MANUAL ON DESIGN OF DAMS

DESIGN OF DAMS

1.1 Introduction

Water is an essential element for all living beings. Spatial and temporal availability of fresh water being highly
variable, man has tried to store, divert or transport from the source of its availability to the point of use. Different
types of hydraulic structures have been built ever since civilization started to evolve.

Dam has been constructed to impound water so as to store and divert it for beneficial purposes rather than
flowing to the sea, probably flooding cultivated or inhabited lands en-route. An impounding structure has been
attempted using a variety of materials. from wood, earth, stones, steel and concrete. During recent years earth
rock fill or concrete dams have evolved as preferred materials.

1.2 Purpose of the dam.

The major purpose of the dam shall be clearly identified as

o Hydropower,
o Irrigation,
o Drinking water,
o Domestic or industrial supply
o Any other or suitable combination.
Any additional benefits or disadvantages shall be identified so that in the course of planning and implementation
steps can be taken to maximize the benefits and mitigate the negative effects.

1.3 Locating the dam

Locating a suitable site for the dam requires consideration of factors including
o Topography,
o Geology
o Social
o Economy.
A narrow gorge with sound rock for foundation is advantageous in minimizing the quantity and safety of the
structure. The type and amount of area of submergence has to be kept in mind while deciding the location of
the dam. It is also decided based on the head requirements of hydropower or the maximum point of supply in
case of water supply projects. Geological considerations of type and strength of rock as well as faults and their
orientation, which have a major say in deciding the safety of the dam, are also considered before finalising the
location.
 1.4 Sizing

Sizing of the reservoir is essentially fixing the

o Maximum water level,
o Full reservoir level,
o Minimum drawdown level
o and any other obligatory parameters.

The above levels are suitably fixed after careful study of

o Hydrology,
o Topography,
o Storage requirements,
o Siltation studies
o as well as the socio-economic impacts of inundation.
The discharge data of the river or stream across which the dam is proposed to be constructed is of the primary
concern. A mass curve (plot of cumulative flow vs time) shall be prepared to arrive at the possible reservoir
capacity from the hydrological point of view of water availability.

After identifying a probable site,

o the area-capacity curves are prepared for the possible range of elevations.
o The storage volume of the reservoir and the submergence area of the reservoir are plotted with
respect to elevation.
o The live storage shall be estimated for tentative full reservoir level considering,
 The dead storage (for silting considerations)
 The flood storage (reserved for accommodating floods),
 and its suitability checked thoroughly with respect to various requirements and side effects..
o The valleys to be blocked so as to form the reservoir are also identified at this stage.
o The economic consideration of locating a spillway shall also be investigated. In some cases a
suitable location for an economic spillway may be possible without having much effect by way of
downstream inundation, other than the main dam.

1.5 Selection of type of dam

The type of dam is selected based on a variety of considerations including,

o Topography,
o Availability of raw materials,
o Cost,
o Time of construction,
o Foundation requirements/ Geology.
Based on critical study of the above factors, a suitable dam type or a combination thereof may be selected.
Various categories of dams normally adopted are earth dam, rock-fill dam, barrage or concrete gravity one.

1.6 Functional requirement

The functional requirement of a dam is that
 it should impound water with an acceptable degree of safety.
 It should be structurally strong enough to sustain the load due to impounded water, wind, earthquake
and other loads.
 It should safely transmit the stresses to its founding strata.
 The dam body ( in case earth & rock-fill dams ) as well as the foundation shall be safe against seepage
( i.e. uplift forces, piping or loss of water due to leakage) .

A variety of other factors from special geological considerations or financial aspects to ecology or even public
opinion may be the deciding factor on the size as well as the type of the dam. As technology develops, new
techniques are being adopted to meet the functional requirements. Hence a geo-synthetic membrane faced
earthen dam may be acceptable solution today, while it would not have satisfied water- tightness requirements
of a few decades ago. Hence the selection of the best suitable dam is an ever-challenging problem requiring a
thorough basic knowledge as well as latest techniques adopted in various parts of the world and their
advantages and disadvantages.

1.7 Earth dam

Earth dam is essentially a construction by spreading layers of earth and compacting it to 90% proctor density
so that it acts as a homogeneous body. The choice of raw material, shape and size shall be proportioned in
such a way that the body as well as foundations can safely sustain the loads acting on it. This is checked
by conducting slope stability analysis by slip circle or Swedish circle method or finite element analysis, modern
finite element packages like Plaxis have the facility to include the effects of pore pressures also.

The seepage through the body of the dam shall be at least limited to such an extent that it shall not lead to
piping and the leakage water quantity shall be within limits. In order to achieve this, a clay core may be
adopted. Alternatively, an impermeable membrane may be used to provide a barrier across the seepage path.
This may be achieved by a concrete facing, or geosynthetic lining or suitable combination. A wide variety of
patented techniques are available, from varying the chemistry of geosynthetic, providing protective layers
against physical damage, drainage arrangements behind the geosynthetic to anchoring systems which are
watertight, but do not shear the lining material.

The seepage through the foundation material shall also be controlled within acceptable limits. In case
the bed rock is available within reasonable depth, the core or cut off will may be taken up to the bed rock.
Otherwise, grouting may be resorted to improve the seepage characteristics of the bed material. Ultimately the
choice of the method is decided based in the geology, the seepage characteristics desired and cost involved.
The surface of the dam shall also be protected against the erosive action of the waves, surface run off due
to precipitation wind etc. This may be achieved by pitching on the upstream side. On the downstream side,
turling with a system of drains to collect the surface run off, is the most simple option.

