength - and the situation. Too much dependence on
interlocking properties predicted by model testing can lead to
an unsafe prototype design.

MR IRWIN-CHILDS, Paper 9
It would appear that the quay at Visakhapatnam referred to by
Mr Tatham was shallow enough to be restrained by one level of
ties, and that they could be anchored above the groundwater
table. Modern design has moved away from their use because
they restrict use of the quay apron and it seems that they had
to be abandoned for parts of the example cited.
A plane wall does not make the best use of the attributes of
the in situ system because all it can contribute is a modest
increase in the friction value on the rear face of the
structure. In contrast the simplest application of transverse
panels supporting a suspended deck as in Fig. 3 of my Paper
produced a self-stable structure at a remarkably low cost.
In reply to Mr Bellis, it seems that the trend for bulk
carriers to grow to 0.5 million tonnes and beyond has been
reversed. It therefore seems improbable that there will be
calls for larger piles for many structures deeper than the
Hunterston jetty in future.
If it should prove possible for deep inshore berths as at
Redcar to be developed further the requirement for 2 m dia.
piles for such terminals might decrease. However, the
requirement for tubular members for offshore structures such
as oil rigs is a different matter.

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 DISCUSSION O N PAPERS 8-13

MR LUNDHUS, Paper 10
In answer to Mr Mirchandani, there is little to add to the
description in my Paper of the soil conditions: the limestone
with overburden had a varying thickness of 0-20 m and the
sink-hole can be described in the same way. What caused most
of the problems was the fact that the quality and depth of
overburden were less than expected, thereby increasing the
number of piles which had to be socketed, as well as the depth
of socket.
The limestone varied in hardness, but this did not cause any
significant problems.
The penetration of the Oslo point is decided at the design
stage. The pile will therefore not be acting as a
displacement pile except for the cruciform. The installation
procedure will also be seen to prevent this.
Some of the soil investigation results were included in the
tender package. However, two proposals were tendered on: a
piled solution and a raft solution. As it happened the raft
solution was the cheaper at the tender stage, and it was
expected that this solution would be favoured by the Client.
The contract sum for the jetty and access structure was
approximately I£ 30 million.
With regard to Mr Sweetapple's remarks, the latter part of
my Paper discusses mainly the interdependence of the actual
soil conditions and the contractor's chosen working methods.
Criticism was not implied.
The turnkey concept for such projects was mentioned as
advantageous, mainly because it considerably shortens the time
span of the process: problem - solution - decision -
execution, whenever problems arise. Such a shortened decision
process will invariably effect overall savings for the client.
With respect to all the soil investigations and conclusions
drawn at the pre-tender stage, the final contract included a
clause 'Bl - Conditions at Site' which may be summarized in
respect of the soil investigations as

(a) the investigations are for the purpose of study and

design
(b) the records are not part of the Contract
(c) the Client assumes no responsibility for their
interpretation and use
(d) the Client does not guarantee that they are
representative.

A clause such as this, although commonly used, does not

indicate or promote the sort of understanding of the problems
mentioned. In fairness, however, the contractor has only
himself to blame for accepting such clauses.
It is doubtful that the effect of the reduced depth and
quality of overburden actually found was appreciated by the
Client at the start. The change mentioned to a type of
reimbursable contract was probably not technically motivated
but rather by the Client's desire to impose fairly uniform
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conditions on the various contractors in respect of labour

relations - particularly pay, benefits and so on. In the
event this was a sensible move for a site which employed over
5000 people at one time.

MR CUMMINGS, Paper 11
There is no limit to the diameter of tubular piles from the
design and pile-driving aspects, other than the practical
requirements of overall suitability and economy. Much larger
piles and pile-driving equipment have been used in oil-related
operations in the North Sea, but it is not envisaged that
tubular piles much in excess of 2 m in diameter are likely to
be used in civil engineering activities in coastal waters.