Whatever the seepage control measures adopted, filter and rock toe at the downstream end shall be
connected to the toe drain, so that any leakage water shall be disposed off safely.

Top of dam shall be fixed based on free board requirements above the water level. Free board depends on
wind velocity and fetch of the reservoir.

A variety of other requirements from service road to lighting and aesthetics shall be addressed.

1.8 Rock fill dam:

A rock fill dam is preferable where stones are available in plenty. The interlocking of stones provide a greater
stability against the external forces. However seepage control techniques like impervious core or geosynthetic
lining may be required to be addressed more critically.

1.9 Barrage

A barrage or weir is constructed where heading up of water (with very less storage) is required for diverting it
for irrigation channels or other purposes. A barrage heads up water predominantly by means of gates, where
as weirs head up water by masonry / concrete structure and may or may not be fitted with gates. Barrages can
be constructed over soil strata also, by providing raft foundations.

Head
regulator

CREST LEVEL
CREST LEVEL Main

Undersluice portion
weir portion
 H

Y2 Y3
Y1

A barrage may be provided with a breast wall and in such case, the discharge capacity shall be estimated by
orifice formula. Other wise broad crested weir formula can be used. The floor on the downstream side shall
cater for the hydraulic jump as well as the exit gradient criteria. It shall be designed to resist the uplift pressure.

1.10 Gravity dam

A gravity dam resists the loads acting on it by it’s own weight .

Self weight resists overturning moment.
Friction( m x Self weight) and cohesion resist the sliding force.
A gravity dam is normally founded on rock so that
bearing stresses are within limits
Seepage is minimised.
Further grout curtain is provided to minimise the seepage and drainage holes to relieve the uplift
pressure.
 2.0 GRAVITY DAMS

2.1 DESIGN CONCEPTS

A dam is subjected to a variety of forces due to water pressure, wind, earthquake, uplift and silt. These loads
are resisted by the self weight of the dam. The possible modes of failure of a dam are
o overturning
o sliding
o crushing of foundation material.
Hence the safety of the dam is checked for the above said modes of failure. IS 6512 specifies the load
combination to be considered for each case and corresponding factors of safety to be adopted.

Gravity Dams characteristics are as follows:

o Most Rigid
o Less Maintenance
o Resists Overturning Moment by its weight alone
o Height is governed by the strength of Foundations.

2.1.1 Dam Parameters

o Dam Base line or axis

For Purpose of Layout, the line of the upstream face of dam or the line of the crown of the dam, if
the upstream face is sloping, is taken as a reference line. This line is called the ‘dam axis’ or the
‘base line of the dam’. The axis may be straight, slightly curved upstream, or a combination of end
curves and central straight line to take the best advantage of topographic conditions.

o Structural height
This is the Difference in elevation between the top of dam and lowest portion in the excavated
foundation.

o Hydraulic Height
This is the Difference in elevation between the highest controlled water surface and lowest portion
in the original stream bed at the axis of the dam
o Length of dam
This is the length measured along the axis of the dam at the top of dam, i.e. from left abutment to
right abutment contact.
o Top level of the Dam
This shall be fixed after allowing sufficient free board to prevent overtopping due to the waves
generated by the wind.
As per IS 10635 – 1983, Top of level shall be higher of
FRL+ normal freeboard
MWL + minimum freeboard

o Top width of the dam

This shall be sufficient to provide the approach road for inspection and to have the required strength
at the top to resist the wave and Ice pressures.
o Upstream and D/S slopes
These are provided to satisfy the stability requirements.
o Facing and hearting
The facing is provided in concrete of grade M20 and the hearting of lesser grade.
o Blocks
Generally blocks of not more than 30m are provided to take care of thermal and shrinkage stresses
and to accommodate the differential settlement. Water stops are provided at the junction of blocks
to prevent seepage through the joints.

o Joints and keys

Transverse Joints
 These are normal to dam axis. These Joints are 12-18 m centers apart, usual spacing
being 15m.These Joints are man made cracks which allow the contraction of the
concrete on the two sides to relieve thermal stresses.
Construction Joints
 Concrete is placed in dams in lifts, which are generally 1.5m high. To develop proper
bond between the lifts, the lift surface is freed of all laitance, coatings, stains, defective
concrete and all foreign material and the surface is roughened. Such a joint between
the old and fresh concrete is known as Construction Joint.
Longitudinal Joints
 As height of dam increases, base thickness approaches limiting dimension beyond
which condition, favorable to vertical cracking parallel to axis, is created. To prevent
uncontrolled cracks, longitudinal joints are provided.
 Spacing of these joints vary from 8 m (usually at the downstream face of the dam) to
30 m ( at the upstream face)
 At the upstream face the joints should be terminated at a minimum distance of 4 – 5 m
from the face.
Keys
 Provision of shear key in joints enables transfer of stress from one block to the other
through shear. These keys are given only in Longitudinal Joints.
 o Cooling Arrangements
In concrete dams, cooling is mostly done by Precooling the aggregates and placing the concrete in
forms at sufficiently low temperatures. The placement temperature is fixed in such a manner as to
result in a rise above the temperature less than what would cause cracking in the concrete. This
cooling may be done either only by Precooling aggregates or by also embedding thin walled tubing
in concrete and passing water through these.

o Water stops at Joints

 The Water stops are provided in the transverse joints for stopping the flow of water into
the joint and flow of grout outside it. In longitudinal joints, the only function of water
stops or water seals is to retain the grout.
 Usually copper water stops (20 gauge) are used. Recently Monel ( an alloy of nickel
and copper) water stops are used. Stainless steel stops, poly vinyl chloride waterstops
and rubber are also being used.

o Closing Gaps
 Closing gaps are provided in between blocks for adverse conditions due to temperature
effects, foundation requirements, unusual size of structure and in stage
construction.These are called twist slots, shear slots or temperature control slots
depending upon the purpose for which they are provided. These are usually 1.5 m or
so in width or diameter. During construction these were closed at the upstream and
downstream ends and were filled with sand. Later when the dam was subjected to
water load and full deflection occurred, the sand was pumped out and gap was filled
with concrete.
 Shear slots in dams comprise of open vertical joints located along the fault zones where
movements may be expected. These gaps are not back filled with concrete.
 Temperature control slots are back filled in the coldest season when the adjacent
blocks are at minimum volumes.

2.1.2 Criteria for Selection of site for Gravity Dam

1. A narrow gorge at dam site, opening upstream

2. Sound Rock able to resist static and dynamic forces
3. Stable valley and abutment slopes
4. Foundations having uniform value of elastic constants preferable
5. The foundations and reservoir walls watertight, resistant to erosion, and other detrimental
effects of wetting, drying, freezing and thawing
 6. Good Location for spillways and power house
7. Availability of good construction material nearby
8. Proximity of construction facilities like electric supply, road and rail communications, etc

2.1.3 Forces acting on Dam

o Forces causing stability

 Weight of Dam
 The Thrust of the Tail Water
o Forces causing instability
 Reservoir water pressure
 Uplift
 Forces due to waves in the reservoir
 Ice Pressure
 Temperature stresses
 Earth and Silt Pressure
 Seismic Forces
 Wind Pressure
Weight of dam and water pressure are calculated based on unit weight and other material
properties.
Wave pressure, earthquake loads, silt and ice are assumed with the help of theories/ empirical
relationships, varying on the degree of reliability.

2.2 LOADS
2.2.1 Classification of Loading for Design:

o Normal Loads
 Water pressure corresponding to full reservoir level
 Weight of dam and structure above it
 Uplift
o Abnormal Loads
 Higher water pressure during floods
 Wave pressure
  Silt pressure
 Earthquake forces
 Ice thrust
o Load Combinations
 Normal - Dead load + Ice + Silt + Normal Uplift
 Unusual - DL (Max.Elevation)+ Normal Uplift + Tail Water
 Extreme - DL (Max.Elevation)+ NU + TW + Earth quake

2.2.2 Assumptions
Load transfer to the foundation occurs in the plane normal to dam axis.
No transfer of load to adjacent element occurs.
Where openings are large, analysis of the block may be done.
Variation of stresses from u/s to d/s on any horizontal section is Linear .

2.2.3 Dead Load / Weight of Dam:

The dead load may be considered comprising the weight of the concrete or masonry or both plus the
weight of such appurtenances as piers, gates and bridges. The Unit weight of concrete may be taken
as 24 KN / m3 . The Cross Section of the dam may be divided into several triangles and rectangles and
the weights W1, W2, W3, etc. of each of these may be conveniently computed along with their lines of
action. The total weight W of the dam acts at the centre of gravity of the section.

2.2.4 Reservoir and Tail Water Loads:

Although the weight of water varies slightly with temperature, the variation is usually ignored. In case
of low overflow dams, the dynamic effect of velocity of approach may be significant and should be
considered.

2.2.5 Water Pressure of Dam:

Water pressure on dams can be calculated by the law of the hydrostatics, wherein the pressure at any
depth ‘h’ is given by ‘wh’ and acting normal to the surfaces. Where the dam has a sloping upstream
face, the water pressure can be resolved into its horizontal and vertical components, the vertical
component being given by the weight of water prism on the upstream face and acts vertically
downwards through the centre of gravity of the water area supported on the dam face.

The weight of water flowing over the top of the spillway in not considered in the analysis since the
water usually approaches spouting velocity and exerts little pressure on the spillway crest. The
centrifugal force exerted by the flowing water on the curved surfaces of the dam may be taken into
consideration where significant.

In spillway sections, when the gates are closed, the water pressure can be worked out in the same
manner as for non-overflow section except for the vertical load of water on the dam itself. During
overflow, the top portion of the triangle gets truncated and a trapezium of pressure acts. If there is
some negative pressure downstream of crest, it has to be added to this pressure.

2.2.6 Earth and Silt Pressure:

Silt is treated as saturated cohensionless silt having full uplift and whose value of internal friction is
not materially changed on account of submergence. The weight and pressure of submerged silt is to be
taken in addition to the water weight and pressure. The weight acts vertically on the slope and pressure
horizontally exactly in the same way as the corresponding forces due to water.

As per 6512, silt pressure is accounted by considering the silt and water pressure as a fluid with
density,
 1360kg/m3 in horizontal direction
 1925Kg/m3 in vertical direction.

2.2.7 Uplift pressure:

Uplift forces occur as internal pressures in pores, cracks and seams within the body of the dam, at the
contact of the dam and foundations and within the foundations. It is recognized that there are two
constituent elements in uplift pressure. They are the area factor and the intensity factor.

Area Factor - Percentage of area on which the uplift acts.