DR DAND and MR LACEY, Paper 13

Mr Stebbings provides an interesting catalogue of disasters.
His comments appear to add weight to the argument that in the
wet side of port design it is unwise for engineers to be
unaware of developments made by their colleagues in other
disciplines. Both Mr Stebbings and Mr Wolfe-Barry raise
issues which the naval architect and port engineer should
address jointly so that one is not having to solve problems
posed by the other. Mr Russell raises a similar issue and Mr
Negus rightly argues that the dredging contractor should be
involved at the design stage of an approach channel.
In answer to Mr Irwin-Childs, it is certainly possible for
the action of a bow thruster to suck a vessel towards a
vertical jetty face. Model studies at NMI have shown that,
for certain combinations of thruster jet velocity and distance
off a vertical wall, strong suctions can be induced as the
efflux from the thruster effectively pumps the water from the
gap between ship and wall.
Mr Gibbons revives memories of model work that was carried
out for Bristol at Hydraulics Research and the then Ship
Division of the National Physical Laboratory. We would agree
that many modern ship-handling simulators are not suited to
berthing problems although a study has been made of a real
time simulator where departures from a berth were carried out
with some realism. However, this was a special case. In
general, because of their necessarily limited field of view,
such simulators do reach the limits of their capability in
these situations. (Modern simulators have considerably larger
fields of view than that mentioned by Mr Gibbons.)
f f
Nevertheless part task simulators are available, some of
which are designed specifically for berthing studies and can
take the ship up to the time when she is completely made fast,
having if necessary simulated the use of tugs for the approach
manoeuvre. Similarly departures may be studied with ease.
Such simulators, using a bird's eye view, are unsatisfactory
as they give an unreal perspective, as did the model tests
witnessed by Mr Gibbons, but in every other aspect one could

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be used to study the problem posed by him.

In reply to Mr Wolfe-Barry, although modern large bulk
carriers have features which may make them less easy to handle
than other ships, they are designed to be able to pass along
existing approach channels. Indeed it is in the interest of
the naval architect and shipowner so to design their ships.
However, in this particular case it is occasionally the port
operator, aware of the greater potential of such ships when
fully laden to move (or deliver) larger quantities of his bulk
cargo (usually iron o r e ) , who wishes to deepen his approach
channel to improve his throughput of cargo. This type of
behaviour has been particularly prevalent in the north-west
Australian iron ore ports serving the Japan-Australia iron ore
trade.
Captain Smith re-emphasizes the need for co-operation
between engineers and mariners and mentions the problems of
handling in adverse weather conditions. It is in such
circumstances that the simulator comes into its own as it
allows handling under such conditions to be studied in detail
and in perfect safety. Fog can be simulated with great
realism; in some cases realism is greater in fog than in other
situations.
Mr Negus makes some important points with which we would
entirely agree.

REFERENCES
1. Watson D.G.M. Ship design and how changes in ship types
and dimensions may affect port installations. Lecture to
British Consultants Bureau, London, Jan. 1985.
2. British Standards Institution. Code of practice for
maritime structures. BSI, London, 1984, Draft BS 6349.
3. Dand I.W. et al. Influence of ship design on future
ports. Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs, Part 1, 1984, vol. 76,
Aug., 815-817.
4. Dickson A.F. What the engineer should know about
shiphandling problems. Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs, 1972, vol.
50, Nov., 277-285.
5. Mettam J.D. and Berry J.G. Factors of safety for the
design of breakwaters. Proc. 18th Int. Conf. Coastal
Engng, ASCE, Cape Town, 1982, vol. 3, 2097-2106.
6. British Ports Association. Structural design of heavy
duty pavements for ports and other industries. British
Ports Association, London, 1984.
7. Clark R.G. et al. Engineering geology for a major
industrial complex at Aughinish Island, Co. Limerick,
Ireland. Q. Jl Engng Geol., 1981, vol. 14, no. 3, 231-
239.

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