Intensity Factor - Ratio of the actual intensity of uplift pressure to the
intensity gradient extending from the headwater to tail
 water at various points.

Effective drainage downstream, whether natural or artificial limits the uplift at the toe of the dam to
tail water pressure. Formed drains in the body of the dam drainage holes drilled subsequent to grouting
in the foundation and maintained properly, are effective in giving a partial relief to the uplift pressure
intensities under and in the body of the dam.

The following design criteria are recommended for the calculation of uplift forces:

o Uplift Pressure is assumed to act over 100 percent area.

o Uplift pressure distribution in the body of the dam is assumed to have an intensity that at the
line of the formed drains exceeds the tail water pressure by one-third the differential between
reservoir level and tail water head.
o No reduction in uplift is assumed at the downstream toe of spillways on account of the
reduced water surface elevation (relative to tail water elevation) that may be expected
immediately downstream of the structure.
o It is assumed that uplifts are not affected by earthquake, because of their transitory nature.

Grout curtains are provided to improve the seepage characteristics of the foundation material .
Though grouting is helpful, it does not block the seepage perfectly. Therefore, drainage holes are
driven on the D/S side of the grout curtain so as to release the seepage water pressure. These extend
into the foundation Gallery, from where it is collected and disposed. If drainage gallery is provided
properly, the uplift pressure can be reduced to one third, on the D/S of drainage line. In order to
intercept the seepage through the body of the dam, perforated drainage pipes are provided. Hence
IS 6512 recommends reduction to one third of the difference between u/s and d/s water levels.
Regularly monitored seepage quantity gives reliable indication on the stress in foundation and hence
safety of the dam. Hence monitoring of seepage water is also done, in addition to the strain Gauges.

2.2.8 Seismic Forces:

Seismic forces envisage the consideration of loads on the structure during an earthquake. The effect
of an earthquake is to impart a momentary acceleration to earth crust in the direction in which the
wave is traveling at that instant. The earthquake may travel at any inclination through the foundation;
it is usual to consider a vertical and horizontal acceleration acting separately.
Effect of Horizontal Earthquake Intensity:

The following formula of IS1893- 1984 may be used to evaluate horizontal pressure intensity due to
earth quake

p = Cs..w.h

where
p = Pressure Intensity
 = Horizontal seismic coefficient
w = Unit Weight of water
h = Maximum depth of reservoir in m.

Cs = A Coefficient

Cm z  z z z 
=  2    2  
2  h  h h h  

where
z = Depth in m from top of reservoir to the point
under consideration.
Cm = Depends on upstream slope and is
approximately equal to 0.73 (  =0 )
 = Angle in degrees that the upstream slope of the
dam makes with the vertical.

The total pressure Pe on the portion of the dam up to depth z from top is given by

P = 0.726.p.z

The Moment Me about the plane, up to which pressure is taken is given by

M = 0.299.p.z2
A horizontal acceleration towards the reservoir causes a momentary increase in water pressure as the
foundation and dam accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the movement owing to its
inertia. Thus the force is taken acting in the opposite direction of the earthquake acceleration.

When the upstream face is vertical and partly sloping, two cases arise:

o When the vertical portion is more than half the depth, the entire face is taken as
vertical.
o When the vertical portion is less than half the depth, the line joining the heel to the
water surface level at the upstream face gives the slope of the face.

Effect of Vertical Earthquake Intensity:

On account of earthquake the gravity acceleration is increased or decreased according to the

direction of earthquake tremor thereby affecting the weight of both masonry and water in the same
proportion. The increase in gravity acceleration in downward direction therefore causes increase in
weight of both the dam and the water and they have to be multiplied by (1+v) while decrease in
gravity acceleration which results due to upward movement causes decrease of weight which have to
be multiplied by (1-v) (v = Vertical Earthquake coefficient).

Net effect of this is summarized as follows:

1. On sloping faces of the dam, the weight of the water above the slope should be modified by
the appropriate acceleration factor.
2. The Unit Weight of the concrete should also be modified by this acceleration factor.
3. For high and important dams, the component of water pressure normal to the upstream face
of the dam is modified by the acceleration factor. i.e taken as (1+v) or (1-v) times the
normal pressure.
2.2.9 Wave Pressure:

Wind blowing continuously or in repeated regular gusts from one direction, creates shear
displacement of water towards one end of reservoir. Wind blowing over the reservoir area causes a
drag on the surface. The effect of the drag is to pull the top surface along the direction of wind and
thus ripples and waves are formed.

As per IS 10635 – 1983, top level of dam shall be fixed considering freeboard due to wind waves for
A. Normal freeboard + FRL
B. Minimum freeboard + MWL

Wind velocity on water is taken as

V =VL*Q
Where VL is velocity over the land( taken from wind data or IS 875 )

Wind velocity relation ship land to water

Effective fetch in 1 2 6 4 8 10 and

Km above
Coefficient Q 1.1 1.16 1.24 1.27 1.3 1.31

Minimum freeboard shall be ½ to 2/3rd wind velocity.

Wind waves
Significant wave height (Hs) and wave period (Ts) is calculated from

g Hs/ v2 = 0.0026 (gfe) 0.47/ (v2)

g Ts/ v = 0.45 (gfe) 0.28/ (v2)

Wave length Ls = 1.56 Ts2

Design wave height Ho = 1.67Hs

Wave runup
Depending on steepness ratio (Ho/Ls) and embankment slope wave runup(R/Ho) is read from graph
and magnified by surface roughness coefficient.
 A Cement concrete surface 1
B Flexible brick pitching 0.8
C Hand placed riprap
Laid flat 0.75
Laid with projections 0.6
D Dumped riprap 0.5
Maximum of R or Ho shall be taken as design wave height.

Wind setup
Wind setup (S) = V 2 F/( 62000D)
Where V is wind velocity in Km/h over water surface.
F is fetch in Km
D Average depth of water along maximum fetch line

Freeboard = S +Max( R, Ho) (Minimum of 2m)

If the spillway is designed for a flood less than PMF,

Calculate the MWL corresponding to PMF
Workout minimum freeboard by taking Ho = 1.27 Hs

For economy, freeboard may be fixed for different reaches.

Wind Pressure:
Wind Pressure is generally not considered.

2.2.10 Force due to temperature variation:

The forces due to variation in temperature are of secondary importance in gravity dam since theses
are only secondary stresses.

2.2.11 Ice Thrust:

At high altitudes, the reservoir gets covered with a sheet of ice depending upon the locality. Due to
sudden increase in temperature of atmosphere, the temperature of the ice sheet also increases and thrust
is caused by the expanding tendency of ice sheet. As the coefficient of thermal expansion of ice is five
times that of concrete, the dam face resists the expansion of ice and water exercises a pressure on it.
Normally design charts are used for calculation of the same.

2.3 Load combinations

IS 6512 –1984 advocates 7 load combinations with safety factors. Depending on scope and details of
various project components, site conditions and construction programme some of the load
combinations if not applicable may be suitably modified.

Table : 1 Load Combination as per Cl. 4.1, IS : 6512 : 1984

Sr No: Load Combination Description

1 A Construction condition, no water in reservoir and no tail water.

Normal operating condition, water upto FRL and normal uplift - no tensile
2 B
stresses are allowed.

Flood discharge condition - water upto MWL and maximum tail water with
3 C
normal uplift.

4 D Combination (A) with seismic forces.

5 E Combination (B) with seismic forces and drains are operative.

6 F Combination ( C ) with drains inoperative with no earthquake forces.

7 G Combination (E) with drains inoperative.

Factor of Safety Against Sliding F=

W  U  tan   CA
F Fo
P

Where,
U= Total Uplift Force
Total Mass of the Dam
Coefficient of internal Friction
Cohesion of rock
 Area under consideration for cohesion

Partial factor of safety in respect with friction

Partial factor of safety in respect with cohesion

Table 1 IS 6512 : 1984 Partial Factors Against Safety

Sr. No Loading Condition F Fo

1 A,B,C 1.5 3.6

2 D,E 1.2 2.4

3 F,G 1.0 1.2

T
U/S
D/S

PH1

FOUNDING LEVEL

o A

U1 U2
U
2
U D
/ W WW W /
S 1 24 3 S
Compressive stress shall not exceed that of the allowable stress in the body of the dam, as well as that
of the foundation material at the base of the dam.
 Tensile strength: (Ref Cl. 5.13.2.3, IS 6512 : 1984)

a) No tensile stress shall be permitted at the upstream face of the dam for load combination 'B'

b) For load combination 'C' permissible Tensile stress shall be taken as 0.01 fc

c) For load combination 'E' and 'F' permissible Tensile stress shall be taken as 0.02 fc

d) For load combination 'G' permissible Tensile stress shall be taken as 0.04 fc

2.4 ARCH DAMS

1.Classification of Arch Dams. In a gravity dam the force of the water is held back by the weight of
the masonry, with some assistance from shearing resistance and bond. The crushing strength of the
masonry is important only in high dams. In arched dams the strength of the material is more fully
developed.

The dam is a single curved wall, usually vertical or nearly so, spans the full width between abutments;

Massive arch dams may be divided, according to the theory used in the computation of stresses, into
cylinder-theory and elastic-theory dams. Each of these types may be divided into constant-radius,
constant-angle, and variable-radius sub-types may be divided into constant-radius, constant-angle,
and variable-radius sub-types, and elastic-theory arches are subject to further classification based on
the completeness of the stress analysis.

CYLINDER THEORY OF DESIGN

Theory of Cylinder Action: In the cylinder theory for arch dams, the stresses are assumed to be
approximately the same as in a thin cylinder of equal outside radius. Consider a ring 1-2 of unit height
in the vertical sub-merged vessel of Fig.1. The total load normal to a diameter is 2w2hr, where r is
the outside radius of the ring, w2 is the unit weight of water, and h is the depth of the ring below the
water surface. The resulting ring thrust is
T = h re [1]
Average stress in the member h D =2re

s = T/t== h re / t [2]

Where T is ring thrust,
is density of water, Submerged cylinder
h is head of water
re is outside radius of the ring.

If t is small compared to r the maximum unit stress will differ little from the average stress, as given
by Eq.2. If the cylinder wall is relatively thick, the stress distribution is not uniform. For great
thicknesses, the difference between the maximum stress and the average stress may be appreciable
and formulas for thick cylinder may be used.
For use in design, where the average allowable stress is prescribed and where the thickness is
sought, Eq.2 may be transformed and written as
T = h rc /(s-0.5h) where rc is radius to centre line.

Where r is the radius to the centreline and r is the radius of the intrados of the ring.

An arch dam is never a complete cylinder, and stresses and dimensions computed by Eqs. 2 and 3
are only approximately correct. However, many successful dams have been designed on this simple
theory. Its use is still per-possible for small dams in simple settings, provided a large allowance for
press uncertainties is made in choosing a factor of safety. Also, the cylinder theory is useful in
preliminary studies. Thin cylinder designs are to be used only after the designer has gained an idea
of the degree of approximation involved.

2.5 BUTTRESSED CONCRETE DAMS

A buttress dam resists the loads by arch or slab action spanning between buttresses.

A reduction in cost with no sacrifice in safety can be effected by a dam of structural form. Because
of the more efficient development of latent strength, masonry quantities are reduced. More intricate
form work and the need for reinforcement increase unit costs, but under favorable conditions an
appreciable net saving in total cost may be achieved. This is particularly true is locations where the
cost of procuring or transporting the cement required for a more massive structure is prohibitive, or
where other construction materials are scarce.

However, if high stresses occur at the base, better and more carefully prepared foundations or spread
footings used.
Buttressed dams are more subject to damage or destruction by sabotage or military attack than
massive dams. Because of the thinness of their members they are sensitive to even moderate
deterioration of the concrete; hence they must be carefully built and careful consideration must be
given to any unusual exposure conditions.

A relatively thin facing is supported by buttresses in such manner as to secure true structural action.
Buttressed dams are adaptable to overflow as well as non-overflow conditions. In overflow dams a
downstream deck is provided to guide the falling stream.
Because of the small volume of masonry, the upstream face is inclined so that a portion of the water
pressure may be utilized to provide a safe sliding factor.
 3.0 GALLERIES IN DAMS

GALLERIES
Gallery is a opening to provide access into dam body.

Galleries may be provided for the following purposes.

a) To provide drainage way for water seeping through the upstream face of the dam and foundations.
b) To provide space for drilling holes and grouting to provide grout curtain.
c) To provide access to the interior of the dam for observing it’s behaviour.
d) To provide access to hoist chamber, pump chamber, pump well etc.
e) Access route for visitors.

Foundation Gallery
 Essential for Dam > 10m high , else optional
 Minimum size 1.5x2.25m , (2x2.5m for equipment recommended)
 Located at maximum of 3m or 5% of reservoir head from U/S face.
 Minimum cover between gallery floor to foundation shall be 1.5m for normal gallery and 2m for
gallery in trenches.

Inspection gallery shall be provided at

 1.5x 2.25m size at every 30m vertical interval.
 7m below spillway crest for crest height > 25m( for cleaning porous drains).

o Gate gallery shall be decided based on gate size.
o Instrumentation gallery decided based on extent of instrumentation.
o Drainage collected in U/S inspection galleries shall be drained to sump well, locate inside or outside the
dam ( near foundation gallery level).
o Pump chamber shall be located near inspection gallery or above sump well(outside the dam) so that it
is approachable even if foundation gallery is flooded.
o The delivery pipe from pump room shall be above tail water level or upper nappe (spillway block)

o Ventilation pipes
 Pipes of dia 300mm shall be laid in every alternate blocks where adits are provided.
 Ventilation shaft of about 1m dia near either end of gallery may be provided for draught of air.

o Formed drains
 Formed drains of 200mm dia are spaced about 3m c/c along the axis of the dam.
 The drains shall be connected to gallery or horizontal drain pipe or header system( in the
absence of galleries)
 The top of drains are located 1m below crest levelof spillway or road level of NOF.
 o Details of gallery.
 Gallery step may be 250 tread and 200 riser.a flight of not mot\re than 25 steps is advicable.
 Steps shall not cross contraction joint, but a horizontal length of 1 to 1.5m shall be provided.
 Gallery should be provided with gutters to convey the drainage water.
 On horizontal runs gutter depth may vary from 225 to 375mm( with min 1 in 1000 bed slope).
 Ramps shall be provided with normal surfaces upto 10o and with special non-slip surfaces upto
15o.
 In case of steep abutments, vertical shaft 2 to 2.5m dia with spiral staircase in steel may be
provided to connect galleries at two levels.
 Adit to gallery shall be located on D/S side of NOF above tail water level.
 Other requirements
 Shock proof
 Lighting
 Grilled door near adit entrance
 Fool proof surface drainage system near adit entrance
 Marking RD values on wall of galleries.

Structural design of gallery

The load cases to be considered for design shall as per IS 6512, but load cases B, C, E, F, G shall be analysed
without uplift.
Simplified cases of critical loads and sections

Type of opening Critical loading condition for opening located at Planes considered for analysis
U/S third Middle third D/S third
Longitudinal Reservoir empty Reservoir Reservoir full Vertical section perpendicular
empty or full to the longitudinal axis of the
dam
Vertical Reservoir full Reservoir full Reservoir full Horizontal section through the
opening
Transverse Reservoir empty Reservoir Reservoir full Vertical section parallel to the
empty or full longitudinal axis of the dam

o Assumptions in design
 The boundary is located farther than 2.5 times the width of opening.
 The analysis is done as plane stress problem
 Concrete is assumed as linear and elastic material. Tension upto the values recommended by
IS 6512 –1984 may be allowed, beyond which reinforcement is provided.
 Total tensile force is taken by steel reinforcement
 o The procedure for the design of Gallery
 Locate the centre of opening on cross section of the dam.
 Determine the stress field at the location without considering the gallery.
 Conduct stability analysis to estimate vertical stress
 By approximate analytical method, estimate the stresses in the principle planes
 Determine the stress distribution around the gallery
 Consider the stress field
 Opening
 Compute the total tensile forces across the plane considered for design.
 Compute the area of steel reinforcement.
 Check for minimum reinforcement and details.

o T Junctions
At T junctions,
 The zones equal to width of opening from junction edge is identified.
 The reinforcement spacing in reduced by half in the zone.
 For different sized galleries, consider maximum size for zoning.

150mm clear
cover

Typical reinforcement placement around a rectangular gallery

Openings close to surfaces shall be avoided as far as possible and if provided shall be analysed by photo
elastic or finite element method.
 4.0 DIVERSION AND DEWATERING IN DAM CONSTRUCTION

The dam construction site is to be kept in workable condition for the humans and machines to work as well as
clean and dry for the concrete to be placed. The dam site is often waterlogged due to the following sources.

o Surface runoff from the sides and at dam location.

o Seepage water.
o Inflows in the main river or tributaries.

The surface runoff can be diverted by bund protection and garland drains to divert the water to the downstream
portion. Seepage water from the side hills at higher elevation can be diverted by drains. However the rain falling
directly into the construction area and the seepage water in the lower portion has to be pumped out. The pump
requirement is decided based on
Surface runoff:
Rainfall
Area to be dewatered
Empirical formulas can be used to estimate the quantity of runoff. Suitable cross sections are designed to carry
the runoff to the downstream.

Seepage:
Water table/ piezometric head of ground water
Permeability of soil
(Refer Ciria manual on dewatering for estimating the pumping requirements. Equivalent circle method is most
applicable.)
Open dewatering is most commonly used. In special cases, deep wells ( Over burden over weathered rock) and
well points ( sandy river bed) may be suitable.

For economic utilization of resources, dewatering quantity shall be worked out season wise ( monsoon, non-
monsoon) and pumping requirement arrived. The non-monsoon requirement may be kept for the entire
construction period and the additional requirement mobilized only during monsoon season. However, standby
arrangements shall be made to account for repairs as well as unexpected rains.
River Diversion

The major and minor inflows contributing to the reservoir area have to be diverted during the construction period.
This requirement can be met in different ways.
A portion of the river is separated by cofferdam for construction, while the other part continues to pass
the river discharge.
The inflow is blocked by a cofferdam and diverted by a channel which shall be backfilled with earth or
rockfill dam later.
The inflow is blocked by a cofferdam and diverted to the downstream by a diversion tunnel.
The inflow is blocked by a cofferdam and diverted to the downstream by a pipes (for small discharges).

The type, size of the cofferdam and diversion arrangement depends on

Design diversion discharge
Head required to drive the discharge downstream
Construction schedule

The design diversion discharge is adopted considering the type of structure and economy. The following
strategies are generally adopted depending on the situation.
The design diversion discharge is adopted as design flood discharge, to minimize the risk of
overtopping.
The main river or the tributaries may be diverted to the neighboring catchments at suitable upstream
location.
The dam is constructed up to HFL in the first non-monsoon season and then the gate erection done.
The dam is constructed up to certain portion in the dry season and then part or all the blocks allowed
to be submerged in the floods during monsoon.If topography makes the blocks with founding levels
higher than flood level available free of water, it can be constructed during monsoon.
 5.0 SPILLWAY

Any water storage structure with inflow shall be provided with arrangements to get rid of any water in excess of
its safe capacity. This necessitates the provision of a spillway for the dam.

In addition to safe disposal of surplus water, spillway, especially a gated one provides the following benefits:

 By suitably operating the gates and utilizing part of the storage capacity of the dam, the peak flood in
the downstream of the river may be suitably reduced causing minimal extent of damage.
 It may be used to release controlled quantity of water for downstream utilization and
 If the crest is suitably located, part of the deposited silt in the reservoir may be flushed out thereby
extending the useful life of the reservoir.

Spillway design discharge shall be suitably designed based on the budget, priority and the risk of the damage
in the event of failure. A small dam shall be designed with a spillway to cater for one hundred year flood, an
intermediate dam for standard project flood and the large dam for probable maximum flood. Arriving at PMF
and SPF involves consideration of hydro-meteorological data, while frequency analysis is adopted for flood for
a defined return period if recorded data is available. For pick up weirs a return period of fifty to hundred years.

Different types of spillway are

o Ogee – Profile conforming to lower nappe of ventilated jet.
o Duckbill – Rectangular/ trapezoidal projections into the reservoir.
o Chute – The smooth spillway is continued as a channel.
o Side channel – Water spills over the crest into a channel carrying away the water in perpendicular
direction.

The spillway can be gated or non-gated.

The advantages of gated spillway are,
o During flood, large opening area is available to spill the flood, hence flood can be passed within
limited spillway width.
o By suitably operating the gates, routing of flood discharge can be done, minimizing flooding in low
lying areas on the downstream.
o Controlled releases can be effected at times to meet the downstream requirements.

The advantages of un-gated spillways are,

o Cost of gates is avoided and hence more economical.
o Risk of human error is operating the gates is minimized.
o Operational failure risk is not there( Sometimes gates get jammed unless maintained properly)
 o It is maintenance free.
However, the length of the spillway portion should be sufficient to pass the flood within reasonable raise in water
level.

Gates normally adopted for spillways are,

o Vertical gates – these are adopted for low heads and operated by screw drive/ rope drum/ chain
pulley hoists.
o Stop log gates – These are pieces of low height inserted into the groove as and when required for
maintenance of normal gates. No partial opening is envisaged and leakage upto 10% shall be
tolerated. They are operated by EOT.
o Radial gates – These are curved gates with radial arms with pivots.They are operated by rope drum
or hydraulic hoists. These are more economical and operationally better for high heads.
o Automatic collapsing gates- These are adopted for small reservoirs / forebays where the surplus
water due to flash flood/ surge or bore is to be disposed. Their operation is triggered by water level
sensors.

Ogee Spillway

o The ogee spillway is of two types

 Free flow
 Orfice type, with breast wall.

o The spillway dam can be

 High – Height from spillway crest to river bed/design head >1.33
 Low – Height from spillway crest to river bed/design bead <1.33

o Head – Height of water surface above crest including due to velocity of approach. (It is to be
taken upstream of drawdown)

o Design head – The head for which the ogee profile is designed.

 For lower heads – pressure are higher and C is lower

 For higher head – pressure are sub atmospheric and C is higher.

o Hence it is advicable to design the profile for a slightly lower head (80%-90%) and check the
occurrence of cavitations for highest head.

o The upstream profile can be

  Vertical face
 Sloping face
 Offsets and risers.

o The same upstream quadrant adopted for the above three profiles. (Refer Fig., 2)
X12/A12+Y12/B12 = 1

o The upstream face shall be fitted tangential to the upstream guardant.

o The downstream profile of crest shall conform to the equation. (Refer Fig 2)

X2 1.85 = K2 Hd 0.85 Y2

o Crest offsets and risers can be adopted for economy if structural requirements permit, as per cl.4.1.5 is
6934 – 1998.

Discharge calculation

The discharge over the spillway may be computed from the basin equation

Q = 2/3sqrt(2g) C L H3/2
Where, coefficient of discharge C=0.611 to 0.75
L’ is head over the crest
Simplified coefficient of discharge Cd = 1.8 to 2.21

The coefficient of discharge depends on

 Shape of the crest
 Depth of overflow in relation to design head
 Depth of approach
 Inclination of upstream face
 Extent of submergence due to tail water

The coefficient of discharge C is the product of coefficient read from fig., 3,4,5A,5B.

Effective Length of Overflow Crest

The net length of overflow crest is reduced due to contractions caused by the abutments and crest piers. The
effective length L of the crest may be calculated as follows:
L= L-2 H (N, Kp + Ka)

The pier contraction coefficient, Kp is affected by the shape and location of the pier nose, thickness of the pier,
the head in relation to the design head and the approach velocity. Average pier contraction coefficients may be
taken as follows:

For square nosed piers with rounded corners on a radius of 0.02

about 0.1 times the pier thickness.
For round nosed piers 0.01

For pointed nosed piers 0

The abutment contraction coefficient is affected by the shape of the abutment, the angel between the upstream
approach wall and the axis of flow, the head in relation to design head and the approach velocity.

Average abutment contraction coefficient may be taken as follows:

For square abutments with head wall at 90o to direction of flow 0.20
For rounded abutments with head wall at 90o to direction of 0.10
flow, when 0.5 Hd>0.15Hd
For rounded abutments where R>Hd and head wall is placed 0
not more than 450 to the direction of flow.

Partial gate openings

The discharge for gated Ogee crest at partial gate opening is computed as (refer fig 6)

Q = cg Go L sqrt(2g Hc )

The curve represents average for various upstream and downstream conditions and may be used for preliminary
design.

Spillways with breast wall

Breast wall is provided for the following purpose

 a. Increasing the regulated storage of flood discharge
b. Reducing the height of the gate
c. Minimizing the cost of gate operating mechanism, etc.

The flow through the breast wall spillway is idealized as two dimensional flow through sharp edged orifice
in a large tank. The preliminary design is given below which shall be confirmed by model studies.

Upstream profile of crest

X32/A32+Y32/B32 = 1

Where, A3 = 0.541 D (Hd/D) 0.32

B3 = 0.3693 D (Hd/D) 0.04

Downstream profile of Crest (Ogee)

X4 n4 = K4 Hd n4-1 Y4

Where, K4 = 0.44 – 0.025 Hd/D

n4 = 1.782 – 0.0099 (Hd/D-1)

Bottom profile of breast wall

X5 = K5/ n5 Y5 2.4

Where, K5 = 0.541 D (Hd/D)0.32

n5 = 0.4D
Note :
Upstream and downstream edges of breast wall profile and U/S quadrant of crest are vertically aligned.
They are almost symmetrical about horizontal line through middle of the opening.

The discharge is estimated as

Q = Cb L D [ 2g (Hc +va2/2g)] 0.5

Where Cb = 0.148631 + 0.945305(H/Hd) - 0.326238(H/Hd)2

Provision of stop log
A stop log groove is to be provided on the upstream of the crest axis.
The stop log groove may be provided
 Upstream of breast wall
 In between breast wall and crest axis ( with an additional breast wall just on the D/S ) which shall be
subjected to model study.
To use if required

The Height of waves is determined by(USBR):

When F (fetch of expanse ) < 32 Km

hw = 0.032 . ((V.F)0.5) + 0.763 – 0271 (F0.25)

When F > 32 Km.

hw = 0.032 .((V.F)0.5)

where
hw = Height of Waves in Metre.
V = Wind velocity in Km per Hour.

Max. pressure intensity due to wave is given by the formula

pw = 2.4.w.hw
The total pressure is given by the relation
Pw = 2.0.w.hw2
The moment can be determined in respect to the centroid of the pressure diagram which is 0.375 hw
above reservoir level.

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